= VIOLETA A.VEGA Ph.D. NELIA G. PRIETO "MYRNA L. CARREO!_ SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION " Revised Edition Copyright, 2009 by VIOLETA A. VEGA, Ph.D. NELIA G. PRIETO MYRNA L. CARREON, Ed.D. and LORIMAR PUBLISHING, INC. ISBN 971-685-699-6, Published by ‘LORIMAR PUBLISHING INC. 716 Aurora Blvd, cor. Boston Street, Cubso, Quezon City, Metro Manila ‘Tel. Nos. 721-2715 « Telefinc: 414-2724 Cellphone Nos. 0918-5375190 (Julie) + 0921-5372071 (Annie) ‘Trunkdlines 7250192 to 94 Cover and book design by Ronnie Llena Martinez All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in _any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, mimeographing, or by any information and retrieval system, without vwritten permission from the copyright holder. Printed in the Philippines by ADRIANA PRINTING CO., INC. 776 Aurora Boulevard, cor. Boston St., Cubao,. Quezon City ‘Tel. No. 722-5175 0 ] eoen oo “AD INUIAT VOTANREAML 90 STUTIT2u; WRLITEReFOREWORD Setting new benchmarks for teacher education is no mean task. This is so in the instance of Project WRITE (Writing Resources for Integrative Teacher Education) which we initiated on August 4, 2006 culminating in the produetion and publication of workbooks and textbooks It was-a yeoman’s task to gather our colleagues frorh Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao and motivate them to get involved in a textbook writing process. But the best happened such that we were able to form a true partnership as proven by this WRITE publication that may help bring teacher education to new heights, This book ‘on Social Dimensions of Education aims to align teacher education with the ‘CHED-prescribed new teacher education curriculum that is reflective of the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards with the end in’ view of contributing to the formation of the ideal professional! teacher as concretely described in the seven integrated domains of hte teaching and leaming provess. The dotivities or exercises at the end of every lesson were intended not only for drill and evaluative purposes but also for purposes of advocacy for current trends in education such as reflective education, multiple intelligences, multicultural education, interactive and brain-based teaching, authentic assessment and of bridging the gap between theory and practice. We gratefully acknowledge Dr. Vicleta A. ‘Vega, Professor Nelia G. Prieto, and Dr. Myma L. Carreon for their desire and concern to share theit expertise in the teaching profession. We are glad to say that this Project WRITE publication is but a beginning. With confidence, we look forward to more publications that will give justice to the prescribed new teacher education curriculum and improve teacher performance and advance the enhancement of both the’ pre-service and in-service phases of teacher education. ‘Onward to. WRITE! Paz L. Lucido, Ph.D. President, PAFTEee PREFACE Social Dimensions of Education is one of the theory and concept courses in the new teacher education curriculum for Bachelor of Elementary Education and Bachelor of Secondary Education which is implemented by all teacher education insti- tutions in the Philippines by virtue of Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Memorandum No. 30, s. 2004. The primary intent of this. course is to introduce education students to social science theories and research as they relate to education. An understanding and analysis of various topics such as intercultural communication, gender, and globalization as they relate to education shall be presented in the different chapters of the book, The four pillars of education, a part of the report of the International Commission on Education for the 21" Century published by UNESCO in 1996, was included to provide readers new insights into education for the 21st century. Chapter I presents an introduction to the social dimensions of educations; Chapter II focuses on the four pillars of educa- tion; Chapter IIT discusses intercultural communication; Chapter IV features peace education: as a transformative response to major societal challenges; Chapter V deals with cultural changes; Chapter VI on social institutions; Chapter VII is about gender and development; Chapter VIII discusses globalization and education; Chapter IX expounds on education in the social miliue and Chapter X focuses on education for sustainable development (ESD). THE AUTHORSACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the following persons who gave them the inspiration and the strength to write this book: All the Officers and Board of Directors of the Philippine Association for Teacher Education (PAFTE); The Education faculty of Divine Word College of Calapan, St. Joseph's College of Quezon City, and Union Christian College, San Fernando City whose insights inspired the writers to finish the manuscript; Dr. Evelyn S. Javier, an English professor, Dean of Graduate School, DWCC, and a friend who edited the manuscript; Dr. Loreta N. Castro, Executive Director, Center for Peace Education and Professor, International Studies and Education Department, Miriam Colleges who contributed a chapter on Peace Education. CHED, Technical Panel on Teacher Education for their encouragement to integrate Peace Education in the Teacher Education Curriculum. ‘The authors’ families who inspired them and ignited their desire to pursue their passion for writing; and Lastly, to the Lord God Almighty who is the source of enlightenment and inspiration. THE AUTHORS I vCHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword Preface Acknowledgment 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Consensus and Conflict Theories Structural Functionalism Interactionist Theories Summary Discussion Questions and Suggested Activities THE FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION What Are the Four Pillars of Education Leaming To Know Leaming To Do Learning To Live Together in Peace and Harmony Leaming To Be ‘Summary Discussion Questions and Suggested Activities INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ‘Communications and Lang Relationship Between Language and Culture Culture Characteristics of Culture Components of Culture The Organization of Culture How Is Culture Transmitted Importance and Functions of Culture Cultural Relativism ‘Summary 2 Discussion Questions and Suggested Activities Page vom < Boeane 13 13 14 15 18 21 24 24 25 31 33 34 36 41 4a 4Bat Challengitig Economic: Inequity " Peace Theme. 6: Resolving and ‘Transforming Conflicts j 5 Dealing With Anger in a Conflict Situation 16 How Do We Directly Express, Our Anger? B How Do We Deal with Other'People’s Anger? 78 Main Options in Dealing with Conflicts B Steps in the Collaborative Problem Solving Approach 9 Some Tips to a Good Dialogue 9 Listening Tips 80 What is Mediation? 80 From Conflict Resolution to Conflict ‘Transformation a1 The Peaceable Classroom 4 81 Teaching-Learning Approaches and Strategies in Peace: Education 4 Attributes of a Peace Educator 90 Toward a Whole School Approach 2B Summary 94 Discussion Questions and Suggested Activities 94 CULTURAL CHANGES 96 What Is Multiculturalism 7 What Is Multicultural Education? 98 Dimensions of Multicultural Education 101 The Growth of Student Subcultures” 103 Functions of Subcultures, 106 Cultural Dimensions of Leaming — ‘Teaching and Educational Processes 106 What is Culturally-Responsive Teaching? 107 Summary 109 Discussion. Questions and Suggested Activities 109 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 110 What Is A Social Institution lio Charactéristics and ‘Functions of An Institution 110 The Family M2 What are the Characteristics of the i Filipino Family? 13 Functions of the Family 13 Education osPEACE EDUCATION: A TRANSFORMATIVE RESPONSE TO MAJOR SOCIETAL CHALLENGES by Loreia N. Castro Learning Objectives Introduction’ A Holistic’ Understanding of Peace Types of Violence Peace Education as Transformative Education Why Educate for Peace? Peace Education is a Practical Alternative Peace Education is an Ethical Imperative Peace Eduication’s Schema of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes/Values Education for Peace: List of Knowledge Areas, Skills arid Attitudes/Values Skills Spiritual and Faith Traditions as Resources for Peace Peace Theme 1: Upholding Human Dignity The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Convention on the Rights of the Child Rights and Responsibilities Peace Theme 2: Challenging Prejudice and Building Tolerance Types of Prejudice Education for Tolerarice and Respect Peace Theme 3: Promoting Nonviolence Why Nonviolence? What is Nonviolent Direct Action? The Goals of Nonviolent Action The Steps in Doing Nonviolent Direct Action Peace Theme 4: Challenging the War System Possible Causes of War The Effects of War Peace Education and the War System Peace Education Theme 5: Sharing the Earth's Resources Other Canses of Poverty SSsasesaqter & Ro Q SSSIQRASHHS |as wy = as‘What are the Functions of Schools? Are you aware of the manifest and latent Fanctions of education? Religion Characteristics of Religion ‘What are the Functions of Religion? Elements of Rel Microeconomics ¥s. Macroeconomics Basic Economic Problems Government As A Discussion’ Questions ‘and ‘Suggested Activities GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT Theories of Gender Development What is Gender Stereotyping? Gender and Equality Gender and Inequality Gender and Power Gender and Education Summary Discussion Questions and Suggested Activities GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION Global Education and Globalization Characteristics of Globalization That Can Be Linked to Education ‘Aspects of Globalization ‘What are the Core Values and Competencies for Global Education Socio-Cultural, Economic and Political Tssues on Globalization Globalization. and Its Impact On Education’ Summary Discussion Questions and Suggested ActivitiesEDUCATION IN THE. NEW SOCIAL MILIEU, Information and Communication Technology and Education The Global Curriculum ‘What do they say about the use of computers in education? Education and Industry ‘Summary ae Discussion Questions and Suggested Activities EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (ESD) Introduction Education for Sustainable Development: ESD as the right attitude for Globalization Being an Educator for Sustainable Development Suggested Activities References ‘Appendix 153 153 157, 157 161 162 163 164 im 172 175 180Introduction to the Social Dimensions of Education WHAT DO YOU THINK? Hoi are the various social science icories related to education? 19 Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. differentiate the various social science theories. 2. explain the relationship of the-various social theories — the conflict, consensus, functionalism and interactionist theories — and educational systems. 3. discuss how the various social theories affect the functions of schools. troduction Sociologists see education as one of the major institutions that Bsttutes society. While theories guide’research and policy formula- a in the sociology of education, they also provide logical explanations why things happen the way they do. These theories help sociolo- understand educational systems. __This chapter presents an introduction to the social science es of educati and conflict, structural functionalist and theories as related to education, isus and Conflict Theory _ In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be sified into ‘consensus’ and ‘conflict’ perspectives let us examine definitions of consensus and conflict. _ Dahrendorf (1959, 1968) as cited by Ritzer(2000) is the major nt of the position that society has two faces (conflict and con- 3) and that sociological theory therefore should be divided into rts, conflict theory and consensus theory.Se eee 2 Geren, hrronusten 191k Soom Denso OF Eovcaron Conflict is a clash between ideas, principles and people. Conflict theory focuses on the struggle of ‘social classes to ‘maintain dominance and ‘power in social systems, Consensus theory emphasizes on social order, stability and social regulae tion. Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society, focus on social order based on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in’a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, conflict theories emphasize the dominance of some social-groups by others, see social order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups, and view social change as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000). Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and conflict theorists examine conflicts of interest and the coercion that holds society together in the face of these stresses. Dahrendorf Tecognizes that society can not exist without both conflict and consen- sus, which are prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is some prior consensus. Consensus is a concept of society in which the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based ona general or widespread agreement among all membérs of a particular society. Conflict is a disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, oF people — this can be a covert or overt conflict. The conflict theory, according to’ Horton’and Hunt (1984) focuses ‘on thé heterogencous nature of society and the differential distribution of political and social power. A sfruggle between social classes and class conflicts between the powerfull and less powerful groups occur. Groups which have vested interest and power work for rules and laws, particularly those that serve their own interests, to be passed to the exclusion of others. Cotiflict theorists ask how scliools contribute to the unequal distri- bution of people into jobs in society so that more powerful members of society maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups (often women, racial and ethnic groups) often minority groups, are allocated to lower ranks in society. The larger issue for conflict theorists is the role that education plays in maintaining the prestige, power, and economic and social position of the dominant group in society (Ballantine and Spade, 2004). The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tensions between competing groups. Such conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for members, or disputes over the budget. Conflict theory grew out of the work of Karl Marx and focuses ‘onthe strugele of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social systems. It is a theory or collection of theories which places ‘emphasis on conflict in human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).(Churn I: nmenvcr To He Soom, Dekesons oF Eoucwnn 3, ee Social structures produce pattems of The conflict model _ Inequality 1 the is concemed with istribution of scarce: the stresses and Vesela conflicts that emerge in society because of competition over — scarce resources. It Conflict focuses on the in- equalities that are built into. social struc- tures rather than on those that emerge because of personal Reorganization ‘and characteristics, Change Figure 1, The Conflict Model (Source: Sociology and Anthropology, Javier et al, 2002) The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and what causes conflict within a particular human society. Or we can say that conflict theory deals with the incompatible aspects of society. Coriflict theory emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change. The conflict theorists are interested in how society's institutions — the family, government, religion, education, and the media — may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient position. Their emphasis on social change and redistribu- tion of resources makes conflict theorists more “radical” and “activist” than functionalists (Schaefer, 2003). Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation form the base of emphasis. In other words, consensus theory is concerned with the maintenance or continuation of social order in society, in relation to accepted norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or collectively by the society-or within a particular society itself, It emerged out of the sociology of social ‘order and social stability/social regulation. "The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in the works of certain dominant social theorists such as Kar! Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber and other prominent social theorists such as Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf and Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer. Confit theorists emphasize social change and redistribution of resources.A Cuore I: rncovcron to TH Soom. Duce oF Eon Structural ‘fanctionalism ‘states that society is made xp of various institutions that work together in| cooperation. The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some social theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social conflict. They explained change as emerging from the crisis between hhuman beings and their society. They argued that Marx’s theory was a theory characterized by class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie (rich owners) and the proletariat (poor workers). ‘Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular “status cultures,” that is, groups in society with similar interests and positions in the status hierarchy. Located in neighborhoods, schools are often rather homogeneous in their student bodies and teach to that constituency, thus perpetuating that status culture, Weber outlines types of education found in societies at different time periods, distinguishing between inborn “charisma” and training in school, and the modern, rational method of education. Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill needed positions or prepare “cultivated individuals,” those who stand above others because of their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities. Individuals who had access to this type of education in early China were from the educated elite, thus perpe- tuating their family status culture (Sadovnik et al, 1994). Structural Functionalism Structural functionalism, especially in the work of Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, and their students and followers, was for many years the dominant sociological theory. However, in the last three decades it has declined dramatically in importance (Chriss, 1995) and, in at least some senses, has receded into the recent history of sociological theory. Parsons” structural functionalism has four functional imperatives for all “action” systems, embodied in his famous AGIL scheme. These functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems are: 1, Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt environ- ment to its needs. 2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary. goals. 3. Integration: A system must regulate the interrelationship of its component parts. It must also manage the relationship among the other three functional imperatives (A,G,L). 4, Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain, and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain the motivation. Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this theoretical system. The behavioral organism is the action system that handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the external world. The personality system performs the goal-attainment(Guere I: harooucnow ro Te Soom. Decess oe Eovomren 5 function by defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain them, The social system copes with the integration function by controlling its component parts, Finally, the cultural system performs the latency function by providing actors with the norms and values that motivate them for action (Ritzer, 2000), Parson’s four action systems are shown in Figure 2. Cultural System Social System Personality ‘Action System System, Figure 2: Structure of the General Action System (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000). ‘The heart of Parsons’ work is found in his four action systems. In the assumptions that Parson made regarding his action systems we encounter the problem of order which was his overwhelming concern and that has become a major source of criticism of his work. Parsons found his answer to the problem of order in structural functionalism, which operates in his view with the following sets of assumptions: 1, Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts. 2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium, 3., The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of change. | 4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the | form that the other parts can take. 5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments. 6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system. 7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the mainte- nance of the relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental variations, and control of tendencies to change the system from within These assumptions led Parsons to make the analysis of the ered structure of society his first priority. Parsons’ conception of the social system begins at the micro with interaction between ego and alter ego, defined as the most tary form of the social system. He described a social system jething which consists of a plurality of individual actors fing with cach other in a situation which has at least a physical ronmental aspect, actors who are motivated in terms of a Social system begins at the micro level with interaction Between the ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary form of the ‘social system.6 —_Chren I: rmopucrN 10 THe Soom. Dulscns oF Eovearon tendency to the “optimization of gratification” and whose relation | their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in tem of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols. In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily inte ested in its structural components, In addition to a concern wit status-role, he was interested in such large-scale components of soci systems as collectivities, norms, and values. Parsons was not simp} a structuralist but also a function: Functional Requisites of a Social System 1. Sci stm mus be structured shat te operate compet wih otter syste, 2. To survive, the social system must have the requisite from other systems. 4. The system must meet a significant proportion of the needs of its actors. 4, The system must elicit adequate participation from is members. 5. tt must have at least a minimum of control over potentially disruptive behavior 6. if conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be’ controlled. = 7. Finally, a social system requires a language in order fo survive, ; Talcott Parsons |, The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why’ society assumes a particular form. This perspective assumes that an society takes its particular form because that form works well for th society given its particular situation. Societies exist under a wide rang of environmental situations. Some societies have highly advanced tech nologies and they also differ in terms of their interactions With othe societies. Thus, what works for one society cannot be expected ¢ —— __ work for another. Key principles In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes on of the function- basic argument. Whatever are the characteristics of a society, thos alist theory characteristics developed because they met the needs of that society i @ interdepen- its particular. situation. The key principles of the functionalist perspee dency tive (Farley, 1990) include the following: fanctions of 1. Interdependency. One of the most important principles 0 ‘social functionalist theory is that society is made up of interdependen structure and parts. This means that every part of society is dependent t) culture some extent on other parts of society, so that what happens a one place in society has important effects elsewhere. Fo © consensus : He example, the class requires a faculty member to teach ; ee subject and the students to lear it. Someone has to provid ais electricity to light the room, and in order for that electricity © equilibrium be provided, someone Had to build a dam or provide fuel to tht power plant.Chart I nocucnon 10 Soon Dinsons oF Eoucaron .. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to interdependency is the idea that each part of the social system exists because it serves some function. This principle is applied by functionalists to. both social structure and culture. Social structure refers to the organization of society, including its institutions, its social positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to a set of beliefs, language, rules, values, and knowledge held in common by members of a society. Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in functionalist theory is that societies have a tendency toward consensus; that is to have certain basic values that nearly everyone in the society agrees upon. For example, we all believe in the principles of democracy and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in order to achieve cooperation. Functionalists believe that inability to cooperate will paralyze the society, and people will devote more and more effort to fight- ing one another rather than getting anything done. Equilibrium. A final principle of functionalist theories is that of equilibrium. This view holds that, once a society has achieved the form that is best adapted to its situation, it has reached a state of balance or equilibrium, and it will remain in that condition until it is forced to change by some new condition. New technology, a change in climate, or contact with ‘an outside society are all conditions to which a society might have to adapt. When such conditions occur, social change will take place: society will change just enough to adapt to the new situation. However, once that adaptation has been made, the society has attained a new state of balance or equilibrium with its environment, and it will not change again until some new situation requires further adaptation. Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000) Equilibrium is characteristic of @ society when it has achieved the form that is ‘best adapted to its situation,8 Cowra: brcoucnon To THe Soca Onenens oF EaucsTon Schooling per- forms an impor- tant function in the development and democratic society, especially with regard to equality of opportunity for all citizens. Thus, in modern societ- ies, education becomes the key institution in a meritocratic selection process. ~ Ballantine & Spade, 2004 The structural functional model addresses the question of soci ‘organization and how itis maintained. This theoretical perspective the legacy of Durkheim and Spencer. It has its roots in natural scien and the analogy between a society and an organization, In tl analysis of living organism, the scientist's task is to identify the vario parts (structures) and determine how they work (function). In the stuc of society, a sociologist with this perspective tries to identify tl structures of society and how they function; hence the name structur functio-nalism (Javier et al., 2002). ‘The component parts of a social structure are families, neighbor associations, schools, churches, banks, countries, and the like. Functi nalists maintain that social structures exist in society for the function they have to cary out (Panopio et al., 1994). Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of society th stresses the interdependence of the social system; these researche often examine how well parts ere integrated with each other. Functio: alists view society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates wit another to produce the dynamic energy required to make society wor Most important, functionalism stresses the processes that maintai social order by stressing consensus and agreement. Although functio: alists understand that change is inevitable, they underscore th evolutionary nature of change. Further, although they acknowledge th conflict between group exists, functionalists argue that without common bond to unite groups, society will disintegrate, Thus fumctiot alists examine the social processes necessary to the establishment an maintenance of social order (Ballantine and Spade, 2004). ‘Structural functionalism puts emphasis on social order and soci: stability not on conflict. It claims that society is made up of differet institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation — achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social order an social stability. This maintenance of society is extracted from th internal rules, norms, values and regulations of these various ordere institutions. Modern functionalist theories of education have their origin in th work of Talcott Parsons. As cited by Ballantine and Spade (2004 Parsons believes that education is a vital part of a modem society, society that differs considerably from all previous societies. From thi perspective, schooling performs an important function in the develog ment and maintenance of a modem, democratic society, especially Wit regard to equality of opportunity for all citizens, Thus, in moder societies education becomes the key institution in a meritocrati selection process. In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays significant function in the maintenance of the modern democratic an technocratic society. In a political democracy, schools provide citizen with the knowledge and dispositions to participate actively in civic lift(Guirie I: inpcoucteN To THE ocak Desc oF Eoomncw ——g) In an ever increasingly technical society, schools provide students with the skills and dispositions to work in such a society, Although schools teach specific’ work skills, they also teach students how to leam so they may adapt to new work roles and requirements (http:/allfreeesays. com/student/ConsensusConflict/Perspectives/html). Interactionist Theories In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and society are critiques and extensions of the functionalist and conflict perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that furiction- alist and conflict theories are very abstract and emphasize structure and process at a societal (macro-sociological) level of analysis. While this level of analysis helps us to understand education in the “big picture”, macro-sociological theories hardly provide us with an interpretable snap- shot of what schools are like on an everyday level. What do students and teachers actually do in school? Interactionist theories attempt to make the “commonplace strange” by turing on their heads everyday taken-for-granted behaviors and interactions between students and students and between students and teachers. It is exactly what most people do not question that is most problematic to the interactionist. For example, the processes by which students are labeled “gifted” or “learning disabled” are, from an | interactionist point of view, important to analyze because such processes ‘carry with them many implicit assumptions about leaning and children | Gailantine and Spade, 2004), © Symboli¢ Interactionism Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of early twentieth century sociologists George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Mead and Cooley examined the ways in which the individual is related to society through ongoing st interactions. This school of thought, known as symbolic interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in relation to social forces and structures and the product of ongoing negotiations of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product of human agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure. : The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals mediated by symbols in particular, language. The distinctive attributes of human behavior grow from people’s participation in varying types of social structure which depend in turn, on the existence of language behavior (http://itsa.uesf. edu/eliotfWhy Jam alsoaSymbolic.html). Symbolic interactionists are, of course, interested not simply in socialization but also in interaction in general, which is of “vital importance in its own right.” Interaction is the process in Symbolic interactionism views the self as socially constructed in relation to social ‘forces and social structures.40 Cwerer I: Iracoucmon ro ne Soca Dene oF Eoveanon which the ability to think is both developed and expressed. | types of interaction, not just interaction during socialization, ref} i cour ability to think, Beyond that, thinking shapes the interacti Process. In most interaction, actors must take others into cons eration and decide if and how to fit their activities to others. Ho ever, not all interaction involves thinking. PRINCIPLES OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 1. _ Human beings unlike lower animals, are endowed with a capacity for thought. 2. The capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction. 3. In social interaction, people leam the meanings and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively human capagity for thought. | 4. Meanings and symbols allow people fo carry on distinctively human-action and in- teraction. 5. People are able to modily or alter meanings and symbols that they use in action and interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation. 6. People are able to make these modifications and alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact with themselves, which allows them to examine possible ‘courses of action, assess their relative advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one. 7. The intertwined pattems of action and interaction make up groups and societies. ¢ Non-Symbolic Interactionism The differentiation made by Blumer (following Mead) betwet two basic forms of social interaction is relevant here. The firs nonsymbolic interaction ~ Mead’s conversation of gestures — does n) involve thinking. The second symbolic interaction does require ment processes (Ritzer, 2000). a ‘Mead’s:approach to symbolic interaction rested on three basic pr mises. 1. The first is that people act toward the things they encount on the basis of what those things mean to them. (Things, Basic forms of this context, refer not just to objects, but also to people, activ eee Interac- ties, and situations). ¢ non-sjmmbilic 2. Second, we learn what things are by observing how oth interaction people respond to them, that is through social interaction. : which does 3. Third, as a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words at prrive gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in dea thinking ing with others acquire symbolic meanings that are shared t « symbolic people who belong to the same culture. The meaning of imeraction symbolic gesture extends beyond the act itself, A handshake which require for instance, is a symbolic gesture of greeting among Filipino ‘mental As such, it conveys more than just a mutual grasping of fit processes gers and palms. It expresses both parties’ shared understan¢ ing that a social interaction is beginning. In other cultures, suc >(ieren 1: naocucnon To THe Soca Ducieons oF Eoucanon 44 as Japan, willingness to interact is expressed or symbolized in a bow (Calhoun et al.,1994). “The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected . in their views on objects. Blumer differentiates among three types of objects: physical objects, such as a chair or a tree; social objects, such as a student or a mother; and abstract objects, such as an idea or a moral principle. Objects are seen simply as things “out there” in the real world: what is of greatest significance is the way that they are defined by actors, The latter leads to the relativistic view that differ- ent objects have different meanings for different individuals: “A tree will be a different object to a botanist, a lumberman, a poet, and a home gardener” (Blumer as cited by Ritzer, 2000). Another important concept that has long been used by symbolic interactionist is the looking-glass self. This concept was developed by the early symbolic interactionist theorist Charles Horton Cooley. The basic notion of the looking-glass self can be summed up as “We see ourselves as others see us.” In other words, we come to develop a self-image on the basis of the messages we get from others, as we un- derstand them. If your teachers and fellow students give you the mes- sage that you are “smart,” you will come to think of your self as an intelligent person. If others tell you that you are attractive, you will likely think of yourself as attractive, Conversely, if people repeatedly laugh at you and tease you about being clumsy, you will probably come to decide that you are clumsy. In Cooley’s terms, you use other people as a mirror into which you look to see what you are like (Farley, 1990). Looking-glass Self- We see ourselves as others see us Charles Cooley412. Gurren: nsonueren to me Socw. Duensons oF Eoucanon Discussion Questions 1. Distinguish between consensus and conflict theories. 2. How are the structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism theories related to education? Suggested Activities | 1. Gather comments from teachers on the functions of schools A according to the different social science theori } 2. Individual Activity | Interview a teacher on the influence of the conflict and Hi! consensus theories on his/her work as a teacher. Submit a | write-up of the interview.a (Cuapren I: Tur Foun Punts oF Ecucarion CHAPTER The Four Pillars | a of Education ing Objectives fier studying the chapter, you should be able to: 1. identify the four pillars of education. 2. create learning opportunities guided by the four pillars of education. 3. develop an awareness of the importance of living in harmony with each other and with the environment. 4, create an awareness of the solidarity of mankind regardless of race, religion, and culture. “Learning the Treasure Within”, the report of the International ission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, chaired by ues Delors, and published by UNESCO in 1996 provides new fights into education for the 21% Century. It stresses that each dual must be equipped to seize leaming opportunities throughout both to broaden her/his knowledge, skills and attitudes, and adapt 4 changing, complex and interdependent world. Are The Four Pillars of Education? _ The International Commission on Education for the 21* Century ‘ s four pillars of education. See Figure 4. “« Leaming to know, that is acquiring the instruments of understanding; Leaming to do, so as to be able to act creatively in one's environment; Leaming to live together, so as fo participate in and cooperate with other people in all human activities; and Leaming to be, so as to better develop one's personality and fo act with evar greater "autonomy, judgment and personal responsibity. Figure 4. Four Pillars of Education (Source: UNESCO-APNIEVE Sourcebook)44 Coverer I: Tae Four Punns oF Eoucarion Learning to ‘know implies learning how to learn by developing one's ‘concentration, ‘memory skills, cand ability to think, If, as a teacher, ‘you have been helping students to develop their skills that would make them indepen- dent learners, ‘you are doing ‘well on the first pillar of education because you have prepared them for life in the knowledge society in which we all now live: A trly educated] person nowa- days needs a broad general education and the opportunity to study a small mumber of subjects in depth. Learning to know The first of the pillars of education is learning to know. Given the rapid changes brought about by scientific progress and the new forms of economic and social activity, the emphasis has to be on combining a sufficiently broad general education with the possibility of in-depth work on a selected number of subjects. Such a general background provides, so to speak, the passport of lifelong education, in so far as it gives people a taste’ but also lays the foundation — for learning throughout life, Learning to know implies learning how to leam by developing one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think. From infancy, young. people must learn how to concentrate — on objects and on other people. This process of improving concentration skills can take different forms and can be.aided by the many different learning opportunities that arise in the course of people’s lives (games, work experience programs, travel, practical science activities, etc.)- This type of learning is concerned less with the acquisition of structured knowledge but more with the mastery of leaning tools. It may be regarded as both a means and an end of human existence. Looking at it as a means, people have to learn to understand the world around them, at least as much as is necessary for them to lead their lives with some dignity, develop their occupational skills and communicate with other people. Regarded as an end, this type of learning is underpinned by the pleasure that can. be derived from understanding, knowledge, and discovery. This aspect of learning is enjoyed by researchers. and good teaching can help everyone to enjoy it.. Even if study for its own sake is a dying pursuit with so much ‘emphasis now being put on the acquisition of marketable skills, the raising of the school-learning age and an increase in leisure time should provide more and more adults with opportunities for private study. The broader our knowledge, the better we can understand the many different aspects of our environment. Such study encourages greater intellectual curiosity, sharpens the critical faculties and enables people to develop their own independent judgments on the world around them. From this point of view, all children — no matter where they live - must have a chance to receive an appropriate education throughout their lives. However, since knowledge is multifarious and capable of virtually infinite development, any attempt to know everything becomes more and more pointless. In fact, after the basic education stage, the idea of being a multi-subject specialist is simply an illusion. The initial secondary and university curricula are therefore partly designed around scientific disciplines with the aim of giving the students the tools, ideas and reference methods which are the product of leading-edge science and the contemporary paradigms.(Carre I: Tue Four Pisses OF Encaren 45 A truly educated person needs a broad general education and the opportunity to study a small number of subjects in depth. This two-pronged approach should be applied right through education. The reason is that general education, which gives pupils a chance to learn other languages and become familiar with other subjects, first and foremost provides a way of communicating with other people. Thinking is something children learn first from their parents and then from their teachers. The process should encompass both practi- cal problem-solving and abstract thought, Both education and research should therefore combine deductive and inductive reasoning, which are often claimed to be opposing processes. While one form of reasoning may be more appropriate than the other, depending on the subjects being taught, it is generally impossible fo pursue-a logical train without ‘combining the two. » To leam to know, students need to develop learn-to-leam skills. Such skills are learning to read with comprehension, listening, | observing, asking questions, data gathering, note taking, and accessing, | processing, selecting and using information so that students can ‘become lifelong leamers. The role of the teacher then is as facilitator, catalyst, monitor and evaluator of leaning because the process of leaning to think is a life- Tong one and can be enhanced by every kind of human experience... In respect, as people’s work becomes less routine, they will find that their thinking skills are increasingly being challenged at their place of ‘work. (edobserv@unesco.org). arning to do Learning to do is another pillar of education, In addition to Tearning to do a job or work, this second pillar should, more generally, ail the acquisition of a competence that enables people to deal with a variety of situations, often unforeseeable, and to work in teams, a Learning to do demonstrates that in order to learn to live and ‘together productively and harmoniously, we must first find peace ‘ourselves, expand our acceptance and understanding of others, nd continually strive towards living the values which enable us to tribute more fully to the development of a peaceful and just peiety. It is anchored within the context of lifelong learning and echnical and vocational education and training, in preparation for life the world of work. The International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First entury which produced the Delors Report clearly articulated the need ‘education to contribute to the whole person, in all their roles, when that education “must contribute to the all-round development Learn-to-learn skills: learning to read with compre- hension © listening © observing # asking questions © data gathering note taking © accessing, processing ‘and selecting information Teacher's roles: facilitator catalyst @ monitor ‘© evaluator2h Hs ia ‘hy y 46 Chvrres I: Tae Four Punns oF Eowcsnion Education must contribute t0 the all-round development of each individual = mind and body intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic sense, personal responsibility «and spiritual values, ~ Delors Report Education means reaching out to embrace the whole of “society and the entire lifespan of the indi- vidual. ~ Edgar Fawe of each individual—mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic sense, personal responsibility and spiritual values. It describes the learning to do pillar not only as putting knowledge and learning into practice innovatively through skill development and practical know-how, but also as the development of competence, life skills, personal quali ties, aptitudes and attitudes. Learning to do can no longer have the simple meaning ... “of preparing someone for a clearly defined task and can no longer be regarded as the simple transmission of a more or less routine practice... the ascendancy of knowledge and information... is bringing personal competence to the fore... employers are seeking Competence, a mix, specific to each individual, or skill, social behavior, of an aptitude for teamwork, and of initiative and a readiness to take risks.” It is clear that technical and vocational education and training need to encompass all four pillars of leaming in order to prepare the individual with the knowledge, skills, qualities, values, attitudes, and abilities to communicate effectively and work together productively with others. The other three pillars are learning to know, learning to live together, and learning to be. It has become increasingly clear, since Edgar Faure presented his report to UNESCO in 1972, entitled “Learning To Be: the World of Education Today and Tomorrow” that leaming throughout life is here to stay. At that time in 1972, Faure envisioned education as “reaching out to embrace the whole of society and the entire lifespan of the individual” and imagined a world in which every person has the op- portunity to keep leaming throughout life and which lifelong education would be the keystone of the learning society. Faure foresaw the need to adapt education and training: “For far too long education had the task of preparing for stereotyped functions, stable situations, for one moment of existence, for a particular trade or a given job. It inculcated conventional knowledge, in time honoured categories... the idea of acquiring a set of intellectual equipment valid for a lifetime is out of date.”(Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the 21* Century, 1998, p. 100). There is now a wide agreement for the need for a new human- centered development paradigm. Education, incorporating general and vocational education should enable the leaner to launch into a lifelong continuum of knowledge, values, attitudes, competencies and skills. Technical and vocational education and training is part of that ongoing continuum to which people continually return throughout their lives as the changing work environment requires the development of new knowledge and skills, The Delors Commission describes learning throughout life as the “key to the twenty-first century... essential for adapting to the evolving requirements of the labor market and for better masteryof the changing time-frames and rhythms of individual existence”. The need for lifelong learning is accentuated by increasing globalization and free trade. New economic pressures require both individuals and businesses to continually upgrade knowledge and skills (© maintain their competitive edge. The need to remain personally competitive throughout life raises the obvious concer of equitable access to learning opportunities and also to meaningful work for all, and the urgency for maintaining and advancing human dignity and worth. With incidence of migration from rural areas or fromi impove- rished countries where there may also be conflict, and the subsequent rise in urban population levels and increasing unemployinent, it is all too easy for employers and businesses to discriminate unfairly based con gender, disability, race, religion, language, ethnicity, HIV/AIDS or other factors, giving preference to family, friends, associates or those willing to offer bribes. It is ‘also tempting for employers to bully or harass employees into working harder for longer hours, in unsafe conditions, for less pay, or even to provide illicit services in exchange for preferential treatment. It is even more tempting for business to ‘cut costs by casualizing the, work force, or by replacing staff with technology, or through environmentally and occupationally unsound practices, Hence, the need to introduce into education and training values such as equity and equality, and human rights issues which acknowledge the right of all to safe and fulfilling employment, Both Potential employers and employees need to be exposed to the values and principles which may be found in a range of human rights and International Labor Organization documents, which require them to behave ethically and responsibly towards one another, and to work with integrity. The demands of global competitiveness have also created time Pressures, altering the work-life balance, potentially sacrificing safety and environmental concems, altering family and social relationships and stretching the bounds of traditional and ethical values. In this context, the need for values in education and training associated with life skills, eloping the ability to balance and manage one’s life and time tively, and the capacity for team work, responsible corporate and citizenship and democracy are all essential, for the development civil society and for countering corruption, The development and internalization of such values in practice is, {course, an ongoing process which must be continually reinforced both formal and non-formal education and training throughout Learning to do represents the skilful, creative and discerning ication of knowledge because one must first learn how to learn Ouorén I: The Four Pus or Eousston 47 Learning throughout life is the “key to the 21° century ~ essential for adapting to the evolving requirements of the labor market and for better mastery of the changing time frame and rhythms of individual existence.” ~ Delors Commission Learning to do represents the skilful, creative aand discerning application of Irowledge. One ‘must learn how 10 think creatively, critically and holistically, and how to deeply understand the information that is presented.18 Ciwrren I: Tris Four Pune oF Ecucanion effectively, how to think creatively, critically and holistically, and how to deeply understand the information that is presented, and its systemic implications for individuals and for society, in both the short and longer term, ” ah a Ht Figure 4. Personal and Work Values for ‘Learning to Do! (Source: UNESCO-APNIEVE Sourcebook No. a By It is clear that the changing nature of work away from sole a reliance on agriculture or industrial production industry towards a growing service industry requires different competencies, particularly in ph the area of interpersonal relationships. It is therefore essential, “to i cultivate human qualities that are not necessarily inculcated by traditional training... the ability to establish stable, effective relationships between individuals (requiring) new types of skills, more behavioral than intellectual... intuition, flair, judgment and the ability to hold a team together. Since learning to do represents the skilful, creative and discerning application of knowledge, one must first leam how to learn effectively, how to think creatively, critically and holistically, and how to deeply understand the information that is presented, and its systemic implications for individuals and for society, in both the short and longer term (UNESCO-APNIEVE Sourcebook No. 3, 2005). [ Learning To Live Together in Peace and Harmony Of the four pillars of education, learning to live together is the ‘one most vital to building a genuine and lasting culture of peace in bothhuever I: THs Foun Pauans or Eowcaren 4g the Asia-Pacific region and throughout the world. The three other pillars ~ “learning to know”, “learning to do”, and “learning to be” _ are the bases for leaming to live together The Commission has put greater emphasis on the one that it proposes and describes as the foundation of education: learning to live together. ‘This can be achioved by developing an understanding of others and their history, traditions and spiritual values, On this basic We can create a new spirit guided by recognition of our growing interdependence and a common analysis of the risks and challenges of the future, This may induce people to implement common projects and to manage the inevitable conflicts in‘an intelligent and peaceful way, Learning to live together is one of the major issues in education today, since the contemporary world is too often a world of Violence. Although there has been conflict throughout history, new factors are accentuating the risk, particularly the extraordinary capacity for self-destruction humanity has created in the course of the 20" century. Therefore, we believe it is necessary to devise a form of education which will make it possible to avoid conflicts or resolve them peacefully by promoting leaming to live together with others, by developing a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism and the need for mutual understanding and peace, The third pillar of education implies that the teacher should help the students to develop an understanding of other people and appreciation of interdependence since we live in a closely connected world. ‘The teacher should help students to realize the value of being able to live together in their gradually enlarging world: home, school, community, town, city, province, country, and the world as a global village. Peace must begin with each one of us, Through quiet and serious reflection on its meaning, new «and creative ways can be found to foster understanding, [friendship and ‘cooperation among all People. ~ Javier Perez de Cuellar UN Secretary General3 6h 3 on bi pi i pe Ae 20» Cure I: Tee Four Puuane oF Eoucanon Learning to live together in ‘peace and harmony requires that quality of relationship at all levels is committed to peace, human rights, democ- racy and social justice in an ecology sustain- able environ- ment. Figure 6. Learning to Live Together: The Asia-Pacific Perspective ‘Schematic Diagram of Gore and Related Values Needed To Live Together in Peace and Harmony (Source: UNESCO-APNIEVE Sourcebook) Learning to live together in peace and harmony is a dynamic, holistic and lifelong process through which mutual respect, understand ing, caring and sharing, compassion, social responsibility, solidarity, acceptance and tolerance of diversity among individuals and groups (ethnic, social, cultural, religious, national and regional) are internalized and practiced together to solve problems and to work towards a just and free, peaceful and democratic society. This process begins with the development of inner peace in the minds and hearts of individuals engaged in the search for truth, knowledge and understanding of each other’s cultures, and the appreciation of shared common values to achieve a better future, Learning to live together involves developing, broadening or changing perceptions of an attitude toward ourselves and others and consequently, the way we behave in our daily encounters and interac- tions with others. There are multiple influences which impact on the formation of attitudes and behaviors. What is taught in school is often counter to what is learned at home, in the community and ‘through diverse media. This complex area of pedagogy, also called social and emotional learning, tequires appropriate and continuous training of teachers (Elias, 2003). It involves the teaching of a wide range of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours to enable us to interact withCluores I: Tre Four Pais oF Eoucation — 24 others in a just, equitable and empathetic manner, It thus implies far more than content, rather an approach or ethic which should include curricular’ and extracurricular activities, as well as school management and organization, The concept entails the capacity to develop:one’s own potential while learning to successfully manage relationships with others. It involves development of self-awareness and self-esteem as well as empathy and respect for others and requires the capacity for active citizenship, development of both local and global identity and an ability to understand others and appreciate diversity. Learning other lan- aftages can also enhance learning to live together as can the ability to adapt to rapid change in different areas of human activity (IBE, Geneva, 2001) A range of skills are necessary for learning to live together including skills for self-control, handling emotions, communication (self-expression, empathic listening), interpretation of behaviours, critical thinking, relationship building and cooperation, negotiation, mediation and refusal, problem solving and decision making, Many or all of these are referred to as life skills being scen as essential to meaningful personal development and social relationships in today’s world, Learning to be Last, but far from least, is the fourth pillar; learning to be which is the dominant theme of the Edgar Faure report “Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow,” published by UNESCO. The learning to be pillar, first used as the title of the 1972 Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on the Develop- ment of Education, refers to the role of education in developing all the dimensions of the complete person: the physical, intellectual, emo- tional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete man, which is a broad definition of the fundamental aims of education (Delors, 1996, p. 156). ‘The International Commission on Education for the 21+ Century picks up on this theme and clearly sets as a fundamental principle that “education” must contribute to the all-round development of each individual ~ mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic sense, personal responsibility, and spiritual values. It describes learning to be as, “the complete fulfillment of man, in all the richness of his personality, the complexity of his forms of expression and his various commitments — as individual, member of a family and of a community, citizen and producer, inventor of techniques and creative dreamer” (Delors, 1996, p. 95). The Delors Commission further defines Learning to be as a “dialectical process, which starts with knowing oneself and then Learning to be refers to the role of education in developing all the dimensions of the complete person: the plysical intellectual, emotional, and ethical integration of the individual into a complete man.22 Chen I: Tre Four Pauses oF Eoucaron Conscientization is the process of becoming ‘aware of the contradictions existing within oneself and in society and of gradually being able to bring ‘about personal and social transformation. Universal Aims of Education © towards a scientific humanism © creativity © towards social commitment © towards the complete man Faure Report, Learning To Be ‘opens to relationships with others. In that sense, education is above- all an inner journey whose stages correspond to those of the continuous maturing personality...it is thus a very individualized process and at the same time a process of constructing social interac- tion” (Delors, 1996, p. 95). APNIEVE’s definition of learning to be is founded on a humanistic philosophy of education which aims at the overall development of the human person as an individual and as a member of society. It takes account of all the powers, faculties and innate potentials within the human person, respecting the dignity and worth of each individual. It underscores the humanistic: dimensions in quality*of education, highlighting the role of values and attitudes towards a holistic and integrated approach to education. Faure’s Report refers to the individual as “unfinished,” “divided,” and “incomplete.” Education therefore must be directed towards the development of the “complete man.” The physical, intellectual, ‘emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete man is a broad definition of the fundamental aim of education.” According to Paulo Freire, an outstanding Brazilian educator, recipient of the UNESCO International Award on Education, the Comenius Medal, “humanization is man’s ultimate vocation and destiny,” and this can be accomplished through conscientization. Conscientization is the process of becoming aware of the contradic- tions existing within oneself and in society and of gradually being able to bring about personal and social transformation. This begins when the individual becomes fully conscious of his own creative potential and aims at becoming fully human, The Faure Report, learning to be, summarizes the universal aims of education as follo 1. Towards a scientific humanism, based on scientific and technological training. Command of scientific thought and language has become indispensable in today’s world. Objective knowledge, however, must be directed towards action and primarily in the service of humankind, Here one can speak of science with a conscience, and science at the service of development. Citizens of the new millennium must eam to be scientific humanists. 2. Creativity means preserving each individual's originality and creative ingenuity, along with realism; transmitting culture without stifling the individual; encouraging the use of one’s gifts, aptitudes and personal forms of expression without cultivating egoism, and paying attention to the individual’s specific traits without overlooking collective activity and welfare. This can be done when there is respect for the creativity of others and other cultures. Perez de Cuellar