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hypothesis of Louis de Broglie (1924): particles may have wave-like properties note: it took almost 20 years after noting that waves have particle like properties that particles could also have wave-like properties first experimental proof of concept in 1927 in electron scattering/diffraction experiments
De Broglie Waves
Wave Functions
The is the complex valued function describing the matter wave. The of finding a particle with wave function at time is proportional to (Max Born, 1926): at coordinate
The wavelength of this matter wave is given by the de Broglie relation. To find the wave function describing the particle wave is a more complicated problem that we will solve soon.
wave packet
group velocity:
The group velocity of the wave packet describing the particle corresponds to its velocity.
Electron Scattering
Experimental verification of de Broglie hypothesis of wave character of particles in electron scattering experiments by Davisson and Germer and independently by Thomson (1927) classical prediction: electron intensity distribution should be only weakly dependent on scattering angle and energy of incident electrons. Observation of strong angle and energy dependence.
Experimental Observation
for Ekin = 54 eV
Ta97Te60 electron diffraction is used to determine crystal structure in particular for surfaces more images http://www.microscopy.ethz.ch/ http://www.emez.ethz.ch/
YbSi1.41
Clinton Joseph Davisson 1/2 of the prize USA Bell Telephone Laboratories New York, NY, USA b. 1881 d. 1958
George Paget Thomson 1/2 of the prize United Kingdom London University London, United Kingdom b. 1892 d. 1975
interference
no interference
Which path did the particle (ball) pass through? why do we not see interference of footballs or tennis balls?
Lectures on physics, Vol. III: Quantenmechanik, Addison Wesley, Reading (Mass.) (1965)
Experimental Apparatus
SiN interference grid with pitch of 100 nm and slits of 50 nm width single molecule ionization detector one molecule interferes with itself
Measurement Result
spatially resolved interference pattern of bucky balls massive particle interfering with itself matter waves
Wave Packets
infinite waves
x =
Fourier space
wave packet
x x
Uncertainty Principle
1 :
2: +
1 + 2
Uncertainty Principle
width of modulation:
The modulation is generated by waves with wave numbers different by an amount What does this imply for the momentum of the particle as given by the de Broglie wave lengths ?
Uncertainty Principle
before: derived using wave properties of particles alternatively: consider particle properties of waves (light) here: observation of an electron using scattered light, i.e. determining position and momentum of the electron
Expectation from the Thomson model: Most particles should go straight through the metal foil because the electrons are only light particles to scatter on and the positive charge was expected to be homogenously distributed over atom.
Rutherford Model
Rutherford expected the positive charge of the atom to be accumulated in a nucleus in the center of the atom. To prove this idea he analyzed the scattering of alpha particles from such a nucleus.
Rutherfords assumptions: The nucleus and the alpha particle can be considered as point-like charged particles. The nucleus is much heavier than the alpha particle and thus can be considered to remain at rest in the problem. The electrostatic interaction is mediated by a 1/r potential (1/r2 force) leading to a hyperbolic path of the alpha particle with the nucleus in the outer focal point. b is the impact parameter and the scattering angle
kinetic energy of particle remains constant because nucleus is assumed to remain at rest, therefore
is the
momentum transfer due to the force acting on the alpha particle during the scattering
Scattering Angle
dependence on impact parameter b and kinetic energy Ek of alpha particle
Unfortunately, for a single scattering event the relation between b and cannot be determined experimentally. Therefore we will determine the number of particles that pass by the nucleus closer than an impact parameter 0f b and thus will be scattered by an angle of at least .
In actual experiments the detector measures the number of particles scattered in a range of angles around the angle .
confirms Rutherford model of the atom could be seen as the discovery of the atomic nucleus strong dependence on atomic number Z scattering angle and alpha particle energy Ek can be used to determine charge of nucleus
Consider head on collision with impact parameter . All kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy when the alpha particle reaches closest distance from nucleus .
for gold (Au, Z= 79) more accurate result for radius of nucleus from high energy (several GeV) electron scattering
Electron Orbits
In an atom model in which the negatively charged electrons move around the small positively charged nucleus stable orbits are possible. Consider the simple example of an atom with a nucleus of charge of +e and one electron with charge e on an orbit around it (like in the hydrogen atom).