ENG1021 Electronic Principles: Kirchoff's Laws Explained

ENG1021 Electronic Principles
Learning Package 4 Kirchoffs laws
Kirchoffs laws
1 Do you know all this already?
If in doubt, please attempt the self assessments questions in this Learning Package. If you are not sure about any of the terminology, please read on.
2 Introduction
Although simple in concept, the application of Kirchoffs laws can be quite confusing. T he main source of the confusion is usually concerned with the direction and polarity of currents and voltages. The situation is not helped by the various methods of solution, which are easy to mix up. Although most books on electronics described many different methods, here I only want you to learn how to use one of the methods, namely branch currents.
3 Kirchoffs laws
In the previous Learning Package I said that the voltage drops around a circuit must equal the electromotive force. I used this to derive the equation for the equivalent resistance in a series circuit. Similarly, in deriving the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit I used the idea that current at a junction would behave in such a way that the current flowing out of a junction must equal the current flowing into a junction. These two ideas were introduced by Kirchoff and are known as Kirchoffs laws. Formally stated they are: Kirchoffs voltage law - The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero; Kirchoffs current law The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero Lets take the current law first, as I believe this is the simpler of the two.
Figure 1 At a node, or a junction, where wires are joined together, the sum of the current flowing into the node must equal the sum of he current leaving the node. If this wasnt the case there would be a surplus which would form a pool of charge at the node, and t his doesnt happen. If Figure 1 we have two 2
ENG1021 Electronic Principles currents flowing into the node, I1 and I2, and two currents flowing out, I3 and I4. The convention is that current flowing into a node should have the opposite sign to current flowing out of a node. It doesnt matter which, but I will assign current flowing in to a node as positive and current flowing out as negative. Then: I1 + I2 I3 I4 = 0 Or put another way: I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 This equation is the mathematical equivalent to Kirchoffs current law. The su m of all the currents entering and leaving a node is zero. Now lets try Kirchoffs voltage law. First of all I need to explain what is meant by a loop. When we were looking series circuits, there was only one loop, and that was the complete circuit. Usually circuit are more complex, such as that shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 In Figure 2 we have a circuit with three resistors. Its not as simple as a series circuit or a parallel circuit as there is a mixture of the two. There are a number of ways that this circuit could be tackled to analyse what is going on. However, I just want to use it to illustrate what is meant by a loop in Kirchoffs voltage law. If we start at the point marked A, we could go A B E F A and that would be a loop. Lets call it Loop 1. We could also go from A again and this time travel around a different loop: A. Lets call this one Loop 2. ABCDE F
Finally, a third loop starts at B and goes B C D E B. Lets call this one Loop 3. So, there are a possible three different loops in this circuit. Kirchoffs voltage law applies to each one. 3
ENG1021 Electronic Principles In Figure 2 Ive already drawn in the polarity of the potential differences in the circuit, and the currents in each branch. Although I am confident that Ive drawn these correctly, it wouldnt matter if I was wrong. If it turned out that one of the currents actually goes the other way, then when I do the analysis, that current will come out negative. Similarly, if I calculate the potential difference and it comes out negative, that would indicate that I had drawn the polarity of the potential difference the wrong way round. Now, lets apply Kirchoffs voltage law. When analysing a loop, you travel around the loop and note down all the potential differences and electromotive forces. Again, it doesnt matter if you travel clockwise or anticlockwise. Lets say we go clockwise, and that we note the potential difference as positive if we travel from to +, and as negative if we travel from + to -. Let the potential difference across R1 be V1, across R2 be V2 and across R3 be V3. Loop1 Starting at A, travel clockwise to B. The potential difference across R3 goes from + to - so this would be recorded as negative, -V3. Next we go from B to E and travel through R1, where the potential difference goes from + to -, so we record a negative voltage again, -V1. Finally we go from E to F to A and pass through the battery, where the voltage goes from - to + so we record the voltage as positive, E. Kirchoffs voltage law states that the sum of the voltages around a loop is zero. So: -V3 V1 + E = 0 Rearrange to get: E = V1 + V3 Loop 2 Starting form A and going clockwise to B we find the potential across R3 again, which we record as V3. From B to C to D we find R2 with a potential difference that goes from + to -, so we record a negative potential difference, -V2. Finally we go from D to E to F to A and pass through the battery, where the voltage goes from - to + so we record the voltage as positive, E. Using Kirchoffs voltage law we get: -V3 V2 + E = 0 Rearranging we get: 4
ENG1021 Electronic Principles E = V2 + V3 Loop 3 Starting from B and going clockwise to C then D we find R2 and record V2. From D to E to B we find R1, and this time we find the potential difference going from - to + so we record a positive potential difference, V1. Using Kirchoffs voltage law we get: -V2 + V1 = 0 Rearranging gives: V1 = V2 We end up with three equations. This last one should be no surprise as all it is saying is that the voltage across two parallel branches are equal, which we know already. If we were analysing this circuit we would now go on to subs titute using Ohms law so that, for example, V1 = I1R1 and so on. Ill come back to this. Before that I just want to see if I can help to explain Kirchoffs voltage law using an analogy. In the previous example weve seen Kirchoffs voltage law applied, but it doesnt quite explain why the voltages should sum to zero. I like to think of it using an analogy, where potential difference is equivalent to a change in height. Think of the battery as an elevator, and the resistors as steps. If I redraw the circuit of Figure 2, you should be able to see what I mean.
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Figure 3 In Figure 3, since E, F and D are joined together, they must be at the same height (potential). The elevator (battery) takes you up from F to A. This represents the highest point. Alternatively, you can get to A by going up the stairs from E to B and then form B to A, or you could go up the stairs from D to C and then C to B to A. Either way, you end up at the same height. So if you travel around a loop, you climb to a particular height and then have to come back down by the same amount to end up where you started. Thats why the sum total of the height that youve travelled in going around a loop is zero. Even though you have to climb up and down to get around the loop, if you end up where you started then you cant have gained or lost any height.
3 The method of branch currents

If we return to the circuit that was used earlier, as seen in Figure 2, then in our analysis of the loops we ended up with 3 equations, repeated here: E = V1 + V3 E = V2 + V3 V1 = V2 We cant solve these because we dont know the values of the potential differences. First, we can replace the potential differences by the current times the resistance using Ohms law. E = I1R1 + I3R3 (1) E = I2R2 + I3R3 I1R1 = I2R2 (2)
The next stage in the solution is to use Kirchoffs current law, which tells us that: I3 = I1 + I2 So now we can get rid of I2 in Equation 2 for example by substituting: I2 = I3 I1 E = (I3 I1)R2 + I3R3 E = I3R2 I1R2 + I3R3 = I3(R2 +R3) I1R2 (3)
We now have equation 1 and Equation 3 which both have two unknowns, namely I1 and I3, and so these can be solved. Rather than solve a theoretical circuit, lets put some numbers in. Let: E = 10 V R1 = 100 6
ENG1021 Electronic Principles R2 = 200 R3 = 300 What are the values of the currents in the circuit? Starting from the beginning again, we have (using E = 10 V): 10 = V1 + V3 10 = V2 + V3 V1 = V2 We cant solve this because we dont know the values of the potential differences. Replace the potential differences by the current times the resistance using Ohms law. 10 = I1x100 + I3x300 10 = I2x200 + I3x300 I1x100 = I2x200 The next stage in the solution is to use Kirchoffs current law, which tells us that: I3 = I1 + I2 So now we can get rid of I2 in Equation 2 for example by substituting: I2 = I3 I1 10 = (I3 I1)x200 + I3x300 10 = I3x200 I1x200 + I3x300 = I3x(200 +300) I1x200 10 = I3x500 -I1x200 Multiply Equation 4 by 2: 20 = I1x200 + I3x600 Add Equations 6 and 7 10 + 20 = I3x500 -I1x200 + I1x200 + I3x600 30 = I3x1100 I3 = 30/1100 = 0.028 A = 28 mA Substitute in Equation 6: 7 (7) (6) (5) (4)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles 10 = 0.028x500 -I1x200 10 = 14 -I1x200 I1x200 = 14 10 = 4 I1 = 4/200 = 0.02 A = 20 mA Finally, using Equation 5: 0.028 = 0.02 + I2 I2 = 0.028 0.02 = 0.08 A = 8 mA We have analysed the circuit using the method of branch currents. The steps that you need to take are: Step 1 Identify the currents in each branch of the circuit. If in doubt guess the direction; Step 2 Label each potential difference with its polarity, using the concept that electron current will flow from - to +. Step 3 Apply Kirchoffs voltage law to at least two loops in the circuit, and derive the equation for each loop Step 4 Apply Kirchoffs current law to a node in the circuit to get the relationship between currents; Step 5 Manipulate the equations so that you end up with two equations with two unknowns; Step 6 Solve the equations.
4 Additional circuits
The circuit that weve just analysed had one battery in it. I now want to look at a slightly more complex circuit which has an additional battery in one of the other branches. This is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Even before Ive put any values on the components Ive made a start. Ive put in three branch currents, I1, I2 and I3. Ive guessed the direction of the current flow. If they turn out to be wrong, my current values will be negative. Ive then put + and - across all the potential differences in accordance with the rule that electron current flows from - to +. Now to analyse the circuit. For no particular reason I am going to choose Loop 1 as A - B E F A, and Loop 2 as A B C D E F A. Loop 1 Starting from A and going clockwise, the first potential difference is across R2 and Im going from + to - so its V2. next theres the battery. Again Im going from + to - so the potential difference is negative, and is recorded as E2. Next is E to F to A, in which I pass through the other battery from to + so the potential difference is recorded as positive, E1, and then through R1 from + to so its negative, -V1. Putting all this together I get: -V2 E2 + E1 V1 = 0 Loop 2 From A, going clockwise I eventually pass through R3 going from + to -, so I record V3. Then its back to F and through to A as in Loop 1. So I get: -V3 + E1 V1 = 0 Finally, using Kirchoffs current law I get at Node B: I3 + I2 = I1 Using Ohms law I can substitute in Equations 8 and 9: 9 (10) (9) (8)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles -I2R2 E2 + E1 I1R1 = 0 (12) Then get rid of I3 in Equation 12 using Equation 10: -(I1 I2)R3 + E1 I1R1 = 0 -I1R3 + I2R3 + E1 I1R1 = 0 I2R3 + E1 I1(R1 + R3) = 0 Lets put some values in: E1 = 10V, E2 = 5V R1 = 100 , R2 = 200 , R3 = 300 . Re-writing Equations 11: -I2x200 5 + 10 I1x100 = 0 I1x100 + I2x200 = 5 Re-writing Equation 13: I2x300 + 10 I1(100 + 300) = 0 -I1x400 + I2x300 = -10 Multiply Equation 14 by 4: I1x400 + I2x800 = 20 Add Equations 15 and 16: I2x1100 = 10 I2 = 10/1100 = 0.009 A = 9 mA Substitute in Equation 13: -I1x400 + 0.009x300 = -10 -I1x400 + 2.7 = -10 -I1x400 = -12.7 I1 = 12.7/400 = 0.03175 A = 31.75 mA 10
(11) -I3R3 + E1 I1R1 = 0
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Finally, substitute in Equation 10: I3 + 0.009 = 0.03175 I3 = 0.02275 A = 22.75 mA The three branch currents have been successfully calculated. By luck they all turn out positive, which means that I guessed correctly when I chose the direction of the currents. Had I got any of the directions wrong, the current would have turned out with a negative value. Please now attempt the following Problems. Problem 1
Figure 5 Circuit for Problem 1 In Figure 5, use the method of branch currents to solve for I 1, I2 and I3. Assume that V1 = 30 volts and V2 = 90 volts. Once the currents have been calculated, determine the values of VR1, VR2 and VR3. Solution This problem is an example of branch current analysis. Figure 5 shows the currents I 1, I2 and I3 marked on it. Polarities are also marked on the resistors. I have used the convention of electron current flow, which flows from the negative terminal of the voltage sources to the positive terminal. Note: Conventional current flow (from positive to negative) could have been used and the end results would be the same, but I would advise you to stick to one convention to avoid confusion. Since we will use Kirchoffs law to solve the problem, we need to sum the voltages around two loops. There are three possible loops - one which includes both voltage sources and two which include a voltage source and R3. Any two loops will do. Also the direction in which we sum the voltages (that is, go round the loop) is optional. It is vital, however, to make sure that the polarities of the voltages are correct. I think of voltages here as we normally do, that is the voltage is increasing (going from 11
ENG1021 Electronic Principles negative to positive) as we go round the loop then it is a positive voltage. If the voltage is decreasing (going from positive to negative) as we go round the loop then it is a negative voltage. So as we do not introduce too many negative voltages (and increase the risk of mathematical error) we will choose loops and directions which allow us to add voltages across the resistors in a positive sense if we can. This will leave the voltages across the voltage sources as negative, but when if we take them to the other side of the equals sign (transpose them) they will become positive. If we choose to go around the loop which includes V1 and R3 in an anticlockwise direction, starting at the negative end of R3, and using Kirchoffs voltage law we get: VR3 + VR1 - V1 = 0 Transposing gives: VR3 + VR1 = V1 By Ohms law: I3R3 + I1R1 = V1 Substituting the available values gives: I318 + I1120 = 30 (16)
Similarly if we choose to go around the loop which includes V2 and R3 in a clockwise direction, starting at the negative end of R3, and using Kirchoffs voltage law we get: VR3 + VR2 - V2 = 0 Transposing gives VR3 + VR2 = V2 By Ohms law I3R3 + I1R2 = V2 Substituting the available values gives: I318 + I2180 = 90 (17)
Using Kirchoffs current law at the junction of R1, R2 and R3 gives (considering currents into the branch point as positive and those leaving the branch point as negative): I3 - I1 - I2 = 0 Rearranging: 12
ENG1021 Electronic Principles I3 = I1 + I2 (18) If we substitute the right hand side of Equation 63 into Equations 16 and 17 we have: (I1 + I2)18 + I1120 = 30 and (I1 + I2)18 + I2180 = 90 Collecting I1 and I2 terms together: 138I1 + 18 I2 = 30 198I2 + 18 I1 = 90 (19) (20)
To remove I2 divide Equation 19 by 18 and Equation 20 by 198 and subtract the results : 138 18 30 I1 + I2 = 18 138 I1 + I2 = 18 30 18
18
18
198 18 90 I1 + I2 = 198 18 I1 + 198 I2 = 198 198 90 198
Equation 19 - Equation 20 gives: 138 I1 18 I1 + I2 I2 = 30 90
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198
18 198 301989018 I =
1
1381981818
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles 19818 19818 I1 = 301989018 1381981818 I1 = I1 = 0.16A To find I2 we substitute I1 into Equation 19 or 20 giving: 138 0.16 + 18 I2 = 30 I2 = I2 = 0.44 A I3 = I1 + I2 I3 = 0.16 + 0.44 I3 = 0.6 A We can now determine the voltages across R1, R2 and R3 using Ohms law: VR1 = I1R1 VR1 = 0.16 120 VR1 = 19.2 V VR2 = I2R2 VR2 = 0.44 180 VR2 = 79.2 V VR3 = I3R3 VR3 = 0.6 18 VR3 = 10.8 V Problem 2 In Figure 6, use the method of branch currents to solve for I1, I2, I3, VR1, VR2, and VR3. R1 + R2 + 14
ENG1021 Electronic Principles 15

I1 V1=20V
10 I2 + 10 I3 V2=40V
+ R3
Figure 6 Circuit diagram for Problem 2 Solution The circuit diagram for Problem 2 is shown in Figure 6, in which the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 are shown. As before, Ive shown electron current which flows out of the negative terminal of the batteries. In the case of I3 Ive just had to guess which direction the current is flowing. If Ive got the direction wrong then when I find the value for I3 it will be negative. If we choose to go around the loop which includes V1 and R3 in an anticlockwise direction, starting at the negative end of R3, and using Kirchoffs voltage law we get: VR3 -VR1 + V1 = 0 Transposing gives: VR1 - VR3 = V1 By Ohms law: I1R1 - I3R3 = V1 Substituting the available values gives: I115 - I310 = 20 This can be simplified by dividing both sides of the equation by 5: I13 - I32 = 4
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Similarly if we choose to go around the loop which includes V2 and R3 in a clockwise direction, starting at the negative end of R3, and using Kirchoffs voltage law we get: VR3 + VR2 - V2 = 0 Transposing gives
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles VR3 + VR2 = V2 By Ohms law I3R3 + I1R2 = V2 Substituting the available values gives: I310 + I210 = 40 This can be simplified by dividing both sides of the equation by 10: I3 + I2 = 4 (22)
Using Kirchoffs current law at the junction of R1, R2 and R3 gives (considering currents into the branch point as positive and those leaving the branch point as negative): I3 + I 1 - I2 = 0 Rearranging: I2 = I1 + I3 (23)
If we substitute the right hand side of Equation 23 into Equations 22 we have: I3 + (I1 + I3) = 4 Collecting I1 and I3 terms together: I1 + 2 I 3 = 4 To remove I3 add Equation 24 to Equation 21: 4I1 = 8 I1 = 2 A To find I3 we substitute I1 into Equation 24 giving: 2 + 2 I3 = 4 2 I3 = 2 I3 = 1 A Finally, to find I2 we substitute I1 and I3 into Equation 23: I2 = 2 + 1 = 3A We can now determine the voltages across R1, R2 and R3 using Ohms law: 16 (24)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles VR1 = I1R1 VR1 = 2 15 = 30 V VR2 = I2R2 VR2 = 3 10 = 30 V VR3 = I3R3 VR3 = 1 10 = 10 V
5 Further reading
For further information about Kirchoffs laws and the method of branch currents, you may wish to have a look at the on-line Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are Divider circuits and Kirchoffs laws all parts, and DC network analysis, just the first two parts on What is network analysis? and Branch current method.
6 Where next?
You are encouraged to study the Learning Package entitled Alternating Voltage and Current next.
Learning Package 5 Alternating voltage and current
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Alternating voltage and current

If in doubt, please attempt the self assessment questions in this Learning Package. If you can answer all of the questions correctly you may omit this section. If not, please read on.
2 Introduction
So far in the course we have considered direct voltages and currents (DC); circuits in which the current flows in one direction only. In this section we look at alternating currents (AC). The abbreviation AC stands for alternating current, but it is often used to describe an alternating voltage, for example, an ac voltage (an alternating current voltage-eh?). This is also true of the abbreviation DC which stands for direct current. We are usually dealing with voltages and describe, for example, our mains electrical power as 230V ac (230 volts alternating current). Having spent our studies (up to now) differentiating between voltage and current, it is a pity that this confusing and incorrect use of the language is so universally used that we will have to put up with it. So in the future when we see the abbreviation AC we should understand that it refers to alternating current and voltages. AC allows us to transfer information, for example, speech, music and television. Generally in electronics we are usually dealing with AC in one form or another. Howeve r, Ohms law, the power equations and the rules for combining resistors apply just as well to AC, we just have to take into account that the currents and voltages are alternating (or varying). In this section you we learn how to deal with the varying nature of alternating current, in particular you will learn various ways of describing an AC waveform.
3 AC voltages and currents

3.1 AC, the sine wave and amplitude values
The term AC refers to an alternating current or voltage. The form that the current and voltage take over time is sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows the value of sin(x) against x in degrees. You will see that it has a maximum value of 1, a minimum value of -1, and that one whole cycle runs every 360 degrees.
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1.5 1 0.5 0 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 degrees 200 400 600 800
Figure 1 Sin(x) versus x in degrees This shape is found often in nature. In electronics it comes about as the result of creating voltage using a generator or dynamo. In these devices a coil is rotated within a magnetic field so that the voltage generated oscillates between a maximum and a minimum value. The maximum value is called the amplitude. The number of times per second that the waveform repeats is called the frequency, f, and is usually measured in hertz (Hz). We generally write the equation for the waveform as: v = VSin(t) = VSin(2ft) (1)
We use lower case v to indicate the instantaneous value of voltage. The sine function is a function of an angle. To use this function as a waveform over time, the terms is used (Greek letter omega) to represent angular velocity, which is measured in radians per second. Then when you multiply the angular velocity by the time, you end up with an angle. Alternatively, instead of the angular velocity you can use the frequency, f, where: = 2f You may recall that 2 in radians is equivalent to 360 degrees. Another value which is used is the period, T, which is the length of time for one cycle to occur. It equals the reciprocal of the frequency, so we have: T = 1/f A typical AC waveform is shown in Figure 2. (3) (2)
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300 200 100 0 0 -100 -200 -300 time/s 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Figure 2 AC voltage This voltage has a peak voltage of 250 V and the frequency is 50 Hz. With a frequency of 50 Hz, the period would be 1/50 = 0.02 seconds or 20 ms. A single sinewave has two properties which are amplitude and frequency. If we are comparing two sinewaves, then a third property is used which is called the relative phase or just phase. Figure 3 shows two sinewaves of the same frequency.
Figure 3: The first waveform that weve seen already has the form: v1 = 250sin(100t) The second waveform is: v2 = 220sin(100t + 1)
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles The first waveform has an amplitude of 250 V, and the second an amplitude of 220 V. The relative phase is 1 radian. Its as if the second wave started before the first wave.
3.2 Power in an AC circuit

We saw in an earlier Learning Package that the power in a DC circuit is equal to the voltage times the current. It is very similar in AC circuits except that the power is a bit less than the voltage times the current. To explain I need to introduce some terms. We have already seen that a sinewave has an amplitude which corresponds to its peak value. Another value which might be quoted is the peak-to-peak value. This is the size of the gap between the maximum and minimum values. Since the waveform is symmetrical, the minimum value is minus the amplitude. So if a waveform has an amplitude of A, the peak-to peak value is 2A. In the waveform that we used earlier the peak value or amplitude was 250 V. The peak-to-peak value is therefore 500 V. Now we said that when current flows it produces heat, which is measured as the power. An AC circuit also produces heat, since the electrons are flowing in the circuit, even if they are only oscillating back and forth inside the conductor. We use the term RMS, which stands for root-mean-squared, in AC circuits to give an equivalence to the power in a DC circuit. If a battery has a voltage of 10 V and delivers a current of 2 amps, the power would be 10 x 2 = 20 watts. An equivalent AC circuit could have a generator that produced 10 V rms, and delivers 2 amps rms, and the result would also be a power of 20 watts. The rms value is found in a sinewave by squaring the sinewave, finding the average value, and then taking the square root of the average. The relationship between the rms voltage and the amplitude, V, in a sinewave is: V Vrms = 2 = 0.707V Similarly, for current: I Irms = 2 = 0.707I So, the power in an AC circuit would be: Power =VrmsIrms = V I = VI = 0.5VI 2 2 2 (5) (4)
(6)
In other words, the power is half the value of the amplitude of the voltage times the amplitude of the current. The value 0.5 that multiplies VI is called the power factor, and varies for different waveforms.
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles A similar but less useful value is the average value. Now a sinewave has an average of zero, since it is symmetrical about the x-axis. However, we can find the average of half a cycle. For sinewaves this turns out to be 0.637V. The ratio of the rms value to the average value is called the form factor and again is different for different waveform. For a sinewave the form factor is: form factor = rms value/average value = (V 0.707)/(V 0.637) = 0.707/0.637 = 1.1107 Please now attempt the following Problems. Problem 1 Give the angle in degrees and radians for each of the following: one cycle, one half cycle, one quarter cycle, three quarter cycles. Solution This question exercises your understanding of a waveforms phase in both degrees and radians. The phase angles calculated in this exercise are so common that we should eventually be able to quote them (in degrees and radians) without thinking. One cycle One whole cycle of ac waveform is equivalent to the waveform produced by a single loop ac generator travelling through one complete circle. (It is assumed that the rate of rotation is constant.) One whole cycle in degrees is therefore equal to the number of degrees in a circle or 360 degrees. There are 2 radians in a circle and so one cycle of waveform is also equivalent to 2 radians. Radians are used in ac calculations so it is worth becoming comfortable with using them. Half a cycle The angle which represents one half cycle is simply 360 divided by 2 which equals 180 (in degrees) or 2 divided by 2 which equals in radians. One quarter and three quarters of a cycle Similarly we obtain one quarter of a cycle to be 360/4 = 90 degrees or 2/4 radians and three quarters of a cycle to be 3 x 360/4 = 270 degrees or 3 x 2/4 = 1.5 radians. Beware it is an easy mistake to think of /2 as half a cycle when in fact it is a quarter of a cycle. This is also true of other fractions of . Problem 2 A 5 resistor in a circuit connected to the ac power line has an rms current of 1.17 Amps. Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor. Solution 22 (7)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles This is a simple Ohms law/Power equation problem applied to ac circuit. The current I is measured in amperes rms. Since we are using rms values we can apply Ohms law and the power equation as we did for dc circuits. It is important to realise that we cannot use Ohms law directly if our current and voltage values are not rms values. We can either use the equation. P = I2/R or calculate V using Ohms relationship and find the power using: P=IV I will use the second method. The voltage (rms value) is: Vrms = I R = 1.17 5 = 5.85 V rms Now we use the power equation to obtain the power P = I V = 1.17 5.85 = 6.845 watts We could not have used the power equation if either the current or voltage (or both) were not rms values. Problem 3 Convert to RMS voltage the following peak-to-peak values of sine-wave ac signal voltage: (a) 462.5 V; (b) 9.84 mV; (c) 35.19 mV. Solution We are asked to convert peak to peak values to rms. Note that these values are peak to peak, not 2 just peak. The rms value of a sine-wave is 0.707 or 2 multiplied by the peak value. The peak value is half of the peak-to-peak value. Problem 3a Our first value to convert is 462.5 V p - p. This is equal to: 462.5/2 = 231.25 10-6 V peak 2 To find the rms value we need to multiply the peak value by 2 . 2 Vrms = 231.25 10 2 = 163.5 10-6 = 163 V rms
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problems 3b, 3c These problems are solved in the same way. The value 9.84 mV p - p is equal to: 9.84/2 10-3 = 4.92 10-3 = 4.92 mV peak 2 To find the rms value we need to multiply the peak value by 2 . 2 Vrms = 4.92 10 2 = 3.97 10-3 = 3.97 mV rms
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And finally, the value 35.19 mV p - p is equal to: 35.19/2 10-3 = 17.595 10-3 = 17.595 mV peak 2 To find the rms value we need to multiply the peak value by 2 . 2 Vrms = 17.595 10 2 = 12.44 10-3 = 12.44 mV rms
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The important point to note here is while is acceptable to divide any vertically symmetrical waveform by two to convert the peak to peak value to the peak value, the conversion factor for converting from peak to rms (or average) is not fixed and is specific to the waveform. Generally, the broader the waveform the larger the conversion factor will be. Problem 4 A sinewave ac voltage has an rms value of 19.2 V. (a) Find the peak value. (b) What is the instantaneous value at 50 o of the cycle? Solution This problem involves calculating the instantaneous value of a sinusoidal voltage given the phase, but first we must find the peak value. To find the peak value we must multiply the rms value by 2 or 1.414. The peak value of the waveform: Vpeak = 19.2 2 = 27.15 V peak The peak value, by definition is the largest value that the sine wave reaches in it cycle. It reaches its positive peak at 90 degrees (when the sine function equals 1) and the negative peak at 270 degrees (when the sine function equals -1). At 50 degrees it must be less than the peak value. We need to look up what is the value of the sine function when the phase angle is 50 degrees. Using my calculator it is 0.766. The instantaneous voltage is the peak voltage multiplied by the sine function at that instant. Vinst = 27.15 0.766 = 20.80 V 24
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Note that instantaneous voltages are not normally useful quantities. They tell us nothing about the ac waveform unless we are given the phase angle also. Problem 5 A sine wave of voltage has an average value of 38.22 V. Calculate the waveforms: (a) rms value; (b) peak value; (c) peak to peak value. Solution In the last problem of this section we will have to deal with average voltages. It is easier to measure an average voltage than an rms voltage, although some digital voltmeters have special circuitry to do it. Voltmeters commonly measure average voltages, but their scale reads the rms equivalent assuming that the waveform is sinusoidal. To do this the average values are multiplied by the form factor for the scale values. The form factor for a sinusoidal waveform form factor = rms value/average value = Vpeak 0.707/Vpeak 0.637 = 0.707/0.637 = 1.1107 Different shapes of waveforms will have different form factors. In the case of measuring a nonsinusoidal waveform with such an instrument, the reading is meaningless (because it does not even tell us the average value). In this problem we are initially going to convert from average to rms given that the waveform is sinusoidal. (If we did not know the waveforms shape we could not solve this problem.) Problem 5a The easiest way to convert average values to sinusoidal values is to multiply by the form factor for the ac waveform, but we will do it the hard way first and then show that the form factor method works. We will firstly convert the average value to peak and then convert the peak value to rms. We convert average values to peak values by dividing by 0.637 or 2/. Vpeak = Vave/0.637 = 38.22/0.637 = 60.04 V peak Now we will convert the peak value to rms 2 2 Vrms = Vpeak 2 = 60.04 2 = 42.45 V rms Now the form factor method. Vrms = Vaverage 1.1107 = 38.22 1.1107 = 42.45 V rms Problem 5b The peak value has already been found in Part (a). Vpeak = 60.04 V peak Problem 5c 25
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The peak-to-peak value is twice the peak value. Vp-p = 2 Vpeak = 2 60.04 = 120.08 V peak - to - peak Problem 6 The 60 Hz power line voltage of 120 V is applied across a resistance of 20 . (a) How much is the rms current in the circuit? (b) What is the frequency of the current? (c) What is the phase angle between the current and the voltage? (d) How much dc applied voltage would be necessary for the same heating effect in the resistance? Solution This problem serves as revision from the last section with a reminder of the meaning of rms values and as a gentle introduction to frequency and phase. Problem 6a The power line voltage is 120 V and since we are not told otherwise we should assume that this is an rms value. The rms current is given by Ohms relationship I = V/R = 120/20 = 60 A rms Problem 6b The alternating current will vary in sympathy with the alternating voltage according to Ohms relationship. The current will vary at the same frequency as the power-line voltage which is stated as being 60 Hz Problem 6c As the voltage alternates from zero up through its positive peak, before completing the rest of the cycle, the current starts from zero at exactly the same time and reaches its positive and negative peaks at the same time as the voltage. The current is then in phase with the voltag e and the phase angle is zero. Problem 6d This part of the question tests if you understand the meaning of rms. If you remember the rms value is defined as that value of an ac waveform (not necessarily sinusoidal) that will produce the same heating effect in a resistor as the dc value. The dc voltage that would produce that same heating effect in a resistance is therefore the same as the rms voltage, that is 120 volts. Problem 7 What is the frequency for the following ac variations? (a) 10 cycles in 1 s; (b) 1 cycle in 1/10 second; (c) 50 cycles in 1 s; (d) 50 cycles in s; (e) 50 cycles in 5 s. 26
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Solution Here we will find the frequency of an ac waveform by considering how many cycles the waveform goes through in a given time and then calculate how many cycles would have occurred in one second. This will give us our answer in cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz). The units cps have been replaced by the Hertz as an international standard, but the term cycles per second or cps it still used, probably because it is more descriptive. Problem 7a The first example is easy. We have 10 cycles occurring in one second. That is, the frequency: f = 10 cycles per second or 10Hz Problem 7b Here we have 1 cycle every 1/10th of a second. We ask ourselves, How many cycles in one second. I hope it is clear that 10 cycles will occur in one second. This gives us the answer for the frequency as: f = 10 Hz Alternatively, since we have one cycle occurring in 1/10th second, we can say that the waveform has a period T of 1/10th second and we can take the reciprocal of T to find the frequency. f = 1/T = 1/(1/10) = 10 Hz Problem 7c This part is similar to Part (a). We have 50 cycles occurring in one second, so the frequency is: f = 50Hz Problem 7d We have 50 cycles occurring in second, so 100 cycles would occur in one second, giving f = 100 Hz Alternatively, if there are 50 cycles in second, each cycle has a period of second divided by 50, which is: T = (1/2)/50 = 1/100 The frequency is: f = 1/T = 1/(1/100) = 100 Hz 27
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problem 7e If we have 50 cycles in 5 seconds then in one second 10 cycles will occur. The frequency is: f = 10Hz You should also try to calculate the period of the waveform and take its reciprocal to arrive at the frequency. Problem 8 Calculate the time delay for a phase angle of 45 o at the frequency of (a) 500 Hz; (b) 2 MHz. Solution A 45 degree phase angle will mean that one waveform starts 1/8 th of a cycle (45/360=1/8) after the other. The time delay will therefore be 1/8th of the waveforms period later. Therefore in the following exercises, we must first calculate the period and then divide the period by 8. Problem 8a The period of a waveform is the reciprocal of its frequency. In this case the frequency is 500 Hz, the period is: T = 1/f = 1/500 = 0.002 s The time delay for 45 degree phase angle td = 1/8 0.002 = 0.00025 = 0.25 ms Problem 8b As in Part (b) we find the period and divide by 8. The period is: T = 1/f = 1/(2 106)= 0.5 10-6 s The time delay for 45 degree phase angle td = 1/8 0.5 10-6 = 0.0625 10-6 = 62.5 ns Problem 9 Calculate the period T of a radio wave whose wavelength is 2 m. Solution So far our problems have dealt with phase, frequency and period. We need to exercise our understanding of the wavelength of a waveform. The wavelength of an ac waveform is related to the frequency (and period) through the velocity of the wave. In other words, if we know the wavelength and the velocity we can calculate the frequency (and/or period) and vice versa. Different waves have different velocities, but we are told that this is a radio wave and so it travels at the velocity of light. I prefer to work in SI units, using metres rather than centimetres, so the speed of light is 3 10 8 28
ENG1021 Electronic Principles metres/second. In this problem we are given the wavelength and asked to calculate the period. The wavelength is: = velocity/frequency (10) We are going to find the frequency first and then find the period by taking the reciprocal. Rearranging Equation 10 for the frequency f = velocity/wavelength = (3 108)/2 = 1.5 108 Hz = 150 MHz This frequency has a period: T = 1/f = 1/(1.5 10 8) = 6.667 ns
3.4 Electromagnetic waves

Another type of wave that you may encounter in electronics is an electromagnetic wave. Examples are radio waves, microwaves, visible light, infra-red and gamma radiation. These waves, rather than just being oscillations in a conductor, travel through space, even through a vacuum. Since they are travelling they must have a velocity, and this turns out to be a constant generally known as the speed of light. These waves also have a frequency, and a wavelength. The relationship between the frequency, velocity and wavelength is: v = f (11)
where v is the speed of light, f is the frequency and (Greek letter lambda) is the wavelength. For example, a radio wave could have a frequency of 3 MHz. If the speed of light is approximately 300,000,000 m/s, what is the wavelength of the wave? = v/f = 300,000,000/3,000,000 = 100 m
3.4 Non-sinusoidal waveforms

Very briefly, sometimes in electronics waveforms other than sinewaves are encountered. Probably the most common is the square wave which is found in digital electronics. There is a whole wealth of theory about waveforms other than sinewaves, usually coming under the heading of Fourier transforms. In essence, what Fourier showed was that any repetitive waveform could be constructed from sinewaves with varying amplitudes and frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. In other words, a square which repeats every 50 ms has a fundamental frequency of 1/50 ms = 20 Hz. We can create a square wave by adding up sine waves with a frequency of 20 Hz, 40 Hz, 60 Hz, 80 Hz and so on. These secondary waveforms with frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics. In a square wave, the values switch from the maximum for half a period to the minimum for the other half of the period. If the amplitude is V, then the peak value is V, the peak-to-peak value is 2V, the average value is V/2, and the rms value is V/2. Therefore, the power in a square wave is VI/4 giving the power factor of 0.25, and the form factor is rms/average = 1 since the average and the rms value are both the same. 3.5 Harmonics 29
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Harmonics are at frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. In music the term octave is used to mean the same note only an octave higher or lower. In physical terms an octave is a doubling of a frequency. So if a note has a frequency of 256 Hz, say, then an octave higher would be 512 Hz. Two octaves higher would be 1024 Hz and so on. The alternative to octaves are decades. If a frequency is increased by a decade then the new higher frequency is 10 times the lower frequency. If note of frequency 256 Hz is increased by a decade, its new frequency is 2560 Hz. Now attempt the following Problems. They are problems that reinforce your understanding of harmonics and multiples of frequencies. Problem 10 List the first four harmonics of 7.5 MHz. Also, identify each harmonic as being either an even or odd multiple of the fundamental frequency. Solution The harmonics are integer (whole number) multiples of the fundamental frequency. In this case the fundamental frequency is 7.5 MHz. The first harmonic is one times the fundamental frequency, that is, the first harmonic is the fundamental which has a frequency of 7.5 KHz. It is odd, because we have multiplied the fundamental by one and one is an odd number. In general, we dont usually talk about the first harmonic, because it can be confusing. (It becomes confusing because the first interesting harmonic, interesting in the sense that it is in anyway different to the fundamental, is the second harmonic) The second harmonic is two times the fundamental frequency, that is 7.5 2 = 15 MHz. Two is an even number and so this is an even harmonic. The third harmonic is three times the fundamental frequency or 22.5 MHz. Three is an odd number and so this harmonic is odd. The fourth harmonic is four times the fundamental frequency or 30 MHz. Four is an even number and so this harmonic is even. Problem 11 List the frequency three decades above 100 Hz. Solution Decades are multiples of ten. Every time we multiply a frequency by ten we have increased the frequency by one decade. Every time we divide a frequency by ten, we have decreased the frequency by one decade. In this problem the frequency of concern is 100Hz and we are asked to find the frequency three decades above it. The first decade will be 100 10 = 1000 Hz or 1 kHz. 30
ENG1021 Electronic Principles To find the third decade above 100Hz, we multiply our frequency of concern by 10, three times, or by 1000. So three decades above 100 Hz is: 100 10 10 10 = 100000 = 100 kHz. Another way of doing this is to multiply our frequency by 10 3. 100 103 = 100 kHz. In general, multiplying by the nth power of ten is equivalent to raising the frequency by n decades, and dividing by the nth power of ten is equivalent to decreasing the frequency by n decades. Problem 12 Raising the frequency of 400 Hz by two octaves corresponds to what frequency? Solution Octaves are multiples of two. Every time we multiply a frequency by two we have increased the frequency by one octave. Every time we divide a frequency by two, we have decreased the frequency by one octave. In this problem we are asked to find the frequency two octaves above 40 kHz. We can do this by multiplying 40 kHz by two, twice, this gives 40000 2 2 = 160 kHz. Alternatively, we can multiply by 22. So, 40000 22 = 160 KHz. In general, multiplying by the nth power of 2 is equivalent to raising the frequency by n octaves, and dividing by the nth power of two is equivalent to decreasing the frequency by n decades. Problem 13 What is the frequency three octaves below 40 kHz? Solution Here we are asked for 3 octaves below 40 kHz. We can do this by dividing by two, three times. ((40000/2)/2)/2 = (20000/2)/2 = 10000/2 = 5000 or 5 kHz Or by dividing by 23: 40000/23 = 40 000/8 = 5000 Hz or 5kHz Note that dividing by 23 is equivalent to multiplying by 2-3 = 1/8, giving us another method of solution.
4 Further reading
If you want to read more about the topics discussed in this Learning Package you could have a look at the appropriate sections of the on-line book Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are Basic AC theory, all parts except perhaps principles of radio which isnt particularly relevant. 31
6 Where next?
The next suggested Learning Package in entitled Electromagnetism.
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Learning Package 6 Electromagnetism
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Electromagnetism
2 Electromagnetism
The relationship between magnetism and electricity is very important. Electric motors, generators, computer hard disks, tape recorders, microphones and loudspeakers are a small selection of devices that depend on the electromagnetic relationship. In this section we will explore this relationship. We will start with magnetism and then introduce laws which connect electricity and magnetism. You will learn that any wire carrying a current will generate a magnetic field and that a loop of wire in a changing magnetic field will have a voltage induced in it.
2.1 Magnets
What is magnetism? I am sure that you are familiar with bar magnets. These are usually pieces of iron which have a north and a south pole, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Bar magnet If another magnet is brought close to the first one, then you find that north poles are attracted to south poles. Alternatively, similar poles, such as two north poles, repel each other. Magnets can therefore produce a force. In Figure 1 I have drawn in the lines of force. These lines run from the north poles to the south pole outside of the magnet, and from south to north inside the magnet. If another magnet is brought near the first, a force will act on in the direction shown by the lines of force. In a real system, the lines of force can be found by either putting a sheet of paper over a bar magnet and sprinkling iron filings on the paper. If the paper is tapped gently a number of times, the iron filings will each become small bar magnets, and align themselves along the lines of force. Alternatively, 34
ENG1021 Electronic Principles using a small compass, the lines of force can be traced on the paper. Position the compass anywhere on the paper and draw a small arrow in the in the direction the needle of the compass is pointing. By repeating this over the paper you will get a set of small arrows pointing in different directions. If these are then joined up by extending the line of the arrows, you will find you trace out the lines of force. The area around a magnet is therefore able to exert a force. We therefore call this a magnetic field (think of a force field in science fiction). The strength of the magnetic force increases with the number of lines. In Figure 1 there were a total of 6 lines of force, so this magnetic field is said to have a magnetic flux equal to 6 maxwells. Magnetic flux is defined as the total number of magnetic lines, and is given the Greek letter phi, , and is measured in maxwells, which is abbreviated to Mx. So in Figure 1: = 6 Mx The magnetic field can be thought of as imaginary lines of force. It is important to realise that these lines are imaginary and that a magnetic field exists at all points around the magnet (not just on the lines). In other words, when I drew Figure 1 I was drawing a representation of a bar magnet which has a flux of 6 Mx, so I drew 6 lines. These lines are imaginary, but represent the magnetic field and its strength. It is something of a coincidence, that if you trace the lines of force using either the iron filings method or the compass method that you get something that looks the same. However, the difference is that the number of lines you would get when tracing them would not correspond to the flux, but would still have some of the same properties such as direction. The units of maxwells have now been superseded by the unit called the weber, which is abbreviated to Wb. One weber is equivalent to 100,000,000 lines of force. Since this is quite a large unit, we often use the micro weber (Wb) which is equivalent to 100 Mx or 100 lines of force. The total number of lines doesnt really convey the idea that the magnetic force varies according to the position relative to the magnet. Magnetic flux density goes some way to address this. Magnetic flux density is the magnetic flux per unit area or often described as the number of lines of force passing perpendicularly through a unit area. In Figure 1 the lines are closer at the poles and get more diffuse as you move further away from the magnet. Thus the flux density would be highest at the poles and get smaller as you move away from the poles. The magnetic flux density is given the symbol, B, and is measured in Gauss, abbreviated to G, if you are using the units of maxwells. That is: B = /A = maxwells/cm2 = gauss Alternatively, B is measured in tesla, abbreviated to T, and in this case: B = /A = weber/m2 = tesla This has hopefully explained what a magnetic field is and introduced the terms flux and flux density. Flux is given the symbol and is the total number of the imaginary lines of the magnetic field, while flux density is given the symbol B and is the flux (or number of imaginary lines) in a given area. We will now exercise our understanding of the new terms. Please attempt Problems 1, 2, 3. 35 (1)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problem 1 (Magnetism) A magnet produces 5000 field lines. Find in maxwells and webers. Solution We are told that the magnet produces 5000 field lines. This is a measurement of the magnetic flux . One maxwell is one field line, therefore 5000 field lines is 5000 maxwells. There are 108 maxwells in a weber, therefore this same flux measured in webers is: 5000/108 webers or 10-5 webers. To reinforce the idea that the magnetic field is continuous and that field lines are imaginary consider the nanoweber, which is 10-9 webers. This is a practical unit for the measurement for weak magnetic fields. If we consider this unit in maxwells it is equal to 10-9/10-8 = 10-1 maxwell This unit then measures a tenth of a maxwell (or a tenth of a field line). If magnetic lines of force were real then we could not have a tenth of one and the smallest magnetic field that could exist would be one line or 1 maxwell. Problem 2 If the area of the pole in Problem 1 is 5 cm2, calculate B in gauss units. Solution This problem introduces the area of the pole of the magnet and we are asked to calculate B (the flux density) in gauss units. Flux density is measured in flux per unit area. The gauss unit measures how many maxwells pass through one square centimetre. We are told that the total number of lines is 5000 and this flux flows out of a 5cm2 area. The number lines flowing through one centimetre is therefore the flux density: B = /Area = 5000/5 = 1000 gauss Problem 3 Calculate B in tesla units for a 200 Wb flux through an area of 5 10 -4 m2. Solution This problem is similar to the previous problem except that we are now working with tesla units. Teslas are a measure of the number of webers (108 maxwells) flowing through a one square metre area. We are told that 200 Wb flow through 5 10 -4 m2. Given this information, we have to calculate how many webers will flow through a one square metre area. The number lines flowing through one square metre is therefore the flux density in teslas B = /Area = (200 10-6)/(5 10-4) = 200/5 10-2 = 0.4 tesla 36
2.2 Electromagnets
The type of magnet that weve looked at so far is a permanent magnet, usually made of iron. An alternative is an electromagnet. When electricity flows through a conductor it produces a magnetic field, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 In Figure 2, current refers to electron current. The current produces a magnetic field which radiates from the wire. In Figures 2b and 2c the wire is in the centre of the circle and the magnetic line of force is the outer circle. The direction of the current in the wire is supposedly represented by a dart. If the wire flows into the page then you would see the flights at the back of the dart, whereas if the current is coming out of the page you would see the point of the dart. The direction of the magnetic field is described by the left-hand grip rule. If you coiled your fingers of your left hand up, leaving the thumb sticking out, rather like the hitch-hiking gesture, then you thumb represents the direction of the current, and your fingers represent the direction of the magnetic field. Note: if, like me, you studied electronics some time ago, and are used to using conventional current, which flows from the positive terminal to the negative, as opposed to electron current as weve used in this module, then you would know this rule as the right-hand grip rule. If we coil a wire up, as in Figure 3, the lines of force come together and the result is just like a bar magnet, with a north pole and a south pole. This magnet exists while current if flowing, but stops being a magnet when the current is switched off.
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Figure 3 Electromagnet A coil, like that in Figure 3 is called a solenoid. It usually contains a core, with the wire coiled around the core. Typically that core would be made of soft iron which is easily magnetised and demagnetised. Within electrical circuits you may find an electromagnet like this one in electric bells, and the big electromagnets used in scrap yards. One device, known as a relay, uses an electromagnet to open or close a circuit.
2.3 Magnetic units

Weve just seen that we can create a magnetic field using elect ricity, particularly using coils of wire, but I havent said anything about the strength of the magnetic field produced by such a device. What do you think would happen to the strength of the magnetic field if: a) you increase the current; b) increase the number of turns in the coil? It turns out that both of these would increase the magnetic field strength or flux. The value of the current and the number of turns is so important in electromagnetism that its own term, namely the magnetomotive force or mmf. The mmf is equal to the current, I, times the number of turns, N. Mmf = Ix N (2)
Strictly speaking the mmf is measured in ampere-turns, but since turns is a unitless number, the units should be amperes. This would get confusing as you wouldnt know if someone is referring to the current or the mmf, so we will use the unit A.t for ampere-turns. Now if you imagine a coil with a fixed number of turns and a constant current flowing through it, mmf would be constant. This mmf creates a magnetic field. If you stretch the coil along its length, the number of coils is still the same and the current is still the same, so the mmf is still the same, but the strength of the magnetic field is weakened. To reflect this phenomenon, the field intensity H, is defined as the mmf divided by the length of the coil. H = mmf/L The units for H are ampere-turns per unit length, A.t/m. Finally, the current in the coils produces a magnetic field which has an intensity H. This then creates a magnetic flux with a flux density, B. The relationship between H and B depends on the material that the core of the electromagnet is made from and is called the permeability and given the Greek character mu, . B= H (4) (3)
The permeability of air is 4 10-7 or 1.26 x 10-6 T/A.t/m and is given the special symbol o. Most material are then quoted as having a relative permeability, r, which is its permeability relative to air. To find the absolute permeability you have to multiply the relative permeability by o. 38
ENG1021 Electronic Principles There is one other term which is often used in electromagnetism, which is reluctance. In comparison with electric circuits, the magnetic flux corresponds to current. The flux is produced by ampere turns I N of magnetomotive force. Therefore the mmf corresponds to voltage. Opposition to the production of flux in a material is called the reluctance, comparable with resistance. The symbol for reluctance is . Reluctance is inversely proportional to permeability. Iron has a high permeability and low reluctance. Air or a vacuum has low permeability and high reluctance. The three factors flux, ampere-turns or mmf, and reluctance are related as follows: = mmf/ which is known as Ohms law for magnetic circuits. Please attempt Problem 4. Problem 4 (Magnetic units) A battery is connected across a coil of 100 turns and a resistance of 20 , with an iron core 0.2 m long. (a) How much battery voltage is needed for 200 A.t? (b) Calculate H in the iron core in Ampereturns per meter. (c) Calculate B in teslas in the iron core if its r is 300. (d) Calculate in webers at each pole with an area of 8 10-4 m2. (e) How much is the reluctance of the iron core, in ampereturns per weber? Solution This problem is very useful, because it mixes concepts you have learnt about electrical voltage and current and resistance, with magnetic potential, magnetic field intensity, magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, permeability and reluctance. Problem 4a The first part of the problem requires us to calculate the battery voltage having been given the mmf of the coil as 200 ampere turns. We are given the resistance of the coil as 20 which is the total resistance of the electrical circuit. Before we can calculate the battery voltage we need to calculate the electrical current I. Since: mmf = NI where N is the number of turns on the solenoid and is given as 100, I = mmf/N = 200/100 = 2 A We can now calculate the battery voltage using Ohms law. The battery voltage is: V = IR = 2 20 = 40 volts Problem 4b We now have to calculate the magnetic field intensity H. The magnetic field intensity H is dependant on the mmf and the length of the coil L, which we are given as 200 ampere turns and 0.2 metres respectively. 39 (5)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles H = mmf/L = 200/0.2 = 1000 A.t/m Problem 4c We are now required to calculate B, the magnetic flux density. You may have noticed that the answer is required in teslas which are SI units and that all other units (such as length) are also SI units. When we use SI units in the equation: B = H and we have a figure for the relative permeability r we must introduce the permeability for air (or a vacuum) 0 = 4 10-7 to find the absolute permeability . That is: = r 0 We are given the relative permeability r of the iron core as 300 therefore the absolute permeability is: = r 0 = 300 4 10-7 = 3.77 10-4 T/A.t/m Having found the absolute permeability, the flux density is found using Equation 13 above: B = H = 3.77 10-4 1000 = 0.377 tesla Problem 4d The total flux at the pole ends is given by: =BA The area A is 8 10-4, therefore the flux is: = 0.377 8 10-4 = 3.02 10-4 webers Problem 4e Here we have to find the reluctance of the iron core. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit. In an electrical circuit more current flows, for a given emf (voltage), as the resistance is decreased (Ohms law). In the magnetic circuit there is more flux, for a given mmf, as the reluctance is decreased. The equ ation for in terms of reluctance and mmf shows this. = mmf/ Rearranging and substituting our values for and mmf we arrive at a value for the reluctance: = mmf/ = 200/(3.02 10-4) = 66 104 A.t/W
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2.4 Electro-Magnetic Induction

You have seen that current flowing in a conductor creates a magnetic field. Also, that a forces act on magnets when they close top each other. So, we can conclude that if a conductor is placed within a magnetic field and a current is passed through it, then a force is applied to the conductor. This is basically how motors work. Figure 4 illustrates this principle. Figure 4 shows a conductor which has been placed within a magnetic field. The magnetic field is produced by the horseshoe magnet, and the direction of the magnetic field is from the North pole to the South pole. The conductor is connected to a battery, which produces a current flowing from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. The result would be that the conductor moves upwards.
Figure 4 Motor effect The direction that the conductor moves is described by Lenzs law. It is often memorised using Flemings motor rule, or Flemings right hand rule. If you arrange your left hand such that your thumb is sticking up, and your index finger is pointing straight ahead, then if you move your middle finger so that its pointing to the side, you have it. The thumb, index finger and middle finger should all be pointing in different directions. The thumb represents the motion, the index of first finger represents the field, and the middle or second finger represents current. Thumb First finger motion field 41
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Second finger current In a similar way, if you move a conductor in a magnetic field then a current is created. This is illustrated in Figure 5. In this case you can memorise the directions using Flemings dynamo or left hand rule. The fingers of the left hand are arranged as before, and have the same meaning. Therefore, moving a conductor in a magnetic field generates electricity. This is the basis of a dynamo or a generator.
Figure 5 Dynamo effect In the dynamo effect, I said that a current was produced. In order for a current to flow there must be a potential difference. Therefore, the dynamo or generator could be said to be generating a voltage.
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Figure 6 Figure 6 shows a solenoid again, where a coil is wrapped around a core. If that core is a magnet, then either moving the core or moving the coil would generate a voltage. The value of this voltage depends on three factors: The magnetic flux a stronger the magnetic field would produce a higher voltage; The rate at which the core (or the coil) is moving the faster it moves the more voltage is generated; The number of coils or turns the more turns the higher the voltage.
These are summarised in Faradays law, which is: vind = N d/dt (21)
Where N is the number of turns, is the magnetic flux, and d/dt means the rate of change of flux. This is interpreted as d is a small change in flux, and dt is a small change in time, t. For example, if a coil has 100 turns, and the flux changes from 2 Wb to 5 Wb in 2 seconds, the induced voltage would be: vind = N d/dt = 100 x (5 2)/2 = 150 volts Similarly, if the flux changed from 5 Wb back to 2 Wb, the induced voltage would be: vind = N d/dt = 100 x (2 5)/2 = -150 volts You now know the fundamental relationships between electricity and magnetism. That is, you will know how to produce magnetism from electricity and how to produce electricity from magnetism. The principles behind motors and generators have been described. That is, a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is subject to a force, which will cause it to move (the motor effect) and a conductor moving such that it cuts across a magnetic field will have a voltage generated across it (the generator effect). Two more important laws have been introduced (Faradays law and Lenzs law). Now attempt Problem 5. Problem 5 (Electro-Magnetic Induction) 43
ENG1021 Electronic Principles A magnetic flux of 800 Mx cuts across a coil of 1000 turns in 1 s. How much is the voltage induced in the coil? (1 Mx = 10-8 Wb) Solution This problem involves the use of Faradays law. If you are not familiar with mathematical differentiation, the d/dt expression may appear a little daunting. It is described as the rate of change, where the d in d means a small change in . When you see this notation, dont be tempted to cancel out the d on the top and bottom of the equation. Just as stands for flux and t for time, so d stands for a small change in flux and dt stands for a small change i n time The expression d/dt is simply the gradient or slope of a graph at any point. What is wrong with using the term gradient then? We could, if the graph was a straight line, but often the slope of a graph varies along its length so that it is not straight but curved. You can imagine a real hill on a road; no matter how steep it is, it will not be the same steepness at the bottom of the hill or at the top of the hill as it is in the middle. A gradient sign near to the road may indicate the gradient, but does not say at which point this applies. The d/dt allows us to see the gradient at any point, not just an average gradient. This will become more important later when we study AC. and transformers. In these problems the graph will always be a straight line. In this problem we have a magnetic flux of 800 maxwells cutting across a coil of wire in 1 s. Firstly, let us find d/dt. We should assume that the coil cuts across the field at a steady rate giving a straight line graph for the magnetic field plotted against time t. The gradient is: d/dt = The change flux/The change in time for that change in flux = 800 10-8 Wb/1 10-6 seconds = 8 Wb/s We know the number of turns N is 1000, so we can substitute for N and d/dt to determine the voltage. V = N d/dt = 1000 8 = 8000 V or 8 kV Now attempt Problems 6 and 7. Problem 6 A circuit has a 20 V battery connected to a 100 coil of 400 turns with an iron core 0.2 m long. Using SI magnetic units, calculate (a) I; (b) ampere-turns of mmf; (c) field intensity H; (d) flux density B in a core with r of 500; (e) total flux at each pole with an area of 6 10 -4 m2. Solution The first part of this problem relies on our knowledge of the relationships between the current in the coil, the flux , the flux density B, the mmf and the magnetic field intensity H. Problem 6a 44
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The current is given by Ohms law. We have a 100 coil connected to a 20 volt battery, therefore: I = V/R = 20/100 = 0.2 A Problem 6b We have 400 turns through which flows a current of 0.2A, therefore the mmf in ampere-turns is given by: mmf = N I = 400 0.2 = 80 ampere - turns Problem 6c We need the length of the coil to calculate the field intensity H which is the mmf per unit length. The length of the coil is given as 0.2 metres, therefore the field intensity H = mmf/length = 80/0.2 = 400 ampere.turns/metre Problem 6d We want to calculate the flux density B. We are given the relative permeability r so, if we want to work in SI units, then we have to calculate the absolute permeability: = 0 r = 4 10-7 500 = 6.283 10-5 We can then find the flux density B using B = H = 6.283 10-5 400 = 0.251 tesla Problem 6e Having found the flux density B the amount of flux is dependant upon the area of the coil. The area of the coil is 6 10-4 m-2, therefore the flux = B A = 0.251 6 10-4 = 1.508 10-4 Wb Problem 7 For the coil in Problem 6: (a) If the iron core is removed, how much will the flux be in the air core coil? (b) How much induced voltage would be produced by this change in flux while the core is being moved out in 1 s? (c) How much is the induced voltage after the core is removed? Solution The main reason that you were advised to attempt Problem 6 is that it revises the previous work and sets you up for this rather interesting problem. It is interesting because we are changing the flux by removal of the iron core of the coil. Note that in previous examples and problems we have moved the coil, moved the magnet or subject a coil (somehow) to a changing magnetic field, in order to generate an emf in the coil. The question again exercises your understanding of Faradays law. Problem 7a 45
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The first thing that we are asked to calculate, is the flux if the iron core is removed. The flux will change, because the permeability has changed. The permeability is now just 0 = 4 10-7, the permeability of air. Although the field intensity H has not changed, the flux density is now B = H = 4 10-7 400 = 5.027 10-4 tesla The flux in the area of the coil is then = B A = 5.027 10-4 6 10-4 = 3.0162 10-7 Wb Problem 7b The next part of the question requires us to calculate d/dt. The change in flux is equal to the value before the removal of the iron core minus the value of the flux after the removal of the iron core which is: 1.508 10-4 - 3.0162 10-7 = 1.505 10-4 Wb We are told that this change takes place in 1 second, therefore: d/dt = 1.505 10 -4 Wb/1 second = 1.505 10-4 Wb/s The induced voltage is N times the change in flux, where N is the number of turns which equals 400. So the induced voltage is: V = 400 1.505 10-4 = 0.0602 V Problem 7c After the core is removed there is no more change so the induced voltage is 0 V.
2.5 Summary
Read the Review at the end of the Chapter. You have studied new concepts and learnt some new terms. It is easy to confuse the terms: magnetic flux , magnetic field intensity H, magnetic flux density B, and magnetic field which is a concept described in terms of the three other physical quantities , H, B.
3 Further reading
If you would like to read some more about electromagnetism, the on-line book Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics has some relevant sections. I suggest you look under DC where there is a sub-section called magnetism and electromagnetism. Look at all of the parts under this heading except for the last part on mutual inductance. 46
4 Where next?
You are advised to study the learning package entitled Capacitance next.
Learning Package 7 Capacitance
47
Capacitance
2 Introduction
Nearly all electronic circuits contain capacitors. Capacitors have the ability to store charge. Although they generally do not hold as much charge as a rechargeable battery (and they store charge in a very different way), you may like to think of them as small rechargeable batteries. You will also learn about reactance. Capacitors have reactance in AC circuits. Reactance has similarities with resistance, and is measured in ohms, but has some surprising differences. Finally this section introduces simple capacitive circuits, often called RC circuits which consist of a capacitor in a series or parallel combination with a resistor. You will learn how to combine resistive and reactance values (which cannot simply be added together) to form an impedance value. To do this we have to take into account the relative phase between the voltage and current in a capacitive circuit which leads to the concept of phase angle.
3 Capacitance
3.1 Capacitance, dielectrics, and charge
A capacitor is a device that can store electrical charge. It consists of two plates, and between the plates is a material called a dielectric. This dielectric material is an insulator, the there is no way that electrons can flow through the capacitor. Figure 1 shows a capacitor connected to a battery.
Figure 1 When a battery is connected to a capacitor, as in Figure 1, a potential difference is created across the capacitor, so that one plate (the one connected to the positive terminal) has a higher potential that the other plate (connected to the negative terminal of the battery). We know that continuous current cant flow round the circuit because of the insulator. However, when the battery is first connected, the potential difference created causes electrons to accumulate in the plate connected to the negative terminal of the battery. In the other plate, electrons are lost to the positive terminal of the battery. The end result is that there is a difference in charge on either side of the capacitor, and that this difference 48
ENG1021 Electronic Principles creates its own potential difference. The system settles when this potential difference across the capacitor equals the potential difference created by the battery. Now if the battery is disconnected, the charge difference within the capacitor remains. The capacitor has been fully charged. We can discharge the capacitor by connecting a wire between the plates, so that the charge can flow from the negatively charged side until both side have equal charge, Then the capacitor is said to be fully discharged. The amount of charge stored in a capacitor is given the symbol Q, and is measured in coulombs, C. One coulomb corresponds to 6.25 x 1018 electrons. If a voltage, V, is applied to a capacitor, then the ratio of the charge produced to the voltage applied is called the capacitance of the capacitor. Capacitance is also given the symbol C, and is measured in farads, F. C = Q/V Q = CV The unit of a farad is very large, and so capacitance is often measured in microfarads, F, which is 10-6 Farads or even picofarads, pF, which is 10-12 farads. For example, a 2 F capacitor is connected to a 9 V battery. How much charge is stored? Q = CV = 2 x 10-6 x 9 = 18 x 10-6 C When a battery is connected to a capacitor, we have said that the capacitor becomes charged. In an ideal circuit, where there is no resistance, this would be instantaneous. In reality, there is always some resistance in a circuit, either in the wires, the battery or even in the capacitor itself. So, charging takes a finite time. Exactly how much is a subject of a later Learning Package. However, if a constant current can be applied, rather than a battery, then that constant current will flow which will be continuously delivering charge to one plate of the capacitor, which the other side loses charge. If the constant current has a value of I amps, and is applied for a time t, then the charge introduced to the capacitor is: Q=Ixt (2) Now attempt Problems 1, 2 and 3. Problem 1 How much charge in coulombs is in a 4 F capacitor charged to 100 V? Solution All of these problems require the use of equation for charge Q = CV Where C is the capacitance in Farads, V is the voltage across the capacitor, in volts, and Q is the charge in coulombs. So to find the charge we simply substitute the values for capacitance and voltage into the equation 49 (1)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Q = CV = 4 106 100 = 4 104 = 0.4 mC or 400 C Problem 2 A 4 F capacitor has 400 C of charge. (a) How much voltage is across the capacitor? (b) How much is the voltage across an 8 F capacitor with the same 400 C charge? Solution Again we use Equation 1 in a rearranged form for the voltage V = Q/C Problem 2a The first part of the question asks for the voltage across a 4 F capacitor which is holding 400 C of charge. Substituting these values into Equation 1 gives: V = 400 106/4 106 = 100 volts Problem 2b If the same charge is stored in a 8 F capacitor then the voltage V = 400 106/8 106 = 50 volts Problem 3 A 2F capacitor is charged by a constant 3 A charging current for 6 s. (a) How much charge is stored in the capacitor? (b) How much is the voltage across the capacitor? Solution Constant current charging of capacitors is implemented in many electronic circuits, because the voltage rises linearly with time. Timing circuits and slope generators use this principle.
Problem 3a In this problem a 2 F capacitor is charged with a constant current of 3 A for 6 s. We are asked to find the charge in the capacitor. Although it is not stated, we must assume that the capacitor is fully discharged. If it were not constant current charging would add to any charge already in the capacitor. The charge is found by substituting the values for the current and time into the equation: Q = I t = 3 106 6 = 18 C Problem 3b
50
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The voltage across the capacitor is given by Equation 1: V = Q/C = 18 106/2 106 = 9 volts
3.2 Practical capacitors, energy stored and trouble shooting

3.2.1 Construction of capacitors A practical capacitor is made up of plates and a dielectric. One example is the paper capacitor in which layers of tin foil surround a layer of paper, and then these layers are rolled up. The symbol used in electronics is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Symbols used for a capacitor The symbol on the left is most common, but you can also often see the symbol in the middle being used. This symbol represents an electrolytic capacitor which can only be connected one way round. The curved side always represents the negative connection. Finally the symbol on the right indicates a variable capacitor. Often the value of the capacitance is written on the capacitor, usually in either microfarads or picofarads. In some cases they are colour coded using a similar scheme as resistors. In either case, capacitors are only available in preferred values, with the same range of values as resistors. In general, the area of the plates influences the value of the capacitance, with bigger plates creating bigger capacitance. Another factor is the size of the gap between the plates. The smaller this gap, the bigger the capacitance. Finally, the material used as the dielectric has a major influence. When we looked at magnetism we found a quality called permeability, which influenced how much magnetic flux is produced. Similarly, in capacitance we have permittivity, , the Greek character epsilon. As with permeability, we usually quote a relative permittivity of a material, r, which then has to be multiplied by the absolute permittivity of air, o, which equals 8.854 x 10-12 F/m. The relative permittivity is also given the symbol K. For example, air has a relative permittivity of 1, paper is 2 to 6, ceramic is 80 to 1200. Given all of the above, we can now say that the capacitance is given by the following equation, where A is the area of the plates and d is the size of the gap between the plates. C = K x A/d x 8.85 x 10-12 F Now please attempt Problems 4, 5 and 6. Problem 4 51 (3)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Calculate C for a mica capacitor, with K = 8, a thickness of 0.02 cm, plates of 6 cm2, and five sections in parallel. (Hint: 1 cm = 10-2 m and 1 cm2 = 10-4 m2.) Solution The construction of the mica capacitor is such that it many single layer capacitors in parallel. In this problem we have 5 layers which is equivalent to having 5 single layer capacitors in parallel. So firstly we must calculate how much capacitance there is in a single layer. The capacitance of a single layer capacitor is given by the equation C = K A/d 8.85 1012 where A is the area of the plates in metre2, d is the distance between the plates in metres, K is the dielectric constant alternatively called the relative permittivity r. The figure 8.85 1012 is the absolute permittivity of air or a vacuum, which is given the symbol 0. Given the above information I prefer to write Equation 3 as C = A/d r0 (4)
The equation is more concise in this form and it reminds us that the capacitance is proportional to the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. Substituting our values for A, d, 0, and r into Equation 4 we have: C = 6 104/(0.02 102) 8 8.85 1012 = 212.4 pf This is the capacitance between a single plate. Capacitors in parallel add together, therefore the capacitance across 5 sections will be: 5 212.4 = 1.062 nF 3.2.2 Energy stored Charge stored in a capacitor has energy. The amount of energy is found using the following equation: E = CV2 (5)
It is important to realise that capacitors store this charge even when disconnected. This means that electrical equipment that contain capacitors can often hold on to large amounts of charge even when the equipment is switched off. For example, a television picture tube will can hold enough charge to generate twenty five thousand volts even when disconnected form the wall. The energy stored is small, but this voltage can still give an electric shock and cause burns. Other capacitors within electronic equipment may also store hazardous voltages when equipment is disconnected from the mains. Please bear this in mind when handling equipment that is supposed to be dead (disconnected from power). Problem 5 Calculate the energy in joules stored in (a) a 500 pF capacitor charged to 10 kV; (b) a 1 F capacitor charged to 5 kV; (c) a 40 F capacitor charged to 400 V. 52
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Solution Here we are asked to calculate the energy stored in capacitors. We use the equation: E =CV2 The solutions are found simply by substituting the vales of C and V into the equation for energy. Problem 5a Here C = 500 pf and V = 10 kV. Substituting the values into the equation gives: E = (500 1012)(10 103)2 = 250 1012 108 = 2.5 102 joules Problem 5b Here C = 1 f and V = 5 kV. Substituting the values into the equation gives: E = (1 106)(5 103)2 = 1 106 25 106 = 12.5 joules Problem 5c Here C = 40 f and V = 400 V. Substituting the values into the equation Gives: E = (40 106)(400)2 = 20 106 16 104 = 320 102 = 3.2 joules 3.2.4 Series and parallel capacitors When capacitors are connected in parallel it is equivalent to increasing the plate area. Therefore the capacitance of two capacitors in parallel is the sum of the individual capacitances. Ceq = C1 + C2 (6)
Connecting capacitors in series is equivalent to increasing the dielectric thickness or the gap between the plates. Therefore the reciprocal of total capacitance of two capacitors in series is the sum of the reciprocal of the individual capacitances. 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 Problem 6 Calculate CT for the series-parallel combination of capacitors shown in Figures 3a and 3b. (7)
C1=0.02F C2=0.04F
C1=47pF
53
C1=150pF
C1=100pF
CT
C3=0.047F
C
Figure 3a Solution
Figure 3b
This problem exercises our familiarity with parallel and series capacitor combinations. Remember that the rules for parallel and series capacitor combinations are the reverse of the rules for combinations of series and parallel resistors. Problem 6a The problem can be though of as a parallel combination of two capacitors where one of the capacitors is a series combination of two capacitors. Therefore we work out the equivalent capacitance of the series capacitors first. Let us call the series combination of C1 and C2, C12. Then using the equation for capacitors in series: 1/C12 = 1/C1 + 1/C2 = 1/(0.02 106) + 1/(0.04 106) = (50 + 25) 106 = 75 106 Taking reciprocals: C12 = 0.0133 106 F 54
ENG1021 Electronic Principles CT is the parallel combination of C12 and C3 and parallel capacitors add in value. So: CT = C3 + C12 = 0.047 106 + 0.0133 106 = 0.06033 106 or 0.0633 F Problem 6b This part of the problem should be thought of as a series combination of two capacitors, but one of those capacitors is a parallel combination of two capacitors. Therefore we work out the value of the parallel combination C1 and C2 first. Let use call the equivalent capacitance of the parallel capacitors C12, then C12 = C1 + C2 = 47 pF + 100 pF = 147 pF C12 is in series with C3, a 150 pF capacitor. The total capacitance is given by: CT = C12 C3/(C12 + C3) = 147 150/(147 + 150) = 22050/297 = 74.2 pF Note that in the later part of this problem I have used the formula for two series capacitors and worked entirely in picofarads in order to show the alternative methods. 3.2.3 Trouble shooting Leaky and open capacitors can be detected with an ohmmeter. If this technique works, all well and good, but often open and leaky capacitors are not that obvious to an ohmmeter and since we must disconnect one end of the capacitor from the circuit anyhow, it is usually more efficient to trouble shoot leaky and open capacitors by replacement.
3.3 Capacitive reactance

So far weve looked at DC circuits. A capacitor is essentially a break in the circuit, so a continuous current cannot flow. When a battery is connected there is an initial current that builds up charge on the capacitor plates, but then reaches a stable point where the potential difference are equal and no more current flows. An analogy that is sometimes used is that of a hydraulic system, where a pump represents the battery. A capacitor is represented by two chambers separated by a rubber diaphragm, and all connected together with pipes. Initially the pipes and the chambers are full of water. When the pump is switched on, it forces more water into one of the chamber which pushes against the rubber diaphragm. The diaphragm stretches which forces water out of the other chamber. This continues until the pressure produced by the pump equals the pressure produced by the rubber diaphragm, at which point no more water can move. This is analogous to the charge building up on one of the 55
ENG1021 Electronic Principles plates of the capacitor, and the lack of negative charge on the other plate. Clearly, in this analogy, you cannot have a continuous flow of water because the circuit is blocked by the diaphragm. Now lets think of an AC circuit. In this scenario the pump keeps changing direction. Init ially it will pump water in one direction, gradually increasing the pressure. Then the pressure eases of and the pump reverses direction and repeats the cycle. Now, although there is still a diaphragm, the water all through the circuit can move back and forth under pressure from the pump. Similarly, in a capacitor the charge can move back and forth in the circuit under the emf of the AC voltage generator. If we have a sinusoidal voltage applied, then the current will also be sinusoidal, with the same frequency. The amplitude of the voltage sinewave divided by the amplitude of the current sinewave is similar to resistance, and is called reactance, measured in ohms. Reactance is given the symbol X, and as this is capacitive reactance it is referred to as Xc. It obeys Ohms law as follows: V = I Xc (8)
The main difference between reactance and resistance is that reactance is dependent on frequency. In the case of capacitive reactance, when the frequency is zero (DC) then the reactance is infinite, i.e. no current flows. At higher frequencies the reactance gets less. This is summarised in the following equation for the reactance of a capacitor: Xc = 1/2fC (9)
In an AC circuit, if two capacitors are connected in series, the total reactance is the sum of the individual reactances. We see this by starting with the equation we found earlier for the total capacitance of two series capacitors. 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 Xeq = 1/2fCeq = 1/2f C1 + 1/2f C2 = Xc1 + Xc2 Similarly, the reciprocal of the total reactance of two capacitors in parallel is found as the sum of the reciprocal of the individual reactances. 1/Xeq = 1/Xc1 + 1/Xc2 Please attempt Problems 7 and 8. Problem 7 Give the values of C needed for 2000 of XC at the following four frequencies 1 MHz, 0.5 MHz, 0.2 MHz and 0.1 MHz. Solution We are asked to find the value of a capacitance which has a reactance of 2000 at four frequencies 1 MHz, 0.5 MHz, 0.2 MHz and 0.1 MHz. We take the equation for capacitive reactance: XC = 1/2fC and rearrange it to give: 56 (10)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles C = 1/2fXC The four solutions to this question are obtained by substitution into the rearranged equation. When frequency we are told that XC = 2000 . Therefore: C = 1/21 1062000 = 1/12566.37061436 106 = 79.6 pF At f = 0.5 MHz: C = 1/20.5 1062000 = 1/6283 106 = 159 pF At f = 0.2 MHz: C = 1/20.2 1062000 = 1/2513.274122872 106 = 399 pF At f = 0.1 MHz: C = 1/20.1 1062000 = 1/1256.637061436 106 = 796 pF Problem 8 Four capacitive reactances of 100, 200, 300 and 400 each are connected in series across a 40 V rms source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) How much is the total XCT? (c) Calculate I. (d) Calculate the voltages across each capacitance. (e) If the frequency of the applied voltage is 1600 kHz, calculate the required value of each capacitance. Solution This problem introduces series combinations of capacitors and the calculation of their reactance. Problem 8a The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 4.
100
200 300 400
Figure 4 Circuit diagram for Problem 8a Problem 8b
40
57
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The equivalent (or total) reactance of a series combination of reactances is found using the same rules as for series resistors. Note, that this is not true for finding the equivalent capacitance for a series combination of capacitors. We have four reactances of 100, 200, 300 and 400 in series, the total reactance is: XT = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 = 100 + 200 + 300 + 400 = 1000 Problem 8c The current is given by Ohms law: I = V/XT = 40/1000 = 40 mA rms Problem 8d To find the voltage across each capacitor we use Ohms law and the fact that the same current I flows in all parts of a series circuit. Therefore, the voltage across the first capacitor (XC1 = 100 ) is: VC1 = 40 103 100 = 4 volts The voltage across the next capacitor (XC2 = 200 ) VC2 = 40 103 200 = 8 volts The voltage across the next capacitor (XC3 = 300 ) is VC3 = 40 103 300 = 12 volts The voltage across the last capacitor (XC4 = 200 ) is VC4 = 40 103 400 = 16 volts We can check our results because for purely capacitive reactance the individual voltage drops should add up to the supply voltage. So, 4 + 8 + 12 + 16 = 40 volts = the supply voltage of 40 volts Problem 8e If the frequency of the AC source is 1600 kHz = 1.6 MHz we use the rearranged equation for reactance Equation 25 substituting for reactance in each case. For the first capacitor (X C1 = 100 ). The capacitance is: C1 = 1/(21.6 106 100) = 0.995 109 = 0.995 nF For the next capacitor (XC2 = 200 ) the capacitance is: C2 = 1/(21.6 106 200) = 0.497 109 = 0.497 nF For the next capacitor (XC3 = 300 ) the capacitance is: 58
ENG1021 Electronic Principles C3 = 1/(21.6 106 300) = 0.332 109 = 0.332 nF For the last capacitor (XC4 = 400 ) the capacitance is: C4 = 1/(21.6 106 400) = 0.249 109 = 0.249 nF
3.4 Relative phase

Unlike in a resistor, the alternating current in a capacitor is not in phase with the alternating voltage across it. In other words the alternating voltage across a capacitor rises at falls at different times from the alternating current through the capacitor. The phase angle between the voltage and current in a capacitor is 90 and is the same as the difference between a cosine wave and a sine wave. The current rises before the voltage and the current is said to lead the voltage, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Voltage and current in a capacitor (current is dashed) The rate of voltage change with time operator is introduced and related to the current i=C dv dt Here we see the notation for differentiation again, where dv means a small change in voltage, and dt means a small change in time. So, dv/dt represents the rate at which the voltage is changing with time. Please attempt Problem 9. Problem 9 A capacitor has a discharge current ic of 15 mA when the voltage across its plates decreases at the rate of 150 V/s. Calculate C. 59 (11)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Solution This problem exercises your understanding of rates of voltage change and the capacitor charge/discharge cycle. We are told that a capacitor is subject to a discharge current of 15 mA and that the rate of change of voltage is 150 V/s. Let us rearrange Equation 11: I C = dV dt and substitute our values into it to find C: C = 15103 = 1103 = 109 =1010 =100pF 150 10 10 106 106 Note that I have used minus signs in front of the current and the decreasing voltage, because the current is a discharge current and the voltage is decreasing. Although the minus signs cancel out, it is good practice to include them, because in larger problems they become important.
3.4 Capacitive (RC) circuits

We will now have a look at circuits containing a resistor and a capacitor in either series or in parallel. Figure 6 shows both cases, and the associated phasor triangle.
Figure 6 a) series circuit; b) parallel circuit In Figure 6a), a resistor is in series with a capacitor. We know from earlier discussions that in a series circuit the current is the same through each component, so the current flowing through the capacitor must be the same as the current flowing through the resistor, I. We also know that the current through the capacitor leads the voltage across the capacitor by 90 degrees. 60
ENG1021 Electronic Principles If the reactance of the capacitor is Xc, then by Ohms law the voltage across the c apacitor is Vc = IXc. Similarly, the voltage across the resistor is Vr = IR. We can represent these two voltages using a phasor triangle, where the horizontal arrow shows the voltage across the resistor which is in phase with the current through the resistor. The vertical arrow shows the voltage across the capacitor which is 90 degrees behind the current through the capacitor. You think of a phasor diagram as a rotating arrow, pivoted at the centre of a circle, then when it is pointing to the right, that is 0 degrees. Now rotate it anticlockwise. When its point upwards, that is +90 degrees. Keep going until it is pointing to the right, and thats +180 degrees. Keep going until it is pointing downwards and that corresponds to +270 degrees. Alternatively, if you rotate clockwise, then from zero degrees, rotate until the arrow is pointing downwards and this corresponds to -90 degrees. Figure 7 illustrates this.
Figure 7 Phasor diagrams In Figure 7, a phasor is shown pointing to the left. The other phasor is shown relative to this first one, either as a clockwise (negative) rotation or an anticlockwise (positive) rotation. When we add two phasors we have to take into account not only their magnitude but also their direction. For example, if I asked you to start at your house, walk east for 3 miles, then north for 4 miles. How far have you walked? Thats easy, you just add the miles, 3 plus 4 equals 7 miles. If I asked you how far would be as the crow flies from your house, then you have to take the direction into account.
Figure 8Vector distance The distance from your house is shown as the diagonal line from the home to the journeys end. This distance, d, is calculated using Pythagorass theorem. 61
ENG1021 Electronic Principles d2 = 32 + 42 = 25 d = 25 = 5 So the distance is 5 miles. In our phasor triangle, the resistive voltage is at 0 degrees, and the capacitive voltage is at -90 degrees. We can either say that the current leads the voltage in a capacitor by 90 degrees, or that the voltage lags behind the current by -90 degrees. It amounts to the same thing. Now we know that the supply voltage should equal the sum of the resistive voltage and the capacitive voltage. But because they are out of phase, when represented in a phasor diagram they point in different directions. We there fore have to use Pythagorass theorem to find the sum. This is shown as the hypotenuse of the triangle. The sum is therefore:
2 2 E = Vr +Vc 2 2 E = ( IR) + ( IX c ) 2 2 2 2 E = I R +I Xc 2 2 2 E = I (R + X c ) 2 2 E = I R +Xc
E = IZ
(12)
In the last line, the term Z is the total impedance of the circuit. Impedance is the combination of resistance and reactance, and is also measured in ohms. You can see that to find the value of Z you have to take the square root of the resistance squared plus the reactance squared. The other value that we can calculate is the relative phase, , between the voltage and the current. In Figure 6a) this is shown as the angle between the supply voltage, E, and the resistive voltage Vr. This is because Vr is in phase with the current, therefore the angle between these two voltages is the same as the angle between the voltage and the current. From trigonometry we can see that: Tan = IXc = Xc (13)
IR R So the phase is the ratio of the reactance and the resistance. Since the capacitive reactance is pointing downwards, it is negative. You have to bear this in mind when calculating the phase. Using the values in the circuit of Figure 6, the reactance is: Xc = 1/2fC = 1/2x 3.142 x 40 x 100 x 10-6 = 39.79 40 . This means that the total impedance is: 62
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Z = R2 + Xc2 = 1002 + 402 Z = 10000+1600 = 11600 =107.7 The phase is: Tan = Xc R =21.8o Now for parallel circuits. As we know from previous Learning Packages the voltage across each parallel branch is the same. So in the parallel circuit of Figure 6b) the voltage across the resistor and the capacitor is equal to E. The current in the resistive branch is therefore Ir = E/R and is in phase with the voltage. The current in the capacitive branch is Ic = E/Xc and is 90 degrees ahead of the voltage. If the resistive current is drawn horizontally, then the capacitive current leads by 90 degrees, as in the phasor triangle of Figure 6b). The total current must equal the sum of the two individual branch currents. As they are phasor values with direction as well as size, we use the triangle again and Pythagorass theorem. This gives the total current as: I = Ir + Ic = E + E R Xc = 40 =0.4
100
1 I=E + R I E 11 R 1
Xc Xc Z
So this is the same as any parallel circuit, where the reciprocal of the total impedance equals the sum of the reciprocal of the resistance and the reciprocal of the reactance. Similarly, from the phasor triangle of Figure 6b) it can be seen that: Tan = Ic = E E Ir Tan = E Xc R = R R
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Xc E Xc Using the values in Figure 6, we can find the impedance and relative phase. 1 = Z Z= R R 1 + Xc 1 = 100 1 + 40 1 = 4000 140
= 28.57 100
Tan =
= 2.5
Xc = 68.2o
40
You should now have a good idea about the phase relationship between the current and voltage in a capacitive circuit and be able to construct a phasor triangle (often called a phasor diagram). Please attempt Problem 10, 11, and 12. Problem 10 This problem exercises your understanding of impedance and phase relationships in a series capacitive circuit. Problem 10a A 40 R in series with a 30 Xc across a 100 V sinewave AC source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate ZT. (c) Calculate I. (d) Calculate the voltage across R and C. (e) What is the phase angle of the circuit? Solution The schematic diagram is shown in Figure 9.
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Figure 9 Diagram for Problem 10a Problem 10b To calculate ZT it is useful (but not essential) to draw a phasor diagram. The voltages across the resistor and the capacitor must add up to the source voltage (at any given time), but because these voltages are out of phase we must add the voltage across the capacitor phasor (VC = IXC) to the voltage across the resistor phasor (VR = IR). Doing this forms the phasor triangle shown in Figure 10. Consider the phasor triangle, the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the source voltage (100 volts), which is equal to the current I multiplied by the total impedance ZT. By Pythagoras theorem:
Figure 10 Phasor diagram for Problem 10 100 = IZT = (IXC )2 +(IR)2 The Is cancel giving: ZT = (XC)2 +(R)2 Problem 10c The current I may be found from Ohms law by using the previously obtained value for the total impedance ZT and the knowledge that the source voltage is 100V. I = V/ZT = 100/50 = 2 amperes Problem 10d The individual voltages across R and C are, again, given by Ohms law. The voltage across the capacitor is: VC = IXC = 2 30 = 60 volts The voltage across the resistor 65
ENG1021 Electronic Principles VR = I 40 = 80 volts Note that the algebraic addition of the voltages across the resistor and the capacitor is greater than the supply voltage. This is because the two voltages are out of phase. If we looked at the voltages at any instant in time, one voltage will be rising when the other is at its peak. If you were to add these instantaneous voltages they would add up to the supply voltage at that instant. Problem 10e The phase angle is the angle between the generator voltage and the series current or equivalently the generator voltage and current. Although this phasor diagram does not show the current, we know that the current and voltage in a resistor are always in phase. The phase angle in this circuit is the angle between the generator voltage and the voltage across the resistor. From the phasor diagram shown in Figure 10: tan = IXC/IR = XC/R = 3/4 = 0.75 = 36.86o Problem 11 A 40 R and a 30 Xc are in parallel across a 100 V sinewave AC source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate each branch current. (c) How much is I T? (d) Calculate ZEQ. (e) What is the phase angle of the circuit? (f) Compare the phase angle of the voltage across R and Xc. Solution This problem is similar to Problem 10, but we are dealing with a parallel circuit. Problem 11a The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11 Circuit diagram for Problem 11a Problem 11b Since the supply voltage appears across capacitor C and resistor R the current flowing though each of them are the branch currents and are given by Ohms law. The current through the resistor is: IR = V/R = 100/40 = 2.5 amperes 66
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The current through the resistor is: IC = V/XC = 100/30 = 3.33 A Problem 11c The total current IT is found by adding the branch currents, but because the currents are out of phase we must add their phasors. A phasor diagram would be helpful now, as in Figure 12:
Figure 12 Phasor diagram for Problem 11c From the diagram we can see that IT is the phasor addition of ITR and IR, again using Pythagoras theorem: IT = (IR)2 +(IC )2 = 2.52 +3.332 = 4.14 amperes Problem 11d The equivalent impedance ZEQ is given by Ohms law: ZEQ = V/I = 100/4.14 = 24.15 Problem 11e The phase angle can be found from the phasor diagram. It is marked as current on Figure 12. The phase angle is the angle between the voltage and current as seen by the voltage supply. The phase of the voltage is the same as the phase of the current through the resistor vector IR, since the resistor is directly connected across the voltage supply. The phase of the current is in the direction of vector IT, since this is the current we calculated as the total current supplied to the circuit. On Figure 12 the angle between these two vectors is marked as . tan = IC/IR = 3.33/2.5 = 1.332 = 53.1o 67
ENG1021 Electronic Principles If you are wondering if this angle should be positive or negative, it depends only on whether you take the current or the voltage as a reference. The voltage will always lag the current in an RC circuit and so the phase angle of the voltage with respect to the current will be negative. Alternatively, we can say that the current leads the voltage in an RC circuit and so the phase angle of the current with respect to the voltage will be positive. Verify this to yourself using the phasor diagram and try turning the phasor diagram around to that the current is the reference phasor and checking that the phase of the voltage (which is the same as the current through the resistor IR) now lags the current. Remember that positive angles are in the anticlockwise direction, while negative angles are the clockwise direction. Problem 11f The phase of the voltage is the same in all parts of the parallel circuit, so the phase angle across the resistor is equal to the phase angle across the capacitor. Problem 12 Draw a schematic diagram of a capacitor in series with a 20 k resistance acros s a 10 V ac source. What size C is needed for equal voltages across R and Xc at frequencies of 100 Hz and 100 kHz? Solution The circuit diagram for the first part of this problem is given in Figure 13. We are then asked what value of capacitor will result in equal voltages existing across the resistor and the capacitor. This is a series circuit so the same current I flows in all parts of the circuit. The voltage across the resistor (by Ohms law) is: VR = IR The voltage across the capacitor is: VC = IXC
Figure 13 Circuit diagram for Problem 12 We are told that: VC = V R So: IR = IXC 68
ENG1021 Electronic Principles we can cancel the Is, so that the voltages across the resistor and the capacitor are equal when: R = XC XC = 1/2fC = R We can rearrange this equation to get a value for C. C = 1/2fR We are asked to find the value of C for two different values of frequency f, so lets substitute our values of R = 20 k and f = 100 Hz into our equation for C first. C = 1/2fR = 1/2 100 20 103 = 0.08 F Now for R = 20 k and f = 100 kHz C = 1/2fR = 1/2 100 103 20 103 = 80 pF
4 Further reading
For further reading you may want to look at Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are DC and the sub-section called Capacitors, where all parts could be read. Also, under the section AC, sub-section Reactance and impedance capacitive there is relevant information. Have a look at all the parts, but be warned. This book starts using both complex notation (or j notation) and polar notation rather than using a phasor diagram.
Where next?
The next suggested learning package in entitled Inductance and Transformers.
Learning Package 8 Inductance and Transformers
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Inductance
If in doubt, please attempt the self assessment questions in this Learning Package. If you can answer all of the questions correctly you may omit this section. If not, please read on. If you can answer all of the questions correctly you may omit this section. If not, please read on.
2 Introduction
In this Learning Package you will learn about inductors and the property inductance. In particular we will see how inductors produce an electromagnetic field and that two inductors can interact to produce mutual inductance. This property of mutual inductance is put to use in transformers where AC voltages can be stepped-up or stepped-down to other voltages.
3 What is inductance?
When a magnetic flux cuts across a conductor a voltage is induced, as you saw in Learning Package 6. The voltage is induced if the conductor is moving or if the magnetic field is moving or changing. In an AC circuit, a conductor produces a magnetic flux which alternates in direction as the current alternates, and also changes size in proportion to the size of the current. This changing flux induces a voltage. So, it must be remembered that it is the change in current that is inducing a voltage. A current that is large but doesnt change would not induce a voltage. The frequency of the alternating current also affects the size of the induced voltage, as a higher frequency means that the current is changing ore quickly. Figure 1 shows a simple AC circuit with a magnetic coil.
Figure 1 Circuit with magnetic coil The inductance, L, is defined as: L= v (1) di/dt
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles In this equation, L is the inductance, measured in Henries, v is the voltage that is induced in the coil and di/dt is the rate of change of current in amperes per second. Rearranging we get: v=L di (2)
dt In AC circuits the current is continuously changing. However, a voltage can be induced by any change in current, as the following problem indicates. Now attempt Problem 1. Problem 1 Calculate the values of vL across a 5 mH inductance for the following current variations. (a) zero to 3 A in 2 s; (b) zero to 50 mA in 5 s; (c) 100 to 150 mA in 5 s; (d) 150 to 100 mA in 5 s. Solution Problem 1a We are asked for the voltage across a 5 mH inductor subject to different current variations. For all parts of this problem we will use the Equation 2. Returning to our problem, we need to calculate the change of current with respect to time, dI/dt . In this part we have a current which changes form 0 to 3 A in 2 seconds. Therefore: Change in current 3 - 0 = 3A Change in time = 2 seconds. dI/dt = 3/2 = 1.5 As-1 The voltage vL = LdI/dt = 5 10-3 1.5 = 7.5 mV Problem 1b In this part we have a current which changes form 0 to 50 mA in 5 s seconds. Therefore: Change in current 50 - 0 mA = 50 mA Change in time = 5 s seconds. dI/dt = (50 10-3)/(5 10-6) = 104As-1 The voltage is: vL = LdI/dt = 5 10-3 104 = 50 V 71
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problem 1c In this part we have a current which changes from 100 to 150 mA in 5 s. Therefore: Change in current 150 - 100 = 50 mA Change in time = 5 s seconds. dI/dt = (50 10-3)/(5 10-6) = 104As-1 This is the same value for dI/dt as in part (b), even though the current is higher, because it is the change in current that is important and not the absolute value. The voltage is: vL = LdI/dt = 5 10-3 104 = 50 V Problem 1d In this part we have a current which changes form 150 to 100 mA in 5 s Therefore: Change in current 100 - 150 = -50 mA. The minus sign signifies the decrease in current. Change in time = 5 s seconds. dI/dt = (-50 10-3)/(5 10-6) = -104As-1 The voltage is: vL = LdI/dt = 5 10-3 -104 = -50 V
3.1 Inductance in coils

The value of the inductance of a coil depends on a number of factors. These include: The number of turns, N; The area enclosed by the coil, A; The permeability of the core, r; The length of the coil, l. The inductance can be calculated as: =r N2 A1.26106H L l 72 (3)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Now try Problem 2. Problem 2 Calculate the inductance L for the following long coils: (a) air core, 20 turns, area 3.14 cm 2, length 25 cm; (b) same coil as (a) with a ferrite core having r of 5000; (c) air core, 200 turns, area 3.14 cm2, length 25 cm; (d) air core, 20 turns, area 3.14 cm 2, length 50 cm; (e) air core, 20 turns, diameter 4 cm, length 50 cm, (Note 1 cm = 10-2 m, and 1 cm2 = 10-4 m2.) Solution Here we are asked to calculate the inductance for coils of wire of differing dimensions and cores. The problem illustrates the impact of changing each of the values in Equation 3. Problem 2a This inductor has an air core. This tells us that the relative permeability r = 1. All the other values are given for substitution into Equation 3, but remember that the equation requires that area A is in square metres and that length l is in metres. We are given: The number of turns N = 20 The area of the coil A = 3.14 cm2 = 3.14 10-4 m2 The length of the coil l = 25 cm = 25 10-2 m Substituting these values into Equation 3 with r = 1: L = r(N2 A)/l 1.26 10-6 = 1 (202 3.14 10-4)/(25 10-2) 1.26 10-6 = 6.33 10-7 = 0.663 H Problem 2b This inductor has a ferrite iron core. We are told that that the relative permeability of the ferrite core r = 5000. We are given: The number of turns N = 20 The area of the coil A = 3.14 cm2 = 3.14 10-4 m2 The length of the coil l = 25 cm = 25 10-2 m The same values are used as in Part (a). Substituting these values into Equation 3 with r = 5000: L = r(N2 A)/l 1.26 10-6 73
ENG1021 Electronic Principles = 5000 (202 3.14 10-4)/(25 10-2) 1.26 10-6 = 3.165 10-3 = 3.165 mH Problem 2c This inductor has an air core so r = 1. The other values given are: The number of turns N = 200 The area of the coil A = 3.14 cm2 = 3.14 10-4 m2 The length of the coil l = 25 cm = 25 10-2 m Substituting these values into Equation 3.with r = 1: L = r(N2 A)/l 1.26 10-6 = 1 (2002 3.14 10-4)/(25 10-2) 1.26 10-6 = 6.33 10-5 = 66.3 H Problem 2d This inductor has an air core so r = 1. The other values given are: The number of turns N = 20 The area of the coil A = 3.14 cm2 = 3.14 10-4 m2 The length of the coil l = 50 cm = 50 10-2 m Substituting these values into Equation with r = 1: L = r(N2 A)/l 1.26 10-6 = 1 (202 3.14 10-4)/(50 10-2) 1.26 10-6 = 3.165 10-7 = 0.3165 H Problem 2e This inductor has an air core so r = 1. The other values given are: The number of turns N = 20 We are not given the area, but we are given the diameter d = 4 cm, therefore the radius of the coil r = 2 cm and assuming that the coil is circular, the area of the coil A = .r2 = 3.14 22 cm2 = 12.57 10-4 m2 The length of the coil l = 50 cm = 50 10-2 m Substituting these values into Equation with r = 1: 74
ENG1021 Electronic Principles L = r(N2 A)/l 1.26 10-6 = 1 (202 12.57 10-4)/(50 10-2) 1.26 10-6 = 1.267 10-6 = 1.267 H
4 Mutual inductance
When the current in an inductor changes it creates a magnetic flux which may cut across another inductor and so induce a voltage in it. The voltage induced in the second inductor also produces a current which in turn produces a magnetic flux which will also cut across the first inductor and so produce a voltage in that one. This process is called mutual induction, and the effect has to be included in any calculations. The fraction of flux produced by one coil, L 1, that cuts across another coil, L2, is called the coupling and given the letter k. The value of the coupling is defined as: k = flux linkage between L1 and L2/flux produced by L1 This overall effect is known as mutual inductance, Lm. The additional inductance is measured as: Lm = k L1L2 (4)
When two inductors are in series in a circuit, their inductances are added, just like resistances. However, if there is any coupling and therefore any mutual inductance, this has to be included. There is a complication. If there is no coupling, the inductances are simply added. However, the two inductors or coils could be wound in opposite directions. This means that for a current flowing through the coils in one direction, the magnetic flux produced in one coil may be in the opposite direction to the magnetic flux in the other. If the magnetic field is in the same direction the coils are said to be seriesaiding. If they produce magnetic fluxes in opposite directions then they are called se riesopposing. The total inductance of a pair of series coils would be: LT = L1 + L2 + Lm for series aiding (5a) LT = L1 + L2 Lm for series opposing (5b)
Finally, inductors in parallel also follow the same pattern as resistors. For two inductors in parallel (without mutual inductance) the total inductance is: 1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 Please now attempt Problems 3 and 4 Problem 3 For a 100 H inductance L1 and a 200 H inductance L2, calculate: (a) the total inductance LT of L1 and L2 in series without mutual coupling; (b) the combined inductance of L 1 and L2 in parallel without mutual inductance; (c) the LT of L1 and L2 series aiding, and series opposing, with 10 H mutual inductance; (d) the value of the coefficient of coupling k. Solution 75 (6)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles This is an exercise in combining inductances, with and without mutual inductance. The equations for combinations of inductors, without considering mutual inductance, are the same as for resistors. Problem 3a The total inductance for inductors in series (in the absence of mutual inductance) is then: LT = L 1 + L 2 Substituting the values given: LT = 100 + 200 H = 300 H Problem 3b Inductors in parallel combine in a similar way to resistors in parallel (without mutual inductance). So the total inductance of the given inductors in parallel is: 1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 Or LT = L1 L2/(L1 + L2) = 100 200/(100 + 200) = 20000/300 = 200/3 = 66.7 H Notice that the equations for series and parallel inductors are swapped around forms of the equations for series and parallel capacitors. Problem 3c If mutual coupling exists between inductors then Equation 5 is used. For series aiding: LT = L1 + L2 + 2LM and for series opposing: LT = L1 + L2 - 2LM Substituting the given values for both cases gives: LT = 100 + 200 + 2 10 = 320 H for series aiding and: LT = 100 + 200 - 2 10 = 280 H for series opposing. Problem 3d The mutual coupling k is a measure of the amount of flux in one inductor links another (the coupled) inductor. It can be found in this case by using the Equation 4 for mutual inductance. 76
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Lm = k L1L2 Rearranging this equation for k and substituting our values into the equation gives: k = Lm = L1L2 10 = 10 = 0.07 100200 20000
5 Transformers
Transformers are a practical application of mutual inductance. As shown in Figure 2 there is a primary circuit which has a coil and a secondary circuit which has a coil. When the primary coil is connected to an AC voltage source, the transformer produces an AC voltage in the secondary circuit which causes a current to flow through the load resistor.
Figure 2 A transformer The size of the voltage in the secondary circuit depends on the number of turns in the secondary coil, Ns, relative to the number of turns in the primary coil, Np. The turns ratio is the number of turns in the primary coil divided by the number of turns in the secondary coil. Turns ratio = Np/Ns (7)
For example, if there are 500 turns in the primary coil and 50 turns in the secondary, the turns ratio is 500/50 = 10, so the transformer could be described as a 10:1 transformer. It is usually assumed in transformers that the coupling between the primary and secondary coils is perfect, so has a value of 1. This means that the voltage induced in the secondary coil is created by the same magnetic field that produces the induced voltage in the primary coil. The difference between the secondary and primary voltages, therefore, is in proportion to the number of turns in the coils. This means that: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns 77 (8)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The power in the primary circuit is VpIp, and in the secondary circuit is VsIs. If the transformer is 100% efficient, all of that power is transferred, so that: VpIp = VsIs This means that Vp/Vs = Is/Ip But earlier we showed that Vp/Vs = Np/Ns, which means that: Is/Ip = Np/Ns = turns ratio. (10) (9)
If the transformer isnt 100% efficient, the not all of the power is transmitted. In this ca se the efficiency would be defined as: % Efficiency = Ps/Pp x 100 (11)
The load resistor in the secondary has a value RL. When looking into the circuit from the primary end, the resistance (or more accurately impedance in the general case) appears at a different value, known is the reflected impedance. Figure 3 shows this, where Zp is the reflected impedance and Zs is the secondary impedance such as the load resistor.
Figure 3 Reflected impedance By manipulating the equations that we have already it is found that the reflected impedance is: Zp = (Np/Ns)2 x Zs (12)
One of the ways that reflected impedance can be used is for impedance matching. In any circuit the power delivered to the load is maximised if the impedance of the load is equal to the impedance of the source. For example, Figure 4 shows a voltage source which delivers a voltage but has its own internal resistance r of 200 . This could be an amplifier connected to a speaker, for exampl e. The load resistor that it is delivering power to has a resistance of 8 , which means that if you connected the load directly to the source, it would receive 1.85 W of power, as I shall show.
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Figure 4 Impedance matching circuit To match the impedance we want to choose a turns ratio such that Zp = 200. We start with the equation for the reflected impedance: Zp = (Np/Ns)2 x Zs Since it the turns ratio we require we can rearrange the equation: (Np/Ns)2 = Zp/Zs = 200/8 = 25 Np/Ns = 5 So a turns ratio of 5:1 would give the required value for the reflected impedance. With this value, the power delivered to the primary coil would be: Vp = Vr/(r+Zp) = 100x200/(200+200)= 20000/400 = 50 V So half the supply voltage gets to the primary coil. The power at the primary coil would be: Pp = Vp2/R = 502/200 = 2500/200 = 12.5 watts. Assuming 100% efficiency for the transformer, the power reaching the load would be 12.5 watts a big improvement on 1.85 watts. Alternatively we could show that the secondary voltage is: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns = 5 Vs = Vp/5 = 10 V Is/Ip = Np/Ns = 5 79 (13)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Is = 5Ip Ip = V/(r + Zp ) = 100/(200+200) = 100/400 = 0.25 Amps So Is = 5 x 0.25 = 1.25 Amps. Power across RL = Vs x Is = 10 x 1.25 = 12.5 watts. Problem 4 A power transformer with a 1:8 turns ratio has 50Hz 120 V across the primary. (a) What is the frequency of the secondary voltage? (b) How much is the secondary voltage? (c) With a load resistance of 10,000 across the secondary, how much is the secondary cu rrent? (d) How much is the primary current? Assume 100% efficiency. (Note: The ratio of Np to Ns is 1:8.) Solution This problem involves a power transformer and gives us a feel for the current and voltage relationships in the primary and secondary of transformers. Problem 4a This part of the problem is trivial. The alternating voltage across the primary produces a current in the primary windings of the transformer of the same frequency. Since the alternating current in the primary of the transformer produces an alternating flux (which alternates at the same rate as the primarys current), the voltage induced in the secondary winding (by the coupled alternating flux) must also alternate at the same rate. So, the frequency of the secondary voltage is the same as the primary voltage, that is, 50 Hz. Problem 4b The ratio between the primary and secondary voltages is equal to the turns ratio (assuming that the transformer is 100 % efficient. We are asked for the value of the secondary voltage. We are told that the turns ratio is 1:8. Therefore the voltage ratio must be 1:8. That is: VP/VS = 1/8 Rearranging and substituting in the values gives: VS = VP/1/8 = VP 8 = 120 8 = 960 volts Problem 4c A load resistance of 10,000 is connected across the seco ndary winding of the transformer. Since we have just calculated the secondary voltage, the secondary current is given by Ohms law: IS = VS/R = 960/10,000 = 96 mA Problem 4d 80
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The primary current may be found by using the inverse relationship between the primary and secondary current and the turns ratio: IS/IP = turns ratio = 1/8 Alternatively, it may be found by calculating the power dissipated in the secondary and the knowledge that if the transformer is 100 percent efficient that the same power will be dissipated in the primary. We will do it the second way. Power in primary = PP = IPVP Power in Secondary = PS = ISV S That is: IPVP = ISVS Rearranging and substituting in our values gives the primary current IP = ISVS/VS = 96 960/120 = 768 mA Problem 5 (a) A transformer delivers 400 W out with 500 W in. Calculate the efficiency in percent.
(b) A transformer with an 80 percent efficiency delivers 400 W total secondary power. Calculate the primary power. Solution Real transformers are not 100% efficient. Problem 5a Efficiency, generally, relates how much power we can get out of a device compared to how much power we put in. In the case of this transformer example we are told that if we put 500 watts in to it we can only get 400 watts out of it, therefore its efficiency is: power in/power out 100% = 400/500 100% = 80% Problem 5b We know from part (a) that an 80% efficient transformer that delivers 400 watts takes 500 watts, but lets do it the hard way using the equation for efficiency. Efficiency = power in/power out 100%
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles We rearrange the equation to leave power out (the secondary power) on the right-hand side of the equation and substitute our values in: power out = 100 power in/Efficiency = 100 400/80 = 500 W Problem 6 An amplifier can be modelled as an AC voltage source of V G = 100 V, and an internal resistance ri of 500 . If the secondary load resistance is RL = 4 what turns ratio Np/Ns will provide the maximum transfer of power from the amplifier to RL? Solution This is a problem in the use of impedance matching. As stated in Grob the maximum power transfer between a voltage generator and a resistive load occurs when the source resistance is equal to the load resistance. We are given a voltage generator with a 500 resistance and a 4 load. We can solve the matching problem by either, making the load look like 500 - to the generator or making the generator look like 4 to the load. We will do it the first way, but you are encouraged to try the second way and convince yourself that you arrive at the same result. So we want the load to look like 500 , by Ohms law this means that we want the relationship between the primary voltage and the primary current in the matching transformer. VP/IP = RP = 500 We know that the turns ratio: NP/NS = VP/VS So rearranging for VP gives: VP = NP VS /NS For current the turns ratio: NP/NS = IS/IP and rearranging for IP gives: IP = NS IS/NP Now if we substitute these expressions for VP and IP we get: VP/IP = (NP/NS)VS/(NS/NP)IS = (NP/NS)2 VS/IS = RP = 500 The secondary voltages and currents are also given by Ohms law: VS/IS = RS = 4 Therefore: 82
ENG1021 Electronic Principles 500 = (NP/NS)2 4 The turns ratio is: NP/NS = 500/4 = 125 = 11.18 : 1
6 Stored energy and practical problems

The energy that is stored in a coil is stored in the magnetic field. The amount can be calculated using the following equation: Energy = LI2 (14)
For example, a 10 H inductor with a 3 A current stores x 10 x 32 = 45 Joules. Now attempt Problem 7. Problem 7 Calculate the energy in joules stored in the magnetic field of a 60 mH inductor with a current of 90 mA. Solution Remember the equation for the energy stored in a inductor is: E = LI2 The solution to this problem is a simple matter of substitution of the given values into the equation. E = LI2 = 60 10-3 90 10-3 = 2.7 mJ A word of caution. The energy in an inductor is released by removal of the current through it as (by Lenzs law) a back emf (voltage) is produced to oppose the change in current. So if an inductor is connected across a small battery and then disconnected, the change in current with respect to time, dI/dt, is very large and the voltage produced as the energy is released will be very high. Motor vehicle ignition systems and switched mode power supplies work on this principle; generating tens of thousands of volts from low voltage batteries.
7 Further reading
For further reading you may want to look at Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are DC and the sub-section called Inductors, where all parts could be read.
8 Where next?
You are advised to study the learning package Inductors and Reactance next.
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Learning Package 9 Inductance and Reactance
84
Inductance
2 Introduction
Inductors, like capacitors, have reactance and produce phase shifts between current and voltage in AC circuits. We also use phasor diagrams to add currents and voltages in RL circuits. However, in many senses inductors can be considered as opposites to capa citors - their phase shift is opposite to that of a capacitor and their reactance increases with frequency rather than decreases. You will see that the voltage and current properties for capacitors swap places in inductors. We can therefore use what we have learnt about capacitors to assist in our understanding of inductors and find a quick route through inductors and inductive properties.
3 Inductive reactance
Just as with capacitors, all inductors have reactance, XL, in an AC circuits. The reactance is measured in ohms, and is frequency dependent. The equation for reactance is: XL = 2fL (1)
For example, an inductor with an inductance of 2.65 H at a frequency of 60 Hz has a reactance of: XL = 2fL = 2 x 3.142 x 60 x 2.65 = 1000 ohms Similarly, if we know the value of the reactance in ohms and the frequency we can find the inductance. L = XL/2fL (2)
Reactance is dealt with in the same way as resistance when it comes to series and parallel circuits. In series reactances are added, whereas in parallel it the reciprocal of reactance gets added. Series: XL = XL1 + XL2 + XL3 etc (3) Parallel: 1/XL = 1/XL1 + 1/XL2 + 1/XL3 etc (4)
Finally, one of the main differences between reactance and resistance is that the voltage and current are not in phase. In the case of inductive reactance the voltage leads the current, as shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 Voltage and current in a capacitor (voltage is dashed) This means that in a purely inductive reactance the voltage and current are both sine waves, but the current lags behind the voltage by 90 degrees or /2 radians. They can be written as: v = Vsin(2ft) i = Isin(2ft - /2) (5) (6)
In these equations v and i are the instantaneous values of voltage and current, and V and I are the amplitudes. This is the correct form of these equations as the term 2ft is a measure of the angular frequency times time, so it is saying that with a frequency of f, 2 radians are swept out every 1/f seconds. When we talk about relative phase, we usually use degrees. We know that 2 radians are equivalent to 360 degrees, and that 90 degrees would be /2 radians. So when the phase is -90 degrees, we should show it as -/2 radians, so that both terms in the sin function are in radians. However, it is very common to find the phase in degrees, and the equations look like: v = Vsin(2ft) i = Isin(2ft 90) Now attempt Problems 1, 2 and 3. Problem 1 Calculate the XL of a 0.5 H inductance at 100, 200 and 1000 Hz. Solution This problem involves the substitution of the inductor and frequency values into the equation for inductive reactance: XL = 2fL 86 (7) (8)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The problem asks for the reactance of a 0.5 H inductor at three different frequencies. When f = 100 Hz XL = 2 100 0.5 = 100 = 314 When f = 200 Hz XL = 2 200 0.5 = 200 = 628 When f = 100 Hz XL = 2 100 0.5 = 1000 = 3140 = 3.14 k In Problems 2 and 3 we consider inductors in parallel and series. These problems are very similar to their capacitive equivalents, but we will attempt them to ensure that we understand that similar rules apply to inductors as they do to resistors and capacitors. Problem 2 A 1000 XL1 and a 4000 XL2 are in series across 10 V 60 Hz source. Draw the schematic diagram and calculate the following: (a) total XL; (b) current in XL1 and XL2; (c) voltage across XL1 and across XL2; (d) L1 and L2. Solution Problem 2a The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 The circuit diagram for Problem 2 The total reactance is: XT = XL1 + XL2 Substituting the given values: 87
ENG1021 Electronic Principles XT = 1000 + 4000 = 5000 Problem 2b The current through XL1 and XL2 is the same since they are in series. By Ohms law the current is: I = VT/XT = 10/5000 = 2 mA Problem 2c The current through the two inductors produces a voltage drop across the inductors. The voltage across XL1 is: V1 = IXL1 = 2 10-3 1000 = 2 V The voltage across XL2 is: V2 = IXL2 = 2 10-3 4000 = 8 V Problem 2d The inductance is found by rearranging XL = 2fL to give: L = XL/2f and substituting our values into it. For L1: L1 = 1000/(2 60) = 2.65H For L2: L1 = 4000/(2 60) = 10.61H Problem 3 The same 1000 XL1 and 4000 XL2 are in parallel across the 10 V 60 Hz source. Draw the schematic diagram and calculate the following: (a) branch currents in XL1 and XL2; (b) total current in the generator; (c) voltage across XL1 and XL2; (d) inductance of L1 and L2. Solution
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Figure 3 The circuit diagram for Problem 3 The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 3. The supply voltage of 10 V appears across both inductors since it is a parallel circuit. The branch currents are given by Ohms law: IL1 = V/XL1 = 10/1000 = 10mA And: IL2 = V/XL2 = 10/4000 = 2.5mA The total current in the generator is the sum of these currents: IT = I1 + I2 = 10 + 2.5 = 12.5 mA The voltage across both inductors is the same and is equal to the supply voltage of 10V. The inductance of L1 and L2 as calculated in Problem 2 is 2.65 H and 10.61 H respectively.
4 Inductive circuits
You have seen most of these concepts before in the RC circuit module. We will now have a look at circuits containing a resistor and an inductor in either series or in parallel. Figure 4 shows both cases, and the associated phasor triangle. In Figure 4a), a resistor is in series with an inductor. We know from earlier discussions that in a series circuit the current is the same through each component, so the current flowing through the inductor must be the same as the current flowing through the resistor, I. We also know that the current through the inductor lags the voltage across the inductor by 90 degrees.
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Figure 4 a) series circuit; b) parallel circuit If the reactance of the inductor is XL, then by Ohms law the voltage across the inductor is V L = I XL. Similarly, the voltage across the resistor is Vr = IR. We can represent these two voltages using a phasor triangle, where the horizontal arrow shows the voltage across the resistor which is in phase with the current through the resistor. The vertical arrow shows the voltage across the inductor which is 90 degrees ahead of the current through the inductor. In this phasor triangle, the resistive voltage is at 0 degrees, and the inductive voltage is at +90 degrees. We can either say that the current lags the voltage in an inductor by 90 degrees, or that the voltage leads the current by 90 degrees. It amounts to the same thing. Now we know that the supply voltage should equal the sum of the resistive voltage and the inductive voltage. But because they are out of phase, when represented in a phasor diagram they point in different directions. We therefore have to use Pythagorass theorem to find the sum. This is shown as the hypotenuse of the triangle. The sum is therefore:
2 2 E = Vr +VL 2 2 E = ( IR) + ( IX L ) 2 2 2 2 E = I R +I X L 2 2 2 E = I (R + X L ) 2 2 E =I R +XL
E = IZ In the last line, the term Z is the total impedance of the circuit. Impedance is the combination of resistance and reactance, and is also measured in ohms. You can see that to find the value of Z you have to take the square root of the resistance squared plus the reactance squared. The other value that we can calculate is the relative phase, , between the voltage and the current. In Figure 4a) this is shown as the angle between the supply voltage, E, and the resistive voltage Vr. 90
ENG1021 Electronic Principles This is because Vr is in phase with the current, therefore the angle between these two voltages is the same as the angle between the voltage and the current. From trigonometry we can see that: Tan = IX L = X L IR R (9)
So the phase is the ratio of the reactance and the resistance. Since the inductive reactance is pointing upwards, it is positive. You have to bear this in mind when calculating the phase. Using the values in the circuit of Figure 4, the reactance is: XL = 2fL = 2x 3.142 x 40 x 100 x 10-3 = 25.13 25 . This means that the total impedance is: Z = R2 + XL2 = 1002 + 252 Z = 10000+625 = 1625 = 40.3 The phase is: Tan = XL R =14o Now for parallel circuits. As we know from previous Learning Packages the voltage across each parallel branch is the same. So in the parallel circuit of Figure 4b) the voltage across the resistor and the inductor is equal to E. The current in the resistive branch is therefore Ir = E/R and is in phase with the voltage. The current in the inductive branch is I L = E/XL and is 90 degrees behind the voltage. If the resistive current is drawn horizontally, then the capacitive current lags by 90 degrees, as in the phasor triangle of Figure 4b). The total current must equal the sum of the two individual branch currents. As they are phasor values with direction as well as size, we use the triangle again and Pythagorass theorem. This gives the total current as: I = Ir + IL = E + E R 1 I=E + 1 91 XL = 25 = 0.25
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles R XL I E 11 R 1 XL Z
So this is the same as any parallel circuit, where the reciprocal of the total impedance equals the sum of the reciprocal of the resistance and the reciprocal of the reactance. Similarly, from the phasor triangle of Figure 4b) it can be seen that: Tan = IL = E E
Ir Tan = E R
XL R
R (10)
XL
= E XL
Using the values in Figure 4, we can find the impedance and relative phase. 1 1 1 1 1 125 = + = + = Z Z= R XL 100 25 2500
= 20 R 100
Tan =
=4
XL =76o
25
You should now have a good idea about the phase relationship between the current and voltage in a capacitive circuit and be able to construct a phasor triangle (often called a phasor diagram). As far as phase angle and phasor diagrams are concerned, remember that the current and voltage relationships are swapped around so that a sine wave current in an inductor lags the voltage by 90 o, while a sine wave voltage in an inductor lags the current by 90 o. The simple mnemonic civil may help you remember this:
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Figure 5 CIVIL One new idea that I want to introduce in this Learning Package is the concept of Q or quality of an inductor. We only have Q for inductors because it is difficult to make a good inductor, that is, without some significant resistance. We do not have an equivalent problem with capacitors. The Q of a coil is defined as: Q = XL/ri = 2fL/ri (11)
In this equation L is the inductance of the coil and ri is the resistance of the coil. For example, a coil with a reactance of 500 ohm has an internal resistance of 5 ohms. Its quality is then: Q = 500/5 = 100 Now attempt the Problems 4, 5 and 6. Problem 4 Draw the schematic diagram of a circuit with XL and R in series across a 100 V source. Calculate ZT, I, IR, IXL, and for these values: (a) 100 R, 1 XL; (v) 1 R, 100 XL; (c) 50 R, 50 XL. Solution Whenever there is a need to examine different phase angles, it is worthwhile drawing a phasor diagram. It will help you to deal with the concept of vector addition (adding of phasors of different angles) more easily. The phasor diagram for inductors is very similar to the phasor diagram for capacitors, except that the voltage leads the current for inductors. The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 7. The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 6. Problem 4a The problem is to find ZT. From the phasor diagram: (IZT )2 = (IR)2 + (IXL)2
Figure 6 The circuit diagram for Problem 4 93
ENG1021 Electronic Principles We can cancel the current term I to leave: ZT2 = R2 + XL2 Substituting our values of R = 100 and XL = 1 gives: ZT2 = R2 + XL2 = 1002 + 12 = 10001 Taking the square roots: ZT = 10001 = 100.004 Note that this is very close to 100 . The current is given by: I = V/ZT = 100/100.004 1 A IR = 1 100 = 100 volts IXL = 1 1 = 1 volt
Figure 7 The phasor diagram for Problem 4 The phase angle is given by: tan-1 = IXL/IR = 1/100, = 0.057o 0o This low value of phase angle tells us that the impedance ZT is nearly purely resistive. Problem 4b The problem is to find ZT. From the same phasor diagram (IZT )2 = (IR)2 + (IXL)2 We can cancel the current term I to leave ZT2 = R2 + XL2 Substituting our values of R = 1 and XL = 100 gives: 94
ENG1021 Electronic Principles ZT2 = R2 + XL2 = 12 + 1002 = 10001 Taking the square roots: ZT = 10001 = 100.004 Note that this is very close to 100 . The current is given by: I = V/ZT = 100/100.004 1 A IXL = 1 100 = 100 volt IR = 1 1 = 1 volts The phase angle is given by tan-1 = IXL/IR = 100/1, = 89.4o 90o This high value of phase angle tells us that the impedance ZT is nearly purely inductive. Problem 4c The problem is to find ZT. From the same phasor diagram: (IZT )2 = (IR)2 + (IXL)2 We can cancel the current term I to leave: ZT2 = R2 + XL2 Substituting our values of R = 50 and XL = 50 in gives: ZT2 = R2 + XL2 = 502 + 502 = 5000 Taking the square roots: ZT = 5000 = 70.7 The current is given by: I = V/ZT = 100/70.7 = 1.414 A IR = 1.414 35.36 = 1 volts IXL = 1.414 50 = 35.36 volts The phase angle is given by tan-1 = IXL/IR = 50/50, = 90o Problem 5 A 200 R is in series with L across a 141 V 60 Hz generator VT. The VR is 100V. 95
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Find L. (Hint: VL2 = VT2 VR2.) Solution Again, I would suggest that the first step in solving this problem is to draw a circuit diagram and phasor diagram. Then we can see the relationships between the voltages and currents in the circuit. They are shown in Figure 1 To find L we must first find XL, the phasor diagram is helpful here. We know that the V R phasor and the VL phasor must add up (by vector addition) to the total voltage or supply voltage phasor V T. If we find VL, we can find the current I from the voltage in the resistor, then we can find X L by Ohms law. Examination of the phasor diagram shows that VT is the vector addition of VL and VR. That is VT2 = VL2 + VR2
Figure 8 The circuit and phasor diagrams for Problem 5 Rearranging for V L and taking square roots gives:
VL = VT2 VR2 Substituting in our values gives: VL = 1412 - 1002 = 19881 - 10000 = 9881 = 99.4 volts The same current, I, flows in all part of the series circuit. The current in the inductor is then equal to the current flowing in the resistor. I = VR/R 96
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Substituting our values in gives I = 100/200 = 0.5 By Ohms law XL = Vl/I so we substitute in our values for I and VL to give: XL = 99.4/0.5 = 199 Now XL = 2fL. Rearranging for L and substituting in our values gives: L = XL/2f = 199/(2 3.14 60) = 199/376.8 = 0.528 H Problem 6 A 350 H L has a Q of 35 at 1.5 MHz. calculate the internal resistance Ri of the coil. Solution This problem introduces Q, the quality of the coil (or inductor). The more resistance the coil has, the less it behaves as a pure inductor, and the lower its Q will be. Q = XL/Ri Note that since XL is dependant on frequency (for any given L) that Q must also be dependant on frequency. In other words we cannot determine or state a value of Q without knowing or stating the frequency. We are given a value for the frequency in this problem. Rearranging the equation for Ri: Ri = XL/Q XL = 2fL, so we can substitute this expression for XL in the equation for Ri and then enter our values to gives: Ri = 2fL/Q = 2 3.14 1.5 106 350 10-6/35 = 30 3.14 = 94.2
7 Further reading
For further reading you may want to look at Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are AC, sub-section Reactance and impedance inductive there is relevant information. Have a look at all the parts, but be warned. This book uses both complex notation (or j notation) and polar notation rather than using a phasor diagram.
8 Where next?
You are advised to study the learning package Time constants and LCR circuits next.

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Learning Package 10 Time constants and LCR circuits
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Time constants and LCR circuits

2 Introduction
The first section of this Learning Package takes a closer look at the time dependant behaviour of capacitors and inductors, in particular the time taken for the voltage to rise and fall in a capacitor (current in an inductor) and the shape of the rise and fall curves. The second section introduces the combinations of inductors, capacitors, and resistors together in series and parallel AC circuits. Two very significant points are made here: Capacitive and inductive reactance cancel out. The real power consumed in any reactive circuit differs from the apparent power, which is the current drawn from the power source multiplied by the voltage of the power source.
3 Study Guide
3.1 Time constants
So far weve considered circuits to be either DC with a fixed voltage suppl y like a battery, or AC with a sinusoidal voltage supply as you get from a generator. What we havent discussed are the effects that are seen when a voltage is switched in and out of a circuit. When this happens we get what are known as transient effects.
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Figure 1 Transient response when the switch is closed For example, in the circuit shown in Figure 1, when the switch is open, no current flows, so there is no voltage across the coil. When the switch closes, suddenly there is a voltage across the resistor and the coil. The current starts to increase as the coil sets up a magnetic field. Initially the coil produces a back emf which is a voltage that opposes the voltage that is producing the magnetic field, and hence the current is small. As the field collapses, the back emf falls and the current increases until it reaches a steady value. In this final steady state, all of the voltage is dropped across the resistor and the coil is effectively a short circuit. The graph in Figure 1 shows the value of the current. At this point I only want you to look at the shape of the curve and not worry too much about the values. The important points are that it rises sharply at the beginning, and flattens off towards the end. In this example I have given it a steady state value of the current, I, as 1 amp. Also, it reaches a value of 0.63 amps after 0.5 seconds. In general, this sort of curve reaches a value that is 63% of the final value after one time constant. For a circuit with a resistor and an inductor, the time constant, T, is equal to: T = L/R (1)
Generally, it is assumed that the current reaches its steady state value after 5 time constants. In the diagram of Figure 1, if the battery is 10V, the resistance is 10 ohms and the inductance is 5 H, the time constant is: T = L/R = 5/10 = 0.5 seconds. The steady state current is V/R = 10/10 = 1 amp. For the same circuit as in Figure 1, Figure 2 shows the current when the switch is opened. It is assumed that the circuit is in the steady state before the switch is opened.
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 2 Current as switch opens Initially the current is at 1 amp. When the switch opens the current drops to zero. In this instance the current drops by 63% in one time constant. So, starting at 1 amp, after one time constant the current has dropped to 1 0.63 = 0.37 amps. 100
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Figure 3 shows a capacitive circuit, or an RC circuit, with a switch. This time the voltage is shown as the switch is closed.
Figure 3 RC circuit This time the voltage across the capacitor increases to a steady state value over a period of time. In the steady state the voltage across the capacitor equals the battery voltage and no current flows. Again, the voltage rises to 63% of its steady state value in one time constant. However, the time constant this time is: T = CR (2)
As before, when the switch is opened again, the voltage will fall just as in Figure 2. Please attempt Problems 1, 2 and 3. Problem 1 Calculate the time constants of the following inductive circuits: (a) L is 20 H and R is 400 ; (b) L is 20 H and R is 400 ; (c) L is 50 mH and R is 50 ; (d) L is 40 H and R is 2 . Solution Here is a set of simple time constant calculations for inductor, to check that you can use remember the formula and to give you some idea of what sorts of values of L and R components, give you certain time constants. The equation to use is: T = L/R Using this equation the time constants are: Problem 1a L = 20 H, R = 400 T = L/R = 20/400 = 0.05 s Problem 1b 101
ENG1021 Electronic Principles L = 20 H, R = 400 T = L/R = 20 10-6/400 = 0.05 s Problem 1c L = 50 mH, R = 50 t =L/R = 50 10-3/50 = 1 ms Problem 1d L = 40 H, R = 2 T = L/R = 40 10-6/2 = 20 s Problem 2 Calculate the time constants of the following capacitive circuits: (a) C is 0.001 F and R is 1 M; (b) C is 1 F and R is 1000 ; (c) C is 0.05 F and R is 250 k; (d) C is 100 pF and R is 10 k. Solution This problem is similar to Problem 1, but for capacitors. The equation to use is T = CR Using this equation the time constants are calculated as follows. Problem 2a C = 0.001 F, R = 1 M The M and the cancel out when multiplied together therefore: T = CR = 0.001 1 = 0.001 s Problem 2b C = 1 F, R = 1000 T = CR = 1 10-6 1000 = 0.001 s Problem 2c C = 0.05 F, R = 250 k T = CR = 0.05 10-6 250 103 = 0.0125 s Problem 2d 102
ENG1021 Electronic Principles C = 100 pF, R = 10 k T = CR = 100 10-12 10 103 = 1 s Problem 3 A 100 V source is in series with a 2 M R and a 2 F C. (a) How much time is required for vc to be 63 V? (b) How much is vc after 20 s? Solution This problem allows us to determine charging times and voltages without the use of extensive calculation. Problem 3a 63 V is 63% of 100 V and we have learnt that an RC circuit charges to 63% of the supply voltage in the time of one time constant. So we calculate the time constant (C = 2 F, R = 2 M ) and this is our answer. T = CR = 2 2 = 4 s (The M and the cancel out when multiplied together.) Problem 3b The rule of thumb for RC and L/R time constants is that they reach their final voltage (or current for inductors) after 5 times their time constants time. 20 s is 5 times the time constant of 4 s and so the voltage after 20 s is the final voltage (supply voltage), that is 100 V.
3.2 Calculation of charging voltages, effect on square waves

If we want to know the value of the rising or falling voltages or currents in circuits then we have to use the equation that defines the way that they change. For a rising value (current in L/R circuits, voltage in CR circuits) the equation is: v = Vs(1-e-t/CR) or (3a) i = Is(1-e-t/L/R) (3b)
In these equations Vs and Is are the steady state values, and v and I are the instantaneous values. The e term is the exponential, which has a value of 2.718. On a calculator it may appear as e or else you use the inverse of the natural logarithm which is usually shown as ln. The natural logarithm is the logarithm to the base of e.
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Figure 4 Calculator showing the value if e In Figure 4 I put in the value 1, then selected inverse and clicked on ln. The display shows the value of e1 = 2.718. For example, if the value of the inductor is L = 5 H and the resistor is 10 ohms, and the steady state voltage is 10 volts, then: T = L/R = 0.5 seconds i = Is(1-e-t/L/R) = 10/10 (1 - e-t/0.5) = 1 - e-t/0.5 After 0.1 seconds, the current would be: i = Is(1-e-t/L/R) = 1 - e-t/0.5 = 1 e-0.1/0.5 = 1 e-0.2 = 1 0.82 = 0.18 amps Similarly, the equations for the change when the switch is open, so the value decreases to zero, is: v = Vs(e-t/CR) or (4a)
i = Is(e-t/L/R) (4b) For example, if the voltage in a RC circuit is 10 V, the resistance is 5 k and the capacitance is 100 F, what is the value of the voltage after 0.1 seconds when the switch is opened? T = CR = 5 x 1000 x 100 x 10-6 = 0.5 s
v = Vs(e-t/CR) = 10(e-t/0.5) = 10(e-0.1/0.5) = 10(e-0.2) = 10 x 0.82 = 8.2 V
R = 10 k
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+10 V Vi 0V Vi 30 ms
C = 0.01 F
25 ms
Figure 5 Square wave input to an RC circuit Figure 5 shows a square wave as an input to an RC circuit. You can imagine this as a switch being quickly and repeatedly opened and then closed. In this instance the switch is closed for 25 ms so that a voltage of 10 V is applied, and then opened for 5 ms so that the voltage drops to zero again. With the values given, the time constant is T = 10 x 10 3 x 0.01 x 10-6 = 0.1 ms, so the time constant is short or small compared to the times of the waveform. This means that the output voltage will rise to 10 V in around 0.5 ms and later will fall in around 0.5 ms. The output voltage therefore looks like the lower waveform in Figure 5. Even in this waveform Ive exaggerated the time it takes for the voltage to rise and fall so that you can see these effects. Now attempt Problems 4, 5 and 6. Problem 4 An RC circuit consists of a 0.01 F capacitor in series with 10 k resistor. The circuit is supplied with a 15 V battery and a switch. What will the value of the voltage across the capacitor be 150 s after the switch has been closed, assuming that the capacitor is completely discharged before at the start Solution The time constant T is: T = CR = 10 x 103 x 0.01 x 10-6 = 10-4 s or 0.1 ms or 100 s. After 150 s, the voltage will be: v = Vs(1-e-t/CR) = 15 x (1 - e-150/100) = 15 x (1 - e-1.5) = 15 x 0.223 = 3.345 V Problem 5 105
ENG1021 Electronic Principles A 0.05 F C is charged to 264 V through a 40 k resistor. How much is the time for v c to charge to 132 V? Solution In this problem we are asked for voltages after charge times which are not either equal to the time constant or five times the time constant, so we need to use the charge and discharge equations (or the time constant graph) to arrive at our answer. The equation for the voltage after t seconds of charge is: vC = V (1 - e-t/RC ) Where V is the maximum voltage to which the capacitor is charged, which in this case is 264 V , e is the base of natural logarithms and is equal to 2.718. Substitute the values we are into the equation: 132 = 264(1 - e-t/40 103 0.05 10-6) Divide both sides of the equation by 264 and then subtract 1 from both sides: -0.5 = -e-t/40 103 0.05 10-6 Multiply both sides by -1: 0.5 = e-t/40 103 0.05 10-6 If we take natural logarithms (ln on our calculator) of both sides of the above equation, noting that since e is the base of natural logarithms ln(ex) = x, we have: ln(0.5) = -t/(40 103 0.05 10-6) ln(0.5) = - 0.693. Therefore: -0.693 = -t/(40 103 0.05 10-6) Rearranging: t = 0.693 40 103 0.05 10-6 = 0.001386 s = 1.386 ms Problem 6 In Figure 6, draw the waveform you would expect to measure across the 0.01 F capacitor. Indicate the capacitor voltage Vc at the beginning and end of each 25 ms pulse interval. Draw the Vc waveform in the proper time relationship with respect to Vin. (C is initially uncharged.) R = 10 k
+10 V
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Vi 0V Vi 35 ms
C = 0.1 F
25 ms
Figure 6 Circuit for Problem 6 Solution Before we can progress we need to calculate the time constant. The values of R and C 10 k and 0.1 F, and so the time constant T = RC is 1 ms. This means that the voltage will rise to 10 V in 5 ms, which is shorter than the 25 ms of the wide part of the square wave, and then fall in 5 ms which exactly equals the short part of the square wave. The resulting waveform is shown below.
Figure 7 Resulting waveform across the capacitor in Figure 6
3.3 LCR circuits

Weve already seen AC circuits with resistances and capacitors (RC circuits) and AC circuits with inductors and resistors (LR circuits). In this section we will look at circuits with all three components in the so called LCR circuits. When an inductor and a capacitor are in series, the same current flows through them, but the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90 degrees, whereas the voltage across the capacitor lags the current by 90 degrees. The consequence of this is that the voltage across the inductor is 180 degrees ahead of the voltage across the capacitor, and 180 degrees is equivalent to a change in sign. Thus the total voltage across the inductor and the capacitor is: Vtot = VL - Vc = IXL IXc = I(XL Xc) = IXeq This means that the equivalent reactance to an inductor and a capacitor in series is: Xeq = XL Xc Similarly, the reactance of an inductor in parallel with a capacitor is: 107 (5)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Xeq = XL . Xc /( XL Xc)
(6)
So for pure reactance, the inductive and capacitive inductance are combined using Equations 5 and 6. When resistance is introduced we have a combination of resistance and reactance, which combine to give a total impedance. If we call the reactance X, which may be inductive, capacitive or both, then a series combination of resistance and reactance would result in an impedance, Z, where the magnitude is: Z = R2 + X 2 And the phase is: z = tan1 X R For example, a circuit which contains a resistance of 40 ohms, an inductor with a reactance of 60 ohms and a capacitor with a reactance of 90 ohms would produce a total reactance of 60 90 = -30 ohms. The impedance would be: Z = R2 + X 2 = 402 +(30)2 = 1600+900 = 2500 = 500ohms And the phase is: z = tan1 X = tan1 30 = tan1(0.75) =37o (7)
(8)
40
In all of these circuits, Ohms law still applies. So, for example, having found the total impedance of a circuit, if we know the value of the voltage source, then we can calculate the current using: V = IZ (9)
If, in the example above, the voltage source had been 100 V AC, then the current would be: I = V/Z = 100/500 = 0.2 A We know that the impedance is capacitive (because of the minus sign) which means that the voltage lags behind the current by 37 degrees. This means that the current leads the voltage by 37 degrees. So if we take the supply voltage as the zero phase reference point, then the current leads this by 37 degrees. So the phase of the current is: = +37 degrees
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ENG1021 Electronic Principles Now attempt Problem 7. Problem 7 For the circuit shown in Figure 8, calculate ZT, I, Z and .
R1=47 R2=68
Xc2=500 Xc1=400 VT=100V XL1=300 XL2=200
Xc3=400
XL3=100
Figure 8 Circuit for Problem 7 Solution The first part of the problem asked for the total impedance Z T. We need to break the circuit into equivalent reactances and resistances. I would start this problem by finding the equivalent reactance of the parallel combination of components in the branches. That is the XC2 XC3 combination and the XL1 XL2 combination. I will call the equivalent combination of XC2 XC3 Xcpar, and the equivalent combination of XL1 XL2 Xlpar Xcpar = 500 400/(500 + 400) = 200000/900 = 222.2 Xlpar = 300 200/(300 + 200) = 60000/500 = 120 Xlpar is an inductive reactance and will cancel out 120 of the capacitive reactance in the same branch, that is, XC1. The total reactance in the left hand branch (which we can call X left is 120 - 400 = 280 . Similarly Xcpar is cancelled out by 100 of XL3 giving the total reactance of the right hand branch Xright to be 100 - 222.2 = -122.2 . Now we need to calculate the parallel impedance of the left and right hand side branches together, luckily they are both capacitive and can be treated as two capacitive reactances in parallel. I will call the equivalent reactance XCT, then: XCT = -280 -122.2/(-280 - 122.2) = 34216/-402.2 = -85.07 This equivalent capacitor is connected to the voltage source by two resistors in series, so in order to find the total impedance ZT we need to add the values of these resistances to give a total resistance RT. 109
ENG1021 Electronic Principles RT = R1 + R2 = 47 + 68 = 115 Then find the total impedance from ZT = RT2 + X get: ZT = RT2 + X CT2 = 1152 +85.072 = 20462 =143
2 CT
. So, substituting our values into the equation we
The current I is now easily found by using Ohms law with the total impedance, ZT. I = Vs/ZT = 100/143 = 0.699 A Using Ohms law as follows: V = IZ Just as we can think of Ohms law as saying that we have to multiply the value I by the value Z to give the value of V , we can also think of Ohms law as saying that we have twist the current I through the angle Z to give the angle of V. That is Z is the angle of the voltage phasor V with respect to the current phasor, I. Since the circuit phase angle is defined as being the reverse of this, that is, the angle of the current phasor I with respect to the voltage phasor V, Z = -.
Figure 9 Phasor diagram showing voltage with respect to current We can now proceed to find Z by asking, What is the angle of the voltage applied to impedance ZT with respect to the current in flowing into impedance Z T ?. The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 9. The current in the resistors is in the same phase as the voltage drop IR across the resistors and this is the current which flows into ZT since the equivalent circuit breaks down into a series circuit. The voltage across ZT is VT The angle Z is given by tan-1 IXCT/IRT. The Is cancel and we get: tan-1 XCT/RT = -85.07/115 = -36.5 degrees 110
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Similarly we find the circuit phase by asking What is the angle of the current flowing in impedance ZT with respect to the voltage applied to impedance Z T?. This can be seen by rotating the phasor diagram as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10 Rotated phasor diagram showing current with respect to the voltage. As we move from the voltage phasor towards the current phasor (or the IR phasor since the voltage in the resistance in phase with the current through it) we move in an anticlockwise or positive direction. The angle can be found as above to be: tan -1 XCT/RT = 85.07/115 = 36.5 degrees 3.3.1 Real Power In an AC circuit with reactance there is a relative phase angle between the voltage and the current. This means that the product of VI does not represent the real power in the circuit since V and I represent the RMS values of the voltage and current which may at any one time be in a different part of the sine wave. In fact the value of VI is termed the apparent power. The real power can be calculated using the following equation as it only contains one variable, the current: P = I2R (10)
Alternatively, if we want to use voltage and current we have to take the phase into account, and can write the real power as: P = VICos (11) The cosine term in the equation is often referred to as the power factor. The real power is the apparent power multiplied by the power factor. In series circuits the power factor is: PF = Cos = R/Z In parallel circuits the power factor is: PF = cos = IR/IT (13) Where IT is the total current and IR is the current flowing through the resistive part of the circuit. 111 (12)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Now try Problem 8. Problem 8 In Figure 11, calculate IL, IC, IR, IT, ZEQ, I, real power, apparent power, and power factor.
VT=12Vac
R=150
Xc=100
XL=200
Figure 11 Solution This is another problem involving phasors, but this time power factor is introduced. The individual branch currents are all simply given by Ohms law, since they are all connected across the 12 volt source. IL = VT/XL = 12/200 = 60 mA IC = VT/XC = 12/100 = 120 mA IR = VT/R = 12/150 = 80 mA The total reactive current (current due to capacitors and inductors) is: IC - IL = 120 - 60 = 60 mA The capacitive and inductive currents are in opposite phase and therefore subtract from one other. The capacitive current is greater therefore the resultant reactive current is capacitive and will lead the applied voltage VT by 900.
Figure 12 The phasor diagram
112
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The resistive current is 80 mA which is in phase with the applied voltage V T. We can draw a phasor diagram, see Figure 12. From the diagram: IT = I R2 + (IC I L )2 = 802 + 602 = 10000 =100mA The equivalent impedance of the circuit is given by Ohms law: ZT = VT/IT = 12/(100 10-3) = 120 The phase angle between the current in the resistor (or the applied voltage) and the total current IT is given by: I = tan-1 60/80 = tan-1 0.75 = 36.87o The angle is positive because we move anticlockwise as we move from the resistive current phasor to the total current phasor. The real power in the circuit is the power dissipated in the resistor: P = I2R = (80 10-3)2.150 = 0.96W The apparent power VI V I = VT IT = 12(100 10-3) = 1.2 VAR The power factor is: Realpower/apparentpower = 0.96/1.2 = 0.8 We could have arrived at this figure by taking cos I (cos 36.87 = 0.8). This will work for reactive circuits. However, there are other electronic circuits in which the apparent power is not equal to the real power times the cosine of the phase, because phase angle is meaningless. The power factor in these cases is still realpower/apparentpower. Therefore, if you always think of power factor as realpower/apparentpower you will not be caught out.
4 Further reading
For further reading you may want to look at Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are DC and the sub-section called RC and L/R time constants, where all parts could be read. Also, under the section AC, sub -section Reactance and impedance R, L and C there is relevant information. Have a look at all the parts, but again be warned. This book uses both complex notation (or j notation) and polar notation rather than using a phasor diagram.
5 Where next?
You are advised to study the learning package entitled Resonance next. 113
Learning Package 11 Resonance
114
Resonance
2 Introduction
This section introduces electrical resonance and shows that when inductors and capacitors have the same reactance value, resonance occurs in both series and parallel circuits.
2.1 Series and parallel resonance

In a circuit with capacitors and inductors we have already seen that the reactances are subtracted, as they are 180 degrees out of phase. Since both capacitive and inductive reactance are functions of frequency, it is sometimes possible to find a frequency at which the capacitive and inductive reactance have the same value and therefore cancel out. This phenomenon is called resonance, and a circuit resonates when the reactance is zero. Assuming there is some resistance in the circuit, at resonance the total impedance would equal the total resistance only. A circuit in which there is a resistor, capacitor and inductor in series would have a resistance R, and a reactance which is XL Xc. We know that the reactances are: X L = 1fL Xc = 1 2fC If these are equal and opposite in sign then: X L Xc = 0 X L= X 2fr L = fr 2 = 12 1
4 LC
frC
Rearranging this equation we can find the value of f. 115
ENG1021 Electronic Principles (1) fr = 1 2 LC
This is the resonant frequency. The impedance at this frequency is just equal to the resistance, so the current is a maximum value, and is in phase with the supply voltage. If we were measuring the voltage across the resistance, then at other frequencies it would be some fraction of the supply voltage. At resonance, it equals the supply voltage, so is the maximum possible value. In an ideal parallel circuit, an inductance would be in parallel with a capacitor. At resonance, the reactances are equal and opposite in sign. This means that the total reactance is: 1 = X X At resonance, the total reactance is infinite, like an open circuit. So no current flows, and the voltage just equals the supply. In reality every inductor has a small internal resistance, so the impedance would be some very large value. Please now attempt Problems 1, 2 and 3. Problem 1 Calculate fr for a series LC circuit with L = 5 H and C = 202.64 pF. Solution We are asked to calculate the resonant frequency f r of a series LC circuit when L = 5 H and C = 202.64 pF. We use the equation: 1 fr = 2 LC Simply substituting our values for L and C gives fr = 1 2 510 202.641012
6
1 + XL
1 = Xc
1 + XL
1 = X L
1 XL
1 =0 X
L
116
ENG1021 Electronic Principles = 1 2 1.01321015 = 1/(2 3.18 10-8) = 5 MHz
Problem 2 Calculate fr for a parallel LC circuit with L = 25.8 H and C = 500 pF. Solution Here we have L = 25.48 H and C = 500 pF. This is a parallel circuit, but the above equation still applies. We simply substitute in our values for L and C.
fr = 2 25.481016 5001012 = 1 2 1.2741014
= 1/(2 1.129 10-7) = 1.41 MHz Although we used Equation 1 directly to solve this problem, it is important to remember that resonance only occurs when XC = XL. This is true of both series and parallel circuits. Problem 3 In Figure 1, calculate the following values at fr: XL, XC, ZT, I, VI, VC and Z. L=20H Rs =12.56
VT=1mV C=50.67 pF (40-400 pF)
Figure 1 117
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Solution This problem highlights the features of series resonance. In order to calculate XL and XC at the resonant frequency we must find the resonant frequency f r first. fr = 1 2 LC
Substitute our values for L and C into it.
fr = 2 20106150.671012 = 1 2 1.01341015
= 1/(2 3.18 10-8) = 5 MHz We find XL by using XL = 2fL and substitution of our values: XL = 2 5 106 20 10-6 = 628 At resonance XC will have the same magnitude as XL, but with the opposite sign. Lets prove that to ourselves. XC = 1/2fC: XC = 1/(2 5 106 50.57 10-12) = 628 At resonance the reactive components cancel out, and so ZT = rS = 12.56 . Notice the use of rS rather than RS to signify that this resistance is the AC resistance. At high frequencies current flows only near to the surface of a conductor (this is called the skin effect). This means that the whole conductor is not used to carry the current and the AC resistance r S is higher than the dc resistance RS where the whole conductor carries the current. The current I = VT/RT = 1 10-3/12.56 = 79.6 10-6 = 79.6 A The voltage across the inductor is: VL = IXL = 79.6 10-6 628 = 50 000V = 50 mV The voltage across the capacitor will be equal and opposite. Let us prove it. The voltage across the capacitor VC = IXC = 79.6 10-6 -628 = -50 000V = -50 mV 118
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The impedance phase angle is the angle between the resistive component of the impedance and the total impedance, that is Z = tan-1 XT/R. In a resonant circuit the inductive and capacitive reactances have cancelled out. Therefore, XT = 0, XT/R = 0 and Z = tan-1 0 = 0
2.2 Q of resonant circuits, tuning, damping and bandwidth

In a resonant circuit we define the quality or figure of merit of the circuit as the Q magnification factor. It is a measure of the sharpness of the resonance i.e. if we measure the voltage across a resistor at the resonance frequency f r, how quickly does that voltage fall away as the frequency is increased or decreased. Q is defined as follows: Q = XL/rs (2)
Remember that at resonance, XL = -Xc, so that absolute value of either the inductive or capacitive reactance can be used. For example, if the inductive reactance at resonance is 1500 ohms, and the AC resistance is 10 ohms, then the Q magnification factor is 1500/10 = 150. Although we have defined resonance as a single frequency, fr, at which the reactances of the capacitive and inductive parts of the circuit are equal, it is usual to talk of a band of frequencies centred on the resonance frequency as producing resonance. At frequencies close to the resonant frequency, the circuit still produces a relatively high voltage response. We define the band of frequencies as the bandwidth, and it is centred on the resonance frequency. We define the edge frequency f1 as the frequency below the resonance frequency at which the response is 70.7% of the maximum response, and an edge frequency f2 above the resonance frequency at which the response is 70.7% of the maximum. This is shown in Figure 2. This shows the current for a series resonance circuit with a capacitor of 1 F, an inductor of 1 H, a resistance of 10 ohms, and a supply voltage of 10 V.
Figure 2 (a) Resonance peak in current; (b) detail of the resonance peak The symbol we use to denote the bandwidth is f = f2 f1. The triangle is the Greek character capital delta and usually means the difference between. In this case it means the difference between the edge frequencies f2 and f1. The bandwidth is found to be:
119
ENG1021 Electronic Principles =f f r Q
(3)
The resonant frequency is 159 Hz. At resonance the current is 1 amp. The Q magnification factor is 100, and the bandwidth is 1.59 Hz. This means that at 0.5 x 1.59 = 0.795 Hz either side of 159 Hz the value of the current has dropped to 0.707 amps, as shown in the detail of Figure 2(b). So f1 = 159 0.795= 158.205 Hz and f2 = 159.795 Hz. Now attempt Problems 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Problem 4 In Figure 1 again, calculate Q, f, and the edge frequencies f 1 and f2. Solution The Q of the circuit is given by : Q = XL/rS Substituting in our values for XL (from Problem 3 above) and rS gives: Q = 628/12.56 = 50 To find the bandwidth we use: f = fr/Q = 5 106/50 = 100 kHz The edge frequencies are situated either side of the resonance frequency; spaced by the bandwidth f. That is f1 = fr - f and f2 = fr + f. f1 = 5 106 - 105 = 4.95 MHz f2 = 5 106 + 105 = 5.05 MHz The following problems examine a tank (parallel) resonant circuit and consider bandwidth, Q, and damping. Problem 5
120
L=100H VA=1Vpp C=162.11 pF (100-1000 pF) rs =7.85
Figure 3 Circuit for problems 5 to 7 Calculate fr in Figure 3. Solution The resonance frequency is given by substitution into the equation: fr = 1 2 LC
L = 100 H and C = 162.11 pF so: 1 fr = 2 100106 162.111012 = 1/(2 1.27 10-7) = 1.25 MHz Problem 6 In Figure 3, calculate the following at fr: XL, XC and Q. Solution Now we know fr we can calculate XL using XL = 2fL = 2 1.25 106 100 10-6 = 785.4 Similarly we calculate XC using: XC = 1/2fC = 1/(2 1.25 106 162.11 10-12) = 785.4 We could have stated that XC = XL at resonance, but doing it the long way checks that we have not made any mistakes. Q is given by the equation: Q = XL/rS = 785.4/7.85 = 100 121
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problem 7 In Figure 3, calculate f, fi and f2. Solution We have a resonance frequency of 1.25 MHz and a Q of 100. As before (Problem 3): f = fr/Q = 1.25 106/100 = 12.5kHz The edge frequencies are given by f1 = fr - f and f2 = fr + f. f1 = 1.25 106 12.5 103 = 1.243750 MHz f2 = 1.25 106 + 12.5 103 = 1.256250 MHz Problem 8 In Figure 4, what value of series resistance RS must be added to double the bandwidth f when C = 56.29 pF? L=50H rs =18.85
VT=50V C=56.29 pF (30-300 pF)
Figure 4 Circuit for Problem 8 Solution Since Q determines the bandwidth: f = fr/Q To double the bandwidth we must halve Q. Q/2 = XL/2rS The equation shows that a series resistance of 2rS will halve Q and hence double the bandwidth. Therefore we must add another rS = 18.85 to double the bandwidth. Note that we did not have to 122
ENG1021 Electronic Principles consider the resonant frequency or the value of C in this calculation. Doubling the series resistance in any series resonant circuit will double the bandwidth.
3 Further reading
For further reading you may want to look at Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are AC and the sub-section called Resonance, where all parts could be read. Have a look at all the parts, but again be warned. This book uses both complex notation (or j notation) and polar notation rather than using a phasor diagram.
4 Where next?
You are advised to study the last learning package entitled Filters next.
Learning Package 12 Filters
123
Filters
2 Introduction
This section introduces the idea that signals can contain components at different frequencies, and that filter circuits can remove some of these components.
2.1 Filtering AC and DC signals

As we saw in the previous Learning Package, the reactance of a circuit varies with frequency. This means that at some frequencies the voltage or current in the circuit is larger than at other frequencies. This property can be used to filter out certain frequencies or bands of frequencies. Most signals in electronics will consist of a range of frequencies. For example, an audio signal will contain signals in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Radio uses frequencies in bands such as VHF (very high frequency) is in the range 30 300 MHz. In order to let these frequencies through and get rid of any signals at other frequencies you use electronic filter circuits. The most common are: Low pass filter this allows signals with frequencies from 0 up to some cut-off frequency through, and blocks any signals with frequencies higher than this; High pass filter this allows all signals with frequencies above the cut-off frequency through and blocks signals with low frequencies; Band-pass filter this allows signals through with frequencies that lie between a lower and an upper cut-off frequency, and blocks all other signals; Band-stop filter this blocks signals with frequencies between a lower and an upper cut-off frequency and allows all other signals through. This is sometimes referred to as a notch filter. Many signals found in electronics will consist of a DC voltage, or a bias, in addition to an AC signal. Very often we want to remove the DC component, and to do this we either use a transformer or a coupling capacitor as a high-pass filter. Figure 1 shows an input voltage which is a combination of a DC voltage of E2 plus an AC voltage with an amplitude of E1. The coupling capacitor block the DC voltage from getting through, so that the output voltage is just the AC component.
124
Figure 1 RC coupling circuit We know that the reactance of the capacitor is Xc, and therefore the output voltage is: vo = viR R2 + Xc2 (1)
When the frequency is zero, the reactance of the capacitor is 1/0 = infinity, which is an open circuit. So, from the point of view of a signal with a frequency of zero, which is how we might describe a DC signal, the capacitor is an open circuit and no voltage gets through. If we write the reactance as 1/2fC then the equation becomes: vo = R +
2
viR 1 2 fC
2
vi 2fRC
2 (2 fRC ) +1
This circuit has a cut-off frequency, fc, which equals 1/2RC. fc = 1/2RC At this frequency the equation becomes: vo = vi = vi 2 (1) +1 2 This is the half-power point or -3 dB point that has been mentioned before, where the output has fallen to 70.7% of its maximum value. If we use an RC coupled circuit to block a DC component, we would usually choose the values of R and C such that the cut-off frequency is 1/10th of the frequency of the AC component. This achieves 125 (2)
ENG1021 Electronic Principles the goal of having the reactance equal to 1/10 th of the resistance at the frequency of the AC component. For example, if the AC component is 100 Hz, then the cut-off frequency would be chosen as 10 Hz. Assuming that a 1 uF capacitor is used, the resistor value should be: fc = 1/2RC R = 1/2fcC = 1/(2 x 3.142 x 10 x 0.000001) = 15.915 k = 16 k (approx) Please now attempt Problem 1. Problem 1 Calculate the minimum coupling capacitance Cc in series with a 10 k R if the frequency of the applied voltage ranges from (a) 100 Hz to 10 kHz; (b) 15 kHz to 300 kHz. Solution Generally, for coupling capacitors, we require that the reactance XC of the coupling capacitor is less than a tenth of the value of the resistance at the frequencies that we want to allow through. In this problem we are given ranges of frequencies. The capacitor will have its highest reactance at the lower of these frequencies, therefore if we ensure that the reactance of the capacitor is less than a tenth of the resistance at the lower frequency of the range, then the capacitor must have a reactance which is less than a tenth of the input resistance for any of the higher frequencies. Problem 1a Lets take the first range 100 Hz to 10 KHz we need to find the minimum coupling capacitance. So we make sure that at 100 Hz the reactance of the capacitor Cc is less than or equal to a tenth of the input resistance of 10 k. XC = 1/2fCc = 10 k/10 = 1 k Rearranging: 1/2f Cc 103 Dividing both sides by 103 and substituting for f gives: 1/(2 100 103) = 1.59 F Cc So providing that Cc 1.59 F it will be a suitable coupling capacitor for this frequency range. Problem 1b Similarly we take the lower end of the frequency range 15 kHz to 300 kHz and make sure that at 15 kHz that the reactance of the capacitor Cc is less than or equal to a tenth of the input resistance of 10 k. XC = 1/2fCc = 10 k/10 = 1 k 126
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Rearranging: 1/2f Cc 103 Dividing both sides by 103 and substituting for f gives: 1/(2 15 103 103) = 10.6 nF Cc So providing that Cc 10.6 nF it will be a suitable coupling capacitor for this frequency range.
2.2 Filter circuits
Figure 2 (a) RC low-pass (b) RL low-pass (c) RL high-pass (d) RC high-pass The RC coupling is an example of a high pass filter. These sections describe how you can design filter circuits by choosing appropriate values for resistors and capacitors and inductors. Figure 2 shows the simplest examples of low-pass and high-pass filters made out of resistors, inductors and capacitors. In each case the circuit represents a potential divider, where the output voltage is divided between a resistance and a reactance. For all of these circuits the cut-off frequency is given by either: fc = 1/2RC or fc = R/2L (4) (3)
We can make more sophisticated filters with more components and in particular with the inclusion of amplifiers. However, that goes beyond the scope of this module.
127
ENG1021 Electronic Principles In order to build a band-pass or a band-stop filter, you effectively combine a lowpass and a high-pass filter. Figure 3 shows an example of an RC band-pass filter which is effectively a high-pass filter followed by a low-pass filter.
Figure 3 An RC band-pass filter A band-pass filter allows signals through which have frequencies that lie between the low cut-off frequency and the high cut-off frequency. It is fairly clear from this circuit that the low cut-off frequency is 1/2R1C1 an d the high cut-off frequency is 1/2R2C2.
Figure 4 An RC notch filter An RC band-stop filter could be constructed the same way. However, an alternative is the notch filter shown in Figure 4. It still only uses a combination of resistors and capacitors, but it is a bit more complicated that simply taking a low pass filter followed by a high pass filter. For this circuit the rather than the cut-off frequency, the notch frequency is defined, which is the frequency which you want to remove. This frequency is defined as: fN = 1/4RC Now attempt Problems 2 and 3. Problem 2 (5)
128

R =2.2k L=30 mH
R =1k C=0.022 F
Figure 5(a) Circuit for problem 2(a); (b) Circuit for problem 2(b)
C=0.047 F R =1.5k
R =1.8k
L=100
Figure 5(c) Circuit for problem 2(c); (d) Circuit for problem 2(d) Calculate the cut-off frequency, fc, for the filter in: (a) The RC low-pass filter in Figure 5(a); (b) the RL low-pass filter in Figure 5(b); (c) the RC high-pass filter in Figure 5(c); (d) the RL high-pass filter in Figure 5(d). Solution Problem 2a The cut-off frequency is found using the formula: fc = 1 2RC Substituting the value for R and C: 1 1
fc = 2RC = 22.21030.022106 fc = 3.3kHz 129
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problem 2b The cut-off frequency is found using the formula: fc = R 2L Substituting the value for R and L:
fc = 2RL = 213010 103 fc = 5.3kHz

3
Problem 2c The cut-off frequency is found using the formula: fc = 1 2RC Substituting the value for R and C:
fc = 21RC = 21.810310.047106 fc =1.9kHz Problem 2d The cut-off frequency is found using the formula: fc = R 2L Substituting the value for R and L: R 1.5103
fc = 2L = 2100103 fc = 2.4kHz 130
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Problem 3 In Figure 6, calculate the notch frequency f N if R = 18k and C = 0.001 F.
2R 2R
2C Vin C C
Vout
RL
Figure 6 Circuit for Problem 3 Solution The notch frequency, fN, is given by the formula: fN = 1 4RC Substituting fro R1 and C1 gives: fN = 41RC = 41810310.001106 fN = 4.4kHz
2.3 Filter circuit gain

We often define the gain of a filter circuit as the value of the output voltage divided by the value of the input voltage. For all the filters that weve looked at so far, that gain will always be less than 1, because the circuits are effectively voltage dividers. In more complex filters may find amplifiers included. These are called active filters as they contian active components suchg as transisters of operational amplifiers which have their own power supply, and are therefore active. In tese circuits the output voltage can be greater than the input voltage. 131
ENG1021 Electronic Principles The gain of the filter is usually stated in decibels. To explain this, we have to define the unit of powwer ratio, the bel. Essentially, if you measure the power of the output, and divide by the poweer of the input, then take logarithms to the base 10, you get the power ratio in bels. N = log(Pout/Pin) in bels It was found tha the bel is actually very large, so it is divided into tenths of a bel, called decibels. So 1 bel = 10 decibels. To state th egain in decibels you multiply the logarithm by 10. The decibel is abbreviated to dB. N = 10log(Pout/Pin) in decibels or dBs (6)
Finally, in electronic circuits the power is defined in a number of ways, but one way is as: P = V2/R Therefore the power is proportional to the square of the voltage. It is therefore convenient to substitute the voltage into the equation to get: N = 10log(V2out/V2in) dB However, one of the properties of logarithms is that log (x2) = 2log(x). So the equation becomes: N = 20log(Vout/Vin) dB Problem 4 The input power to an amplifier is 1 watt. Calculate the gain in decibels for the values of the output power shown in the following table: (7)
Input Power Output Power Gain in dB 1W 1W 1W 1W 1W 2W 10 W 20 W 100 W 1 kW
1W 2 kW Table 1: Table for Problem 4 Solution The gain in dB is given by the following equation: 132
ENG1021 Electronic Principles Pout NdB =10log Pin If the input power is 1 W and the output power is 2 W, the gain is: NdB =10log = 3.01dB Similarly, when the input power is 1 W and the output power is 10 W, the gain is: NdB =10log =10dB
The complete table looks like this:
Input Power Output Power Gain in dB 1W 1W 1W 1W 1W 2W 10 W 20 W 100 W 1 kW 3 10 13 20 30
1W 2 kW 33 Table 2: Solution for Problem 4
3 Further reading
For further reading you may want to look at Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics. The relevant sections are AC and the sub-section called Filters, where all parts could be read. In addition, in the section called Semiconductors, in the sub-section called Amplifiers and Active Devices. I dont want you to read most of this section as it goes beyond this module. However, there is a section called Decibels which is worth a read.
4 Where next?
Thats the end of the module. Make sure youve handed in all of the assignments and then have a well-earned rest!
133
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