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C O N T EN TS
PREFACE
CHA PTER 2 STATI STI CALM ECHANI CS REVI E W OFTHERM ODYNAM I CS AND STATI STI CALM ECHANI CS I DEAL GAS 36 Bos ons 38 Fe r mi ons 45
33 34
CONTENTS
5 3
CHAPTER 4 FERM ISYSTEM S 1 0 HARTREEFOCK APPROXI MATI ON 11 I M PERFECT FERM IGAS 128 Scaler i ng f r om aha r ds phe r e 128 Scat t er i ng t heor vi n moment um space 130 La dderdi agr ams and t he Be t he-sal pet erequat i on Ga l i l s ki i ' si n t egr a lequat i ons 139 The pr opersel f ener gy 142 Phys i calquant i t i es 146 Just i f i ca t i on oft er ms p e l ai ned 149 DEGENERATE ELZCTRON GAS 151 Gr ounds t a t e ener gy and t he di el ect r i c cons t ant 151 Ri ng di a gr ams 154 ' E val uat i on ofF I D 158 Cor r el a t i on ener gy 163 Ef f ect i ve i nt er act i on 166 CHAPTER 5 LI NEAR RESPO NSE AND COLLECTI V E M ODES 13 GENERAL THEORY OF LI NEAR RESPONSE TO AN EXTERNAL PERTURBATI ON 172 14 SCREENI NG I N AN ELECTRON GAS 175 15 PLASM A OSCI LLATI ONS I N AN fLECTRON GAS 180 16 ZERO SOUND I N AN I M PERFECT FERM IGAS 183 17 I NELASTI C ELECTRON SCATTERI NG 188 CHA PTER 6 BO SE SYSTEM S 18 FO RM ULATI ON OFTHE PROBLEM 19 GREEN' S FUNCTI ONS 203 199
120
171
198
CONTENTS
xi
ON THEOBY AND FEYNMAN RULES 207 20 PERTURBATI l nt er act i on pi c t ur e 207 Fe ynmanr ul esi ncoor di na t espace 208 F eynmanr ul esi nm oment um space 209 Dys on' se quat i ons 211 L ehmann r epr es ent at i on 214 21 W EAKLY I NTERACTI NG BOSE GAS 215 22 DI LUTE BOSE GAS W I TH 9EPULSI VECO9ES 218
226
227
Re l a t t o nt oo bs e r v a b l e s 2 29
Exampl e :noni nt er act i ng sy st em 232 PERTURBATI ON THEORY AND W I CK' S THEOREM FOR FI NI TE TEM PERATURES 234 I nt er act i on pi ct ur e 234
Per i odi ci t yof@ 236 Pr oofofW i ck' st heor em 237 25 DI AGRAM MATI C ANALYSI S 241 Fe ynman r ul esi nc oor di nat espace 242 Feynman r ul e si n momen t um spac e 244 Eval uat j onoff r eque ncys ums 248 26 DYSON' S ECUATI ONS 250
CHAPTER 8 PHYSI CALSYSTEM S AT FI NI TE TEM PERATURE 27 HARTREEFOCKAPPROXI M ATI ON 255 28 I M PERFECT BOSE GAS NEAR Tc 259 29 SPECI FI C HEAT OFAN I M PERFECT FERM IGAS AT LOW TEM PERATURE 261 Lowt emper al ur eexpans i on of@ 262 Har t r eeFock appr oxi ma t i on 262 Eval uat i on oft he ent r opy 265 30 ELECTRON GAS 267 Appr oxi mat e pr opers el f ener gy 268 Summat i on ofr i ng di agr ams 271 Appr oxi mat et her modynami cpot ent i a l 273 Cl as si c alI i mi t 275 Zer ot emper at ur el i mi t 281 CHAPTER 9 REALTI M E G REEN' S FUNCTI O NS AND LI NEAR RESPONSE 31 GENERALI ZED LEHM ANN 8EPRESENTATI ON 292
291 265
De f i n i t i o no f
2 9 2
Re t ar ded and a dvance df unct i ons 294 Temper at ur e Gr ee n' sf unct i ons and anal yt i c cont i nuat i on 297 32 LI NEAR RESPONSE AT FI NI TETEM PERATURE 298 Gener all heor y 298 Dens i t y cor r el a t i onf unc t i on 300 33 SCREENI NG I N AN ELECTRON GAS 303 34 PLASM A OSCI LL ATI ONS I N AN ELECTRON GAS 3Q7
xi i
CONTENTS
311
313
3 39
341
40 I NDEP ENDE NTP AR TI CL E( F E RMI GAS)MODEL 3 52 41 I NDEP ENDE NTP AI RAPPROXI MATI ON ( BRUE CKNER' STHE ORY) 35 7
Sel f cons i s t en tBe t heGol ds t one e quat i on 358 Sol ut i on f ora nons i ngul ars quar ewel lpot ent i al 360
366 42 RELATI ON T0 GREEN' S FUNCTI ONS AND BETHESALPETEB EQUATI ON 377 43 THEENERGY GAP I N NUCLEAR M AU ER 383
So l u t i o n f ap u r e h a r dc or eq ot e n t i a li 3 6 3 ent Pr oper t i es ofnucl earma t t erwr t h a' ' r eal st i c' 'pot i al
CH APTER 12 PHO NONS AND ELECTRO NS 44 THENONI NTERACTI NG PHONON SYSTEM 390 La gr angi an andhami l t oni an 391 Debyet b eor yoft bespe ci f i chea t 393 45 THE ELECTRONPHONON I NTERACTI ON 396 46 THECOUPLEDFI ELD THEORY 399 Feynma nr ul e sf or' r= 0 399 The e qui val entel ect r ooel ec t r oni nt e? act on 401. Ver t ex par t s :nd Dys on' s equat i ons 402 47 MI GDAL ' S THEOREM 406 CHAPTER 13 SUPERCOND UCTI VI TY 48 FUNDAM ENTAL PROPERTI ES OFSUPERCONDUCTORS 414 Ba si ce xpe r i men t alf act s 414 The/ modynami cr el a t i ons 417 49 LONDONPI PPARD PHENOMENOLOGI CALTHEORY 420 Der i va t i on ofLondon equat i ons 42Q Sol ut i onf orhal f s paceand s l ab 421 Conser va t i onandqua nt i z at i on off l uxol d 423 Pi ppar d' sgener a l i z edequat i on 425 50 GI NZBURGLANDAU PHENOM ENOLOGI CALTHEORY 430 Expans i on oft he f r a e en er gy 430 Sol ut i on i ns i m pl e cas es 432 Fl ux quant i za t i on 435 Sudacee ner gy 436
389
413
CONTENTS
439 4 4 7
454
444
De l e r mi n a l i on o f t h eg a pf un c t i onZ( F)
Ther modyoam i cf unc t i ons 449 52 LI NEAR RESPONSETO A W EAK MAGNE TI C FI ELD Der i vat i onoft hegener alk er nel 455 M ei s snere f f ect 459
Nonl ocali nt egr alr el a t i on 463 53 M I CROSCOPI C DERI VATI ON OF GI NZBURGLANDAU EQUATI ONS 466 CHAPTER 14 SUPERFLUI D H ELI UM 54 FUNDAM ENTAL PROPERTI ES OF He 1 1 481 Bas i c exper i ment alf ac t s 481 Landau' s quasi par t i cl e model 484 55 W EAKLY I NTERACTI NG BOSE GAS 488 Gener a lf or mul at i on 489 Uni f or m condensa t e 492 Nonuni f or m condensa t e 495
Pe n e t r a t i onde p t hi n Pi p pa r d( n on l oc a l )I i mi t 4 61
479
CHAPTER 15 APPLI CATI O NS TO FI NI TE SYSTEM S :THE ATOM I C NU CLEU S 56 GENERALCANONI CAL TRANSFORM ATI ON TO PARTI CLES AND HOLES 504 57 TH E SI NGLE-PARTI CLE SHELL M ODEL 508 Appr oxi ma t e Har t r ee-Fock wave f unct i ons and I evelor der i ngs i na cent r alpot ent i af 508 Spi nor bi ts pl i t i ng 511 Si ngl epadi cl e mat r i x el ement s 512 58 M ANY PARTI CLES I N A SHELL 515
503
S ol u t i onf o rt he E lB l d i me ns i o na l s up e r mu l t i p l e twi t h a8 ( x )f or c e
An appl i cat i on t o nucl ei :O1 6 555 60 EXCI TED STATES :G REEN' S FUNCTI ON M ETHO DS The pol ar i z at i on pr opagat or 558 Random phase appr oxi mat i on 564 Tamm Dancof f appr oxi mat i on 565 558
5 47
Con s t r u c t i o no f1 R( r , ) )i nt h e RP A
5 6 6
61 REALI STI C NUCLE AR FORCES 567 Tw o nucl eons out s i de cl osed shel l s: t he i ndependent pai r appr oxi mat i on 567 Bet he-Gol ds t one equat i on 568 Har moni cos ci l l at orappr oxi mat i on 570 Paul ipr i nci pl ec or r ect i on 574 Ex t ens i onsandca l cul at i onsofot herqua nt i t i es 574
xi v
CO NTENTS
A PPENDI XES
A B DEFI NI TEI NTEGRALS 579 RE VI E W OFTF I ETHE OHY OFANGUL AR MOME NTUM 5 8 Bas i ccommut 1 a t i on r el at i ons 581 Coupl i ng of t wo angk l l ar moment a : Cl ebs ch -Gor C dancoef f i ci ent s 582 oupl i n g oft hr e e angul armoment a: he6l r / c oe f f i c i e n t s 5 85 educi bl et ensorope r a t or sandt be Wi gner -Eckar Tr tt heor em 586 ensoroper a t or si ncoupl edschemes 587
579
I NDEX
589
N U M ER I CA L VA LU ES O F SO M E PH YS I CA L Q U A NTI TI ES
h- hl z , z
c
k s
me m#
-l . 3 81x 1 0 -1 6e r g( O K) t
- 9. 11 0x 1 02 8g =1 . 673 x 1 02 4g
mp l me
t , Avogadr o' snum ber
=1 8 3 6
= 4. 8 03 x 1 0-1 0es u = 6. 022 x 1 02 3m ol e-t
e l l h c= a p . a= e h l z me c y , s= e h l l mp c lRy= e l j l a n= : 4 me l z h l
t u = hn l me el
=( 1 3 7 . 0 ) 1 =9 . 2 7 4x 1 02 1 e r gg a u s s l =5 . 05 1x 1 02 *e r gg a u s s l =1 3. 61e V
= 5. 292 x 1 0-9c m
A e=hl m. c A p= h l mp c
mpc 2
=3 . 8 6 2x1 0 1 'c m =2 . 1 0 3x 1 0 1 4c m
= 93 8. 3M e V
( a =h cl le
hc 1e v
= 2. 068 x 1 0-7gaus sc m2
=1 97. 3x 1 0-: 3M e Vc m =1 . 602 x 1 0-1 2er g
D. N.La ng e nG r g. Re t ' . Mo d. Ph ys . . 4 1 :3 7 5( 1 9 6 9 ) .
par t one
Introd ucti on
The phys i calwor l d cons i s t s ofi nt er act i ng m anypar t i c l es ys t e ms . A n ac cur a t e des cr i pt i on ofs uch s ys t e m sr e qui r e st he i ncl us i on of t he i nt e r par t i c l e pot ent i al s i nt he m anypar t i c l e Schr di ng er equat i on. and t hi s pr obl em f or mst he ba s i c
s u b j e c toft h ep r e s e n tb o ok .l np r i n c i p l e ,t heNb od y wa v ef un c t i on i nc on hgur at i on s pac ec ont ai ns a l l pos s i bl ei nf or m at i on,but a di r e ct s ol ut i on of t he Sc hrdi ngere quat i on i si m pr ac t i c al . l ti st her ef or e nec e s s ar y ' t or e s or tt o ot her t ec hni que s , and we s hal lr e l y on s ec ond qua nt i zat i on, quant um t i e l dt heor y, and t he us e ofG r e en' sf unct i ons . l n ar e l at i vi s t i ct heor y,t he c onc eptofs e cond quant i zat i on i s es s ent i alt o de s c r i be t he cr e a t i on and de s t r uct i on of par t i c l e s . i Eve ni n a nonr e l at i v i s t i ct heor y.howe ve r ,s e cond quant i za t i on gr eat l ys i m pl i f i es t he di s cus s i on of m any i de nt i ca li nt er ac t i n g par t i c l e s . z Thi s appr oa ch m e r e l y
!P. A.M , Di r ac , Pr o c .Rt l y ' . So c . l o n d o n) , 1 1 4 A: 2 4 3( 1 9 2 7) . 2P. J or d a na nd 0.Kl e i n. Z. Ph ys i k.4 5: 75 1( I 9 2 7) ;P, J or d an a nd E.P.W' i g n e r , Z.Phv s i k, 47: 6 3l( 1 9 2 8) ;V.Foc k, Z. Ph y s i k,7 5: 62 2( 1 93 2) . Al t h ou gh d i f l k r e nti nd e t a i l ,t h ea p pr o ac h
pr es ent ed her ef ol l owst hes pi r i toft hi sl as tpaper.
3
l Nrqoouczl oN
r er or m ul at es t he or i gi nal Schr di nger e quat i on. N e ve r t he l es s ,i thas s e ve r al di s t i nc t advant age s:t he s ec ondquant i z ed oper at or si nc or por at et he s t at i s t i cs
H = . N . k k ) +J O N - Vl x k , r I ) .' . Tl
#=1 k=u 1 =1
wher er i st he ki ne t i ce ne r g y and V ri st he pot ent i ale ner gy ot i nt er ac t i on be t we en t he par t i cl e s. The quant i t y xk denot es t he c oor di nat e s of t he t h par t i cl e ,
1 R.P . Fe y n ma n, Ph ys .Re t ' . . 7 6: 7 4 9( 1 9 4 9 ) ; 7 6: 7 6 9( 1 9 4 9 ) . ' F. J .Dys o n-# / ? y ' . .Re t ' . . 7 5: 4 8 6( 1 9 4 9) *7 , 52 1 7 3 6( 1 9 4 9) .
i nc l udi ng t he s pat i a l coor di nat e xk and a ny di s cr et e var i abl es s uch as t he z com ponent of s pi nf or a s ys t em of -f er mi ons or t he z c om ponent of i s ot opi c s pi nf or a s y s t em ofnuc l e ons . The pot ent i al e ner gy t er m r e pr es ent st he i nt e r ac t i on be t we en e ver y pai r of pa r t i c l e s ,c oun e dt l p ? t t x . whi c h acc ount sf or t he
f a c t oro f 1 .a n dt h ed ou bl es u mr un so v t l rt h ei n d i c c sk a n d/ s e p a r a t e l y . e x c l u d i n g
t he va l t t eke qualt oJ .s vi t ht hi shami l t oni an-t het i me dependentSc hr di nger equat i on i s gi ven bq
t oget herw i t h anappr opr i at es e tofboundar yc ondi t i onsf ort hewavef unct i onT . W es t ar t by e xpandi ng t he m anypar t i cl e wave f unct i on t 1 'i na c om pl e t e s e t of t i me i nde pendent s i ngl e pa r t i c l e wav ef unc t i ons t hat i nc or por at et he boundar y condi t i ons . For e xam pl e ,i fwe hav e al ar ge hom o ge neous s y s t e mi ti snat ur al t oe xpandi nas e tofpl a newave si naI ar geboxwi t h pe r i odi cboundar y e ondi t i ons :al t e r na t i ve l y,i fweha veas ys t e m ofi nt e r ac t i ng e l e c t r onsi n an at om , a com pl et es e t of s i ngl epar t i cl e coul om b wav ef unc t i ons i s com m onl y us e d, . f i nal l y,i fw' ehav e par t i cl esm ov i ng i n acr ys t all at t i c e.aconv eni e ntchoi cei st he com pl e t es e tofBl oc h wav ef unc t i onsi nt heappr opr i a t eper i odi cpot e nt i a l . We s hal ius et hege ne r a lnot at i on f ort he s i ngl e par t i cl ewavef unc t on
m 1 . s k ( x k )
.
whe r e Ek r epr e s ent sa c om pl et es e t of s i ngl e par t i cl e quant um num be r s . For e xam pl e ,Ekdenot esp f ora s ys t e m ofs pi nl e s sbos onsi n a box,orE, J,and $ f f oras e tofs pi nl es spar t i c l e si n ac ent r alt ' i e l d.orp.s ' zf orahom ogene ouss ys t e m off er mi ons .and s o on. I ti sconv eni e nt t oi ma gi ne t hatt hi si nl i ni t es e t of
A s '
p a r t i c l e w' a v ef u nc t i on i na c o mpl e t es e to fs t a t e s . Si n c et h e 4s ( . v )a r et i me
i ndependent ,a1 loft he t i me de pe nde nce of t he wav ef unc t i on appear si nt he
c o e mc i e n t st 7 ( f ' 1 .. .Es . . r ) . Le tu sn ow i n s e r tEq . ( 1 . 3 )i n t ot h eS c hr d i n g e r e q ua t i o na n dt h e nm u l t i pl y b3 't , h ee x p r e s s i on 4: , ( xh ) A '''' / i s v t xx l l ,wh i c hi st h epr o du c toft hea d j oi n t wa v ef u n c t i o nsc o r r e s p on d i n gt o aJxp ls e tt ? / q u a l l t u n lr / l f n / y c r . Ej...Es J . I n t e g r a t eo v e ra l I t h ea pp r o pr i a t ec o o r d i na t e s( t h i sma yi nc l u d e as u mo v e rs p l n coor di nat esi ft he pa r t i c l e s have s pi n) . On t he l ef t hand s i de.t hi spr oc e dur e
.
I NTRODUCTI ON
Ek qpz. + ,...Es , t )
x C( E1 '.'f: IW ' fk . y l
( 1 . 4 )
Si ncet he ki net i ce ne r g yi sa s i ng l e par t i cl e oper at ori nv ol vi ng t he coor di nat e s oft hepa r t i c l e soneata t i m e,i tc an changeonl y one oft hes i ngl epar t i c l ewave f unc t i ons . The or t honor m al i t y of t he s i ng l epar t i cl e wave f unc t i ons ens ur es t hatal lbutt hekt h par t i c l em us tha ve t heor i gi nalgi ve n quant um num be r s ,but t hewavef bnct i on oft he1t h par t i cl ec ans t i l lrun ove rt hei nsni t es e tofquant um num ber s . To be v er y ex pl i c i t ,wehavede not e dt hi svar i abl ei nde x by l #'i nt he aboveequat i on. A s i mi l arr es ul thol dsf ort hepot e nt i alene r gy. Thes i t uat i on i sa l i t t l e m or ecom pl i c at e d,howev er ,be c aus et he pot e nt i ale ne r gyi nvol v est he coor di na t e soft wo pa r t i c l e s.Atm os t ,i tcan c ha ng et hewavef unc t i onsoft wo par t i c l es ,t he kt h and / t h par t i c l e sf or e xam pl e,whi l e aI lt he ot he r quant um
nu mb e r s mu s tb et h es a me a st h os e weha v ep r o j e c t e d ou t . Th eq ua n t u m
num ber soft hekt h par t i cl es t i l lr un ove ran i nfni t es e tofval ues ,de not e d by H? ' , andt hequant um numbe r soft he/ t h par t i c l es t i l lr unove rani nfni t es e tofval ue s , de not e d by Hz ' ' . Eac h gi ven s etofqua nt um num ber sEj '' 'Es l e ads t oa di f l kr e nte quat i on,yi e l di ng a ni nhni t es e tofcoupl e d di f l kr ent i alequat i onsf or t het i me de pe nde ntcoe ci e nt soft hem anypa r t i c l ewav ef unct i on. W enow i ncor por at et hes t at i s t i csoft hepar t i cl es . Them anypar t i c l ewa ve f unct i on i sa s s um ed t o havet hef ol l owi ng pr ope r t y
( 1 . 5 )
wher e,asdi s c us s e d abov e,t hecoor di na t ex:i nc l udest hes pi nf oran a s s e m bl y of
An e c e s s a r ya n ds uc i e n tc on d i t i o nf o rEq . ( 1 . 5 )i st ha t t h ee x p a ns i onc oe c i e n t s
t he ms e l v esbe e i t hers ym m e t r i c or ant i s ymm et r i c unde rt he i nt e r change oft he cor r es pondi ng qua nt um num ber s
( j . 6 j
Th es uc i e n c yo fEq. ( 1 . 6 )i se a s i l ys e e nbys r s tc a r r yi n go u tt h ep a r t i c l ei n t e r c hangeon t hew a ve f unc t i on and t hen ca r r yi ng outt heappr opr i at ei nt er c hange
Par t i c l e st hatr e qui r et he pl us s i gn ar ecal l e db os ons ,and we t e m por ar i l y conc ent r at e on s uch s ys t e ms. The s ymme t r y oft hecoe c i ent sunde ri nt e r chang e of quant um num be r s al l ows us t or e gr oup t he quant um num ber s appear i ng i n anycoemci ent . Outoft hegi vens etofquant um numbe r sE l ' ..fx,s uppos e t ha tt hes t a t e1occ ur sr l jt i me s , t hes t a t e2oc cur snzt i m es , ands oon, f orex am pl e,
( 1 . 7 )
Cons i de rt he nor mal i zat i on of t he manypar t i c l e wav ef unc t i on. The nor mal i za t i on c ondi t i on c an ber e pr es ent e ds ymbol i ca l l ya s
J1 ' Fl 2 ( # ' r )= 1
( 1 . 8 )
wh i c h me a ns :t a k et hewa v ef un c t i o n,mu l t i p l yi tb yi t sa d j oi n t ,a n di n t e g r a t e
overa1 1t he appr opr i a t ec oor di nat es . The r es ul t i ng nor mal i z at i on gua r ant e e s t hatt het ot a lpr obabi l i t yofsndi ng t hes ys t e ms om e whe r ei n consgur a t i on s pac e i suni t y. Theor t honor mal i t y oft hes i ngl e par t i c l ewavef unct i onsi mme di at e l y yi el dsa c or r e s pondi ngc ondi t i on on ourexpans i on c oe ci ent sC
Ej ' ''Es
( C( fl
f. v , t ) 1 2= l
( 1 . 9 )
W enow m akeus eoft he e qua l i t y ofal 1coe ci ent sc ont ai ni ng t he s am enum ber
ofpa r t i cl esi nt hes ames t at est or e wri t et hi scondi t i on i nt e r msoft hec oemc i e ntC
E ...E ( n , k a... J . ) Her et hes um i ss pl i ti nt ot wo pi e ce s:f i r s t ,s um ov era1 lv al uesoft he quant um
J (
1= 1
( l . l 0 )
( n , n z n a ...n . ) ,a n dt h e ns um o v e ra l ls e t so fo c c u pa t i on nu mb e r s .I ti s
c l e ar t hat t hi s pr oce dur ei s mer e l y a wa y of r e gr oupi ng a1 lt he t er m si nt he s um . The pr obl em of s um m i ng ove r al ls et sofquant um num ber s cons i s t e nt wi t h ag i ve ns e tofoc cupat i on num be r si se qui val e ntt ot he pr obl e m ofput t i ng
I NTRODUCTI ON
2 .ni =N i =l
( 1 . 1 2 )
fx , ? ) ' ) s , ( xl )-. .
ps s l x , s ' )
' / J s , ( xl )'''/s x ( x , v )
( n l , 1 a... ; . )
E ...E
t h ec o e c i e n t si nt h i se x p a ns i on a r ej u s tt h es e to f/' s . No t et h ef ol l o wi n g
Pr oper t i e soft he* ' s
3 n : n ,
. . -
3, , .. ( ., 1 . 1 8 )
t h r e es p i n l e s sb o s on s ,t wo o f wh i c h oc c u p yt he g r o u nd s t a t e( d e n o t e db yt h e s ub s c r i p t1 )a nd o neo fwh i c h oc c u p i e st h ef i r s te x c i t e ds t a t e( d e n ot e db yt h e s u b s c r i p t2 ) : *2 1 :. .. ( ) ( . Y i . Y 2 . X 3 )
( / 1 ( 1 ) /1 ( 2 ) / 2 ( 3 ) +/1 ( 1 ) / X 2 ) /i ( 3 ) +/ 2 ( 1 ) / 1 ( 2 ) /1( =Y 3 ) 2 x / q
W er e t u r nt ot h ea n a l y s i so fEq. ( 1 . 4 ) , wh e r ei ti si mpo r t a n tt or e me mb e r
t hatE j . . ' fz vi sagi v e ns e to fq u a n t u mn u mb e r si nt h i se x pr e s s i o n . Co ns i d e r ir s tt he ki ne t i c e ner gy t er m ,whi c hc an be r e wr i t t e ni na n obvi ouss hort hand
N N
Z ZI c fk f rl r # ' )C( fl'''Ek jI # ' Q. . I'''EN , t )=k=1 ZZ ( ( fk t rr r P ' ) :=1 < <
( 1 . 1 9 )
He r e ,t he r i ght s i de m ake se xpl i c i tt he obs er vat i on t hatt he quant um num be r Ek oc cur s one l es st i m e and t he quant um num ber Hz roc cur s one m or et i me . N ow eve r yt i m eEkt ake st hes am eval uei nt he s um m at i on ove rk,1 e tuss a yE
Z n z E
Tha ti s ,as u mo v e rpa r t i c l e si se q ui v a l e n tt o as um o v e rs t a t e s ,a n d Eq.( 1 . 1 9 )
bec om es
N
) () (( Fj r( r f ' )ns E +
x C( nI nz-.-n s- 1 ---nw . + 1 .'-n . , t )
I NTROOUCTI ON
The s um on E i s now i nsni t e .runni ng overa1 loft he s i ngl epar t i c l e quant um num ber s ,butm os tof t he A 7 s ar e ze r os i nc et hos es t at esar e notocc upi e di nt he or i gi nal gi ven s et of quant um num ber s El . '.E, nal l y, i ti s conveni ent s . . Fi t os i m pl i f yt he not a t i on,whi ch yi el ds V N N', . . . Ek I . F' 1 4 / ' z ) C( Ej...E< ,I Z I Z ' F: ,...E. s . , t ) =j N ' n i / i E ' rp j' . k l; i :x i J -
1 r N' N'N'' ' EkE l i ; z ' I i j J , ' 4 , 6 , / ' ' . ) kc p tI =1 W' H '
% '
=
E1 /' E l+l - lU
l J
R= l=1 $ $ '1 i ' '
' 'l : E k- 1 - - - 1 1 w ru .1
l l . E I- 1 - --
Ag a i n. e v e r yt i meEkt a k e st h es a m ev a l u e ,s a yf( t h i so c c u r sn Et i me s ) , a nd L t akest hes ameval ue, s a yE' ( t hi soc eur sns, t i mes ) . i tmake st hes a meeont r i but i on
t ot he s um . Ther ei s onl y one s l i ght f ur t her com pl i c at i on her e .owi ng t ot he r es t r i c t i on k # l i nt he doubl es um . Thus i ti s ne c es s ar yt o us et he f bl l owi ng count i ng f ort he num be roft er m sappe ar i ng i nt hi ss um
1 . ? ? s ? ? s , i fE % E'
! ws ( ? 7 s- l ) i fE = f'
bec aus et he r e s t r i c t i on k , # nldoes not af l kc tt he count i ng i fE y nF ' ,whi l et he e i ge nval ueE i sc ount e d onel e s st i m ei nt hes ec ondsum i fE = F ' . Thepot e nt i al ene r gy now be com esa doubl yi nt i ni t es um ,butm os toft he f ac t or s? 7 sand ny '
kr h . l -1 # f kp' '
. .
. .
t l X, t )
( 1 . 2 3 )
. . .a.,t )
. . nj- . ! . . . ng. j . j.
( 1 . 2 4 )
wher e( et c. ' 's t andsf ort her em ai ni ng 1 3 pos s i bl ee num e r at i onsoft hee qual i t i es
n x, ? )
W es hal lt em por ar i l yf or g ett he j l z o vi ousana l ys i sand i ns t e ad s e ek a c om pl e t el y di pkr e nt quant um me chani c al bas i st ha t des cr i bes t he num ber of par t i c l e s occ upyi ngea ch s t at ei nac om pl e t es e tofs i ngl epar t i c l es t at e s . Fort hi sr eas on wei nt r oducet het i me i nde pe nde nta bs t r acts t at ev e c t or s
.. .y j x)
wher et henot a t i onm e anst hatt he r ear enjpar t i cl esi nt hee i ge ns t at e1, nzpar t i c l e s i nt he ei ge ns t at e 2,et c. W e wantt hi sbas i st o be com pl et e and or t honor mal , whi c hr equi r e st hatt hes es t at ess at i s f yt he c ondi t i ons
.t t X '! nj nz . .
or t hogonal i t y
( 1 . 2 6 )
c om pl e t ene s s
N ot et hatt he com pl et e nes ss um i g ove ral lpos s i bl e oc cupat i on num ber s ,wi t h no r es t r i c t i on. To m ake t hi s bas i s m or ec onc r et e,i nt r oduc et i l ne i nde pe nde nt ope r at or sbk hats at i s f yt hecom m ut at i on r ul es ,b% kt
( / u, ? ( ' )=b k k . b o s on s
p b, k 'kJ - pl k 5 : 1 k , 2 -0
( 1 . 2 7 )
( 1 . 2 8 )
The num be r oper at or>l pe ct r um ofei genv al uest hati nc l udesa1 1t he k bk has a s pos i t i ve i nt e ge r s and z er o. b ki s a des t r uc t i on ope r at or t hat dec r e as e st he
m b, 7 2 .. - ( )
( / 7 ' b. > ), . -. . b
Wi t h Eq.(1 . 30) .i ti seas yt os e et hatt he oper at orb ac t i ng on an e i g ens t at eN Ni t h
ei ge nv al ue ? ; pr oduc e s: 1 nc N se i ge ns t at e of t he num berope r at orbutu . i t he i g enval ue r e duc ed by one uni t . Thi sr es ul ti s pr oN b e d ur i t ht he f ol l ou' i ng r e l a t i ons
ot her wi s e Eq.( 1 . 31 )coul d pr oduce a s t at e wi t h a nega t i ve ei g ens ' al ue oft he numbe r ope r at or .i nc ont r adi c t i on t o Eq.( l. 29) . Henc ez e r oi s one pos s i bl e ei g enval ue of t he number oper at or .I n exa ct l yt hc s ame wa y. t he a dj oi nt
c om m ut at i on r ul e
( l ' # b . d ? 1 ' )= b %
s howst hatb %i st hecr eat i on oper at orand i nc r e as e st het . l ue oft he num bc ' r . . ..al ope r at orby one uni t . The hr s tofEqs.( l . 28)i st huspr ove d. Fur t her mor e.a
combi nat i on ofEqs .(l . 29)and (1 . 3l )l ' i el ds t he s ec ond of Eqs .( 1 . 28) .ap ar t
f r om an ove r al lphas e whi c hc an be chos en t o be uni t y wi t h no l os sofge ner al i t y.
Fi nal l yt hel as tofEqs .( 1 . 28)i spr ove di ne xac t l ys i mi l arf a shi on. l
The pr e ce di ng di s cus s i on has bee nr es t r i c t ed t o as i ngl e m ode. howev er .r e adi l yv er i se dt h att he num be roper at or sf ordi f T er e ntm odescom m ut e . whi c h m eanst hatt hee i ge ns t at esoft het ot als ys t em c an bes i m ul t aneouse i ge n-
1 ' 1 1 . * ( t ) ' N=
' V
1 1In2 ' ' ' Ra ;
f( r ? l n z '.'n x , t ) ! nI nz''
14
I NTBODUCTI ON
( 1 . 3 5 )
( 1 . 3 6 )
The dum m y i ndi c e si nt hi ss um m a t i on m a y be r el abel e d wi t ht he s ubs t i t ut i on
n ke n y '
( k . +i or j)
( 1 . 3 7 )
Fur t her m or e,i ti spos s i bl et os um t hepr i me d oc cupat i on num ber sov ere xac t l y t he s am e val ue s as t he or i gi nalunpr i med occ upa t i on num ber s caus et he , be
,---,t .n l j
( ( n 3 ' =s )
x( n ; +l ( ) 1( n J ( ) 11 ...n' j + l ...n j - 1. ( 1 . 3 8 )
N ow obs e r vet hatt hes t at eve c t orwi t ht heval ueofa' f r ai s e d by oneand t heval ue '
( 1 . 4 0 )
1g
a sa c o ns e q u e n c e ,t h i sa bs t r a c ts t a t ev e c t o r1 N' 4 1 ) )s a t i s h e st h eS c h r di ng e r
equ at i on
f / i j j1 , 1 , ( r ) )- 4 I , I . ' ( f ) )
( 1 . 41 )
Hi l b e r ts p a c e( e x c e p twh e r et h i si so b v i o u s ,a si nt h ec r e a t i on a n dd e s t r uc t i on o p e r a t or s )a n dt heh a mi l t o ni a nX i sg i v e nb yt h ee x pr e s s i o n
( 1 . 4 2 )
ne wf o r mu l a t i o n. I np a r t i c u l a rt hec o e c i e n t s /s p e c i f yt h ec o n ne c t i o nb e t we e n
Er s tand s ec ond qua nt i z at i on. Fo rev e r ys o l ut i o nt ot heor i gi nalt i med e pe nde ntmanypar t i c l eSc hr di nger
I ft h en e g a t i v es i g ni nEq.( 1 . 6 )i su s e d, t h ep a r t i c l e sa r ec a l i e df e r mi o n s . Th e
s am e gener al anal ys i sa ppl i es ,but t he de t ai l s ar ea l i t t l e m or ec om pl i ca t ed be caus e oft he mi nus s i gns i nvol ve di nt he ant i s ymmet r y oft he c oec i e nt C.
( 1 . . 43 )
The C% s ar e ant i s ymme t r i ci nt he i nt e r c hange ofany t wo quant um numbe r s . whi ch i mpl i e st ha tt hequant um numbe rEkmus tbe di f l kr e ntf r om t he quant um numberEJ or t he coe ci entvani s he s . Thi sr e s ul ts howst ha tt he oc c upat i on numbernk mus tbee i t herz er oorone ,whi c hi st hes t a t e me ntoft hePaul ie xc l us i on pr i nci pl e. Any c oec i e nt st hathavet he s ame s t at e soc cupi e d ar eequa lwi t l k i n
( 1 . 4 4 )
16
I NTRODUCTI ON
whe r ewesr s ta r r angeal l t hequant um numbe r si nt hecoec i e ntCi nani nc r e as i ng s e quenc e. Exa c t l yasbe f or e ,t hemanypar t i c l ewav ef unct i onT canbeexpanded
as
l
'
*.: . . ... nj !
t r 4, . , n ( xl ).
k z z j o t xx l r j
( j
$ '
( xl.--x s j =
x!
a +1 .!
(
j( 1 . 4 6 )
1 /z . x ( ' ( xI ) -'-/s s ( , ( x . v ) !
The s i ngl e pa r t i c l e quant um num ber soft he oc c upi ed s t at esar e now as s um e d
( 1 . 4 7 )
l l r s l s f l= 3 r s
f e r mi o n s ( 1 . 4 8 )
l J . , J , ) =( t 0, J 1 ) =0
wher et heant i com m ut at ori sde :ne d byt hef ol l owi ngr el at i on
( #, . B)- ! . 1 , . B) +% , . 4 . B+ . 9, 4
( 1 . 4 9 )
I ti seas i l ys e en t ha tt hi sdi Fer ents e tofcomm ut at i on r ul e spr oduc est hecor r ec t s t at i s t i cs:
l *a.l =J 1 J 2 =0 * 't h e r e f o r e df 01 0 )=0 , wh i c h oc cupyi ngt hes am es t at e.
'J.C.Sl at er ,Phys. Re v . , 3 4: 1 2 9 3( 1 9 2 9 ) . 2P.J or dan and E.P. W i gner .l oc.ci t.
p r e v e n t st wo p a r t i c l e sf r o m
17
2 a% a= 1- a a %( wh e r e we t a k et he o p e r a t o r sr e f e r r i n gt ot h es a me mo de ) ;
t he r e f or e
( f z f a s 2- 1- l aa %+ a a % a l f= 1- 2 / 2 +a ( l- J 2) a %= 1- a a %= a %a
or
a1 d l- a% * -0
( 1 . 5 0 )
f or wa r dt op r o v et h a tt h ec o mmt l t a t o rl r . r l s lv a n i s h e s ,e v e nt h ou g ht h e
i ndi vi dual cr e at i on and de s t r uct i on ope r a t or s ant i c ommut e. Thi sr es ul t
p e r mi t st h es i mu l t a n e ou sdi a g on a l i z a t i ono ft h es e t( H r ) , i na g r e e me nt wi t ht h e
de sni t i on oft heoc c upat i onnumbe rs t at ev e ct or s . 3 .Theant i com m ut at i on r ul e st he ms e l ve s .al ongwi t h an ove r al lc hoi ceofphas e , t her ef or e yi el dt he f ol l owi ng r e l at i onsf ort her ai s i ng and l owe r i ng ope r a t or s
c ' f p O )- I 1 ) )
af ' j h .I , = 0
The ant i com m ut a t i on r ul e ss l i ght l yc om pl i c at et he di r ec t pr oduc ts t at e
1 nl nz...r ? . ) ,b e c a u s ei tb e c o me se s s e n t i a lt ok e e pt r a c ko fs i gn s . Wi t h
t hede f l ni t i on
x 1 t n ! t u t l r l a...( u ' t ) n . j g . j n, n z .' 'n . =( t 7 ! ) 2 r . '
( j . j ; )
wecan com put e di r e ct l yt he ese ctoft he des t r uct i on ope r at orason t hi ss t at e; i fn s= 1 ,we 5nd
' a s : nb ? 7 1
, . .
( j . j 3 j
( 1 . 5 4)
N ot et hati fns= 0,t he ope r at orasc an be m ov ed a1 lt he way t ot he vac uum , yi el di ng ze r o. I ft her ei sone par t i c l ei nt he s t a t ens ,i ti sc onve ni entsr s tt o us e 1= l - a% a, and t hen t ot ake t he as of t t he ant i com m ut at i on r e l at i on as as , he s ec ond t er m t ot he v acuum wher ei t gi v es z e r o. Thus we f i nal l y ar r i v e at t he t hr e er e l a t i ons i fns= 1 ot he r wi s e
i fn s =0 ( l . 5 5 )
ot her wi s e
18
I NTRODUCTI ON
The t hi r dr el at i on i st be m os t us e f ul ,f ori ts hows t hatt he numbe r ope r at or i nt r oduc e sno e xt r a phas e s . Ther e as on f orwr i t i ng t hesr s tt wo e quat i onswi t h
c on s i d e rt hek i n e t i c e ne r g yt e r mi nEq . ( 1 . 4 )
i ! s p
z ' l k '
c a nb er e or d e r e ds i mu l t a n e ou s l yo n8 0 t hs i d e so ft h i se q u a t i o ni n t ot h ep r op e r
s eque nc e. O ne pr obl e m r em a i ns ,howe v er ,be c aus et he quant um num be rI ' F appear son t her i ght ,wher eEkappear son t hel e f t . I fI ' Pi sm ove dt oi t spr ope r pl ac ei nt he or de r e df or m ,an e xt r a phas ef a ct or
( -1 ) n p r + l + a p ' + z +'. ' + n E k l F < Ek ( -1 ) a z : k + I + a f k + a +' ' ' ' b n w l j ? f ' r > Ek
i sne ede d,r e pr es ent i ng t he num berofi nt er change st o putF ' i ni t spr operpl ac e.
/ ' ( .. .t t ' j .. .t ' ) ;..., ( j ( n j ' yj j 1( n J j 1j a y . j J a y , j x( -1 ) ' I + I + a i ' + z +' '' + n J ' l ( ...ni ' u I -' 1 ..-' t n * J ' . -* 1 ... % )+ ... ( . l . 5 8 )
x
.
b n i ( ) 3 , ) ' I ( ? ? ; +l ) 1 ' ( n , ' ) 1 ( -1 l s l . s i J ...n ' i + 1 .--n J ' - 1 '.) - J! a l jj n1...n . ' ) ( l . 5 9 ) whi c h de mon s t r a t e st h a tt h ec r e a t i on an dd e s t r u c t i o n op e r a t o r sd e fn e d wf f / l
.
t he anl i c omm t l : at i o nr ul es i nde e d hav et he r e qui r ed pr ope r t i e s . l nt hi s way t i i eSc hr di ngere quat i on agai na s sumest hef ol l owi ng f or mi ns e cond quant i z at i on 0 . -
, zg 1 , . 1 , ( ? ) p- z ? ' 1 . 1 . ( ? ) > t
r s
19
N ot e par t i c ul ar l yt he or der i ng of t he snal t wo des t r uc t i on om r at or si nt he ha mi l t oni an,whi c hi soppos i t et ha toft hel as tt wo s i ng l e par t i cl ewav ef unct i ons
t h e or d e ra se c t st h eo v e r a l ls i g n . Ex a c t l ya sb e f o r e , Eq.( 1 . 6 0 )i s who l l y
e qui v al e nt t ot he Sc hr di nger e quat i on i n Er s t quant i z at i on,but t he phas e s ar i s i ng f r om t heant i s ym m e t f y oft hee xpans i on coe E ci ent shavebe e ni nc or por at e d' i nt ot heha mi l t oni an and t hedi r e ct pr oducts t at eve ct or s .
Z/FI ELDS I ti sof t enconveni entt of or mt hel i nearcom bi nat i onsoft hec r e at i onanddes t r uc -
# ( x )- Z / 2x lc k
'
C( x )-X /2x ) f c l k
.( 2 . j )
wher et he c oeE c i e nt sar et hes i ng l e par t i cl e wa vef unct i onsand t he s um i sov er t he com pl et es etofs i ngl e par t i c l e quant um num ber s. l n pa r t i c ul ar ,t he i ndex
kf o rs pi nf e r mi o nsma yd e no t et h es e t o fq u an t u mn u mbe r s ( k , J z ) or L E. L, LM ;
and t hecor r es pondi ng wav ef unct i onshav et wo c ompone nt s
abs t r actoc cupa t i onnum berH i l ber ts pa cebec aus et he y de pe nd on t hecr eat i on and de s t r uct i on oper at or s. The Eel d ope r a t or ss a t i s f ys i m pl ec om m ut at i on or a nt i com m ut at i onr e l at i onsdependi ng on t hes t a t i s t i c s
( 2 . 3 J )
( z . a , )
4 =J#3 x## ( x ) r( x) #( x) +. l . J Jd' xdq x ' ## ( x) ## ( x ' )F( x , x ' ) Wx ' ) Wxl
( 2 . 4 )
Thi se xpr e s s i on i sr ea di l y ve r i se ds i nc et he i nt e gr a t i on ove rs pat i alcoor di nat e s pr oduce st hes i ngl e par t i cl ema t r i xe l e m ent soft he ki net i ce ner g y and pot e nt i al
2:
I NTRODUCTI ON
ene r gy,l e avi ng a s um oft he s e m at r i xe l em e nt sm ul t i pl i ed by t he appr opr i at e cr eat i on and des t r uct i on oper a t or s . An addi t i onal ma t r i x el eme nt i ns pi n
r e ma r k sa n de n s u r e st h a t #i sh e r mi t i a n .l nt h i sf o r m, t heha mi l t on i ans u g g e s t s
t henam es e c ondqu ant i z at i o n, f ort heaboveex pr es s i on l ooksl i ket hee xpe ct at i on
J= f 1 2 J( xj ) x . z l
( 2 . 5 )
7=72 t rI Jl J )4 c s 'J
=
Jd% J 2 # , ( x ) # J( x) # , ( x ) c % v c s FJ
Jd3 x#A ( x) J( x) #( x) ( 2 . 6 )
n ( x )= =l 1 43 ( x-xt ) -1
bec omes
( 2 . 7 )
( 2 . 8 )
.j g , . 9 j
21
s pac es e par at e si nt o as e quenc eofpr obl e msi nt he s ubs pac e sc or r e s pondi ng t oa f i xe dt ot alnumberofpa r t i cl es . Ne ve r t hel es s ,t heabs t r a ctHi l ber ts pacec ont ai n s
s t at e swi t ha n yn u mb e ro fp a r t i c l e s .
K EXAM PLE : DEG ENERATE ELECTRON GAS To i l l us t r at et heut i l i t y ofs e cond quant i z at i on,wecons i de ra s i mpl e modelt hat pr ovi de ' sa sr s tappr oxi mat i on t o a me t alora pl as ma. Thi ss ys t e mi san i nt er ac t i ng e l e c t r ongaspl ac edi n auni f or ml ydi s t r i but e d pos i t i vebac kgr ound c hos e n t o ens ur et hatt het ot als ys t e mi sne ut r al . l n ar e alm e t alorpl as m a,ofcour s e, t hepos i t i vechar gei sl ocal i z edi nt hei oni cc or es ,whos edynam i calm ot i on m us t a l s o bei nc l ude di nt he c al cul at i on. The s e pos i t i vei onsa r e m uch heav i ert han t hee l e c t r ons ,howe ve r,a nd i ti spe r mi s s i bl et o neg l e ctt hei oni cm ot i on ent i r e l y. I n cont r a s t ,t he as s umpt i on ofa uni f or m bac kgr ound i smor e dr as t i c;f ort hi s r e as on,t hepr e s e ntm ode lc an pr ovi deonl y aqual i t at i veac countofr e alm et al s. W e ar ei nt e r es t ed i nt he pr ope r t i e s oft he bul k me di um, I tt her ef or ei s eonve ni entt oe ndos et he s ys t e mi n al ar ge c ubi ca lbox wi t hs i de sofl eng t h L; t hel i mi tL -* : c ; wi l lbet ake n att heend oft hec al c ul at i on. I nauni f or mi nhni t e me di um ,a1 lphys i c alpr oper t i e s m us t be i nvar i ant unde rs pat i a lt r ans l a t i on; t hi sobs e r vat i on s ugge s t st he us eofpe r i odi cboundar yc ondi t i onson t hes i ngl e par t i cl ew a vef unc t i ons ,whi c ht he n be c om epl anewaves t at es
/k A ( x )= Fle z f k ' x T
s pi nup and s pi ndown al ong achos enzaxi s ,
1 Tt= 0 0 T(= 1
( 3 . 1 )
Theper i odi cboundar yc ondi t i onsdet e r mi net heal l owe d wave numbe r sa s
ki= l vni ni= 0, +1, +2, L Thet ot alhami l t oni an c an be wr i t t enast hes um oft hr e et er ms
H = He t+ H v+ H e l v whe r e H
N z 1 N e -Hj r y y j j P J 2 2 + -e
-
e 2=
i - 2 =1
i *: J
r i r f- r y I
( 3 . 4 )
22
I NTRODUCTI ON
oft h ec o u l o mb i n t e r a c t i o n, t h tt h r e et e r msi n Eq.( 3 . 3 )i nd i v i d u a l l yd i v e r g ei n t he e 4 t her m odynami cl i mi t ' ' N -> . c c, F >c c, bu t n = N/ P 'c o n s t a n t . The
e nt i r es ys t e m i s neut r al ,howe ve r .a nd t ht s um of t hes et er ms mus tr e mai n me ani ngf uli nt hi sl i mi t . The pr e s e nce of t he conver genc ef ac t or J ze ns ur es t hatt he e xpr e s s i ons ar e mat hema t i cal l y wel ldesned ate ver ys t e p and al l ows ust om a ket hi scanc el l at i one xpl i c i t . Si ncewear ei nt er es t e di nt hebul kpr oper l i mi t i ng pr oc edur e wi l lbe f i r s tL + . c oa nd t hen p. +0. Equi val ent l y.we c an as s um ep, -i< tL a tea ch s t c pi nourc al cul at i on;t hi sal l owsust os hi f tt heor i gi n of i nt e gr at i on atwi l l ,apar tf r om s ur f ac ec or r e ct i ons ,whi c ha r e ne gl i gi bl ei n t hi sl i mi t .
I nEq. ( 3 . 3 ) t heon l yd yn a mi c a l v a r i a bl e s a r et ho s er e f e r r i n gt ot h ee l e c t r o n s ,
bec aus et he pos i t i vebac kgr ound i si ne r t . ThusH bi s a pur ec num berand i s
r e a d i l ye v a l u a t e df ora u n i f br md i s t r i b u t i o nn ( x) = NI P ' :
M 24, r'
He r et he t r ans l at i onali nvar i anc ehasbee n us ed t os hi f tt hc or i gi n ofi nt e gr at i on i nt he s e cond l i ne. Thequant i t y N -1 . J f ,di ver ge si nt he l i mi tJ . t+ . 0,bec aus e t he l ong r ange of t he coul omb pot ent i alal l ows ev er ye l ement of c har ge t o i nt er a ctwi t he ve r y ot herone . I n pr i nc i pl e,H e t saonc par t i cl e ope r at ors i nc ei ta ct son ea ch el e ct r on. -bi Fort he pr e s e nts ys t em ,howe ve r y agai n us et het r ans l at i onali nv ar i anc e , we m a t o wr i t e N N t ' -9l X-T 6 t He l -1 ) = -e2 - d3 x -
d . 1/ '
N
l 1 x-r f !
z
= -e 2f P d? z
-l
e -P Z
= - e2
N 24.
+ 0 #
( 3 . 8 )
23
s howi ng t hatH e t si nf acta cnum be r . Thet ot alham i l t oni an t husr e duc est o -bi
S = -J e 2 NlP ' 1 4 , a p . 2+ Se l
and a 1 1oft he i nt e r e s t i ng phys i ca le f l kct sar ec ont ai ne di n H et. W e s hal lnow
r e wr i t e Eq.( 3 . 9 )i ns e c on d qu a n t i z a t i on . Th ek i n e t i c e n e r g yt e r m r e qu i r e s
t he m at r i xe l e m ent
=l
=
2 A21 . .
( 3 . 1 0 )
J d5 xg f ( k a . k l ) . x= p r j k 1 k a
hasbee n us e d. Theki net i ce ner g y ope r at orbe c om e s
j' =
k /
h2k2t z 1a
2 m
k /k A
whi ch c an be i nt er pr e t ed a st he ki net i c ene r gy ofe ach m ode m ul t i pl i e d by t he cor r es pondi ng num be r oper at or . For t he pot ent i al e ne r gy i ti s nec e s s ar yt o e val uat et hef ol l owi ng m or ec om pl i c at e d m at r i xe l e m ent
( 3 . l 3 )
Wi t ht he s ubs t i t ut i on x = xz a nd y = xl- xc ,t hi st xpr e s s i on r e duc e st o
) kl 21 k2 A z r l Z l k3 A 3 k4 A 4 )= Fj J3 xe f f k l m k a k J k 4 l * x
&
e2
e2 4. , : . I z a8 z a, 1 4k T 3A l y k z , k a + k . ( kj- ky ) 2+ y . 21 3 1 4 )
wher et heK r one ckerde l t asi nt hes pi ni ndi ce sar i s ef r om t heor t hogonal i t y oft he s pi n wa vef unct i ons . O nc eaga i n,wehaves hi f t e dt heor i gi n ofi nt e gr at i on, and
24
I NTRO DUCTI ON
t hef i nalKr one cke rdel t ar e pr e s e nt st hec ons e r vat i onofmoment um i na uni f or m s ys t em . Thet ot alhami l t oni ancan now bewr i t t en as
1e 2 N1 4 = . = -' i# 'j+ p
:2
h 2 k2 e 2 t / k z t uj+. j p 2X Y =
k:AlkzA a kzA : sk4A 4
J )J (J )3 , 4 1 A y 3 : 2 A 4 k I m k a , k y y k .
47 1 . # ' t
,
X' - --
( 3 . 1 5 )
The e l e c t r i c alne ut r al i t y ofour s ys t em m ake si tpos s i bl et o el i mi nat e p, f r om t heham i l t oni an,aswe s ha l lnow s how. The cons er vat i on ofm om e nt um
r e a l l yl i mi t st hes umma t i o no v e r( kf )t ot h r e ei n de p e n d e n tv a r i a b l e si ns t e a do f
f our. Thec ha ng eofvar i abl e s
kj= k + q kz= p - q k)= k k4= p
v a r i a b l e s , t h el a s t t e r m ofEq . ( 3 . 1 5 ) be c ome s
el 2P '
kp q A: A z
( 3 . 1 6 )
whe r et hepr i meon t hef i r s ts ummat i on means:omi tt het e r m q= 0. Thes ec ond s um m at i on m a y ber ewr i t t en wi t ht heant i com m ut at i on r e l at i on as
2# ' i
e l 4, v e l 4, v J f a ( a # A J p z , - 3k p3A k A , k A l p : : z z )= j ys -. j ( X2- Sj p .k A J t l pz z
YT-O 8 -Y PO M
( 3 . 1 8 )
i m pl i c i t l y as s umed. I ti s now conveni e ntt oi nt r oduce di m ens i onl e s svar i abl es . W e def i ne a l engt hr oi nt er msoft hevol umepe rpar t i c l e:
P ' H Gr ar ) N
r t li ses s ent i al l yt he i nt e r par t i cl es pa ci ng. The c oul om b i nt er act i on pr ov i de sa s e cond l e ngt h, gi ve n byt heBohrr adi us
t zf l=
h2
a n dt h e( d i me ns i o nl e s s )r a t i ob e t we e nt h e s et woqu a n t i t i e s
Q r& H an
ev i de nt l yc har ac t e r i ze st he de ns i t y oft he s ys t e m. Wi t hr f last he uni tofl engt h, wede snet hef ol l owi ngquant i t i es
F= r 3P '
Q= r v k
j= r o p
I= r o q
( 3. 2 4 )
Thi si s an i m por t ant r es ul t ,f ori ts hows t hatt he pot ent i alene r g y be com e sa
s ma l lp e r t u r b a t i on a sr s-> . 0, c or r e s p on di n gt ot h eh i g h de n s i t yl i mi t( r a. > . 0 ) .
Thus t he l e adi ng t er m i nt he i nt er act i on e ne r g y of a hi g hde ns i t ye l e ct r on gas c an beobt ai ne d wi t h fr s t or de rper t ur bat i on t heor y,e ven t hough t he pot ent i al i sne i t he rwe ak nors hor tr ange. O nem i ghtex pec tt ha tt hegr ounds t at eene r gy ha sa power s e r i esexpans i on i nt he s m al lpar am e t err s ,but ,i nf ac t ,t hes e c ond-
26
I NTRODUCTI ON
E = anrs z ( a+ b r s +c r 2 , l nr s +# r 2+ ... , )
wher ea,:,c,d .. .ar e num er i c alc ons t ant s. W e s ha l lnow e val uat ea and b. whi l ec m aybei nf er r ed f r om t hecal cul at i on i n Pr ob.1. 5. Thepr ope rc al c ul at i on ofc a nd hi ghercoe ci ent si sve r y di c ul t howe ve r , a nd r equi r es t he m or e , e l abor at et e c hni quesde ve l ope di n Chaps .3 t o 5. I nt he hi ghde ns i t yl i mi t ,t he pr e c edi ng di s cus s i on enabl esus t os epar a t e
Ne 2
- e2 , H L= 2P '
kx Aj A z
( 3 . 25 : )
Z k / l X ( k ) n x Z n y a a Z A X( ! $ 2 71 L u / L . + . r J j j d n x d n y d n x I A ) / A j ( M)
=
p ' ( 2 , r r ) 3j j jdn ky A ( k ) A
( 3 . 2 6 )
7( 2 , r ) 3J ( fd5 kp t ks- k )= ( 3 *2 ) Fk l . =N 2
( 3 . 2 7 )
27
( 3 . 2 8 ) 0 x< 0 Thi si m por t ant r el at i on be t wee nt he Fe r m iwave num ber ke and t he par t i c l e
dens i t yn- h' /P wi l lbeus e dr e peat e dl yi ns ubs e que ntwor k;anal t er na t i vef or m
k 3=2N i ' 9z r1 p= s =
wh t r e# ( x )d e n o t e st h es t e pf u n c t i o n 8 @) 1 x >0 =
( j -r c 1 . ' 4 C 1 . 9 2 r n 1
h2
s howst hatkv -ti scompar abl e wi t ht he i nt e r par t i c l es pac i ng. The expe ct at i on
v a l u eo fXtma yb ee v a i u a t e di nt h es a mef a s h i o n
e' g '
=k F( / %( F ) =j y / c 2 ( F ( u z t F ) k/ j sy k z # ( / c , -k ) k;
h2 h2
=j yU 7 4 2 z 4 3 j d 5 k k 2 # ( / c s -k j A
=
3X 2 k/ e l N: $9 *' ' c l 2 . . 2 , ) Jl m N= 2 a = . N j F s i % 2 5: r s :
I n af r eeFer m igas ,t hegr ounds t a t eener gy pe rpar t i c l eEf 0 )N i s. hydr ogen at om . W es hal lnow comput et hef i r s t or derene r gy s hi f t
2p z
- -
kx :A z
The m at r i xe l e m enti sr ea di l y anal yz ed asf ol l ows;t he s t at es l t z Acand kAmus be oc cupi e di nt he gr ound s t at eI F' z , , s i nce t he de s t r uct i on fpe r at or sact i ng t o t he r i ghtwoul d ot he r wi s e gi vez er o. Si mi l ar l yt he s t at e sk +. q,A,andp - q, Aa tal s o be oc cupi e di nj FA mt l S j g , s i n c et h eo pe r a t o r sa %a c t i a gt ot h eI e f twou l d ot her wi s egi vez er o. Fi nal l y, t hes ames t at ea ppe ar son ea ch s i deoft he ma t r i x el em e nt ,whi ch r e qui r e st het wo c r e at i on ope r at or st ot i l lup t he hol esm a de by t he t wo des t r uct i on ope r at or s . The ope r at or s mus tt her ef or e be pai r ed o&, and t he r ear e onl yt wo pos s i bi l i t i e s' . k + q, A1= kAj k + q, Al= pAc
p - q, Aa - pA2 p - q,A2= kAI
28
I NTRODUCTI ON
The sr s tpa i r i ng i sher ef or bi dden be caus et he t e r m q= 0 i se xcl ude df r om t he s um ,and t hemat r i xe l e mentbec omes 8k+ q,p3A, A z 1 Fl J 1 + q . A , J l ' z l J k b q , A l f l k A ! 1 F1
e2 x. xv ,4, p , S( 1 )= - r sy g y $# s- j k+q 1 ) o l k y . -# )
A! k q
e 2 4=7
( 3 . 3 4 )
whe r et he f ac t or2 ar i s esf r om t hes pi ns um,and t he r es t r i c t i on q # 0 may now be om i t t e ds i ncei tale c t st hei nt egr and atonl ya s i ngl e poi nt . I ti sc onve ni e nt
The e val uat i on oft hi svol ume i sa s i mpl e pr obl em i n ge ome t r y,wi t ht her e s ul t
E t t =4 = e 2 F 4 2 , v ) 6 j g r k l 2 k s j 0 ' d x 4 7 4 1 -l x + x 3 )
= -
,2 N 9. n .1 3 2 u ,r si -i 7=
N r 2 a, s
e 2 0.91 6
( 3 . 3 6 )
29
Xr , . . 02 az r z
r ,
N ot et hatt hee ner gy pe rpar t i cl ei shni t e ,whi c hs howst hatt het ot ale ne r g yi san
2
-
4 6 : r s= 4. 83
1 c 5
0l 0e1 I 2ao
3c
I NTRODUCTI ON
e n e r g yl y i n gb e l ow t h ec u r v ei n Fi g .3 . 2 . Th emi n i mu mo fEq.( 3. 3 7 )o c c u r s
a tt heval ue s
( r x l mi n= 4 . 8 3
=-0 . 0 952 ml n az
e 2
( 3 . 3 8 )
Al t hough t he r ei sno r ea s on t o expe c tt hatours ol ut i oni sc or r e cti nt hi sr e gi on, i ti si nt er es t i ng t o obs er ve t hatt hes e val ue s
r s= 4 . 8 3
W = -1 . 2 9e v
a tmi n i mu m
( 3 . 3 9 )
com par ef av or abl y wi t ht he e xpe r i me nt al val ues f or m e t a l l i cs odi um unde r l abor at or y condi t i ons l
Na( e x p e r i me n t )
( 3 . 4 0 )
whe r et he bi ndi ng ene r gy i st he he atofvapor i zat i on oft he m e t al . Thus t hi s ver ys i mpl e m ode li s abl et o expl ai nt he l ar ges tpar toft he bi ndi ng ener gy of m et al s . I nr ealm e t al s ,one m us tf ur t he rl oc al i ze t he pos i t i v e backgr ound of c ha r geon t hec r ys t all at t i c es i t e s ,assr s tdi s c us s ed by W i gnerand Sei t z. 2, 3
p=
. v. z u . ,
' E
( J P 'x
= -
6 I Ed r s Ne lr s2 ( 2. 21 )- 0 . 9 1 6 = .
d r s dV 2 J 03P ' r l
r t ,
( 3 . 41 )
The pr e s s ur evani s hesatt hepoi ntr s= 4. 83,w he r et hes ys t c mi si n equi l i br i um . Fur t her m or e ,t hebul k m odul us
B-
' ' t ap . l . v z a o 9 p (r s-
e . p
. x z2 5 ( 2 . 2 1 ) 2 ( 0. 91 6 )
r -1
( 3 . 4 2 )
I nt h el o wde n s i t yl i mi t( r ,+ . c c ) )W i g n e r 4h a ss h o wn t ha to n ec a no bt a i n
al ower ene r gy oft he s y s t em by al l owi ng t he el ec t r ons t oS i cr ys t a l l i z e ' 'i na t f Wi gner s ol i d. ' ' Thi ss i t uat i on oc cur s bec aus et he z er opoi nt ki net i ce ner gy as s oc i at e d wi t hl oca l i z i ng t he e l e ct r ons e vent ua l l y be com e s negl i gi bl ei n com par i s on t ot he el ec t r os t at i c ene r gy ofa cl a s s i call at t i c e. W i gnerhas s hown t hat
1S e e , f ore x amp l e , C. Ki t t e l . s ou a nt u m Th e o r y ofS ol i ds , ' ' p.1 1 5 ,J oh nW i l e ya nd S on s . I n c. ,
New Y or k,1 963. 2E.P.W i gnerandF.Sei t z.Ph ys .Re v . , 4 3: 8 0 4( 1 9 3 3 ) ; 46: 5 0 9( 1 9 3 4 ) . 3A moder n ac countoft he r el e vantcorr e ct i onsmay bef ound i n C.Ki t t el ,o p.cl ' r . ,pp.93-94. 11 5.
SECOND QUANTI M TI ON
31
e2
1 . 7 9 2. 66 + j . + . .. r s
: x
,. wi g n e rs o l i d
( 3 . 4 3 )
and i ti sc l e art hatt hi sexpr e s s i on gi vesal owerval ue oft heene r gy t han t hatof
PRO BLEM S
k r h2k2
k :
-
a n d
( b ) Re pe a tPr o b.1 . 2 . ( c ) tS h ow t ha tt h es e c o n do r d e rc on t r i b u t i on t ot he g r ou n ds t a t ee n e r g yi s
E( 2 ) N =
N - 1 d% l F( q ) 1 2 n #% j F( q ) j 2 2F ( 2 z 43 h2 qa ( m = -i ( 2 =) a ha qz l m
v Kt o r sI /)s a t i s f y/ 51 . / )= Fg I /) , t he n
E t z ) =7) l ( 0 E I z f A 1 E / ) J 1 1 =t 0 I KF a P H . HL I 0 ) J# e
wh e r el 0)i st h eg r ou nd s t a t ee i g e n v Kt oro f Howi t he ne r n Sq , a n dP = 1- 1 0)( 01 i sap r o -t i o n
o >r a t oront hee x c i t e d Ma t e s .
:2
I NTRODUCTI ON
) =J l k i q l > L d 3 k J l p + q l > l d 3 #q 2 . j q p t k +p )
He n c ec o n c l u d et ha te q= -( 3 / 8 =5 )Jdhfl q l q k di v e r g e sl og a r i t h mi c a l l yf or
s mal l q.
( : )Th ep ol a r i z a b i l i t yo ft h ei n t e r v e n i n gme di um mo d i f e s t h ee f l kc t i v ei n t e r a c t i o n
bet wee nt wo e l e ct r onsatl ongwave l e ngt h,whe r ei tbehave sas
e l e c t r o n swi t hs pi n u p( d own l . l ( a )Fi n dt h eg r o u n ds t a t ee n e r g yt oE r s tor de ri nt h ei n t e r a c t i o np ot e n t i a la sa f u nc t i o no fN = N++ N-a n dt h ep o l a r i z a t i o n (= ( N+- Nj I N. ( : )P r o v et ha tt h ef e r r oma g n e t i cs t a t e( (= 1 )r e p r e s e nt sal o we re n e r g yt h a nt he u nma g n e t i z e ds t a t e( (= 0 )i fr ,> ( 2 =/ 5 ) 4 9 */ 4) 1 ( 2 1+ 1 )= 5 . 4 5 . Ex pl a i n wh y
t hi si ss o.
( c )S ho wt h a t %EJ N) ( D( 2 j ( . ( )b e c o me sn e g a t i v ef o rr ,>( 3 =2 / 2 / =6 . 0 3.
( #)Di s c us st heph y s i c a l s i g n i h c a n c eof t h et woc r i t i c a l d e ns i t i e s . Wha t h a pp e n s
f or5. 45< r ,< 6. 03?
Be f or e f br m ul at i ng t he quant um me chani c al des cr i pt i on of many par t i cl e a s s e m bl i e s si ti sus e f ult or ev i e ws omet her m odynam i cr el a t i ons . Theel em e nt a r y di s cus s i onsus ua l l y cons i deras s em bl i esc ont ai ni ng a hxe d num be rofpar t i cl es , but s uch a des cr i pt i on i st oo r e s t r i ct e df or t he pr e s e nt pur pos es . W e m us t t her e f or egene r al i z et he t r e at mentt oi nc l ude t hepos s i bi l i t y ofvar i abl e num be r ofpar t i cl esN . Thi sappr oac hi sm os ts i m pl ye xpr es s e di nt hegr and canoni ca l
I NTRODUCTI ON
K REVI EW O F THERM ODYNAM I CS A ND STATI STI CAL M ECHANI CS Al t hough i ti s pos s i bl et ot r e at s ys t em s c ont ai ni ng s e ver aldi ser ent ki nds of par t i c l es ,t he a dded ge ner al i t yi snotnee ded f ormos tphys i c alappl i cat i ons ,and we s hal lcons i der onl ys i ngl e components ys t e ms . The f undament alt her m odynam i ci dent i t y dE = TdS - P dv + p . dN s pe ci he st he chang ei nt he i nt er nale ne r g y E ar i s i ng f r om s m al li ndepe nde nt change si nt heent r opyS, t hevol um eP ' , and t henum berofpar t i c l e sN . Equat i on
Jf -# = . x = dP -s x
O E g = ON s ' z
I nt he par t i c ul arcas e ofa quant um m ec ha ni ca ls ys t e m i ni t sgr ound s t at e,t he e nt r opy vani s he s ,and t hec he mi c alpot e nt i a lr e duc e st o
M( y . ) F
-
ma ke a Le g e nd r et r a n s f o r ma t i o nt ot h ev a r i a b l e s( r, V, N)or( F , #, N) . The r e s ul t i ngf u n c t i o n sa r ek n own a st h eHe l mh o l t zf r e ee n e r g y FI T, P ) z V)a n dt he Gi b b s f r e ee n e r g y G( r, #, . N) , de f i n e db y F = E - TS G = E - TS+ PV ( 4. 4 ) Thed i se r e nt i a loft h e s et woe q u a t i on sma yb ec omb i n e d wi t h Eq. ( 4 . 1 )t oy i e l d d F= -SdT- PdV+ y . d N d G = -SdT+ Vd P+J z d N ( 4 . 5 )
whi c h de m ons t r at est ha t F and G ar ei nde ed t her modynami cf unct i ons of t he s xc i ed var i abl e s . I n par t i cul ar ,t he chemi c al pot ent i almay be de sne d as
.-
( l x ' ) T F ( y ' a W M G v J T P
( 4 . 6 )
( 4 . 7 )
Fur t he r mor e,i ti sof t en i mpor t antt o cons i de rt he s etofi nde pendentvar i abl e s
Q( F, F, J z )= F- gN = E - TS- m N
36
wi t ht hecor r es pondi ng di Fe r e nt i al
dk t= -SdT- PdV- A #r z
Thecoeci ent sar ei m m edi at e l ygi v en by
s- -
( 4 . 8 )
( , % , . ) -, ( ? a ? ; , ) -x ( ? J s ) -
( 4 . 9 )
Al t hough elF,G,and f lr epr e s e ntf or mal l ye qui val entwaysofde s c r i bi ng t hes ames ys t e m, t hei rnat ur ali nde pe nde ntvar i abl esdi f l kri n onei mpor t antwa y.
h E = E( h S, hV, h Nj
Di f l kr e nt i at ewi t hr e s pec tt o A and s etA= l:
s s ( k f ) F N +p ' ( j p f r s ) S b . + x t a E ) , S ' F r s , p + , , N
wh e r eEq. ( 4 . 2 )h a sbe e nu s e d. Eq u a t i on( 4 . 1 0 ) , wh i c hh e r ea r i s e sf r o m ph y s i c a l
ar gument s ,i sa s pe ci alc as e of Eul er ' st he or em on hom og eneous f unc t i ons . Ther emai ni ngt he r modynami cf unct i onsar ei mme di at el yf ound as
F= -PV + yh'
G=y ' N
D = -PI . '
( 4 . l l )
whi c hs howst hatt hec hemi ca lpot ent i ali n aone components ys t e mi st heGi bbs
ks #
( 4 . 1 2 )
I NTRODUCTI ON
2 1 Z( Njl d / 6 X B * ' l A7 ) N J
Tr( e b ( RH R t j ( 4 . 1 3 )
est hes e tofa1 1s t at esf orasxe d numbe rofpa r t i c l esN,and t hes um wher e.jdenot n d N. A f un d a me nt a l r e s u l tf r o ms t a t i s t i c a l i mpl i e di nt het r ac ei sove rbot h.ja me c hani c st hen a s s e r t st hat
Dt r, F, p , )=-ksFl nzs
( 4 . 1 4 )
whi ch al l ows us t o comput e a1 lt he macr os copi c equi l i br i um t her modynami c s f r om t hegr and par t i t i onf unct i on.
Th es t a t i s t i c a l op e r a t o rl oc or r e s po n di n gt oEq. ( 4 . 1 3 )i sg i v e nb y
)s=z( ; ! e # ( #p A )
Wi t ht h ea i do fEq. ( 4 . 1 4 ) , ) ( ; ma yb er e wr i t t e nc omp a c t l ya s ) s= e # ( t ' ) 8 + # l # )
Fo ra n yo pe r a t o r, t h ee n s e mbl ea v e r a g e( O)i so bt a i ne dwi t ht h ep r e s c r i p t i o n
( 4 . 1 7 )
The ut i l i t y oft he s ee xpr e s s i ons wi l lbe i l l us t r at ed i n Se c.5,whi ch r evi ewst he t he rmodynami cbe hav i orofi dea lBos e an d Fer migas es .
SEI DEA L GAS. W enow appl yt hes er e s ul t sby r e vi e wi ng t hepr oper t i esofnoni nt e r ac t i ng Bos e and Fe r mig as es . Thr oughoutourdi s c us s i on we us et henot at i onals i mpl i sc at i on
#= ( kBF) 1
'Th ea r gu me nt si nt h i ss e c t i on a r ec ont ai n e di na ny g oo db ook o ns t a t i s t i c a lme c h a ni c s ,f o r t x a mpl e.L.D.I a nda ua n d E.M .Li f s h i t z ,' ' S t a t i s t i c a lPh y s i c s . ' 'c h a p.V,P e r ga mon Pr e s s , Lon do n,1 95 8 .
37
ZG= Tr ( e l t J l e B A ) )
=
.1 e # ( M A #( ) ) j a l ...n . j J g ; nL...n
=e # f ) ( j ( T, F, s )
( 5 . 4 )
zG= yjTr j e l f e l / z l t
f a . 1
( 5 . 5 )
s u mn t o v e ra 1 l i n t e g e r si nEq. ( 5 . 5 )
X * *
zo= ( !p l( c / ( > e l ) ) a= 1 I( 1- e # ( 8 f l ) ) 1 l -1 a =0 l =1
Th el og a r i t h mo fEq . ( 5 . 6 )y i e l dst h et h e r mo d y n a mi cp ot e nt i a l
*
( 5 . 6 )
f h n t r, F, p )= -k.T l n1 7( 1- e f t B e I ' ) 1
f -l
*
Da t r , F, p , )= k sF j zl n( 1- e l t B f t ' )
t =l
Bo s e
( 5 . 8 )
I N? $= l I f= 9 .ln
1 1 ( f e f H )- 1 f =l
Bo s e
( 5 . 9 )
wh e r en 2i st h eme a no c c u p a t i o nn u mb e ri nt h ef t hs t a t e .
3g
I NTRODUCTC ON
Eq . ( 5 . 5 )i sr e s t r i c t e dt ot h e s ev a l ue s
* l e o
( 5 . 1 0 )
f 1 a ( 7 l F, / z )= -k aF Z l n( 1+ e l t B f l ) )
l -1
Fe r mi
( 5 . 1 1 )
r #)- 1 1 2n 2- I e# ( e j p )+ j . .l
-1
Fe r mi
( 5 . 1 2 )
Eqs .( 5 . 9 )a n d( 5 . 1 2 ) ,t hi ss i g nl e a d st or a t he rr e ma r k a b l ed i Fe r e nc e si nt h e
G havi oroft hes eas s embl i e s .
BosoNs
W es hal lEr s tcons i dera c ol l e c t i on ofnoni nt e r ac t i ng bos ons ,whe r et he e ner g y s m ct r um i sgi venby p2 :2 k2 f P= 2 - = 2-
W eas s umet hatt hea s s e mbl yi sc ont ai ne di nal ar gev ol ume F a ndappl ype r i odi c
( 5 . 1 4 )
( 2 9 3 . 1 a d k ( . p F . , ( 2 h > a l j 1 e 2 e d + n = g 4 = V 2 j z V z j l e d e
k B rk B T4 A ' * F 2 ( 2 # z j i 9 j * 0 d e r l j n t j e # ( s e )
-
( j . j j )
( 5 . 1 6 )
a n dt et h e r mo dy n a mi cp o t e n t i a l Eq . ( 5 . 8 )f -a ni de a lBo s eg a sGc o me s
t ' l o= PV .
pp ' -4 # 4 F
( y l m ) 1 2 j j * : we j j r j ) . j
E=z / n f I =oz j , a ( j # e e # ( . . ) -j
s h owi ngt ha tt h ee qu a t i o nofs t at eo fa ni de a l Bos eg a si sgv e nb y
( 5 . 1 8 )
( 5 . 1 9 )
PV= J S
I nas i mi l arway,t henum- rofpa r t i c l e sG c ome s N g 2 - 1 * e *
.
Eq u a t i on( 5 . 2 0 )i sme a n i n g f u l on l yi f
e- J z> 0
Ot her wi s et heme anoc cupa t i onnum be ra0woul d% l es st hanz er of ors omeva l ue s ofe. l n par t i cul ar ,ec an vani s hs ot ha tt hec hemi calpot e nt i alofan i de alBos e gasmus ts at i s f yt hecondi t i on
p , <0
( 5 . 2 1 )
To unde r s t and t hi sr e l at i on, wer e ca l lt hecl as s i ca ll i mi toft hechemi c alpot e nt i al f orf i xed N 1 t
kXr * ' *
s
r .- > . a )
( 5 . 2 2 )
N. sr e l ( ! , e t )
whi c hi s j u s tt h ef a mi l i a rBo l t z ma nnd i s t r i b ut i o n ,a nd
( 5 . 2 3 ) T+* ( 5 . 2 4 )
whi c hi st hee quat i on ofs t at eofani deal c l as s i c alga s . Thes um m a y% ev al uat ed appr oxi m at e l ya san i nt e gr al
7 2 eb q t =g ( 2 . ) $FJd' ke O: 2 / 2 4T l
'-
( 5 . 2 5 )
40
I NTRODUCTI ON
a ndEq .( 5 . 2 3 )t h e ny i e l d st h ec l a s s i c a le x pr e s s i o ny . cf ort h ec h e mi c a lp ot e n t i a l
/ 2 e N l=h2 1 k =l n gv vk ' sF sF
i nt e r mso fr, F, N. No t et h a tEq. ( 5 . 2 2 )i s i n de e ds a t i s s e da sF-> . ( x ) . Fu r t h e r mor e,i ti scl eart hatFer mi ,Bos e ,and Bol t z ma nn s t at i k t i csnow coi nci de ,s i nce t ho par t i c l e s ar e di s t r i but e d ove r m any s t at es . Thus t he m ean oc c upat i on num be r ofa ny one s t a t ei sm uch l es st han one ,and quant um r e s t r i c t i onspl ay no r ol e.
$ y
My r r ml
x
w .' x . h .' h . x . h .' Nx h .
XB O 9 C
-k s l -
WM X
a #
Bc
Fi g.5. 1 The c hemi c al pot ent i al of i deal cl as si cal ,Fermi ,and Bose gas es f or hxed N and F.
d e t e r mi n e d wi t h Eq . ( 5 . 2 0 )
N . g ' lm @ ' * e l
4 =2
T' j = g 2m ks . . .
2 h
a e -1
# X
x1
x
( 5 . 2 8 )
N- g z z / l ksL
P 4 nz , 2
r-' y / . g h2
( ( 1 ' ) 1 > 0)
! 'N ' i 3.31 hl N ' #
a n dEq. ( 5 . 2 9 )ma yb ei n v e r t e dt og i v e
( , , r ( s . ( ( # $ )( w )g . , ( v )
4x2
( 5 . 3 0 )
41
ast he t e m pe r at ur eatwhi c ht hechemi c alpot e nt i a lofan i dea lBos egasr eac hes z er o. Thi sv al ue hast hes i mpl ephys i c ali nt e r pr e t at i on t ha tt het he r male ner gy ksrci sc ompar abl ewi t ht he onl y ot he ri nt ens i ve e ne r gy f ora pe r f ec tgas ,t he
W hathappe nsasweI owe rt het empe r at ur ebe l ow To? l ti sc l e arphys i c al l y t hatma ny bos onswi l ls t ar tt o oc cupy t he l owe s ta vai l abl es i ngl e par t i cl es t at e, name l yt he gr ound s t at e. For p . = 0 and r < Fn , howev er ,t he i nt e gr al i n
N =) (( e l t e l ? 2 ) -1 ) -1 f
Asp,. + . 0. al loft het e r msex c eptt hehr s tappr oac h aEni t el i mi t; t hes um oft hes e
hn i t et e r msi sj u s tt h a tg i v e nb yt hei n t e g r a le v a l u a t e da bo v e . l I nc o n t r a s t ,t h e
:r s tt er m hasbe e nl os ti n pas s i ng t ot he i nt egr albe ca us et he E 1i nt he dens i t y of s t at es vani s he s at e= 0. W e s ee , howe ve r ,t hat t hi s sr s tt e r m bec omes ar bi t r ar i l yl ar ge asp .+ . 0a nd c an t her ef or e make up t he r es toft he par t i c l e s . Thi sbe hav i orr e qe ct st he ma cr os copi c occ upat i on oft he s i ngl e quant um s t at e e = 0.
p . =0 dN
f o rF< To
g 2m 1 e +JE
( 5 . 31 )
VS= 4 # e- j 02 h2 e
Ne>0.
( 5 . 3 2 )
wi t ht hei nt e gr at e d val ue
P ' 4 =2! . h2 ) a e - 1 X y F:
gl 2 M/ f s T1 1 *y x' Y * =Ni T1
( 5 . 3 3 )
Ther e mai ni ng par t i cl esar et hen i nt hel owes tene r gys t at ewi t h e= 0
N-,- x j-
p 'p ( w r o ) .
( 5 . 3 4 )
tSt r i c t l ys p e a ki n g, t h eoc c up a t i onnu mG ro ft h el o wl y i nge x c i t e ds t a t e si so for d e rN k . wh i c h l v ome sn e g l i g i bl eo nl yi nt h et he r mo dy n ami cl i mi t .Ar i g or o us di xu s s i on of t he Bo s e Ei n s t e i nc ond e n s at i o n ma yl xf ou ndi n R. H. Fowl e ra n dH . J o ne s , Pr o c. C' a l n r f l gePh i l . So c . .
M: 5 7 3( 1 93 8 ) .
42
I NTF y ooucTl oN
E= g z vk sF 1a : .u x l
# 4 . 2 : 2 )A a FJ oG xe x -1
Thi si nt e gr ali sa gai nt r e at e di n Appendi xA,and we5nd E - g 2? nksF 1 4=2
P (A a) k . r ( 0 ) P 0 )
( 5 . 3 5 )
E- 1 0)l xl xk s
5o
( ( 1 ) r ( l )r t j j ' t l . 7 7 o x k s r t . j l lr v z . ,
.
( 5 . 3 6 )
c v j/ x x k s ( s r 0 ) 1 p < r c
whi c hv ar i e sasF1 and va ni s hesatF = 0. Equ a t i o n( 5 . 3 5 )a l s oc a nb eus e dt o r e wr i t et heequat i on ofs t a t e:
0. 0 8 51 v1 ( ksT4 %h ? g
T< ra
Thepr e s s ur evani s hesatz er ot e m pe r at ur ebe c aus ea 1 loft hepa r t i c l esar ei nt he z er omoment um s t at ea nd t her ef or ee xer tnof or c eon t hewal l soft hecont a i ner .
vol ume Ck hasa di s c ont i nuouss l ope atF( ) . The be ha vi orf orF < Fci sg i ve n
i n Eq.( 5 . 3 7 ) ;t h ec or r e s po n di ngqu a n t i t yf orF> roc a nb ef ou n da sf ol l o ws : De fn et h e( t kt i t i ou s )nu mb e ro fpa r t i c l e sc o mpu t e df orp , =0a n d F> F( jb y
.
# c ( F c )
#0 ( F)= #0 ( F)
x
( y 1 F > r c
F1
43
N -. N; ( F)= 4 *z h g
gv l m 1 *u
Thedomi nantcont r i but i on t ot l l i si nt egr alar i s esf r om s mal lval uesofebe c aus e
Eq. ( 5 . 2 9 )l e a d st o
J z= = -
( 0) F0)2
, v.
F@ 2 k s z ' ; ( y J'1 F k F a
E = E( F, P ' )
F< F n
W enow changevar i abl est oE P ' ,a nd N us i ngt hee xpr es s i on obt ai ned a bovef or
'Cv ?r r,-
t Nk .z ot 0)PQ)2 0 2 r1
=
2 l ? r z ( r L )-1 ) w ,
( 5 . 3 9 )
1F. Lo ndo n, i s sup e r f l ui d s , ' ' v ol . l I , s e c . 7 , Do v e r , Ne w Yor k, 1 96 4; w , eh e r ef ol l o wt hea ppr o a c h o fL. D.La n da ua n d E. M. Li f s bi t z , o p. c i t . , p.1 7 0.
44
I NTRODUCTI ON
The f ul lcur vei ss ke t c he di n Fi g.5. 2. Suc h di s c ont i nui t i e si m pl yt hatan i dea l Bos egasex hi bi t saphas et r an si t i on a ta t e m per a t ur eF; . Thi st e m per at ur ehas a phys i ca li nt e r pr et at i on ast he poi ntwher ea hni t ef r a ct i on ofa 1 1t hepar t i cl es be gi nst o oc c upy t hez er om om e nt um s t at e. Bel ow F( )t he oc cupat i on num ber
a oft h el o we s ts i n g l e p a r t i c l es t a t ei so fo r d e rN,r a t h e rt h a no fo r d e rl . As
e mphas i ze d by F.London, lt he as s embl yi s or der e di n mome nt u m s pac e and noti nc oor di nat es pac e;t hi sphe nome non i sca l l e d Bos e Ei nst e i nc on dens at i on.
Cg Nk a ? l ?
1
7 Fi g.5. 2 Const ant v ol umehe atcapac i t y C' vofan
7 5
Ti d e a lBos eg a s .
To e s t i ma t et he m agni t ude oft he quant i t i esi nvol ve d,we r ec al lt ha tt he dens i t yofl i qui d He 4a t1 ow t em pe r at ur ei s P4= 0. l 45gcm -3
( 5 . 4 0 )
ast het r ans i t i ont em pe r at ur eofani dea lBos ega swi t ht hepar am e t e r sappr opr i a t e t ol i qui d he l i um . Be l ow t hi st em pe r at ur e,t he f or e goi ng di s cus s i on i ndi cat e s t ha tt he as s e m bl y cons i s t soft wo di fe r entc om pone nt s ,one cor r e s pondi ng t o t hepar t i cl est hatoc cupyt hez er om om ent um s t at eandt he r e f or ehaveno e ner gy, and t heot hercor r e s pondi ng t ot hepar t i c l e si nt heex ci t e ds t at es . I ndee d,i ti s
*s
FERM I O NS
J= ( e # ( e f / z ) +1 ) 1
bos onsgi ve s
2 #F 2 m 1 = e l
.
( 5 . 41 )
Pv= j F - j4 . z =a h
N
ee j ( r s )j ( )# .j
e 1
( 5 . 4 2 )
( 5 . 4 3 )
#- 4 2V =
g l m 1 *
cd ee b ' l , ' +1
wh e r eg i st he d e g e n e r a c yf a c t or( g= 2 f o ra s p i n Fe r mig as ) . As n o t e d
pr e vi ous l y,t heonl y di f l kr e ncebe t wee n bos onsand f er mi onsi st hemi nusorpl us
wh i c hi sj u s tt h ef a mi l i a r Bo l t z ma n n di s t r i b ut i o n. Un l i k et h es i t u a t i o nf or
bos ons , howev er , t her ei snot hi ngt opr e ventt hec hem i c al pot e nt i al f r om be com i ng pos i t i v east het em per at ur ei sr e duc ed;i n par t i c ul ar ,wehave
whe n e= p,
9 ( / z- e )
( 5 . 4 4 )
Thi sbe havi ori sr e adi l yunde r s t ood,be caus et hel owes te ner gys t at eoft hes ys t e m i sobt a i ned by fl l i ngt hee ner gy l eve l supt o
atF = 0
He ncct hec hemi ca lpot e nt i alofan i de alFe r migasatze r ot e mpe r at ur ei sa hni t e pos i t i ve number ,e qual t ot he Fe r mi e ner gy. The e qui l i br i um di s t r i but i on numbe r si nt hr eer epr e s e nt at i v ecas esar es ke t che di n Fi g.5. 3.
*e
I NTRODUCTI ON
Eq s . ( 5 . 4 3 )a nd( 5 . 44 ) , t hed e ns i t yi sg i v e nb y
N
#= 0 2V
g 2- 1 #
dq : +
# 4 .2 j 2 - #
F> ( ) J t> 0
1
( 5 . 45 )
T -'+ x : 1-+ -=
i '
r e M &s
o a:x aN 1 R 2 k ; e ,- AT = 0 )= # S i' P =2 m
ort heFe r miwave numa r k 6 .2N 1 F= gF Si mi l ar l y,t heene r gyi sobt ai ned f r om E g 2 - 1 # g 2- 12
( 5 . 4 6 )
( 5 . 47 )
. k y
( 5 . 4 8 ) ( 5 . 4 9 4 )
( 5 . 4 9 : )
Fi n a l l y, t h ee q u at i o no fs t a t e( 5 . 4 2 ) Gc o me s PV= J F = qN F
P = l ( 6 -2 g * j 1 i h ; 2 i j x V j 1
47
whi ch s how st ha ta Fer migase xer t sasni t epr es s ur eatz er ot em per at ur e . Thi s r es ul tar i s esbec aus et he Paul ipr i nci pl er equi r e st hatt he m om e nt um s t at esbe sl l e d up t ot he Fer m imoment um,and t hes e hi gherm ome nt um s t at esexe r ta pr es s ur eon t hewal l sofany c ont ai ne r . W enow t ur nt os mal lbutsni t et e m pe r at ur e ,whe r et hedi mc ul tpar ti st he
( 5 . 5 0 )
f ( ) -J . d xe x . j j-J . d xe x i +J o d x e x s . 1 -
( x+ a ) 1
( =+ . x ) l '
x ( z. # . x) 1
( e x+ 1 ) -1 H 1- ( e x+ . 1 ) 1 y i e l d I l
x j =j o d x ( a -x ) ! ' +j f j d x
( a+ x ) 1- ( a- x ) l '
e x . 4 . j +J z d xt a x o j .
x ( a- v ) 1
Thel as tt e r mi se xponent i al l ys ma l li nt hel i mi tofl a r ge( x, and wec anappr oxi m at e t henumer a t ori nt hes e c ond i nt e gr alas
( 5 . 5 2 )
Not ' et hat t hi sr es ul tgi ve s #P ' ( r, 1 ' . / 2 ) ,B' hi c h ar et he pr ope rt her modq ' nam i c
var i abl esf ort het her m odyna mi cpot e nt i al . Thec or r e ct i ont er msi nt hi seqt l at i on
j P ( # P / z F ' ) j w z = 4 t % * V j z ' V z z l j l J 2 g s o . ( z . s w ) c j = / . , l 1 . + . .
4:
I NTRODUCTI ON
( 5 . 5 5 )
( 5 . 5 6 )
s ( r , p , p . ) ( 0 ( a P w P ' ) j z s 4 # . n P a ' ( 2 s ? j 2 J j 2 4 = 2 : j w s + + . . . j
p a r t i c ul a r , s u bs t i t u t i onofEq. ( 5 . 5 6 )y i e l ds
.
( 5 . j 7 )
( 5 . 5 8 )
Si nceS i sat her m odynam i cf unc t i on,i tm ay be e xpr es s e di n any va r i abl e s' ,i n
ksr *2
c v r t aj s s , j . y k . 2 s
whi ch gi ve s
( 5 . 5 9 )
mj . 2N s p r! . Cr ; i, = S= / ? a 6 VF x ..
( 5 . 6 0 )
N ot et hatt he hea tc apa ci t yf ora Fe r m igasatl ow t e m pe r at ur ei sl i neari nt he t e m per a t ur e. I nc ont r as t , at hi gh t e mp er at ur e. whe r e Bol t z m ann s t at i s t i cs
( 5 . 6 1 )
and t he he atc apaci t y ofan i de alFer m igasatal lt e m per a t ur e si si ndi c at e di n Fi g.5. 4. N ot et hata Fer m igashas no di s cont i nui t i e si nt he t her m odynam i c var i abl esatany t e m per at ur e.
4:
The noni nt er act i ng Fer m igas f or m sa us ef ulsr s tappr oxi mat i on i nt he t heor y ofm et al s ,i nt het heor y ofl i qui d H e3 ,i ns t udi e sofnuc l e ars t r uc t ur e ,and e ve nf orunder s t andi ng s uch di v er s e phenome na ast he s t r uc t ur eofwhi t e dwar f and ne ut r on s t ar s . Fora de t a i l e d under s t andi ngoft hebe havi oroft he s em anybody a s s e m bl i es ,howe ve r ,wem us ti nc l udet hei nt e r ac t i onsbet we ent hepar t i c l es , whi c hf or mst hece nt r alpr obl em oft hi sbook. PRO BLEM S 2. 1. Pr ovet ha tt hee nt r opy ofan i dea lqua nt um gasi sgi ve n by
S= -ks) (l n 2 l nn ?7 F : ( 1+ n 3 ) l n( 1: ! u a y ) ) i
wh e r et h eu pp e r ( l o we r )s i g n s r e f e rt obo s o ns ( f e r mi on s ) . Fi n dt h ec or r e s po nd i n g
e xpr e s s i on f orBol t zmann s t at i s t i cs . Pr ovet hatt he i nt e r na le ner g yi s gi ve n by
E= j l E f n f o ra l lt h r e ec a s e s .
f
( J ) Fi n dt he d e n s i t yo fs t a t e s .I nt he t h e r mo d y na mi cI i mi t ,s h o wt h a tt h e
t he r modynami cf unc t i onsf orbot h bos onsand f e r mi onsr educet ot hos eobt ai ned i n Se c.5 .
( : ) Di s c us st h eo ns e tofBos ec o n de ns a t i on a n dc o mp ut et h ep r o pe r t i e sf o r F<L .
2. 5. W hen a met ali she at e dt oa s u ci ent l y hi gh t e m pe r a t ur e,e l e c t rons a r e emi t t e df r om t he m e t als ur f a c e and can be col l ec t ed as t he r mi oni cc ur r e nt . As s um i ngt heel ec t r onsf or m anoni nt er a ct i ng Fe r m igas ,der i vet heR i c har ds on-
2. 6. Pr o v et ha t t h ep a r a ma g n e t i cs p i ns u s c e pt i b i l i t yof af r e eFe r mi g a so f s p i n !
pa r t i c l e sa t F= 0 i sg i v e n by y ( F= 0 )= j . L 2 m( h 2 k ; ) y , j NJ V wh e r ey , oi st h e
magne t i c m oment of one of t he par t i c l e s . Der i ve t he cor r es pondi ng hi gh-
t e mp e r a t u r er e s u l ty ( F+ . c c ) ) =S X i N/ I C B TV.
'S. Du s hma n, Re v . . M' t l # . Ph ys . . 2: 3 81( 1 93 0 ) .
so
I NTRODUCTI ON
2. 7. For a sr s t appr oxi m at i on t oa t om i c nucl ei ,cons i der t he nuc l eus a sa dege ner at enoni nt e r ac t i ng Fe r m igasofneut r onsand pr ot ons .
( c )W h a t i st h epr e s s ur ee x e r t e db yt h i sFe r mi g a s ? ( #)l fe a c hnu c l e oni sc o ns i d e r e dt ob emo vi n gi nac on s t a n tpo t e n t i a lo fde p t h P r c , h o wl a r g emus tL b e? ( e )Atwha t t e mp e r a t u r ewi l l t h en u c l e u s a c t l i k eac ol l e c t i ono f pa r t i c l e sd e s c r i b e d
by Bol t z m ann s t at i s t i cs?
( b )He n c e :n de x p r e s s i on sf o rt h ed e n s i t yp ( r )a n dt h er e l a t i o n M =M( Rj
bet we e nt het ot almas sM and t her adi usR oft hes t ar .
T' ( 0 ) -0 ; /( 1 ) -0
) 1 ' i k # t ( y a . # d . J ( j y g i m p l i e s y , t l j ) ; = j , y s . a ' ft j a a o y
a -
f, ( 0 ) -0 , ' . / . ( 1 ) -0 1
P 1 W d ( y c d f ( ) . y 3 ) i m p l i e s y , ( o 6 . 8 9 , 7 ft l ' l -2 . 0 1 8
part 1w o
Gr ou nd state
( Fer mi ons)
I n m os tc as es ofi nt e r e s t ,t he Nr s tf ew or der s of per t ur bat i on t heor y cannot pr ovi de an a de quat e des cr i pt i on of an i n t e r a ct i ng m anypar t i c l es s t e m . For t hi sr e as on,i tbe com ese s s e nt i alt o dev el op s ys t e ma t i cme t hodsf ors ol vi ng t he Schr di ngerequat i on t o a1 1or de r si n per t ur bat i on t he or y.
6LPI CTURES
f o r mo ft h eS c h r d i n g e re q u at i on( Eq s . ( 1 . 41 )a n d( 1 . 6 0 ) J .
SCHRDI NGER PI CTURE Theus ualel ement ar y de s c r i pt i on ofquant um m e chani c sas s um e st hatt he s t at e ve ct or sar et i m ede pendent .wher east heoper at or sar et i m ei ndepe ndentand ar e
53
5 4
i hj jI ' I s ( ? ) )- W' $ : Fs ( / ) )
? ,
( 6 . 1 )
( 6 . 2 )
e x p a n s i o n. Fur t h e r mor e ,X i sh e r mi t i a ns ot h a tt h ee x p on e n t i a lr e p r e s e n t sa
uni t ar y oper a t or . Gi ve nt he s ol ut i on t ot he Sc hr di nge requat i on att he t i me
t o ,t h eu ni t a r yt r a n s f o r ma t i o ni nEq. ( 6 . 2 )g e n e r a t e st h es o l u t i o na tt i met .
I NTERACTI O N PI CTURE
As s um e ,asi sus ual l yt heca s e,t hatt heham i l t oni an i st i m ei ndependentand c an bee xpr es s e da st he s um oft wo t e r ms
( 6 . 4 )
whi chi sm e r e l yauni t ar yt r ans f or m at i on c ar r i e d outatt het i m ez . Theequat i on ofmot i on oft hi ss t at evec t ori seas i l yf ound by c ar r y i ngoutt he t i meder i va t i ve
=e k z t l h L l h +#( j +#j ) e t / l e f / A j N p I ( , ) )
and we t her e f or eobt ai nt hef ol l owi ngs etofe quat i onsi nt hei nt e r ac t i on pi c t ur e
i h 1 . 1 . , ( ? ) )- . ? ?j ( r ) 1 ' . I r , ( , ) ) '
z ; l ( ? )- e i B z t l ' i1 e f n e e / .
( 6 . 5 )
( ' l ' ' s ' ( ? ) 1 :s I ' 1 ' s ( r ) )- ( ' l ' J ( / ) I e i 4 : l ' .dse f /e l ' ' I ' I ' z ( f ) )
( 6 . 6)
GRE EN' SF UNC TI ONS AND F I EL D THEORY ( F E RMI ONS ) s 5 whi ch s ugge s t st hef ol l owi ng desni t i on ofan oper at ori nt hei nt e r ac t i on pi ct ur e
--
( t ) , ( r ) , z ? c 1
( 6. 8 )
H er et he t i mei ndepende nc e oft he Schr di nge r oper at orhasbee n us ed al ong wi t ht heobs e r va t i ont hatanyf unc t i onofanope r at orc om m ut eswi t ht heope r at or
i t s e l f . Co n s i d e rar e pr e s e n t a t i o ni n wh i c h Xoi sd i a g o n a l .
J %-j g h kc l c k k
Thet i m ede pendenc eoft hecr ea t i onandde s t r uc t i onoper at or si nt hei nt e r ac t i on pi ct ur ec an bede t er mi ne df r om t hedi f l kr ent i a lequa t i on
i h& c k z ( ? )- e l ? ( ' , y s E c k s , p( ) j e t a v t / s .y j .: c g g l t )
whi c hi se as i l ys ol ve dt o yi e l d
J .
C k f ( f ) =C k e ' t l ? k a l o n gwi t hi t sa d j o i n t
( 6. 1 0 J ) ( 6 . 1 0 )
c l k l ( / )=4e a ' . f
pi c t u r ema yb ee x pr e s s e di nt e r mso ft h ec o mp l e t es e tc ka n dc 1 . a ndt hec o r r e s pondi ng ope r at ori nt he i nt er act i on pi ct ur ei s obt a i ned wi t ht he s ubs t i t ut i on
c k+ . c k g l t ) , c l+ . t i( ? ) . Th i sl a s tr e s u l tf o l l o wsf r o mt h ei d e n t i t y
1= : f R( ) t l he k R( ) t l h
whi ch m a y bei ns e r t e d bet we e n eac h ope r at ori nt heSchr di ngerpi c t ur e. w es hal l now t r yt os ol vet heequat i onsofm ot i on i nt hei nt e r ac t i onpi ct ur e. D esne a uni t a r y oper a t or 1 . ' 1 . ( / , / : )t h a tde t e r mi n e st h es t a t ev e c t o ra tt i me ti n t er m soft he s t a t ev ec t oratt he t i m et v .
5 6
1 : 1 C , ( / ) )- e ' J ? ' e f / ' I ' l ' s ( ! ) )- e ' * n ' / ' e ' 9 t ' ' n ' / ' 1 T, ( f : ) ) =e f / 1 : 1 / h ' t / ? ( t t ( ) ) / e 4 Ro t ( ) / h t ' t j p . J ( / ( ) ; j
whi ch t he r ef or ei dent i ses
pL t .0 t)z c z o i n . o t / , e f n ( t t ( ) ) / , : e i J ) t l t o ) p j t j i n j t et j me s ) ( 6. 1 3 ) S i n c eX a ndXodono tc o mmut ewi t he a c ho t h e r , t h eor d e ro ft h eo pe r a t o r smus t b ec a r e f u l l y ma i n t a i n e d. Eq ua t i on ( 6 . 1 3 )i mme di a t e l yy i e l dss e v e r a lg e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e sofP t ' ) ' t ( ? , / . ( ) )f ; ( / . , / 0 )- L ' l l t n t o )6 1 ( / , / 0 )- 1
whi ch i mpl i est hatL ' /i suni t ar y:
( 6 . 1 4 ) ( 6 . 1 5 )
P( f a , r )= I l ' jt , t z j
( 6. 1 6 )
( 6 . 1 7 )
Th i sr e s u l t ,c o mb i n e d wi t ht h eb ou n da r yc o n di t i o n( 6 . 1 2 ) ,yi e l dsa ni nt e g r a l
e quat i on
( 6 . 1 8 )
67
J ' e j s , j t ' o d t , pi ( , , ) sj ( / , ) -' l ' j ' t o d t ' j ' o ' # ? ' t k ; t ' ) I ' j l t ' ) +! . j t , a t s : ' / ' . f , ' d t ' . 4 1 ( / . ' ) . ? l ( r , ' )( 6 . 2 0 )
s i n c et h el a s tt e r mo nt h er i g h ti sj u s to bt a i ne db yr e v e r s i n gt heo r de ro ft he
i nt e gr at i ons,a si l l us t r at e di n Fi g.6. 1. W enow chang edum m yvar i abl e si nt hi s
F i g.6. 1 l n t e g r a t i on r e g i on sf o rs e c on do r de r
t e r mi n Ol t . f c ) .
y ( j d tj j ( t ) j y j y j j y t j d t( j , . # j j , ) .j j t # / . , s j t # y ,
,
.
t'
, ,
'
s:
. ' l ( ). ' t ( )
. . L J
.c l 'J , ( , d tr E. ( ? )! (
,.
( f a / ( ) )=
n =0
i l r
.n
' .
( 6. 2 3 )
l Ij l t j l
.
( 6 . 2 4 ) .I nt hi swa y , Eq . ( 6 . 2 3 )r e p r o du c e st h ei t e r a t e ds e r i e so fEq . ( 6 . 1 9 ) .
HEI SENBERG PI CTU RE
1 k I . H( t ) 'E Eei J ? ' ' 91 5 1/ ). ( 6. 25 ) $( l t st i meder i vat i v emaybecombi nedB' i t ht heSc hr di nge requat i on( 6. l )t oyi el d
.
i h& T V I s ( / ). =0
P .
( 6 . 2 6 )
v ) j a t j y j j Qs, ! l . j * ) j , j . m . a. . u y4 p g e i / 1 t j h psy y i J ) t h k j . l , s s l f . h ( ny
.
( 6 g y j .
QK= m b -cX
A=. T Y:
>
59
c ont r as t ,t he ope r at ort ) si nt he Sc hr di nge r pi c t ur ei st i me i ndependent ,and t het i mede r i v at i veofEq.( 6. 28)yi e l ds
Thi si m por t antr e s ul tdet e r mi nest heequa t i on ofm ot i on ofany oper at ori nt he
He i s e n b e r gpi c t ur e .I np a r t i cu l a r . i f t ' h sc ommu t e s wi t hX, t h er i g ht s i d ev a ni s h e s i dent i cal l y.and Ou i sa c ons t antoft hemot i on. Equa t i on ( 6. 28)c an be r ewr i t t en i nt e r msofi nt e r ac t i onpi ct ur e oper at or s ( Eq. ( 6 . 7 ) q OJ f ( / 1= P i / ? t / : t ' i J ? o t / hO1 ( t ) ( y f z ' ? ( ) : / C ? i J 1 t t ' h ( 6 ' 3 ( j ) a n dt hef o r ma ls ol u t i o nf ort h eo p e r a t orC ' g Eq. ( 6 . 1 3 ) 1 y i e l d s H ( ? )- I ; r ( ( ) , ? )O, ( t 4t ) / ( ? , 0 )
l n addi t i on.t hevar i ousde hni t i onss how t hat
Thenot i onofs wi t chi ngont hei nt e r ac t i onadi abat i c al l yr e pr es ent sam at he m at i c al dev i c et hatge ner a t ese xac te i g ens t at e soft hei nt e r ac t i ng s ys t e mf r om t hos eoft he
e 0 GROUNDST AT E( ZE ROTEMPEB AT URE )F ORMAL I SM noni nt e r ac t i ng s ys t e m . Si nc ewepr e s umabl yknow al la boutt henoni nt e r ac t i ng s ys t e m ,f ore xampl e ,t hegr ound s t at e ,t hee xci t ed s t at e s ,e t c . ,t hi spr oce dur el et s us f ol l ow t he de ve l opme ntofea ch ei gens t at e as t he i nt e r a ct i on bet we en t he par t i c l e si ss wi t che d on. Spe ci sc al l y, we i nt r oduce a new t i me de pendent ham i l t oni an
X = Pn+ e f I ' l Pl
( 6 . 3 5 )
whe r e 6i sa s mal lpos i t i ve quant i t y. Atv er yl ar get i mes ,bot hi nt hepas tand
r e a d i l yv e r i f e dt h a tEq s . ( 6 . 1 7 )a n d( 6 . 2 3 )r e ma i nc o r r e c te v e n wh e n Pl i st i me
depe nde nti nt he Schr di ngerpi c t ur e,and wei mme di a t e l yobt ai n
( 6 . 3 6 )
n1 i i'
( 6 . 3 9 )
i h. y1 k 1 C z ( ? ) )= e f l ' l Xl ( / ) 1 k l P z ( J ) )> . 0
( 6 . 41 )
l ft he r e we r eno per t ur bat i on,t he s eei gens t at e si nt hei nt er ac t i on pi c t ur ewoul d r em ai ncons t anti nt i m e,bei ng t hes t at i ona r ys t at es ol ut i onst ot he unper t ur bed
61
t u r n e do n ,a n d Eq .( 6 . 3 6 )de t e r mi n e sh ow t h es t a t ev e c t o rd e v e l o p si nt i me ,a 1 l
t he way t ot he t i m e t= 0, when t hei nt er ac t i on i satf ul ls t r eng t h. Forsni t et i m es
l t l oh= l Tz ( 0 ) )= t k( 0 , -o a ) t *( ) l
( 6 . 4 2 )
wh i c he x g r e s s e sa ne x a c t e i g e n s t a t eo ft h ei nt e r a c t i n gs y s t e mi nt e r mso fa ne i g e n s t a t e ofH o . W e m us t now as k wha t happens i nt he l i mi t e> . 0. D o we ge tt i ni t e me ani ngf ulr es ul t s? Thi s que s t i on i s ans we r e d by t he G el l M ann and Low
( 6 . 4 3 )
' - . j t l . * ' . s H ( ) , , ,
r . *0 1 % 1 , 0 )
( *: 1 ' 1o s
j ' k l . ' q . p z
a.
( 6 . 4 4 )
a st hei n t e r a c t i o ni st ur n e do n. l fk mo )i st h eg r o u nds t a t eo ft h en o ni nt e r a c t i n g s y s t e m, t h ec o r r e s po n di n ge i g e n s t a t eo fX i su s ua l l yt h ei n t e r a c t i n gg r o un ds t a t e ,
but t hi si s by no m e ans ne ce s s ar y. For e xam pl e ,t he gr ounds t at e ener gy of s om e s ys t e m s doe s not ha ve a per t ur bat i on s e r i e si nt he c oupl i ng c ons t ant .
( 6. 45 )
ofEq .( 6 . 43 )d ono ts e pa r a t e l l ' ' . x ' l ' J ra sE ' > . 0 . An e q ui v a l e n ts t a t e me n ti st h a t Eq. ( 6 . 4 2 )b e c o me sme a n i n g l e s si nt hel i mi te+0, ' i n de e d, i t sp ha s edi v e r g e sI i k e e -li nt hi sl i mi t . The de nomi nat ori n Eq.( 6. 43)s er ve spr ec i s el yt o ca nce lt hi s i n hn i t epha s eg s e e Eq.( 6. 51 )a n ds u bs e q u e n tdi s c u s s i on l . Th et h e o r e mt h u s as s e r t st ha ti ft h er a t i oi n Eq . ( 6 . 4 3 )e x i s t s , t hee i g e n s t a t ei swe l ld e s n e da n dha s t h ee i g e nv a l u eg i v e ni nEq . ( 6 . 4 5 ) . W ep r o c e e dt ot hepr o o fg i v e nb yGe l l N l a n n
and Low. lM . Ge l l Ma nn a n d F.Lo w' , Ph ys .Rt u ' . , 8 4: 3 5 0( 1 9 51 ) .
6 2
Cons i de rt heexpr es s i on
I ) f . ' ? . ' ( , , z ? ' l ( ? f ) . f ? ' l ( ? , ) .-.. J ? 1 ( &) 1- ( z ? t z ? ' 1 ( ? . y ) ( I . 4, ( / . , ) .--I l t l t k ) + 4I ( ? f ) ( z ? e ' , . 41 ( / , ) )--.41 ( r . )+ --+I lt l t i ) . 41 ( ) / , ) --.1 ) . 4( , , z ? ' 1 ( &) )
Fu r t h e r mor e , Eq. ( 6 . 8 )a l l o wsu st owr i t e h8 4, ( / )-
i p ?
E z %, z 3 , ( J ) 1
( 6 . 4 7 )
h ?
( )
( z ? t E ! ' l % ( e ) ) ' n( h i. d t k . . d t n
l
xe n ( 1 l +'' . + l n )
i =1
0 rg 4j . L t j ) ...I I ' L ( / a ) j j t p4 ) l ( 6 . 4 s ) 1i
I nd e r i v i n g Eq.( 6 . 4 8 ) ,a l lt h et i me d e r i v a t i v e sh a v eb e e nt a k e no u t s i d eo ft h e
t i me or de r i ng s ym bol . The va l i di t y oft hi ss t e p can be s ee nf r om t he i dent i t y
' a
$ =l
P / o l t p -t q ) p ( / v- t r )''-b l t u- t v )e 0 f
'
whe r ep,q,r , . .. ,u,ri sany p er m ut at i on oft he i ndi c esl,2, .. di Fe r ent i at i on i s m os te as i l y eval uat ed wi t ht he r epr e s e nt at i on
The
Al l t h et i me d e r i v a t i v et e r msi nEq .( 6 . 4 8 )ma k et h es a mec on t r i b ut i o nt o t h ei n t e g r a l ,a ss h o wn b yc ha ng i n gd ummyva r i a b l e s ;wet h e r e f o r er e t a i nj u s t on e , s a yW f j ,a n dmu l t i p l yb yaf a c t ora .I n t e g r a t ebypa r t swi t hr e s l xc t t ot t :
n i spr oce dur el e adst ot wo t e r ms ,oneofwhi chi ss i mpl yt hei nt egr and e val uat e d a tt hee nd poi nt s ,andt heot he rar i s esf r om t hede r i va t i veoft headi aba t i cf ac t or . W et he r e f or eobt a i n
( 6. 49 )
ja -1
a -/ aj
( 6 . 5 0 )
Mu l t i p l yt h i se q ua t i o nont h el e f tb y( ( *: l 1 l %( e ) ) 1 1 ( *e 1 ; s i n c e( a / g) ( *a I =0 .
we:nd
( *( ) l Xl l V%( e ) )= i l ( * h e gv n( *c 1 l %( e ) )- E - Ez= LE :l 1 l %( e ) ) d g
( 6 . 5 1 )
I fewe r eal l owe dt o vani s h att hi spoi nt ,i twoul d% t e mpt i ng t o conc l udet hat
LE = 0 , wh i c hi sc l e a r l ya bs u r d .I nf a c t , t h ea mp l i t u d e( * l N%( M)mu s t a c qu i r e a ni n : n i t eph a s cp r o po r t i o n a lt oi e 's ot ha te 1 n( t Nl q%( 4)r e ma i n s n i t ea s e> . 0. 1 Equ a t i o n( 6. 5 0 )ma yb ema n i pu l a t e dt o$v e
( z ; s , f A e g j : j ) j o l i ( , 1 v e t f n l ( ) e ) ) r * 1 : ( F , I 2 ' l % 0 ( ) e ) ) ( f A d g j l I n ( * c I . I ' , ( e ) ) j
a n dac o mb i na t i o nwi t hEq . ( 6 . 51 )sn a l l yy i e l ds
( 6 . j z )
br a c k e t so nt h er i g hts i d e ofEq.( 6 . 5 2 )i ss ni t et oa l lo r de r si nm r t u r b a t i o n
t> . f o re x ampl e . J .Hubb a r d, Pr o c . Ro y.S oc . ( &z # n a ) ,m : 5 3 9( 1 9 5 D.
6 4
t heor y,t hati s ,i n g,and t he de ri vat i Ne wi t hr e s pec tt o g cannotchange t hi s pr oper t y. Si ncet heri ghts i de i sm ul t i pl i e d bl e ,i tvani s hesasft endst oz er o, whi ch pr ovest hebas i ct he or e m
( # E4 : 1 , * 0 ( e ) 7 : -0 l i m ! , e . . o ( *( ) t 1 ( ) ( . ' ) )
-
t %( 0 , +) l *o )) t *o I G( 0 , +c s ) I *o
wher e
( 6 . 5 4 )
t k( 0 , +c o ) - P1 ( t . x. 0 )
He r et h es y s t e m' ' c o me sba c k' 'f r om ?= +. x , ,wh e r et h ee i g e n s t a t ei s/ *0 ) , .I f t h es t a t et h a td e v e l op sou tof) *a )i sn o n de g e n e r a t e , t h e nt h e s et wode sn i t i o n s
m us tbe t hes am e. The y coul d di f l krby a phas ef ac t or ,butt hecom m on nor m al i zat i on c ondi t i on
( *n
( 6. 5 5 )
l i ( 0 , +c c ) )*( ) J m 0e -
C( 0. -' x ) ) l ( 1 ) ( ) X ? .
.
( 6 . 5 6 )
A snot edbe f or e,t hes t at eobt a i ned f r om t headi abat i cs wi t chi ng pr oc edur ene e d notbe t he t r ue gr ound s t at e,e ven i f *t ) ' xi st he noni nt e r ac t i ng gr ound s t at e. The Gel l M ann and Low t he or em me r e l y as s e r t st hat i ti s an e i ge ns t at e; i n addi t i on,i fi ti sa nonde gene r at ee i ge ns t at e,t he n bot h waysofc ons t r uc t i ng i t
I Eq . ( 6. 5 6 ) Jmu s ty i e l dt h es a mer e s u l t .
7QGREEN' S FUNCTI ONS
i G (
x bx l , x' t ' )=
lV.M .Gal i t s ki ian d A.B.M i g d al ,So v .Ph ys . JETP,7: 9 6( 1 9 5 8 ) ;A.Kl e i n an d R.Pr a ng e. Ph y s . Re t ' . , 1 1 2: 9 9 4( 1 9 5 8 ) ;P. C. Ma r t i na n dJ .S c h wi n g e r , Ph ys . Ae r , 1 1 5: 1 3 42( 1 9 5 9 ) .
66
wh e r e1 Y%) i st h eHe i s e n b e r ggr ou n ds t a t eoft h ei n t e r a c t i n gs y s t e ms a t i s f y i n g X1 ' F: )= E 1 ' F( ) ) an dgu q l x t )i saHe i s e n b e r go pe r a t o rwi t ht h et i med e pe n de n c e ; t H x ( x/ )= e i Bt l h # , / ) a ( x ) e i k l t l h
'
( 7. 2 )
( 7 . 3 )
( 7 . 4 )
wh e r et h eup p e r( I o we r )s i g nr e f e r st ob o s on s( f e r mi on s ) . Mo r eg e n e r a l l y ,t he
r pr oductofs eve r alope r at or sor der st hem f r om r i ghtt ol e f ti n as c endi n gt i me
( 7 . 6 )
6 6
RELATI ON T0 OBSERVABLES
The r ear es eve r al r e as onsf ors t udyi ngt heGr e en' sf unc t i ons . Fi r s t , t heFe ynman r ul esf orsndi ng t he c ont r i but i on ofa t h or derper t ur bat i on t heor y ar es i m pl e r f or G t han f orot herc om bi nat i ons of5e l d oper at or s . Thi sr e s ul ti s di s c us s e d i n de t ai li n Se c.9. Se c ond,a l t houg ht he gr ounds t at e ex pec t at i on v al ue i n
=f: 3 xy( x ) wh e r e #( x )i st h es e c o n d q u a n t i z e dd e n s i t yf o rt h eh r s t q u a n t i z e do p e r a t o r
Jb x l x t :
#( x ) -a ) ( # ; t x l l j z t x l ' ( k t x l #
Thegr ounds t at ee xpec t a t i on v al ueoft heoper a t orde ns i t yi sgi ve n by
( . 1 ' o I v f , ( x' ) , y 1 a ( x ) 1 : Po )
1 , . . 1 +x ' -xa#
( H ( x ) )= z k i t r Gl x t n x t + )
*7
( ( X) )= ii t r( *G( Xl , Xl + ) l
l w g s g j
( /)=z k iJ#3 xl i m K . x
' -
h2/2 - 2m t r Gt x/ , x' I + )
( 7 . 1 0 )
The i nt e r e s t i ng que s t i on now ar i s e s:I si tal s o pos s i bl et oc ons t r uc tt he pot e nt i ale ner gy
p q'
The i de nt i t y of t he par t i c l e si nt he as s embl yr equi r e st hatt he i nt e r ac t i on be unc hanged unde rpar t i c l ei nt er c hang e
( 7 . j 4 )
wher e
( , 4 , 1C ' ) = ABC - BCA = ABC - BAC + BAC- BCA ( . x, #) C - B( C, W) = ( ( 7 . I 6 ) z 4 , 1) C- . #( C, z 4 ) wh i c ha l l o wsu st oe x p r e s sEq.( 7 . 1 5 )i nt e r msofe i t h e rc o mmu t a t o r sora n t i c omm ut at or s. Forde sni t e nes s ,c ons i de rt he f er mi on c as e,s i nc et hi si s m or e
6 8
i hy - F( x ) #s a t x r )
-
b ' ? y '
Eq u a t i ons( 7. 1 8 )a n d( 7 . 1 9 )a r ea l s oc o r r e c tf o rb os o n s .
i hP ' Ft h l ## s a t x' / ' )#sa ( x? ) 1 ' l %) #a z , & r( x )t I J , ( : F( , 1 ' l %) # , y y , r ' k l r o l f z s a t x' r ' ) # s ' y t z ' t 4F( x, z ' ) a , ' , , , y ' #s y ' ( z ' t j ' J sj ' ( x? ) ! ' 1 %) x ( : 1 %1 : F0) . . ( , y . a o
-
u i u f l i m l i m i hs - F( x ) Gx x l xt , x t) t+ x' y l' y x w, w
. . -
( 7 . 2 1 )
W eno ws u m o v e r= a nd i n t e g r a t eo v e rx,whi c h sn a f l yy i e l ds( c o mp a r e Eq. ( 7 . 1 1 ) j P ,, (P)= u t r l . f f #3 x l' l i m 1 i m i h j j r( x ) Ga a t x / , x t) ( 7 . 2 2 ) . +f+ x' -y x Ac o mb i n a t i on o fEq s .( 7. 1 0)an d( 7 . 2 2 )t h e ne x pr e s s e st h et o t a lgr ou n d s t a t e
e ne r gys ol e i yi nt er m soft hes i ng l e par t i cl eG r e en' sf unc t i on.
E- ( J + P)- ( I )
,,
= +! . fJ#3 x1 i m l i m i h. c -. t + x' , A x
' .
-
6 9
The s eexpr e s s i onsas s ume a s i mpl erf or mf ora homoge ne ouss ys t e mi na l ar geboxofvol um eF,whe r et hes i ngl epar t i cl eGr e e n' sf unc t i onmaybewr i t t en
a s( c o mp a r eEq. ( 3 . 1 ) ) 1
G a / x r , x ' t ' ) =F k
* d ul
g x j z e f k * t f f ' e f t r r ' G . # ( k , ( t 4 -X
( 7 . 2 4 )
N. f d 3 x t ? i ( x ) ) -+ , ' ( z j ) 4 , l . i n t f d q k j , J r x l e t n t r c t k , f z , )
l i m J E = +! . t al 4q ? kJ . . # ( x ) e l u l ' la m +h a t t r G ( k , ( s ) o,. d
-
( 7 . 2 6 )
c o
h2k2
He r et heconN er genc tf ac t or
j i m :i a ? ( l ' -t ). l i m ei u ' ' l
l ' . . + f + ' r ) + 0+
desnest he a ppr opr i at e cont ouri nt he compl e xu tpl ane;he nce f or t h,t he l i mi t T+ . 0+wi l lbei m pl i ci twhe nev ers uc h af ac t orappear s . For s ome pur pos e s .i twoul d be mor e conveni entt o hav et he di f l kr enc e
h -h l k2 j 2 ma pp e a r i n gi n Eq .( 7 . 27 ) . Th i sr e s u l tc a nb ea c h i e v e d wi t ht h e
f ol l owi ng t r i ck,appar ent l y due t o Pa ul iand s i nc er t di s cove r e dma ny t i mes . z Theha mi l t oni ani swr i t t en wi t h a var i abl ec oupl i ngcons t antA as
z ?( A )- J ? o+ A J ? l
t he n
4( 1 )= J ? a n d 4( 0 )-/ %
and we at t empt t os ol v et he t i me i ndep ende nt Sc hr di nge r equa t i on f or an a r bi t r ar yval ueof/ :
4( A ) ' 1 %( A ) )- f( A ) ' 1 %( A ) )
wher et hes t at eve c t ori sas s um e d nor m al i z e d
( 7 . 2 8 )
t h edi s c us s i on p r e c e di ngEq. ( 7 . 5 3 ) . 2Se e ,f o re x a mp l e , D. Pi ne s , l 6 l h eM a n yBod yPr ob l e m, ' 'p. 43 ,W .A. Be n j a mi n,I n c. ,Ne w Yo r k ,1 9 61 ;T.D.S c h ul t z ,* s oua n t um Fi e l dTh e or yan dt h eMa n y Bo dyPr obl e m, ' 'p .1 8 ,
Go r do na ndBr e a c h,S c i e n c ePu bl i s he r s . Ne w Yo r k,1 96 4 .
7 :
a # z z r ( A ) 4 t d * F : ) ( A ) j y ? ( A ) 4 n ? c ( z ) ) + 4 n r : ( A ) ( y ? ( A ) d ' : P ) ( l ) ; )
-
A F ( Tc( J J ? ( ? ), p( A ) ) A ) l #j l o
1 : ( z )# t vo ( z ) I vc ( A ) )+t ' rc ( z ) l z ? l I n r a ( z ) )
-
dz
--
( vo ( A ) I #l I vn ( A ) )
( 7 . 2 9 )
E-Ez-
1dh
Q
w( ' l %( A ) l A J %l ' l %( A ) )
( 7 . 3 0 )
E-E v =i . f ( 2 * ) 4( ) y # 3 k j c o d t . o e t ' gh u l -2 mt r G A ( k , a )( 7 . 3 2 )
A s an exa m pl e oft he above f or m al i s m ,cons i der t he G r ee n' sf unct i on f or a noni nt e r ac t i ng homoge neous s ys t em of f e r mi ons . I ti s hr s tc onveni ent t o mr f or m a canoni c alt r ans f or mat i on t o par t i cl es and hol e s . I nt he de ni t i on
Wx )= Z / k A ( X) C k A k A
wer e de hnet hef er mi on oper a t orck aas 1 ck A k > kF par t i c l e s
f k 3= b !kA
.
k< kr
ho l e s
C' MI
'n eab s e n c eo fapa r t i c l ewi t hmome nt um + . kf r o mt b ehl l e dFer mi s e ai mp l i e st ha tt h es y s t e m pos= s es a moment um -k. For a pr om r i nt er pr et ati on oft he s pi n of t he hol e st at e,s e e S e c. 5 6.
f J . , J 1 1-f *. : 1 , 1= 3 . , .
( 7 . 3 5 )
and t her e f or el eav est he phys i csunc hange d. He r et heJ' sand b' scl e ar l y ant i c ommut e wi t h ea ch ot herbe ca us et hey r ef e rt o di fe r e ntmode s . ' Fhe a %and a om a ' at or scr e at e and de s t r oy par t i c l e sabove t he Fer mis e a,whi l et he b %and b om r at or scr e at e and des t r oy hol e si ns i de t he Fer mis e a,asi sevi dentf r om Eq.
( 7 . 3 6 ) ( 7 . 3 D
wher et hehr s te quat i on i si nt he Sc hr di nge rpi c t ur eand t hes e c ond e quat i oni s
i nt h ei n t e r a c t i o n pi c t u r e . Equ a t i on s( 7 . 3 6 )a n d( 7 . 3 7 )d i F e ro n l yi nt h a tt h e
i nt e r ac t i onpi c t ur ec ont ai nsac ompl e xt i mede m nde ntphas e . Cor r e s pondi ngl y, t heham i l t oni an bec om es
Xc= ) ( h k c l Ac k A k A
=
k> kr ( pa r t l c l e x )
( 7 . 3 8 )
I nt he abs enc e ofpar t i c l e s orhol e s ,t he e ner gy i st hatoft he 5l l e d Fer m is ea. Cr e at i ng a hol el owe r st heene r gy,wher e ascr ea t i ng a par t i cl er ai s e st heener gy. l ft het ot alnumbe roff e r mi onsi sExed,howe ver ,par t i cl esand hol t sne ce s s ar i l y occ uri n pai r s . Eac h par t i cl ehol e pai rt he n hasa netpos i t i vee ne r gy,s howi ng t ha tt heil l e d Fer m is e ar e pr e s ent st hegr ound s t at e. By de sni t i on,t he noni nt e r ac t i ng f er mi on Gr e en' sf unct i on i sg i ve n by
( 7 . 3 9 )
wher et he noni nt e r ac t i ng gr ound s t at ev ec t or i s as s ume d nor mal i z ed,and t he s upe r s c r i ptz e r oi ndi ca t e st hatt hi si sa Gr ee n' sf unc t i on wi t h no i nt er act i ons . W enow obs er v et hatt hepar t i c l eand hol ede s t r uct i on om r at or sb0t h anni hi l at e t hegr ound s t at e
k z I *o )= J k l *0 )= 0
i ngt er mf orea c ht i meor de r i ng i se as i l ycomput e d,and we:nd
( 7 . K)
x( p ( ? -t ' )0 ( k- kz . )- # ( J ' -t )9 4 kz -k ) )( 7 . 41 )
72
whe r et he f a ct or 3 a, a r i s es bt caus et he s um ov er s pi ns t at es i scompl et e. I n t he l i mi tofan i nfni t e vol um e,t he s um m at i on overk bec omesan i nt e gr at i on
8 ( /- t ' ) =-
( 7 . 4 3 )
b ( k-k p )y f t / c s-F c j x 3 , j g ( , c o , + , j. o , , , . , y j( , y . 4 4 )
-
G1 ( k- ks )+ 0 ( k F- k ) j ( k, )= a j #
( . o- o ) k+ i ' q f . e- k- i , r l
l ti si n s t r u c t i v et ov e r i f ye x pl i c i t l yt h a tEq. ( 7. 4 4 )i n d e e dr e pr o du c e sEq .( 7 . 4 2 ) , a n da l s ot h a tEq .( 7 . 45 )g i v e st h ec o r r e c tv a l u ef or( i 9? $( Eq. ( 7 . 2 6 ) )a n dE H Ef j ( Eq.( 7 . 2 7 ) ) . Equ a t i o n( 7 . 4 5 )a l s oc a nb ed e r i v e d di r e c t l yb ye v a l u a t i n gt h e Fo u r i e rt r an s f o r mo fEq. ( 7 . 4 2 ) , i nwh i c hc a s et h eii yt e r msa r er e qu i r e dt or e n de r
t het i m ei nt e gr al sc onve r ge nt .
TH E LEHM AN N REPRESENTATI O Nl
Ce r t ai nf ea t ur es of t he s i ngl epar t i c l e Gr e en' sf unc t i on f ol l ow di r e ct l yf r om f undam e nt alquant um me chani c alpr i nc i pl e s and ar et her ef or ei ndependentof t he s pe c i f kf or m oft he i nt e r ac t i on. Thi ss e e t i on i s de vot e dt os uch gener al
p r o p e r t i e s . Al t ho u g h ou rsn a le x pr e s s i o n sa r ef o r ma l l ya pp l i c a b l et o bo t h
bos ons and f er mi ons ,t he exi s t enc e of Bos e conde ns at i on atT = 0 i nt r oduc es
( 7 . 4 6 )
1H.Le hmann,Nuovo Ci me nt o, 11 : 3 42( 1 9 5 4 ) . Ou rt r e at me n tf ol l owst h ato fV. M .Ga l i t s ki i and A.B.Mi gdal ,I oc.ci t .and A.A.Abr i kos ov.L.P.Gor kov,and 1.E.Dzyal os hi ns ki i ,
t Me t hod so fQua nt um Fi e l d Th e or yi n St a t i s t i c a lPhy s i c s , ' 's e c. 7 ,Pr e n t i c e l l al l ,l n c. , En gl e wood Cl i fs.N .J. ,1 963.
73
d Gz j t x r , x' t ' )= ) ( ; ( p ( ?- t ' ) t t l ' 0 f #s . ( x ? ) ( ' . Fn )t t l ' ' a t #i j t x' / ' ) ( t 1 %) 0 ( t ' -t ) t k l ' c c l l / 1# ( x' t ' ) I T, )t ' l ' a l #s . ( x ? ) l k I %) J( 7 . 4 7 )
-
l ' Gaj( xt x' / ' )= ) (( # ( /- t ' ) e i E n E ' t ' ' ' ' / ' ( k l . ' 1 1 / x ) 1 k ra)( 5 1 . 7 #j f ( x' ) 4 1 F ' ) , ( ) a( nr ( )
a
( #, ' ; /z ) ! - -#j ( z )
or ,e qui va l e nt l y,
4' ; j ( z ) -, J # ( z ) ( 4-1 ) App l yt hi sl a s to p e r a t o rr e l a t i ont ot h es t a t e1 T1): X( ' ; ' j ( z ) 1 ' l ' ' ( , ) ) -C N-1 ) ( #j ( z ) l ' 1 %) 1 ( 7 . 4 9 ) wh e r e we h a v eno t e dt h atl k Fc )i sa ne i g e n s t a t eoft h e nu mb e ro pe r a t o rwi t h e i g e n v a l u eN. Th ust h es e l d9 a c t i n gont h es t a t e1 T' 0 )y i e i dsane i g e n s t a t eo f t henu mbe rop e r a t orwi t ho nel e s sp a r t i c l e . Si mi l a r l y , t h eo p e r a t or#1 ' i n c r e a s e s
t hen umb e ro fpa r t i c l e sbyon e . Equ a t i on( 7 . 4 8 )t hu sc o nt a i n son ene wf e a t u r e
t hatdoes not occ ur i nt he or di nar y Sc hr di nger e qua t i on,f or we mus tnow cons i deras s em bl i eswi t h di ser entnum ber sofpar t i c l e s. U nt i lt hi spoi nt , t hedi s cus s i on hasbee nc om pl e t el y ge ner a l ,as s um i ngonl y
t h a tX i st i mei n d e p e n de n t . Al t ho u gh i ti sp os s i b l et oc on t i nu et h i sa na l y s i s
wi t houtf ur t herr e s t r i ct i on. we s ha l lnow c ons i de ronl yt hes i m pl e rcas eoft r ans l at i onali nvar i anc e. Thi si mpl i es t hatt he moment um oper at or ,whi c hi st he
g e n e r a t o ro fs p a t i a ld i s p l a c e me nt s , c o mmu t e swi t h 4. I ti sn a t u r a lt ou s et h e
7 4
w ) (J#3 x( ( x) ( -f V) f k( x )= I kc l z c k A ? kA
i se as i l ye val uat ed a s
-
( 7 . 5 0 )
/ Vfz ( x )= I #. ( x) , )
( 7* 5 g )
y1 ( x )= e i t . x l h yX ( ( pv i e. x l h
ma t r i xe l e me n t si nEq . ( 7 . 4 8 ) :
Si nc ef : i sac o n s t a n to ft h e mo t i on , t h ec o mp l e t es e t ofs t a t e sa l s oc a nb et a k e n
as e i g ens t at e s ofmome nt um. W e t her e f or e ex t r actt he x depe nde nce oft he
' i Ga b ( x/ , x' f ' ) =) ( )( # ( t -t ' ) e f t f k f ' f ' J ' ' ' ' e f P p . t x x ' ) / 5
x( . 1 . e ( ) l f kt 0 ) 1 T, n )( ' 1 n l ## f ' ( 0 ) 1 . 1 o )- 0 ( t ' -t ) e i %E ' ( ' t ' ' ' ' e ' ' %. ( x x ' ' / .
( 7 . 5 3 )
Gx b ( k, ( , > )= f#3 ( x- x' )j #l f- t ' ) t a i k * t x x ' ) e i w s t t ' ' Gxj( xr x' t ' ) > Cl %1 #a ( 0 ) i ' F. ' , ) t ' Ll f1 /0 ) 1 V 1 ' e 0 ) I z ' ) (d k , p a / , t a 5 ,, ( s.- y)+ j , y
. -
* +
( . o+ h ( E' n -
( 7 . 5 5 )
7 5
Thust hegene r alpr i nci pl esofquant um mec hani cse nabl e ust o exhi bi tt hef r e que ncy de pendenc e oft he Gr e en' sf unct i on,G c aus eutnow a ppe ar sonl yl ht he
d e n o mi n a t o ro ft h i ss u m.
I ti s hel pf ul t o exami ne t he s e de nomi nat or si n al i t t l e mor e det ai l . I n t he Er s ts um t he i nt e r me di a t es t at e ha s N + lpar t i cl es ,and t he denomi nat or m ay be wr i t t e n as
. , ( k , t u ) = A F Y( u w . g e g v f y o j ) o j p +6 : 1 %1 # /0 ) 1 a , k )( n , -k l # . ( 0 ) I ' l %) yj o h u t ; + e . . ( N 1 ) i , q 1( .
'
( ' l %) # . ( 0 ) ) n k ) r a k) # ; ( 0 ) ) t l %)
s p i nl . .S i n c eG i sa2x 2ma t r i x , i tc a nb ee x pa n d e di nt h ec ompl e t es e tc on s i s t i ng oft he uni tm at r i x and t he t hr e e Paul is pi n m at r i ce s n. l ft her ei s no pr e f er r eddi r e c t i oni nt hepr obl e m,t he n G mus tbeas ca l arunders pa t i alr ot at i ons . Si ncek i st heonl y ve c t oravai l abl et oc ombi ne wi t h e,G ne ce s s a r i l yt akest he f or m
G( k, t s )= J I +: l. k
76
wher et he i nv ar i anc e underr ot a t i ons i mpl i est ha ta and b ar ef unc t i onsofk2 and . 1 f ,i n addi t i on,t he hami l t oni an i si nv ar i antunde rs pat i a lr e qe ct i ons , t he n G mus tal s o ha ve t hi spr ope r t y;but l. ki s a ps eudos ca l ar unde rs pa t i a l r e qe c t i ons ,s ot ha tt he c oe c i e ntb m us tvani s h. Thus si ft he ham i l t oni an and gr ound s t at ea r ei nvar i a ntunde rs pat i a lr ot at i onsand r e ie c t i ons ,t he G r e e n' s f unct i on ha st hef ol l owi ngm at r i xs t r uct ur e
I ti si n s t r u c t i v et ou s eEq .( 7 . 5 9 )t or e p r o du c eo u rpr e v i o use x p r e s s i onf or G0 ( k, f s )( Eq. ( 7 . 45 ) )i n af r e eFe r mis y s t e m. Fort hef i r s tt e r m ofEq.( 7. 5 9 ) ,
t headded pa r t i c l em us t1 i eabov et he Fe r m is ea,and t hem at r i xel e m ent soft he fe l d ope r at or sbe com e
( 7 . 6 1 )
I nt hede nom i nat oroft hi st e r m ,t heexc i t at i on ener gy i st hedi f l kr e ncebe t we en t heac t ua le ner g y oft headdi t i onalpar t i cl ea nd t hee ner gy t ha ti twoul d haveat t heFer m is ur f a ce. Thust heener gydi f l kr enc ei sgi venby
2 ( k 2- k / ) l m
7 7
XXXX XXXXXXX AX X M
XXXXXXXXX X
/ *+ ' n k( X+1 ) -l h
Fi g. 7. 1 S i ng ul a r i t i e so f G( k, ( z 9i nt he
compl exhl . opl ane.
W et he r e f or e deine a ne w pai r off unct i ons ,known asr et ar de da nd adv ance d Gr e en' sf unc t i ons
t , o- y - r a k t x+1 )s i v
.
t k l ' 0 1 . t ; f j ( 0 ) 1 n , -k>L n , -k( f , z ( 0 ) $ k l ' o ) hol- p,+ % ,- k( N-1 )+ i y Not et h a tt heFo u r i e rt r a n s f o r msGR ( k, ( s )a n d GA ( k, ( s )a r ea g a i nme r omo r p h i c
+
E G1 k ( k , t , 3 . ) *- G / . ( k , u 9
( 7 . 6 4 )
wh e r et h ea s t e r i s kd e n ot sc o mpl e xc on j u g a t i o n. Th er e t a r d e dan da d v a n c e d
Gr e e n' sf unc t i onsdi f l krf r om e ac h ot herandf r om t het i me or de r e dGr e e n' sf unc-
t i o no nl yi nt h ec o nv e r g e n c ef a c t o r s i, wh i c ha r ei mp o r t an t n e a r t hes i n g u l a r i t i e s .
I f( . oi sr ea land gr e at ert han -1 J z ,t hen t he i nsni t es i m ali m agi nar y par t s +f 4
7:
Gl # ( k, )= G. # ( k, )
Si mi l a r l y,
h r e a l ,>r z h r e a l , <J z
( 7 . 6 5 / ) ( 7 . 6 5 5 )
t Q, ( k. )= G. , ( k, t t 0
Asnot e d pr e vi ous l y,G. ji s us ual l y di agona li nt he s pi ni ndi c es:G. ,= G3 aj . Wi t ht he s ame as s um pt i ons ,t he r e t a r ded and advanc ed Gr e en' sf unc t i ons ar e
a l s od i a g on a l , a n d wema ys o l v ef orG a sG = ( 2 x+ 1 ) 1 Ea Gu x- ( 2 J+ 1 ) 1 G. a
wi t ht heconve nt i on t hatr epe at ed i ndi c e sar et o bes umme d.
l ft h es p a c i n gb e t we e na d j a c e n te n e r g yl e v e l si sc h a r a c t e r i z e dbyat y p i c a l
val uee ,t he di s cr et el e ve ls t r uct ur eca n be r e s ol ved onl y ove rt i mes ca l esl ong
i nEq s . ( 7 . 5 9 )a n d( 7 . 6 3 )c a nber e wr i t t e na s
( 2 J . +1 ) 1F ) ( 2 ! ( a kI #1 ( 0 ) l N %)1 2..'
#a
M 1J# e W( k , e ' ).
and
( 7. 6 6 / )
( 7 . 6 6 : )
Gl k,
( 7 . 6 7 )
whi ch now has a br anc hc uti nt hecompl ex o )pl aneal on gt he whol er ealaxi s .
7 9
GR '
X ( k , t z ) =j o d f z l( . o -: l s -f s , si y l +( s -: 1 s+o ' : j u i x l ( 7 . 6 8 )
.
W( k, ( , a ' )
#( k, ( s ' )
whi ch s howst hata 1 lt hr e e Gr e e n' sf unct i onsc an be c ons t r uc t ed i f, 4 and B ar e known. l n addi t i on,t he s ym bol i ci de nt i t yval i df orr e al( . o
1 = ( . o+ i . r l
@: Fi r ' r b l u ) ) ( t )
* d' l m GR . A ( k( . v ' j
-
( 7 . 6 9 )
eGR. ? ( k, o a )= E F . t #
X C
* -
, '-
( 7 . 70 )
wher e, ' de not esa Cauchy pr i nci pa lval ue. Thi se quat i on al s o hol dsf orsni t e s ys t e ms ,whe r eI m Gi sas um ofdel t af unc t i ons . Thes e Gr e en' sf unct i ons al lhave a s i mpl e as ympt ot i c behavi orf or l a r ge Cons i dert he gr ounds t a t ee xpe ct at i on val ue oft he ant i c omm ut at or
j . g f P ? ! @ ( x x ? ) / h j ) 1 j . . * a j ) ) . , j x ( ( ; ) k j % O
j = 0 # t s ( : ( k , ( s ) +a ( k , ( s ) J
yi e l d
Tounder s t andt hephys i cal i nt e r pr e t at i on oft hes i ngl epar t i c l eGr e e n' sf unct i on,
c on s i de rt h ei nt e r a c t i on p i c t u r es t a t e1 Tz ( / ' ) ) ,a n da d d a pa r t i c l ea tt hep oi n t
8 0
t h eha mi l t on i a n, i ts t i l l pr op a g a t e si nt i mea c c o r d i n gt op( t , / ' ) 41 gx' f ' ) I t F, ( / ' ) ) . l c o rt> t ' wha ti st h eo v e r l a po ft h i ss t a t ewi t ht hes t a t e' ; 1 a ( x? ) . I k l ' z ( ? ) )?
( ' l ' , ( r ) i , ; z a ( x/ )C ' ( t , t ' 4 ' J l j t x' ? ' ) i ' F, ( / ' ) ) - ( *( ) 1 t ' ) ( v c , ? )E P( ? , 0 ) ' ; s z ( x ? )t ' ) ( 0 , J ) )I ' / l t n t ' j xE r . ' ) . ( ? ' , 0) ; , Lb l x' ? ' ) t ' ) ( 0, / ' ) 1 C l ' ( t ' , -: s) 1 *0 ) t ' 1 ' o l f , l a t xr l # 1 , /x ' ? / ) 1 : 1 c )
wh e r e we ha v e us e dt h er e s u l t so fS e c .6 . Th i squ a n t i t yi sj u s tt h e Gr e e n ' s
f unct i on f or t> /' , whi c ht her e f or ec ha r ac t er i ze st he pr opaga t i on of a s t a t e cont ai ni ng an a ddi t i onalpar t i cl e. I nas i mi l arwa y,i ft< t' ,t he se l d oper at or sr s tcr e at e sahol eatt i m et ,and t hes ys t e mt henpr opagat esac c or di ngt ot hef ul l hami l t oni an. Thes e hol es c an be i nt e r pr e t ed as par t i cl es goi ng bac kwar di n t i m e, asdi s c us s edi nt hef am ouspaper sofFe ynm an. l Thepr obabi l i t yam pl i t ude ata l at e rt i met 'f orfndi ng a s i ng l e hol ei nt he gr ound s t at e oft he i nt er a ct i ng
t i me s c al ei st oo s hor tt or es ol vet he s epar at eene r gy 1 ev el s . 2 By t he deEni t i on oft he Four i ert r ans f or m ,t he t i m e de pe nde nce i sgi v en by
G( k, a zd o l ? )= x ; ; c -f l G( k , ( s ) =T F
-
'
I ft> 0,t hei nt e gr alma y bee val uat e d by de f or mi ng t hecont ouri nt ot hel owe r
( 7 . 7 4 )
GRE E N' S FUNC TI ONS AND F ' E L D THE ORY ( F ERMI ONS)
8 1
2 ef o , r G( k, f x ) )= . n.
.-
v/ ' h
i z o t Gz t t k, ( s ) : -f . zr re v/
Jc o
( 7 . 7 6 )
Th es e c o n dt e r mo fEq. ( 7 . 7 4 )c an b et r e a t e ds i mi l a r l y, b e c a u s e G( k, ( o ) c o i n c i de s wi t h GR ( k, f . t ) )f or r e al( z ?> J zh. Ther ei sone i mpor t antnew f eat ur e,howev er ,
h ykl . p0 .( l fGR h a ss e v e r a lp ol e s , t h es a mean a l y s i sap p l i e st oe a c h on es e p a r a t e l y . ) The c on t ou r( 7 2c a nb ed e f o r me dt o Ca '( Fi g .7 . 2 : 4 ,a nd t h el a r g ea r c a ti n f i n i t ya g a i n mak e sno c o nt r i bu t i on;t he s e c o n dt e r m ofEq.( 7 . 7 4 )t h e n
be com es . t y *
s? &
r . . , ' ' i -i xd
Gt k, t )=
v , ' h
l x l 9-i f n
l( s
I fr i sn e i t h e rt o ol a r g en ort o os ma l l , t h ei n t e g r a l i n Eq. ( 7 . 7 8 ) i sn e g l i g i bl e ,
and t hes t at ec ont ai ni ng oneaddi t i onalpar t i cl e pr opagat esl i kean appr oxi m at e e i ge ns t at e wi t h af r equency e k f / h and dam pi n gc ons t ant vk . M or e pr ec i s e l y, we s hal lnow s how t hati f
1 t l l e k- r z ) >h i t 1 yk; :l
tSe e,f or e xampl e.E.G .Phi l l i ps,t l l unct i ons ofa Compl ex Var i abl e. ' gp.122,l nt er s ci ence Publ i s her s,I nc. ,New Yor k.1 95 8.
:2
t ht nl
( 7 . 7 9 )
Not et hatt hec ondi t i on 6 k- J z> h yki sas s umed i mpl i ci t l y,s ot hatt hepol emus t
GR ( k,t a t ) ); k s t o- r k / / j +i y g GA ( k,u J ) ) =( GR ( k, ( s ) ) *; k ; ( . o- y j h- i y z
whe r tt hes e c on dr e l a t i onf o l l o wsf r o m Eq. ( 7 . 6 4 ) . The s er e l a t i o n sa l l ow u st o an a l y t i c a l l yc o nt i n ueGR ( k, ( s )a n d GA ( k, ( s )i nt ot h ec o mpl e xf spl . a n e ,a n dt h e i n t e g r a li n Eq . ( 7 . 7 8 )c a nt h e r e f o r eb ewr i t t e na s
v : h #4 s
BI h -i c o 0.
2t ? -f o a f g cA t k, t s , l- GR ( k, t s ) J
; k ; li yka
#1 h
#( s
e -i f . t ) f
-
' ?k a e- i y t l h c o
= -
; k ; -4 =1 ) -1 y : a h l s -e x ) 2 e i H t i h. t- i ae *k t l h e t k t ( 78 0 ) whe r et h et h i r dl i ne i so bt a i n e d wi t ht hes u bs t i t u t i o n u= f l ( , ) - -i p ) . Th e
hnalf or m f ol l ows by us i pg as s umpt i ons 1 and 2,al ong wi t ht he condi t i on
83
8DW I CK' S THEO REM ' Thepr ec e di ng s ec t i on de f i ne dt hes i ngl e par t i cl eG r e en' sf unc t i on and exhi bi t ed i t sr e l at i on t o obs er v abl epr oper t i es . Thi sanal ys i si n no way s ol vest hef undame nt a lm a nybodypr obl em , howev er , and wem us ts t i l l cal cul at eG f ornont r i vi a l phys i ca ls ys t e ms . A s our gener al m e t hod of a t t a ck,we s hal leva l ua t et he Gr ee n' sf unc t i on wi t h pe r t urbat i on t heor y. Thi s pr oc edur ei s mos te as i l y c ar r i ed outi nt hei nt e r a ct i on pi c t ur e,wher et heva r i oust e r msc an bee numer at ed wi t hat heor e m ofW i ck,de r i v ed i nt hi ss ec t i on. Ther em ai nderoft hi sc hapt e r
( S e c . 9 )i sd e v o t e dt ot h edi a g r a m ma t i ca na l y s i so ft h ep e r t ur ba t i on s e r i e s .
TheG r e e n' sf unct i on c ons i s t sofam at r i xe l e m entofH e i s enbe r g oper at or s i nt heexa cti nt e r ac t i ng g r ound s t at e. Thi sf or mi si nc onv eni entf orpe r t ur ba t i on t heor y,and we now pr ove a bas i ct heor e m t hatr el at est he m at r i x el em e ntofa
He i s e n be r go p e r a t ort X( / ) t ot h ema t r i xe l e me nt o f t h ec o r r e s p o n di n gi n t e r a c t i on
o p t r a t o rOg ( t ) :
( : 1 ' 0 1 ' 1 P ( ) . t * c l , 9 i * o l j o o j *j j f j v 2 1 j u t a , J d t v
.-
v -o
Xe e t I t J / +. + I , p l ) r( . J . ? . j ( / y ) He r et h eop e r a t o r. Li sde f i n e db y
. ? ? ! ( ? v ) t ) , ( / ) 3 1 *c ) ( 8 . 1 )
( 8 . 2 )
Thepr oofi sasf ol l ows:TheG e l l Ma nn and Low t heor em e xpr e s s e st hegr ound s t a t e oft he i nt e r ac t i ngs y s t em i nt hei nt e r ac t i on pi ct ur e
=
Th e de no mi n a t o r on t h el e f ts i d e ofEq.( 8 . 1 )c a nb ec a l c u l a t e db y wr i t i n g
I . k( 0 , -c c ) 1 *0 N , ) o nt h er i g h t a n dt %( 0 , : c ) t *o ) ) o nt h el e f t ( 1 1 , ( ) 1 F0 ) ( *c I G( 0 , c s ) fG( 0 , -c c ) 1 *n )
t f *c 1 , ' l ' e )t 2
'
t t *o 1 ' 1 ' o )l 2
C *( ) r G( ' x , , 0 ) f $ ( 0, -: c ) 1 *0 )
( 8 . 3 )
t *( , I t %( c c , 0 ) t ' ) e ( O , ? ) dz ( ? ) t %( r , 0 ) t %( : , -' x ) ) 1 *0 )
l f *c l ' I ' ' ( , )1 2
-
4 *0 1 I %( c c , J ) z ( ? ) L hl t . -c c ) 1 *0 )( s 4 ) . lo j s-;j c .
. : ro o
lG . C. wi c k, Ph y s . #e t , . . &) ; 2 6 8( 1 9 5 0 ) .
>
) r( f ' l %I :, , ( / ) l ' F c )- ( *o 1 t %( =, r f ) G( f , -c c ) I *c )
- -
. : . 1 ' c 1 . 1 %)
( *a I , 9I *( , )
( g . 5 )
Eq. ( 8 . 5 ) , c o n t a i n i n gt heo p e r a t o r
t %( *, f ) 0z ( f ) t ' Vf , -*)
= =
* -j a j x j h - df j .. . n ! t n=0
*
x 0z ( / )
h m! d t l..' -.d t m .
im 1
a )
- -
dt nef ( I f . 1 + '''+1 t a I )
xF ( 4j ( f I ). . . . 4 l ( K ) ( 1 : , ( / ) J 'd t t J 'd t m
xe e ( I t l I +' .' + I 1 1 ) r( #k ( f j ) ...J /j t f a ) ) ( 8 . 7 )
TheKr one cke rde l t ahe r eens ur e st hatm + n= p , buti tal s ocanbeus e dt ope r f or m
j * * : / ,. . . J f * * # f . e e ( I , ! l + . . . + 1 , . 1 )
x F( Xl ( l l )---#I ( f . ) z ( l ) z ( / ' ) ) I *c ) ( 8 . 8 )
8 5
t q mo r l 9 t t c c , o l( r 7 e ( 0 , ? ) ; ( t 4 6f , ( / . 0 ) 1 ( P, ( 0 , ? ) O, . ( t ' )t ' . ) t ( ? ' , 0) ) f , . ( O, -x) ! *( ) ' p -' : t p( ) I t 7 . r r ( *, ? ) t ' ) , ( ? )Pt ( ? , J ' )z ( J ' )C ' ' ( t ' , -c r : . ) r *( ) )
.
.
l . c a j ( x , . , , ) - L h ip !. d t , . . .j # ? p =0 . -.
X z
pj c c
. > x )
y '
'
- -
tmol Sl *( ) ) '
whe r et he n ot a t i o n xE ( x , r ' ( ) ) -( x, J x )ha sb e e ni n t r o du c e d . He r ea n d he n c e f or t h, t he s ubs cr i pt 1 wi l ) be om i t t e d.s i nc e we s ha l lc ons i s t ent l y wor ki nt he i nt er a ct i on pi c t ur e . l ti s al s o conveni ent t or e wr i t et he i nt er par t i c l e pot e nt i a l
i n X ja s
whi ch al l ows us t o wr i t et he i nt e gr at i ons s ym m e t r i ca l l y. l For ex am pl e, t he
i c ' . ; ( x , y ) -I ' G O I j t x , y ) + . . ( / j . ) jd n x , J 4 x / ( v . ( x j , . v ( ) h a , . s s ,
2/ $ pp t '
q' r' # t w * Y '' 2 ' ? ' A ' ' ' xt F k ( l ) t *o1 . yA ( A1 ) t ' / , ' s ( xl ) ' / ? s , ( xl ) ' t / ? A ( A ' l ) v ' a ( x) ' z ' j ( A ' ) 1 I a z ' F -'' ' .Fk
.
j,
Thi se xpr es s i on s howst hatwe m us te v ' al u at et heexpe ct at i on v ' a l ue i nt he noni nt e r ac t i ng gr ound s t at e ofF pr oduc t sofc r e at i on and des t r uct i on oper at or s of t hef or m
( 8 l 2 ) .
86
l ti s cl ear t hatt he cr ea t i on a nd de s t r uc t i on ope r at or s mus t be pai r ed or t he expe ct at i on va l uevani s he s;e veni nt hi sl owes t or de rt er m, howe ver ,t hes t r ai ght f or wa r da ppr oac h ofc l as s i f yi ng al 1pos s i bl econt r i but i onsby di r e c tappl i c at i on oft hec om mut at i on ora nt i commut at i on r e l at i onsi sver yl e ngt hy. I ns t e ad,we s hal lr e l yon W i c k' st heor e m,whi ch pr ovi de sagene r alpr oce dur ef oreval uat i ng s uch m a t r i xe l e m ent s . Thees s e nt i ali deai st o moveal ldes t r uct i on oper at or st ot her i ght ,wher e t hey anni hi l at et he noni nt e r ac t i ng gr ound s t at e. I ns o doi ng, we gene r at e addi t i onalt er ms ,pr opor t i onalt ot hecom m ut at or sorant i com m ut a t or soft he oper a t or si nvol ve di nt he i nt e r change s ofpos i t i ons . Formos t pur pos es ,i ti s mor ec onv eni e ntt o us et he se l d ope r at or s di r e c t l yr at hert han t he oper at or s
( c k )r e f e r r i ngt oas i n g l emod e .I nmos ts y s t e msof i n t e r e s t , # ( x ) c a nbeun i q ue l y s e p a r a t e di n t o ad e s t r u c t i on p a r t#t + ' ( x )t h a ta n ni hi l a t e st he n on i n t e r a c t i n g g r ou n ds t a t ea n dac r e a t i o npa r t' /' ( x ) . t # ( x )= #t + ' ( x)+ ' /' ( x ) ( 8 . 1 3 ) 4 7 + ' ( x) 1 *0 )= 0 ( 8 . 1 4 )
'
( 8 . 1 5 )
' 4 J C ' ( x) ( *0 )= 0 ( 8 . 1 6 ) Thu s<t + ' ( x )a n d1 J f ' 1 ( x )a r eb 0t hd e s t r u c t i on p a r t s ,wh i l e<t ' ( x)a nd W+ ) ( x)
ar ebot hc r ea t i on par t s . Thenot at i on i sa ve s t i g e oft he or i gi nalappl i c at i on of
c1 J t + ' ( x )+ ' /) ( x )
( 8 . 1 7 )
I nt h i sc a s e , t h es y mbo l s( +)a n d( -)ma yb ei n t e r p r e t e da st h es i gnoft hef r e quenc i e soft hese l dc om pone nt sm e a su r e d wi t hr e s pe ctt ot heFe r m ie ne r g y. To pr e s entW i ck' st he or em i n aconci s eand us e f ulmanner ,i ti snec e s s ar y t oi nt r oduc es omene w de Gni t i ons . l . Tpr oduc t :The F pr oductofa c ol l e ct i on off i el d oper a t or shasal r ea dy
87
t he l ef tand i ncl udesan addi t i onalf ac t orof-1f orea ch i nt er changeoff er mi on oper at or s . By desni t i on
( 8 .1 8 )
( 8 . 1 9 )
I nbot hc as e st hec r e at i on par toft hef i e l di swr i t t ent ot hel ef t ,and t hef a ct or- 1 r e qec t st he s i ngl ei nt er change of f er mi on ope r at or s . The r eade ri s ur ge dt o wr i t eouts e ve r alex am pl esofea ch de fni t i on. A nor mal or de r e d pr oduct of se l d oper at or si s es pe c i al l y conv eni e nt
b e c a u s ei t se x pe c t a t i o nv a l u ei nt h eu n pe r t u r b e dg r o u n ds t a t e1 *: )v a ni s h e s
i d e n t i c a l l y( s e e Eq s .( 8 . 1 4 )a n d( 8 . 1 6 ) J . Th i sr e s ul tr e ma i n st r u ee v e ni ft h e p r o d uc tc o n s i s t se n t i r e l yo fc r e a t i on pa r t s ,a si sc l e a rf r om t h ea d j o i n toft h e
equa t i ons de sni ng t he des t r uc t i on par t s . Thus t he gr ounds t at ee xpec t at i on
v a l u eo fa F pr o d u c to fo p e r a t or sg f o re x a mpl e( 8. 1 2 ) Jma yb ee v a l ua t e db y
r educi ng i tt ot he c or r e s pondi n ga N pr oduct;t he f undament alpr obl e m i st he enum er at i on oft headdi t i onalt er m si nt r oduce di nt her e duc t i on. Thi spr oce s s i ss i m pl i se d by not i ngt hatb ot ht he Tpr oduc ta nd t he N pr o ductar edi s t r i but i v e. Forex am pl e,
NL I X + ) ( C + X) ''' ) = NI A C.
I ti st her ef or es uf l i ci entt o pr ovet he t heor em ss e par at el yf orc r e at i onordes t r uc t i on par t s.
3.Co nt r a c t i o n s :Th ec o n t r a c t i o no ft wo o p e r a t or sC Jan d Pi sde no t e d 1 ? . P' a n di se qu a lt ot h ed i se r e n c eb e t we e nt h er pr od u c ta n dt hea V pr od uc t . L 1 . P' > r( PP) - A( PP) ( s .2 1 )
8 8 GROL I NDST ATE ( ZEROTE MPC RATURE )F ORMAL I SM I tr epr e s ent st he addi t i onal t er m i nt r odu ce d by r e ar r angi n g at i me or der e d pr oducti nt o a nor ma l or de r e d pr oduc tand i st her ef or e di f l kr entf ordi f l kr ent t i m eor de r i ngsoft heoper at or s . Asanex am pl e, aI I oft hef ol l owi ngc ont r ac t i ons vani s h
.
( y. ) , ; )
b e c a u s et heT p r o du c to ft h e s eo p e r a t or si si d e n t i c a lwi t ht h eN pr o du c to ft h e
s ame ope r at or s. To be m or es pe ci fc ,cons i der' t he fr s tpai r of ope r at or si n
Eq. ( 8 . 2 2 ) . Th e i rFp r o du c t i sg i v e nb y
t x> t y t y> t x
( 8 2 3 )
o pe r a t o r' ( $ i sal i n e a rc ombi n a t i onofi n t e r a c t i on p i c t u r eo p e r a t o r so ft h ef or m c k e i a ' k '( c o mpa r e Eq.( 6 . 1 0 f 8) . Th u s ,f o re i t he rs t a t i s t i c s ,Eq.( 8 . 2 3 )ma yb e
r ewr i t t en as
( 8 . 2 5 )
( 8 . 2 6 ) Th eo t h e rc o n t r a c t i on si nEq .( 8 . 2 2 )a l s ov a ni s hb e c au s ea l l oft h epa i r e di n t e r a ct i onpi c t ur eoper at or scom m ut eorant i com m ut ewi t he ac h ot her .
y( ) ( x ) ' y( ) # ( y , ) ' =
( )
f GXx, . . $
t x7 -t y
t y> t x
8 9
( 8 . 2 8 )
( 8 . 2 9 )
4. z ' f co nve nt i o n: W e i nt r oduc e a f ur t her s i gn conv ent i on. Nor ma l or der ed pr oduct soff l el d ope r at or swi t b m or et han onecont r ac t i on w i l lhavet he c ont r ac t i ons denot ed by pai r s ofs uper s cr i pt s wi t hs i ngl e dot s ,doubl e dot s ,et c. Two f a ct or st hat ar ec ont r a ct e d m us t be br ou ght t oge t he r by r e ar r angi ng t he or de r of t he ope r at or s wi t hi nt he nor malpr oduct ,al ways k eepi ng t he s t andar d s i gn convent i on f or i nt er change of oper at or s . The c ont r act e d oper at or s ar e
Nl . , i ' ' c q ' b ... )- +At , g t ' c n . /z ' ).., )-z b z z i . t l ' ' Nl b ... )
Fi nal l y,not et hat
( 8 . 3 0 ) ( 8 . 31 )
( . / . P' =: i : p* C'
or de r e d pr oduc t . l ti snow pos s i bl et os t a t e 5. W i c k' st he or e m:
Theba s i ci de a oft het he or em i sasf ol l ows:Cons i de ragi v en t i m eor der i ng,and s t ar tm ovi ngt hecr eat i on par t st ot hel e f tw' i t hi nt hi spr oductoff i e l d ope r at or s . Eac ht i me a c r e at i on par tf ai l st o com m ut e or ant i com m ut e ,i tgene r at es an
a dd i t i on a lt e r m,wh i c hi sj u s tt h ec on t r a c t i o n. I ti sp e r mi s s i bl et oi n c l u d ea I 1
pos s i bl ec ont r ac t i ons ,s i nc et he cont r a ct i on vani s hes i ft he c r e at i on par ti s
9 0
6.Ba s i cl e n t malI fAI t )P '..k?ji sa n o r ma l o r d e r e dp r o du c ta n d; i saf a c t o rl a b e l e d wt s t ha t i mee a r l i e rt h ant het i me sf or0,P ' ..X,# ' ,t h e n AI PP ...k?) 2 = AI PP ...E?. ;' )+ AI PP .'.E' # 2* ) + N( I /' P ...k f T, ) + AI f . ) ' P ..'k? 24 ( 8 . 3 3 )
. .
.
Thusi fa nor m al or der ed pr oducti sm ul t i pl i e d on t heri ghtwi t h any oper at or atan e ar l i e rt i m e,w eobt ai n a sum ofnor m al or der ed pr odu ct scont ai ni ng t he e xt r a ope r at orcont r act e di nt ur n wi t h al lt he oper at or ss t andi ng i nt he or i gi nal pr oduct ,al ong wi t hat e r m whe r et he ex t r a ope r at or i si nc l uded wi t hi nt he nor m al or de r e d pr oduct . To pr ove t he l em m a, not et he f ol l owi ng poi nt s:
( J )I f2 i sa d e s t r u c t i on o p e r a t or ,t h e na l lt h ec on t r a c t i o n sv a n i s hs i n c e F( X2) = N( v i 24 . Th u s ,o nl yt h el a s tt e r mi n Eq.( 8 . 3 3 )c o n t r i bu t e sa n dt h e
l e m m ai spr ove d.
Eq. ( 8 . 3 3 )wi t ho u tc ha n g i n gt h er e s u l t .
W en ow a s s u me i ti st r u ef o rno pe r a t o r sa n dp r o v ti tf orn+ l o g e r a t or s .
Mu l t i pl yt hel e mma( 8 . 3 3 )ont h el e f tb ya n o t h e rd e s t r u c t i o nop e r a t o rD h a v i n g at i mel a t e rt ha nt h a tof 2.
X1 Y) ( 8 . 3 5 )
S i n c e P,P .''X, ? a r ea l ld e s t r u c t i o no p e r a t or sa n dt h ec o nt r a c t i on of2' wi t ha n yd e s t r u c t i ono p e r a t ori sacn umb e r ,b h a sb e e nt a k e ni n s i d et h en o r ma l o r d e r i n ge x c e p tf ort h ev e r yI a s tt e r mi n Eq. ( 8 . 3 5 ) , wh e r e: i ss t i l l a nop e r a t or .
DNI I /b > ...z L ' ?k)- N( D' ( ' ) P ...## :' )+ Nl bob ' k...k?2) ( 8 . 3 6 )
Thi se quat i on i sr e adi l yv er i he d.
DNI L ' / Z ...z %? 4 = ( -1 ) ,D2I ) b 7 ...k? - ( -1 ) 1r( >:)PP '..#f ' = ( -1 ) 'X' 2. PP ...v kL r +( -1 ) , , + *xl zb)t J / P ...#f r = ( ( -1 ) e ) 2b. ( ' ) P ...kf q. +g ( -1 ) r + t ? ) 2 Nl bl ?b ' y...k?kj = ,( . f ) . PP ...k?z' l + sl bf kb s ...## :) I nt hes ec ondl i ne2 i smove dt ot hel e f twi t hi nt henor mal or der e d pr oduc t , i nt r odu c i n gas i gn a t u r ef a c t o r( -1 ) P . Thef a c t o r sn ow ' a pp e a ri nn or ma l or de r , an d t he N pr oductc an be r em ove d. Fur t he r m or e t he pr od u c t bz i s a l r e a d y t i me ,
or der edbyas s um pt i on. Thef our t hl i nef ol l owsf r om t hedehni t i on ofa c ont r ac -
c a n c e l si d e nt i c a l l y. Th uswec a nr e wr i t et heb a s i cl e mma( 8. 3 3 )a s N( PP-.-.#' -?4 2 = sr ( t ' ) P' '...#. .1 7 . 2. )+ ... + N( 0' P* *...k. 'L r 2. j+ x( I ? ' f ' '...k ' '9 2) ( s.38) 7 .Pr o o fo f Wi c k' st h e o r e m: Ag a i nt h et h e o r e m wi l l b epr o v e db yi n du c t i o n.
l ti sobv i ous l yt r uef ort wo oper at or s hedefni t i on ofacont r act i on , by t
( 8 . 3 9 )
FI PPT .'.X# 2) t ' 1 - rl r / f z l f z...8?2t h 4 - N( I ?b 7 k '...E 2) f l+ x( r J ? 'P' ) l '...f ' ::) j 1+ .. - xt pr z l , f z ...## ' z) +A' t s u m ov e ra l I p os s i b l ep a i r so fc o nt r a c t i o n s )( 8 . 4 0 )
92
i n t e r a c t i o np l ' i ' ' l r e T' , . e s ec on t r a c t i o nsa r ej u s tt h ef r e e s e l d Gr e e n' sf u n c t i o n s G%( Eq .( 8 . 2 9 ) ) ,a n dG i st h e r e b ye x p r e s s e di na s e r i e sc on t a i n i n gU a n d G% . Th i se x p a n s i o nc a nb ea na l y z e dd i r e c t l yi nc o or di n a t es pa c e ,o r( f o raun i f or m s y s t e m) i n mo me n t u m s p a c e . As n o t e dp r e v i o us l y ,t h ez e r o t e mpe r a t u r e t h e or yf orc on d e n s e db os on sr e qu i r e sas p e c i a lt r e a t me n t( Cha p. 6 ) , a n dwes h a l l
cons i deronl yf er mi onsi nt hi ss e c t i on.
FEYNM A N DI AGRA M S I N coo Rol NATE spAcE
s t a t et *; ) , l e a v i ngo nl yt h ef ul l yc on t r a c t e dp r o d uc t sof fe l do p e r a t o r s . Wi c k ' s t h e or e mt h e nr e qu i r e sust os u mo v e ra l lpo s s i b l ec on t r a c t i o n s ,a n d Eq.( 8 . 2 9 ) s ho wst h a tt h e on l yn on v a n i s hi ng c o n t r a c t i on i sb e t we e nas e l d; ' xa n da n a d j oi n th e l d#: : .I nt h i swa y , t h es r s t or de rt e r m ofEq. ( 8 . 1 1 )b e c ome s
j J( l ) ( x, f 1 x p . v )= hl -
d4 xl d4 xl z ( y t xj j xj / l a g , , s s ,
f Al ( s)
AA' b z y'
( I ' G. 0 j ( x, y )( j G0 F z H ( xl z , x; ) j G0 a , z t xj , xj )- i G; n t . A ( xl ' , xj ) 1 G0 z v ( xl , x; ) )
+k ' Go z z t x, xj )g j ' Go z , j j t xj , xj ? ) Gs 0 ' j ( xj ' , y)- f Go z , j ( xl , y) / Gs 0 , s t xj ' , xl ' ) )
( c) ( E) f nt ( F)
9 3
X ' l
.
j
A A'
A1
J z #,
X1
z ' X1 A .
# t . . X ' 1 y. '
8 Y!# e
# ( z d)
X
( #)
A'
( C)
A 1
# E
Xl
r z l t ,
x
A A
x
.
p . J z '
A A ' ,
X1
X ' 1 .
b '
( f ) )
( E)
W ecan now as s oci a t eapi ct ur ewi t hea ch oft het er m sa ppea r i ng i ne xpr e s -
9 4 GROUNDS TATE ( ZEROT EMPE RATURE )F onMAusu wor k on quant um e l e ct r odyna mi cs . l The pr e c i s er e l a t i on wi t h quant um sel d
Th ea n a l y t i ce x p r e s s i o ni n Eq.( 9 . 1 )a n dt he c or r e s p on d i n gd i a gr a ms ( Fi g . 9 . 1 )h a v es e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n gf e a t u r e s .
1 .Thet er ms, 1, B,D,a ndFcont a i naGr ee n' sf unct i onwi t hbot har gument s att he s am e t i me,whi c hi si ndi c at ed b y as ol i dl i ne c l os e d on i t s e l f . By t he
( 2 . 8+ 1 ) 1 bj a 0 ( x )
&x bN
di s c u s s e db e l o w Eq. ( 3 . 3 7 ) .
2.The t e r m s. , d and B ar edi s c onne ct eddi a gr am s ,cont ai ni ngsubuni t st hat
a r en ot c on n e c t e dt ot h er e s t of t h ed i a g r a mb ya n yl i n e s . E qu a t i on( 9. 1 )s h o ws
t hats uc ht er m st ypi cal l y hav e Gr e en' sf unct i ons and i nt er ac t i ons whos e ar gume nt scl os e on t he ms el ve s . A sar e s ul t .t hecont r i but i onoft hi ss ubuni tc an be
9 :
I 4( x. y )-
+' . .x 1+
+. .
po t e nt i a l . Th eo p e r a t or 04 *, -*)i st he s a me a st h a ti nt he nu me r a t o ro f
d e nomi na t orofG# ( x, y) .
<*( j 1 J1 %>-l +
+. . .
Aa n dB o fEq. ( 9 . 1 ) . Wet h e r e f o r ec o n c l u d et h a tt h ec o n t r i b u t i o no ft h ed e n o mf a a/ o ri n Eq .( 8 . 9 )e x ac t l yr l a e e l lt h ec o n t r i b u t i o no ft h ed i s c o n n e e t e dd l Wg r i nt henume r at or . Thi si mpor t antr es ul thass of ar% en ve ri he d onl yt ol owe s t or de ri nt hei nt er ac t i on,butwes hal lnow pr ovei tt oal lor de r s . l A di s c onnec t e d di agr am c l os eson i t s e l f;c onm uenuy,i t scont r i but i on t o
. # f Jt ' ' ( x , y) -
x4 : *( , 1 F( 41 ( / 1 )---#l ( f ) # . ( x ) # ) ( z ) ! I *: ) . . . . . , x
j * * d f , . + 1 . . . J ( * * d t . ( * c l r ( #l ( l . + , ). . #1 ( f . ) 1 I * , )
( 9. 3 )
whi c h c ' n be s e en by appl yi ng W i ck' st he or em on bot hs i de soft hi sex pr es s i on. n es ec ond f a ct or ,cont a i ni ng n i nt erat i ons ,i n ge ner a lc ons i s t s of many di s -
: 6
I ' f. # ( x, y)m -0
h - , - -. d t L.-' -. d t m n!
*
fm 1
x
n=0
i 1
*
c o
c o
dt j .. .
-X -X
#/ n
x( ( 1 ) ( ) J F( H ' j ( t j )--.H -I ( t , ) ) p *( ) )
f or mul a
*
-
( 9 . 4 )
Thesr s tf ac t ori st hes um ofal 1c onne c t e ddi agr am s ,whi l et hes e cond i si dent i c al
wi t ht h e de n omi na t o r( *f ) I Xi *o ) . We t h e r e f or e ob t a i nt h ef u n da me n t a l
i G( x j ( x , y )=
m=0
h m!
im 1
c o
d t j''' -. d t m OX
c o
x( *( , I rE . f ? . ( ? . )-..4l ( / m l f z t x l 4 l t z l l r mn l c o n n e c t e u( 9 . 5 )
whi ch e xpr es s est hef act or i z at i on ofdi s c onnec t eddi a gr am s . Ar el at e d l i nke d-
c l u s t e r ' ' e x pa n s i o nf o rt h eg r o u n ds t a t ee n e r g ywa sf i r s tc o n j e c t ur e db yBr u e c k ner , lwho ve r i he dt he e xpa ns i on t of our t h or de ri nt he i nt er act i on pot ent i al ; t he pr ooft o al lor der s was t hen gi v en by G ol ds t onez wi t ht he t e chni que s of
qu a n t u m s e l dt h e o r y . Eq u a t i on ( 9 . 5 )i si mp or t a n tb e c a u s ei ta l l o ws u st o
i gnor eal 1di agr a m st hatcont ai n pa r t snotconne ct ed t ot hef e r mi on l i ner unni n g f r om y t o x.
97
lz
Xz
x1
x' 1
X!
x2
xz '
F i g. 9. 4 T y p i c a lp e r mu t a t i o no fI hi nc o n nec t ed di a gr am s.
4ji na pp l y i n gWi c k ' st he or e m. AI I oft h e s et e r msma k et hes a mec o n t r i bu t i o n t ot h eGr e e n ' sf u n c t i on , s ot h a twec a nc ou nt e a c hd i a gr am j u s fo n c ea n dc an c e l t h ef a c t o r( r n! ) 1 i nEq. ( 9 . 5 ) . No t et ha t t hi sr e s u l ti st r u eo nl yf o rt h ec o n n e c t e d
di agr ams ,wher et he e xt e r na lpoi nt sx and z ar e sx ed. l ncont r a s t ,t he di sc o nne ct ed di agr am s hown i n Fi g.9. 5r epr e s e nt sonl y as i ngl et er m . Thi sr e s ul ti s
Xz xa
Fi g.9. 6 Ty pi c a ld i s c on ne c t e dd i a gr a m.
X l
Xl ,
e a s i l ys e e nb ye x p a n di n g( *0 1 X1 *0 )wi t hW i c k' st h e o r e m. Th e r ei so nl yo n e
way t o cont r a cta1 loft hese l ds ,and t he di agr am obt ai ne d by t he i nt er c hange x: xl '= xz xa 'doesnotc or r e s pond t o a new and di fer entanal yt i ct e r m. Thi s di s t i nc t i on be t wee n conne c t e d and di s conne c t e d di a gr ams i s one of t he bas i c r e as ons f or s t udyi ng t he G r e en' sf unct i on;t he sxe de xt er nal poi nt s gr e at l y s i m pl i f yt hec ount i ng ofdi a gr am si n pe r t ur bat i ont he or y. W et he r e f or e 5nd t he f ol l owi ng r ul ef ort he at hor dercont r i but i on t ot he
e i t h e rc l o s e so ni t s e l fo r u n sc o n t l hu o u s l yf r o m zt ox. Ea c ho ft h e s ed i a g r a ms
9 :
r epr es e nt sal lt hea!di Fe r e ntpos s i bi l i t i e sofc hoos i ng among t hes etofvar i abl es
( xj xJ ) '''( . Lx ; ) .l ft he r ei sa qu e s t i ona st ot h epr e c i s e me a n i n g oft op o l ogi c al l y di s t i nc t di agr ams ,W i ck' st heor e m can a l ways be us e dt ov er i f yt he e num e r at i on.
4.I no u rs r s t or de re x a mpl e( Eq. ( 9 . 1 ) )weno t et h a tt h et e r msC a n dE a r ee qu a l ,a sa r et h et e r msD a n d F;t he ydi fe ro nl yi nt h a txa ndx'( a n dt he c o r r e s p on d i n g ma t r i xi n di c e s )a r ei n t e r c h a n g e d,wh e r e a st h epo t e n t i a li ss y mme t r i cu n de rt hi ss u bs t i t u t i o n( Eq.( 7 . 1 3 ) 1 .I ti st h e r e f or es u c i e ntt or e t a i n j u s to n edi a g r a mo fe a c ht y p e .s i mu l t an e ou s l yo mi t t i n gt h ef a c t or! . i nf r on to f Eq.( 9 . 1 $ wh i c hr e q e c t st hef a c t o r! . i nt h ei n t e r a c t i on po t e n t i a l( E q.( 2 . 4) ) . 1
l z ' / t y p'
( c ) Ea c hs ol i dl i n er e p r e s e nt saGr e e n ' sf un c t i on( 4j ( x , y)r u nn i n gf r om y t ox. ( #)Ea c hwa v yl i n er e pr e s e n t sani n t e r a c t i on &( x, > ' ) , A , , a . ' - F( x, y ) A A , , , . b l t x- t y )
wher et heas s oc i at i on ofm a t r i xi ndi c e si ss hown i n Fi g.9. 6.
( e )I nt e g r a t ea l 1 i n t e r n a l v a r i a bl e so v e rs p a c ea n dt i me .
5.W e not et hatt he s ummat i onsappe ar i ngi nt hes ubs cr i pti ndi c eson t he
6 .Th eo v e r a l ls i g no ft h ev a r i o u sc o n t r i bu t i o n sa pp e a r i n gi nEq .( 9 . 1 )o r
t hedi agr amsappe ar i ngi nFi g. 9. 1i sde t er mi nedasf ol l ows . Eve r yt i meaf er mi on l i nec l os e soni t s e l f ,t het e r m ac qui r esa ne xt r ami nuss i gn. Thi si ss ee n bynot i ng t hat t he ie l ds c ont r a ct e di nt o a cl os ed l oop c an l h ea r r ange di nt he or der numbe r ofi nt e r c hang e ' s off er mi on oper at or si s now ne e ded t o move t he l a s t se l d om r at orov e rt oi t spr ope r pos i t i on att he l e f t . Thusweobt ai nt he r u l e:
G /X J . X ' t ' / )
X
Xl
/
l
Xl
! :
A ,
x;
.
K1
#
( : )
f orG # ( x, . y ) .
@)
Fe y n ma nd i a g r a ms t h a tc o nt r i bu t et o G( x, z )i nc o or di n a t es pa c e . Ea c h
di a gr am cor r es ponds t o an anal y t i ce xpr e s s i on t hatcan now be wr i t t e n down e xpl i ci t l y wi t ht he Fe ynman r ul es . The ca l cul a t i on ofG t husG comesa r e l at i ve l ya ut om at i cpr oce s s . Asan e xampl eoft he Fe ynman r ul e s ,wes hal lnow wr i t eoutt he c ompl et e
s r s t o r d e rc o n t r i b ut i o nt oG. /x, z ) , s h o wni nFi g .9 . 7 , G$( x , y ) =f l fd * x k Jd * x l ( ( -1 ) G2 z ( x , x l ) U( x I , x J ) z z , , p g . Z. #x I , z ) xG 1 ' /x J , x J ) + G z @. x l ) U@l , x1 ) A A ' , p , # ' G0 . /x l , x 1 ) G: ' /x 1 , XJ ( 9 . 6 )
Her eand henc e f or t h. an i mpl i ci ts ummat i on i st o% ca r r i edoutove ral Ir e ma t e d
s pi ni nd i c e s . Th ec or r e s p o n di n gs e c on d or de rc on t r i b u t i on Gt Rx, y)r e qu i r e s
mor ewor k.and we me r e l y as s er tt hatt her e ar e1 0 e ondor de r Fe ynman di a-
g r a ms( Fi g. 9. 0. Ther e a dt ri su r g t dt oc on v i nc eh i ms e l ft ha tt h e s ed i a g r a ms
e xhaus tt hecl as sofe ondor dert opol ogi c al l y di s t i nc tc onne ct e d di agr ams ,and t o wr i t edown t he a nal yt i ce xpr e s s i on as s oc i at e d wi t he ac ht er m.
100
( J)
)) ) V)# @)
f b )
( c )
( d)
( e )
( J )
I n pr i nci pl e,t he Fey nman r ul e se nabl e us t o wr i t e down t he exa ct Gr e e n' s f unc t i on t o ar bi t r a r y or de r ,butt he ac t uale val uat i on oft he t e r msc an l e ad t o
f o r mi da bl e pr o b l e ms b e c a u s ee a c h no n i n t e r a c t i n g Gr e e n ' sf u n c t i on G0 ( x, y ) c o n s i s t soft wo di s j o i n tp i e c e s . Th use v e nt h e sr s t o r d e rc o n t r i bu t i o n( Eq. ( 9. 6 ) )mus tbes p l i ti n t oma n ys e p a r a t ep i e c e sa c c or di n gt ot h er e l a t i v ev a l u e so f t het i mev a r i a bl e s .l nc o nt r a s t ,t h eFo u r i e rt r a ns f or m G0 ( x, y , )wi t hr e s p e c t
t ot i m ehasa s i m pl ef or m ,and i ti sconveni entt oi ncor por at et hi si nt ot he c al cul a t i ons . Al t hou gh i ti s pos s i bl e t o cons i de r a mi xe d r e pr es ent at i on t i m ei ndepe nde ntham i l t oni an,we s hal lnow r e s t r i c tt he di s c us s i on t o uni f or m and i s ot r opi cs ys t e ms , w he r et he e xac t Gr e e n' sf unct i on t akes t he f or m r e pr es ent at i on,a nd wewr i t e
Gx b ( x , > ' )- ( 2 *4I#4 ke ' ' ' f > ' ' G, x , ( k) t 4/x , z )- ( 2 *4Jd* ke k k ' x v ' ( 4#k)
( 9 . 7 J ) ( 9 . 7 : )
1Q 1
whe r et he l i mi t F> .* has al r e ady be en t ake n. Her e a conveni e nt f our di m ens i onalnot at i on ha sbee ni nt r oduce d
d* k- d3 kd
k. x> k. x- t
( 9 . 8 )
( 9. 9)
&( x, x' ) . a ' , j =( 2 , 44J#4 ke k k x x ' bUl kj ? , , # j , ( 2 r 43J#3 ke d k * f l x ' ' F( k ) ? ?y .j j . 3 ( l-t ' )
whe r e
( 9 . 1 0 )
( 9. l 1 t z )
Ul kj x x v b p ' - F( k ) . . . j , '
( 9. 1 1 : )
i st hes pat i alFour i ert r ans f or m oft hei nt e r par t i c l epot ent i al . As an ex am pl e oft he t r a ns f or m at i on t o m om e nt um s pac e,cons i de rt he di a gr am s hown i n Fi g.9. 7 b
f l ( 2 r 88Jd* k# 4 ##4 #j d* qGj z t k )U( g) z A . , p s , xGj , # ( p) G0 M , /pI )e k k ' xe f p : . ' f 4 ) ( ,+q-kj3 ( 4 ) ( pj -q-p j ( 2 z 44J#4 ke l k ' l x D b ( f 1 GJ A ( k ) ( 2 , 44Jd* p
( 9 . 1 2 )
whe r et hef our di mens i ona lD i r acdel t af unc t i onhast heus ual i nt egr alr epr e s e nt at i on
t oGa j l k )H Gz /ks t s l .
Thi sappr oa ch i sr e #di l yge ner a l i z e d. Cons i dert het ypi c ali nt e r nalv er t ex s how n i n Fi g.9. 9. l n ac cor danc e wi t h our de fni t i onsofFour i ert r ans f or ms
i n Eqs . ( 9. 1 0 )a n d( 9 . 7 *, wec a na l s oa s s i g nac on v e n t i on a ld i r e c t i o n x' > . . xt o t h ei n t e r a c t i o n Ut x- x' ) .( Th i sc o n v e n t i o nc a n no ta l t e rt h epr ob l e ms i n c et h e p o t e n t i a li ss y mme t r i c Ut x- x' ) A A , , v v . = Ul x' - xj v v . . A A . . ) Th ec o or di n a t ex
1 4'
e
-
e/ 4 p * J :
FI :. 9. 9 Ty p i c a li nt e n v e r t e xi na Fe y n ma n di a gr a m.
now a pm n m onl yi nt he pl ane wa veex pone nt i al ,and t he r ei sa f ac t ore +' 4' xf or ea ch i ncomi ng l i ne and e -t q' xf oreac h out goi ng l i ne . The i nt e gr at i on ove rx t he r e f or eyi e l ds
( 9. 1 3 )
whi chc ons e ae se ne r g ya ndmome nt u m ate le / li nt er nalv e r t e x. Theonl yr e mai ni ng que s t i on i st hee nd poi nt s ,whe r et he t ypi c als t r uc t ur ei ss hown i n Fi g.9. 1 .
x e
I qY x
q# # - q#
/ d ; J , , .
. .
Fi q.9. 1 Q Ty p Hl s t r xt l z r eofF
d i -
sf o rG. a @ -y ) .
Thet r a ns l a i i on a li n v a r i a n c ee n s u r e st h a t q' = q' , a ss e e ne x pl i c i t l yi nEq. ( 9. 1 2 ) ; t h er e ma i n i n gf a c t ore *' ' ( x ' t i s j u s tt h a tne e de di nt h ede h ni t i onoft h eFou r i e r t r a n s f o r mo fG. b ( q' ) .
w e can now s t at et he Fey nman ru l e sf or t he at hor dercont r i but i on t o
G. l ( k, )> G. /k) :
1.Dr aw a1 lt opol ogi c al l y di s t i nc tconne c t e d di agt amswi t hni nt er ac t i on l i nes andln + 1di r e c t ed Gr e e n' sf unct i ons . 2.A s s i gn a di r e c t i on t o ea ch i nt er ac t i on l i ne;as s oci a t eadi r e ct e df our m om e nt um wi t h ea ch l i neand c ons e r vef our moment um ate achve rt ex. 3. Eac h Gr e en' sf unct i on c or r e s pondst oaf ac t or
Gy 9 ( l kI k p 8 ( k , . I kI ) 0y . q+ ( j ( Kt s )= 8 . j G0 ( k, t s )= & x L o k+. s o u. -y
.
( 9 . 1 4 )
1 *
k lk l
k-k,
R g.9. 11 M lM t or d e r Fe y nn x di a gr ams
f orG. /k) .
# ( J)
# ( )
s r s t o r d e r c o n t r i b u t i o nf 4 1 / ( k , ) , s h o wni nF i g . 9 . 1 1 . Al t h o u g ht h e t o p o l o g i c a l
s t r u c t ur ei si d e nt i c a l wi t ht h ec o r r e s p on d i n gdi a g r a msi nc o o r di n a t es p a c e( Fi g . 9. 7 ) , t h el a b e l i n ga ndi n t e r pr e t a t i o na r ena t u r a l l yqu i t edi Fe r e n t .I n Fi g . 9. 1 1 J ,
t he f our ve c t or a s s oci at ed wi t ht he i nt e r ac t i on vani s he s % ux of t he cons er v at i on r equi r e me ntatea ch e nd.A s t r ai ght f or war di dent i sca t i on y i el ds
wher et he s pi ns ummat i on has Y n s i mpl i se d wi t ht he Kr onx ke r de l t af or ea ch f a ct orG* . Her e,and s ubs e que nt l y,weus et he c onve nt i onst hat
1M
l .I ft he i n t e r a c t i on i ss pi ni n de p e n d e n t ,t h e ni th a st h ef or m1 ( 1 )1 ( 2)i ns p i n
s pac e,namel y,t he uni ts pi n m at r i xwi t hr e s pe ctt o bot h par t i c l e s:
&( t ? ) . j , z p= Ul qj a j3 A p z
The m at r i xe l e m ent st hen be com e
Uub . p ' p z= 26 7 3,j
( 9. 1 7 )
( 9. l 8 )
Ux v , s j= &3 z j
2 .I ft h ei n t e r a c t i o ni ss pi nd e p e n d e n tof t h ef or m l( l ) . c( 2 ) , t h e n Ul qj x b , v= U( ) @( 1 ) z j * c( 2 ) A s
and t he r e l e vantquant i t i e s ar e
lz jw lp s= 0
Gx vl z j= ( ( c) 2 J a j= 3 3 a j
( 9 . 2 0)
Eq s .( 9. 1 5 )t o( 9 . 2 0 )s ho wt h a tGf l )i si n d e e dd i a g o n a li nt h e ma t r i xi n di c e s :
( y ( 1 )= g y ( l ) x b aj( .
Thee xac tGr e en' sf unc t i on c an al wa ysbewr i t t en i nt hef or m
Gl kj= G ( k )+ G0 ( k) ) 2 ( 1 )G0 ( / ( ) ( 9. 2 2 ) wh i c hd e sn e st h es e l f e n e r g yZ( : ) . Th ehr s tt e r mi s j u s tt h ez e r o o r d e rc on t r i but i on,an dt he s t r uct ur e of t he s ec ond t er m f ol l ows f r om t hat of Fi g. 9. l 0.
Th es a me s t r u c t ur eo c c u r si n Eq.( 9 . l 5 ) . wh i c ht hu si de nt i h e st h ef i r s t or de r
..
s e l f ener gy as k j x
2 = e
%1 kl 1- k F 4
u) 1- t z l kj +
# ( / c s- i kl 1 )
g L k =i s j kj , 1 )
-
wher et he c onve r ge ncef a ct orr e qui r esust o cl os et he c ont ouri nt he upper hal f
pl ane. The mome nt um i nt egr ali nt he f i r s tt er m ofEq.( 9. 23)t hen gi ve st he p a r t i c l ed e n s i t yn = N(P ' ( c omp a r e Eq. ( 3 . 2 7 ) j , a n d we5 n d
1 QB
W es hal lnowcl a s s i f yt hevar i ousc ont r i but i onsi nan ar bi t r ar yFeynmandi agr am . Thi s pr oc e dur e yi e l ds Dys on' s equa t i ons , whi c h s ummar i z et he FeynmanDys on per t ur bat i on t heor yi n a par t i c ul ar l yc ompac tf or m.
l .Se l f e n e r g yi n s e r t i o n: Ou rg r ap h i c a la n a l y s i sma k e sc l e a rt ha tt h ee x a c t
Gr e e n' sf unc t i on c ons i s t soft heunper t ur be dG r e en' sf unc t i on pl usa 1 lconnec t ed
x x x
A' l = +
S e l f e n e l gy X
x;
Fi g.9. 1 2 Ge n e r a ls t r u c t u r eofXx, y j . . p y y
t e r ms wi t h af r ee Gr ee n' sf unct i on atea ch end. Thi ss t r uc t ur ei ss hown i n Fi g.9. 1 2.wher et he heavy l i ne denot esG and t he l i ghtl i ne denot e s G0 . The cor r es pondi ng anal yt i ce xpr e s s i on i sgi v en by
l i n e s( on ei n an d on eou t ) .
W enex ti nt r oduc et hec onc eptofapr o pers e l f ener gy i ns er t i on,whi c hi sa s el f ener gy i ns e r t i on t hatc annotbe s epar at e di nt ot wo pi e ce sby c ut t i nga s i ngl e par t i c l el i ne . Fore xam pl e ,Fi gs .9. 84,9. 8:,9. 8c ,and 9. 8#al lcont ai ni m pr ope r s el f ene r gy i ns er t i ons ,whi l et he r emai ni ng t e r msofFi g.9. 8cont ai nonl ypr ope r s el f ene r gy i ns e r t i ons . By de sni t i on,t he pr ope rs e l f ener g yi st he s um of a I l
1 x
t he s edesni t i onst hatt hes el f e ner g y c s i s t sofa s um ofal lx s s i bl er e mt i t i ons oft hepr opers e l f ene r gy.
Z( xI , xl ' )=X* ( xl , x; )+Jd% xz d* xz ' X* ( xl , . n) G0 ( xz , x 1 ) X* ( xJ . xl ' ) + fd* xzdk xz 'j ' d* xsd* xs ' X* ( xl v xz )G' ' l xz q xl )
x X* ( x a ' , x 3 ) f P( x , , x J ) Z* ( x a ' , x; ) + '' ( 9 . 2 6 )
He r ce ac h quant i t y denot esa m a t r i xi nt he s pi nori ndi c es ,and t he i ndi ce sar e
P r o- rs e l f e ne qy
z*
Al X1
%1 .
Se l f e n e g y tr -
x' l
xf
xf
.
f 1
1 e7
( 9. 2 9 ) ( 9 3 0 )
G( k)=
1 ) -j ( Gf ( k) 1 sw ( k ;
-
( 9. 31 ) ( 9 . 3 2 ) ( 9 . 3 3 )
I G0 ( k ) ) -! -I G0 ( k , o 3) l=( . o- ( z ) kM t t l - -l e k
b e c a u s et hez k i y l i nEq. ( 9. 1 4 ) i sn ow i r r e l e v a nt , a n d we5 n d
G
.
g % /k )> Gz # ( k, t t ) )= - , j 4 - xw j k,o
I m X* ( k, t M >0
( . o< p , /
ar r owsatt he endss mc i f y how t he Gr een' sf unct i onsa r et o be c onne ct e d,and t he di agr amscan be i nt t r pr et e de i t he ri nc oor di nat es pac e or i n mome nt um s pac e. The s i t ua t i on i s cons i de r abl y m or ec ompl i cat e di ns e cond or der .l n par t i cul a r ,t he di a gr ams i n Fi g.9. 8/ t o dr e pr es ent a 1 lpos s i bl es e condor de r
i t e r a t i on so fX! l )a n dt h e r e f o r ec or r e s po n dt oi mp r omrs e l f e n e r g yi n s e r t i on s .
1e8
1 .
z* ( l ) =
t t
( J) ( b )
r s t * -o r de rp r o pe rs e l f e n e r g y X4 1 , . Fi g. 9. 1 5 Fi
On t h eo t h e rh a nd ,t h er e ma i ni ngt e r ms( Fi g .9 . 8 ,t oj ja 1 lc on t a i np r o p e rs e l f -
e n e r g yi n s e r t i o ns , a n dweno we x h i b i ta l Ic on t r i b u t i on st o) 2 ! z ) i nFi g . 9 . 1 6 . Ap a r t i c u l a r l ys i mp l ea p pr o x i ma t i on i st o wr i t e X* ( k, f t . ) ); k ; Xh) ( k , ( z ' ) )> Xh) ( k )( s e eEq. ( 9 . 2 4 ) ) i nt hes o l ut i o nof Dy s o n' se q u a t i on( 9 . 3 3 ) . Thi sa pp r o x i ma t i o nc o r r e s p on d st os u mmi n ga ni n hni t ec l a s so fd i a gr a msc o nt a i n i n ga r b i t r a r y
t
Zt 2 )-
1
t
'
t( c ) 1
t
t
( e ) ( f)
F i g. 9 . 1 6S e c o n d o r d e . rp r o p e r s e l f e n e r g yE( 1 ) .
e k l ? =d + xh) ( k)
h2k2
1 Q 9
Fi g . 9. 1 3 b .I nt h epr e s e n t( sr s t o r d e r )a p pr ox i ma t i o n, t hep r o p e rs e l f e n e r g yi s
r e c/ ,a ndt hes ys t em pr opagat e sf or e v erwi t houtdam pi ng. Thi se xam pl ec l e ar l y de m ons t r a t e st he power ofD ys on' se quat i on,be caus e an y appr oxi ma t i on f or
X* g e n e r a t e sa ni n hn i t e o r d e ra p pr o x i ma t es e r i e sf or t h e Gr e e n ' sf un c t i on .
Dys on' sequat i on t husenabl e sust os um an i nsni t ec l as sofpe r t ur bat i on t er ms i n acom pa ctf or m.
Thee x p l i c i ts ol u t i o nf o rG ( Eq. ( 9 . 3 3 ) ) a l l owsu st or e wr i t et h eg r o u n ds t a t e e n e r g yo faun i f o r ms y s t e m( Eq s . ( 7 . 2 7 )a n d( 7 . 3 2 ) ) i nap a r t i c u l a r l ys i mp l ef or m. Co ns i d e rEq. ( 7 . 2 7 )f o rs p i nf . e r mi on swi t h Y*a n dGd i a g o n a li nt hema t r i x i n d i c e s . Ac omb i n a t i o nwi t hEq. ( 9 . 3 3 )y i e l d s
s , . p ( c , s 1 ) j j j k ) . , .L , . ) ; + , ) t ( k , j
= = -
wher et hel as tl i nei sobt a i ned wi t ht hel i mi t i ng pr oc edur e . oek . t ) 1 i m * dt . u u ' ' l -l i m l i m * e-E 1 a ' ' ef a ' g#f . + n , o r n y o +: + 9+ -. 2* -x 2r
as
41 :
GROUNDST ATE ( ZE ROTE MPE M T UBE) F ORMAL I SM 2.Pol ar i z at i on i ns e r t i onkA s i mi l ar anal ys i sc an be car r i e d out f or t he
c o mi n gi na n dou t( Fi g . 9 . 1 8 ) . W ec a ne v i d e n t l ywr i t ea ni n t e g r a le qu a t i o nf o r
. p x T ' p . x N +
l z
e
: 1
A
N
:
r
' r
Ul qt x p . p .= Ua ( ) . # , p m+ L %( 4) . # , s . l R . v , , ? A ( )t &( ) , ? z , p m
( 9 . 3 9 )
whi ch defne st he pol ar i z at i on i ns e r t i o n1 Rs v , ? z ( ) .I ti sa l s oc o n v e n i e n tt o , i nt r oducet he c onc eptofa pr om rpol ar i z at i on 1 R*,whi c hi sapol ar i z at i on par t t hatc annotbes epar a t e di nt ot wopol ar i z at i on par t sbycut t i ngas i ngl ei nt er act i on
l i n t( Fi g . 9 . 1 9 ) . Eq ua t i on( 9 . 3 9 )c a nt he nb er t wr i t t e na sa ne q ua t i on Gt we t n
I mp m-
Pa w
Uqj . p . p . = Ua ( ) 3 . /& p r
. ,p %N
N
( 9 . 41 )
#. P
e #
N + z
m #
Pm- N l a r i z a t i o n n*
11 1
Ul qj x b , p .= &( ) z # h.
wh e r et h ef u n c t i o n U( q )i sde t e r mi n e db yt h es i mp l e re q ua t i on s &( ) - &( ) ( ) + &o ( ) 1 1 ( )L %( ) U q b- Uq b+ ( &f ) 1 ' 1 * ( ) U qs
He r ewehavei nt r oduc ed t heabbr evi at i ons
( 9 . 4 2 )
( 9 . 4 3 * ( 9 . 4 3 : )
( 9 . 4 4 * ( 9 . 4 4 : )
6 9 * 4 5 1
Th i sr e s ul tc a nbeu s e dt od e sn eag e n e r a l i z e dd i e l e c t r i cf u n c t i o nv ( ) U( q )= Un l q j K l qj
9 4 6 ) ( .
Theappl i c at i on ofquant um f i el dt he or yt ot hemanybodypr obl em wasi ni t i at e d byG ol ds t onei n1 957. 1 H epr ove dt hec ance l l a t i onoft hedi s conne ct eddi agr a ms t o al lor de r s ,and de r i ve dt he f ol l owi ng ex pr es s i on f or t he e ne r gy s hi f toft he gr ound s t at e
* z 1 n
Eo- H o
*-J -1 1 f 4 ) o N z ' c o n n e c t e u
( 9 . 4 8 )
op e r a t ori n Eq.( 9 . 4 8 )t h a ts t a r tf r om t h egr ou n ds t a t e1 *0 )an de nd wi t ht he g r o un ds t a t e1 *a )a r et ob ei n c l u de d. Wec a nv i s u a l i z et h e s ema t r i xe l e me nt si n t h ef ol l o wi n gwa y: t heop e r a t orl ' j a c t i n go nt hes t a t eI *g )c r e a t e st wopa r t i c l e s
an dt wo h ol e s . Thi ss t a t et h e npr o pa ga t e swi t h( . G - Sc ) 1 ,a n dt h en e x tXj
'J . Gol ds t o ne , l o c. c t t .
11 2
l %>
l j 1
1
W! z ? 1
1 *07 .
E o -l h
E o -%
1
HtE o -l h
Fi g.9. 21 Typi calGol ds t one di agram i nt heexpans i on ofE - Eo .
s e to fe i g e ns t a t e so fXab e t we e ne a c hi n t e r a c t i o nXj .
E - Ev- , t m0 1 4, 1 mc )+
,#0
t *o l 4l 1 *a *n I #l I *o ) ' E )r +
o- En
( 9 . 4 9 )
Thec o r r e s p on d i ngGo l d s t on edi a g r a msf o raho mo g e ne ou sme di um ( s e ePr ob. 3 . 1 3 )a r es ho wni n Fi g . 9. 2 2 . Thef i r s tt wo d i a g r a msr e pr e s e n tt h eus u a ldi r e c t
a n de x c h a n g ec o n t r i bu t i o nsi n( *: 1 41 t *0 ) .
I n appl yi ng Gol ds t one' st heor e mt o a uni f or ms ys t e m ,we obs e r vet hatt he m ome nt um wi l lbecons er ved atev er yi nt e r ac t i on be c aus et hem at r i xel em e nt si n
/ %i n v o l v ea ni n t e gr a t i o no v e ra l ls p a c e . Fu r t h e r mo r e ,t h ep ar t i c l e si nt h e i nt e r me di a t es t a t e st uv e ph ys i c a l un p e r t u r b e de n e r g i e se zr e l a t e dt ot h e i rmo me nt um q,and t hev i r t ua lnat ur eoft hei nt e r me di at es t at ei ss um m ar i ze di nt heener gy de nom i nat or s . I n cont r as t ,t he Fey nm anD ys on per t ur bat i on t he or yf ort he
1 13
Gr e e n' sf unct i on,f r om whi c h wecanal s oc om put eE - Eo , cons er vesbot he ner gy a ndmoment um ate ver yv er t e x,butt hei nt e r me di at epar t i c l e scan pr opa ga t ewi t h any f r e quenc yf . t ) ,i ndepe ndent of q. For t hi sr e as on. t he Fe ynm anDy s on appr oach hast he advant a ge ofbe i ng m ani f es t l y covar i ant ,whi c hi ses s ent i ali n any r el at i vi s t i ct heor y. Ne ye r t he l e s s ,t h e/ u' t ?a p pr oac he sme r e l yr e pr e s e nt / wt ?
Fi g.9. 22 AI lsr st -and s e condor derGol ds t onedi agr amsf or E - Eoi n auni f or m s ys t e m.
E Eo= ( t D 0 ! Xl 0( 0, -: r : ) 1 *0 ) ., . x ( *01 t 7 ( 0 , -: f ) l *o )
-
' t *n 1 . 41 P( 0 , -' x ) ) l *( ) h-
* -j rj
p =0
h -j r
d t ,
J . t u .
! '
'
Conn t e
Di s c on nxt e
1 1 4
jn + m v! 1 0 dt j
0
-.
n! m! 7.
dt n
-.
x( * ( ) f r E l ? , # l ( r ! )4l ( / n ) 1 $ * n ) c J 0 * d t n . , J 0 d t n . . m
x( *o l rE 4l ( K+l ) ---4l ( f a + , 21 1 *o ) ( 9. 5 2 )
j u s ta si n Eq.( 9 . 4 ) .( Fo rs i mpl i c i t y ,we no wu s eas ub s c r i p tC t oi n d i c a t e c on n e c t e d. ) Th es umma t i o nov e rm r e pr o du c e st hed e no mi n a t orofEq. ( 9 . 5 0 ) ,
and wet husobt a i n
E - f' t l=
* -f & j p t ) - j . dt L .' ' dt . p j n. . -. n=0
' . '-
.n
0
-
t I
1 . . -,
-.
d t l .
'
dt z --. -.
.
Her e wehav e obs e r ve dt hatal l n!pos s i bl et i meor der i ngsmakei dent i c alcont r i -
b u t i on s( s e eS e c .6 )a n dt he r e f or ewor k wi t h on ed e h ni t et i meor de r i n go ft h e
oper at or si nt hi sm a t r i x el ement . The adi abat i c dam pi ng f a ct orhasal s o be en e xpl i ci t l yr e s t or e d. Changeva r i abl e st or el at i vet i m es
X j= tl xz= f z- t l ' . :)= t j- t z
,
tj= x j
x = t- t I
and us e
/ :1 . ' N )-fo l %)
1 15
ia
Thei nt egr at i onscan now al 1bec ar r i e d oute xpl i ci t l y,a nd we5nd 1 1 f ' . ? . ' l W1 i f-. G) t n ' =( *0 1 / . / , .
Ef t -, / % +i . e h
l j t mo l c
Th i sr e s ul ti mme di a t e l yy i e l ds Go l ds t o n e ' st h e or e m Eq .( 9 . 4 8 )b e c a u s et h e
c a nus et h ep r op a g a t o r( . G - Xo 1 1 , a si nEq. ( 9 . 4 8 ) .
Thi sf or malpr oofcan be m ade m or ec onc r e t e by expl i ci t l y cons i der i ng
ex
-x
F l c . t h ef u n d a me n t a la d v a nt a g eo fc o mb i n i n g ma n yt e r ms o ft i me i n d e pe n d e n t
per t ur bat i on t he or yf r l / o as i n gl eFe ynman di a gr am . W em aynot et hata s i mi l a r anal ys i s appl i e st o an y gr ounds t a t ee xpec t at i on val ue of H e i s e nbe r g fe l d
11 6
t 7 ( / , f p-
s o .
d t L'. .
r
wh e r e? d e n o t e st h ea n t i t i me o r d e r i ng( l a t e s tt i me st ot h er i g ht ) . De r i v et hi s r e s ul tf r o m Eq s . ( 6 . 1 6 )a nd( 6 . 2 3 ) .
3. 2. One oft hemos tus ef ulr el at i onsi n quant um sel dt he or yi s
e l %t ' )e i := O + i ( J, J) +j j ( u f , ( x f , d) ) +j j ( , 9 , ( u f , ( J, J) ) ) + ..
Ver i f yt hi sr es ul tt ot he or de ri ndi ca t ed. Eval uat et he commut at or se xpl i c i t l y
f 2
j 3
Ga j i y / t xl t 1 , xa t z ; x; t k ' , x c ' / 1 )
=
( -f ) 2
Pr ovet ha tt heexpe ct at i on val ueoft het wobodyi nt er a ct i on i nt hee xac tgr ound s t at ei sgi ve n by
a ndA. G. P e t s c h e k, Ph y s . Re v . . 1 2 9: 2 2 5( 1 9 6 3 ) ; s e ea l s oCha p. 11 . 2K. A. Br ue c kn e ra nd J . L. Ga mme l , Ph y s . . R0 . , 1 *: 1 ( M0( 1 9 5 8 ) ; T. W. Bur kh a r dt , An n . Ph y s . ( #. K) , 47: 51 6( 1 96 8 ) ; E. Os t ga a r d, Ph y s .. Re & . , 1 7 :: 25 7( 1 9 6 8 ) . 3Se e,f or e xampl ey H.P.Ke l l y ,Co r r e l a t i o n St r u c t u r ei n At o ms ,i n K.A.Br u e c k ne r( e d. ) ,
S e Advanc es i n Theor et i calPhys i cs j ' 'vol .2,p.75,Academi c Pr es sl nc. ,Ne w Yor k,1 968. A r e vi e w oft hi st o pi ci sa l s o gi v e ni n Co r r e l at i o n Efe c t si n At o msa nd M ol e c ul e s ,R . Le f e bv r e
s ho wt h a tr z= 4.
3. 6. Cons i dert hef unct i on
2 ' ' 1
Fa @)= =x
a=0
n2+ z/ ac
( t 8S ho wt h a tt h es e r i e sc a nb es umme dt og i v eFa t z )= z l c o t ht r r z l / / a )+ ( a / = z ) ,
whi ch hast he s am e a nal yt i cs t r uc t ur e.
3. 7. ( ( z )I ff x xd x! p ( x ) f <c c, s h o wt h a t /( z )- J x xJ xp t x l ( z- x ) 1i sbo u n de d
and anal y t i cf orl m z# 0. Pr ovet hatf( z)i sdi s cont i nuousacr os st her e ala xi s wh e n e v e rp t a ' l+ 0, a n dt hu s /t z )h a sab r a n c hc u ti nt h i sr e g i o n. ( : )As s u me t h ef o l l owi n gs i mp l ef o r m p ( x) =y ( y 2-. v 2 ) i . Ek a l u a t e/ I J )
.
expl i ci t l yf orl m z > 0 and hnd i t sanal yt i cc ont i nuat l ont ol m z< 0.
' ' .
a:
( j z
a n a l o g o u st oEq . ( 7 . 7 0 ) .
11 8 GROUNDS TATE ( Z EROT EMPE RATURE) FORMALI SM 3. 9. M ake t he c anoni c alt r ans f or mat i on t o par t i cl es a nd hol e sf orf er mi ons
c k z= 0 ( k- ks l c k A+ %k F- k) Xk A . By a pp l y i ng W i c k ' st he or e m,p r o v et he
r el at i on
a n dho l eop e r a t or s ,a n dt h es ub s c r i pt si nd i c a t et h eq u a nt u mn umb e r sG. A ) . 3. 10. Ve r i f yt hec a n c e l l a t i ono fdi s c o n ne c t e ddi a g r a ms( Eq s .( 8 . 1 1 ) , ( 9. 3 ) ,a n d ( 9 . 4 ) J e x pl i c i t l yt os e c on dor d e ri nt h ei n t e r a c t i onp o t e n t i a l . 3. 11. Con s i de ras y s t e m ofn o ni nt e r a c t i n gs pi n f e r mi o nsi na ne x t e r n a l s t a t i c
( b )S ho wt h a tDy s on ' se qu a t i o nb e c o me s
x( 2F4 1 - k) 2- P ' 4 1 -k )Ft p- l ) ) # ( ks-pj # t ks- k) xp ( a- k s ) 0 ( 1- k s ) ( #2+ k2- 1 2- a 2+ j , ? ; l l ( c )S p e c i a l i z et oa ne l e c t r o ng a sa n dr e de r i v et her e s u l t sofPr o b.1 . 4 .
3. 13. D e r i v et he e xpr es si on f or E( 2 3gi ven i n Pr ob.3. 1 2f r om G ol ds t one' s
t h e o r e m( 9. 4 8 ) . Fr om t hi sr e s u l t . gi v et her u l e sf o re v a l u a t i n gt h os eG o l d s t on e
di agr am ss hown i n Fi g.9. 22.
51 9
d + Reh T* ( k, %! h )
t . o : w,
ReX* k, ) a = 1- d o(
-1 I m X* ( k, q/ )
3. 1B. Co n s i d e raun i f o r ms y s t e mo fs p i n f e r mi o n swi t ht h es p i n de pe n de nt i n t e r a c t i o n po t e n t i a lo fEq.( 9 . 2 1 ) ,a n da s s u met ha tI 1 r * , e , x A ( :)ma yb ea p pr o x i ma t e dby1 H0 ( t ? ) 3 v .8 A y , . ( a )So l v eEq. ( 9 . 4 0 )t of i n d P ' o ( t ? ) a ; 3 p m P ' , @) nx b np . &( *. , , p .- j p ( ) u( ) ( , ? ) + I p , j t t y l uo t ql 0
-
, ? A ( # )= ! ' I 1 0 ( ) 8 v , ) 3 A s+ . i . f l 0 ( )Ul qj v g , n n I 1 0 ( ) I 1. p ,
wh e r eUf qji st a k e nf r o m( J ) .
4 Fer m iSystem s
l n pr i nc i pl e,t he per t ur bat i on t he or ya nd Fe ynman. di agr am s de ve l ope di n Chap. 3e nabl eust oe val ua t et heG r e en' sf unct i onG t oa1 lor de r si nt hei nt er act i on pot ent i al . Suc h apr oc edur ei si mpr ac t i c al ,howe ve r , andwemus ti ns t e ad r es or t t o appr oxi m at i on s chemes . Fore xam pl e ,t hes i m pl e s tappr oxi ma t i on cons i s t s
t h e r e f o r es e fc o n s i s t e nt ,b e c a u s e G bo t h de t e r mi n e sa n di sd e t e r mi n e db yt h e
12c
FERM ISYSTEM S
121
( i n sn i t e )c l a s sofp r o p e rs e l f e n e r g yi n s e r t i o ns ,e x p r e s s e di nt e r msofG0 . Th e
de t ai l soft hemanypar t i cl ehami l t oni an de t e r mi ne whi c h pr oc edur ei ss ui t abl e , and we s hal lcons i de rt hr e ee xampl e st ha tf l l us t r at ehow t hi schoi c ec an bemade:
Th e( s e l f c on s i s t e n t )Ha r t r e e Fo c ka p pr o x i ma t i o n( S e c .1 0 ) ,t h es u mma t i o no f l a d d e rd i a g r a ms ,a p p r op r i a t ef o rr e pu l s i v eh ar dc or ep ot e nt i a l s( Se c .1 1 ) ,a nd
t hes um m a t i on ofr i n g di agr am s, appr opr i at ef orl ongr ang ecoul om b pot ent i al s
( S e c .1 2 ) .
IX HARTREEFOCK APPROXI M ATI ON
The s t a r t i ng poi ntf orourdi s cus s i on ofi nt er a c t i ng quant um m e chani ca las s em -
I h =J ( h u ) . 4c . k
I n1 *0 2 ) ,e a c h oft h eN p a r t i c l e so c c up i e sad e s n i t es i ng l e p a r t i c l es t a t e ,s ot ha t
i t sm ot i on i si ndepe nde ntoft hepr es enceoft heot herpar t i cl es . Thi ss i t uat i on wi l lbe c l e ar l y m odi se d by t he i nt e r ac t i onsbe t we e nt he par t i cl es;ne ve r t he l e s s , i ti san exper i me nt alf ac tt hata s i ngl epar t i cl e de s cr i pt i on f or m sa s ur pr i s i ngl y good a ppr oxi m at i on i n m any di f l kr ents ys t e ms ,f ore xam pl e,m e t al s ,at oms,and nuc l e i . H enc e a nat ur ala ppr oach i st or e t ai nt he s i ngl epar t i c l e pi c t ur e and
1 .
t
= j 2 ( 1 J =
*
, t
Fi g.1 0. 1 Lo we s t o r de rpr o pe rs e l f e ne r gy .
h owe v e r , s i n c et h eba c k g r o un dp a r t i c l e sc on t r i bu t i n gt oZh)a r et r e a t e da sn on i nt er ac t i ng, l n r ea l i t y, of c our s e ,t he s e par t i cl es al s o m ove i n an ave r age pot ent i alcom i ng f r om t hepr es enc e ofa1 1t he ot he rpar t i c l e s . Thusi ns t e ad of
c a nb ee x pr e s s e da sas e r i e sc on t a i n i n gt h ep r op e rs e l f e n e r g y( Eq. ( 9 . 2 7 ) )a l l t h e
1 22
t 1
=
-
#
+ ' '+
1
+ ...
Y
+ +
' t
$+ + .
Y 1 '
t er m sofFi g.1 0. 2c an be s umme di nt hepai r ofdi agr amss hown i n Fi g.1 0. 3, whe r et he he avy l i ne de not est he e xa ctG,whi ch i si t s e l fdet e r mi ned f r om t he pr oper s e l f ene r gy as i ndi cat e di n Fi g. 1 0. 4. W e pr oc e ed t o exami ne t hes e equat i onsi n de t ai l .
#t .. y
. .
0- I#3 x1 J 1( x )- J wy + U( x) ' f v t x l
: 2 72
( 1 0 . 1 X
( 1 0 . 1 : )
( 1 0. 2 )
wher ef ors i m pl i ci t yt bei nt er par t i c l epot ent i a lhasbe enas s ume ds pi ni ndt pende nt I nt he pr es entappr oxi ma t i on,Dy s on' se quat i on t ake st he f or m s hown i n Fi g.
FERM I SYSTEM S
123
G( x, y )= G0 ( x , y) + Jd4 xL d4 xj ' G0 ( x, xI ) X* ( xl , x( ) G( xJ , y )
whe r et he K r one cke rdel t ai nt hem at r i xi ndi c eshasbee nf ac t or e d out . Exa ct l y a si n Chap.3,t he Feynman r ul e s yi e l da ne xpl i ci te xpr es s i on f ort he pr oper s e l f e ne r g y
( 2 s+ 1 )r e l a t i v et ot hes e c on dt e r m ;t h i sa r i s e sf r om t h es pi ns u ms ( c o mp a r e Eq. ( 9 . 1 8 ) ) .
= +
Gl xt , x' / ' )=( 2 . *-1 Jd c oe i a z f l f ' ' G( x, x ' , t o ) ( 1 0 . 5 c ) G9 ( x/ , x' t ' j=( 2 7 4-1 Jd u t c f t t f ' ' G0 ( x9 x' $ ( s ) ( 1 0 . 5 : ) X* ( x f , x' t ' j =I L* ( x, x' ) 3 ( / -t ' j=( 2 r 81Jd e i a ' t t f ' ' t* ( xx ' ) ( 1 0. 5 c )
Asi nt h eEr s t or d e ra pp r o x i ma t i on ( Eq.( 9 . 2 4 ) ) ,t h epr op e rs e l f e n e r g yi she r e i n de p e n d e n toff r e qu e n c y . Th et i me i n t e g r a t i on si n Eq.( 1 0 . 3 )c a nn o w be
per f or me de xpl i ci t l y,and we:nd
E* ( xl , xJ )=- ( 2 J ' +1 ) t xl - xJ )f#3 xzF( xl -xz ) ( 2, 0.Jd e f t ' g x G( xa , x z , t t ) )+ f F( xl - x; ) ( 2 r 81Jd t . oe l ' a ' ' l G( xl , x( , ( z ) )( 1 0 . 7 )
I ti sconveni e ntt oi nt r oduc et hecom pl e t es etofor t honor m al ei genf unc t i ons ofH f t :
Ho g( x )- - 2 m +( 7 ( x )y J ( x )- 4p , 9 ( x)
h2: 7 2
( 1 0. 8 )
1 2 4
Th e s es i n g l e pa r t i c l es t a t e sf or m an a t ur a lba s i sf o rt h es e l do p e r a t or s' hl x t j
i nt hei nt e r ac t i onpi ct ur e, and t he noni nt e r ac t i ng G r e en' sf unct i ont he n bec om e s
l Go l x t e o hh t t ' ) ,x ' t ? )= T 5 t ' ' x l t h ' x b ' ( p ' % ' . N x' ' *e x n ' - i -
( 1 0 . 1 0 )
( 1 0 . 1 1 ) ( 1 0 . 1 2 )
N0=J#3 xn 9 ( x )=( 2 , g+ 1 )j ) ( e . -6 k )
bec aus et hes i ngl e par t i c l ewavef unc t i qnsar eas s ume d nor mal i z ed.
( 1 0 . 1 3 )
d e n s i t yi nt hei n t e r a c t i n gs y s t e mb e c o me sg c o mp a r eEq. ( 1 0. l l ) J
a ( x )- ( 2 J ' +1 )) ( 2l @. f ( x ) 1 2 # ( e , . -e . , ) J
w hi l e
( 1 0 . 1 4 )
( 1 0. 1 5 )
N = NQ= ( 2 , +1 )( j 2 # ( e s- %) J
FERM I SYSTEM S
125
t ot he i rene r gy up t ot he Fer m il e ve lc s . The f r e qu ency i nt e gr ali n Eq. ( 1 0 . 7 ) ca n now be ev al uat e d di r e ct l y,and we 5nd
Zt xl - xl ' )X f p J ( xl ) +j ( xJ ) *d t e s- 6 ' J ) ( 1 0. 1 6 )
h) ( ( r ) t xl l +T ( xi ' ) *
h b l xl- x; )
. .
whe r et h el a s t l i n ef ol l o wsf r om t h ea s s ume dc o mpl e t e n e s sof t hes e t ( ( J ? , 9 ) Thus 1 f . 1i st h ei n v e r s eo pe r a t o r( G0 ) 1 ,a n da p pl i c a t i o n of Ljt o Eq ( 1 06 4y l e l d s f 1 Gt xj , x! ' , t , ? )= 3 ( xl- xj ' )+ .f#3 x2 Z* ( xl , x2 ) G( x2 , x; , ( s )
I ti sus ef ult oi ns er tt hee xpl i c i tf or m sofG a nd l -j :
t h l V) t ? +' ( xI ) j z ? 7-b
,+ 0 ( E y- e j ) he t i -e j ) ( p , ( xj ) % . y ( xI ) a . j. y . ./ .- ( j f . . j ) e ,v n
. .-
o-
e j. . . q
M ul t i p l yb ywk t x( )a n di n t e g r a t eov e rxj ' . Th eo r t h og on a l i t yo fl ( p y )l e a dst oa s i mpl e Sc hr di nge r l i kee quat i on f or+, ( xl )
-
h 2T 2 . 1
l l xI ) %y t xj )p . (#3 x2 Y* ( xj . x2 ) y# ( xc ) =e 2 m >L j ( / ) . / t xI )
-
1 2 6
u n c h a n g e dst h e r e b yj u s t i f y i n go uri n i t i a la s s u mpt i on . Eq ua t i on( 1 0. 1 6 )s ho ws t h a tX*c on s i s t soft wo t e r ms :al o c a l( di r e c t )t e r mp r o p or t i on a lt ot h ep a r t i c l e de n s i t ya n d an on l o c a l( e x c h a n g e )t e r m. Th e s ee q u a t i on sa r ej u s tt h eHar t r e e Fock e quat i ons lf ami l i arf r om at omi ct he or y. l ti sappar entt ha tt he s ee quat i onscons t i t ut ea v er y com pl i c at e d pr obl em : An i ni t i als e tofs i ngl e par t i cl e wav ef unc t i onsand ene r gi e si sas s um e d known,
E=
! . 1 . ( 2 J+ l )f #3 xI 2, e i z o ' l l i m - 2- + &( x1 ) Gt xj , xj p , ( s l x l z p x, h
'
d o l
h 2Vl
d z
Eq s . ( 1 0 . 1 6 )a n d( 1 0 . 1 8 )y i e l d s f=( 2 J+ 1 )Z e , Se s- e J 4- . ! ( 2 J+ 1 )) 8 ( 6 s- e , ) # ( e s- e k )j ' #3 x1
J J k
e. / ( xl ) * u l xl l ek l x a l * ut xz l l( 1 0 . 1 9 )
FERM f sYs' r Ev s
1a7
l o n g r a n g ei n t e r p a r t i c l ep ot e n t i a l( a si na t omi cp hy s i c s ) ,t hee x c h a n g ec on t r i but i on i sus ual l y muc hs ma l l e rt han t hedi r e ctone. I nde e d,t heex chan ge t e r m i socc as i onal l y ne gl e c t e d ent i r e l yi nde t er mi ni ngt hes e l f cons i s t entene r o l e vel s of at oms ,and t he cor r es pondi ng e qua t i ons ar e known a st he s e l f c ons i s t e nt Har t r ee e quat i ons . The phys i c albas i sf or t he di s t i nct i on G t wee ns hor t -and l ongr ange pot ent i al si st he f ol l owi ng. The e xcl us i on pr i n ci pl e pr eve nt st wo par t i cl esoft he s ames pi nf r om oc cupyi ng t hes ame s i ngl e par t i c l es t a t e. Asa r e s ul t ,t h et wopar t i c l e dens i t y cor r el a t i on f unc t i on f orpar al l els pi ns vani s hes t hr oughouta r e gi on c ompar abl e wi t ht hc i nt e r par t i cl es paci ng. I ft her angeof t he pot e nt i ali sl es st han t he i nt e r par t i c l es paci ng,t hen t hi sexc l us i on hol ei s cr uci al i n de t er mi ni ng t he gr ounds t a t ee ner g y. I nc ont r as t ,a l ongr ang e pot e nt i a lex t ends f ar be yond t he i nt er par t i cl es pa ci ng,and t he ex cl us i on hol e
di s t i n c t i o ne x pl i c i t l y ) . Fo ra g e n e r a le x t e r n a lp ot e n t i a l&( x) ,t he Har t r e e Fo c ke q u a t i on sa r e
v e r yd i c u l tt os ol v e ,b e c a u s et h es i n gl e pa r t i c l e wa v ef u n c t i o nsexx )a n d
e ner gi ese Jm us tbot h bede t er mi ned s el f c ons i s t ent l y. The s ee quat i onsV ome
mu c hs i mpl e rf ora u ni f or ms y s t e m,wh e r e U( x )v an i s h e sa n dt h epr om rxl f e n e r g yt a k e st h ef or m Z* ( x- x' ) .I ti sr e a di l yv e r i s e dt h a ta p l an e wa v e @k ( x )= F-k t p i k * xs a t i s s e st hes e l f c o ns i s t e n c yr e q u i r e me nt s , s i n i ti sas o l u t i o n o fEq. ( 1 0. 1 7 ) . Th ec o r r e s p o nd i n gs e l f c o n s i s t e n t s i n g l e pa r t i c l ee n e r g y* m>
e k= e 2+ X* ( k )
wher e
( 1 0. 2 0)
X* ( k )=J#3 ( x-x' ) e d k * t x x ' ) X* ( x-x' ) = ( 2 J+ 1 )F( 0 ) ( 2 = ) 3J#3 k' 0 ( kF-k' j ( 2 .) 3Jds k' F( k-k' ) %k p-k' ) = nF( 0 )- ( 2 r 43f#3 k ' F( k- k' ) g t k s- k' ) ( 1 0. 2 1 )
-
Th eg r ou n ds t a t ee n e r g y( 1 0 . 1 8 )r e du c e st ot h es i mpl ef o r m
( 1 0 . 2 2 )
whi c hs howshow t he s el f e ner g y modi se st he pounds t at e ene r gy oft he noni nt e r ac t i ng s ys t em. I ti si nt e r es t i ng t hatt he s es el f c ons i s t entexpr e s s i onsf ora
1 28
IIQI M PERFECT FERM I GA S W es ha l lnow cons i deri ndet ai ladi l ut eFer m igaswi t hs t r ong s hor t r anger epul -
c ol l a p s e .( S e e Pr o b.1 . 2 . ) I n pa r t i c ul a r ,t h en u c l e o n n u c l e o np o t e n t i a lh a sa
r epul s i vecor ear i s i ng f r om t hes t r ongl yi nt e r a ct i ng m e s on cl oud, and t heH e 3 -H e 3 pot e nt i a lhasa r epul s i vecor e ar i s i ng f r om t he i nt e r ac t i on be t we en t he el e ct r ons .
SCAR ERI NG Fno M A HARD SPHERE
t h r o ug h as t r o ngr e pu l s i v ep o t e n t i a lo fs t r e n g t h Ut j > 0a n dr a n g ea( Fi g .1 1 . 1 ) . An i nsni t e har dc or ec l e ar l yc or r e s ponds t ot he l i mi tF %. . > .a : . The s pat i a l Fo u r i e rt r a n s f or mo ft h ep ot e n t i a l i s j u s t t heBo r na pp r o x i ma t i o nf o rt hes c a t t e r i ng a mpl i t ude;i ti spr opor t i onalt o Ft and t he r ef or e di v er gesf or a har dc or e.
P ( q )= je f q e xU( x) J3 x. > . : c
( 1 l . 1 )
Si nc et he Schr di nger e quat i on i st r i vi al l ys ol ubl ei nt he r e gi on out s i de t he pot e nt i al ,e a ch phas es hi f tc an be obt ai ned expl i c i t l y wi t ht heboundar y condi t i on
FERMISYSTEMS
12;
l on g r a n g ei nt e r p a r t i c l ep o t e n t i a l( a si na t omi cp h y s i c s ) ,t h ee x c h a n g ec on t r i but i on i sus ual l y m uch s m al l ert han t he di r ec tone. I nde ed,t he e xc hanget er m i soc cas i onal l y ne gl e c t ed ent i r e l yi n det er mi ni ng t hes e l f cons i s t e nte ner n l e vel s of a t om s , and t he cor r e s pondi ng e quat i ons ar e known as t he s e l f cons i s t e nt Har t r ee e quat i ons . The phys i calbas i sf or t he di s t i nct i on G t we en s hor t -and l ongr ange pot ent i al si st he f ol l owi ng. The e xc l us i on pr i nci pl e pr ev ent st wo par t i c l esoft he s a me s pi nf r om occ upyi ng t he s ames i ngl e par t i cl es t at e . Asa r es ul t ,t he t wopar t i cl e dens i t yc or r el at i on f unct i on f or par al l els pi nsvani s he s t hr oughouta r e gi on c ompar abl ewi t ht he i nt e r par t i cl es paci ng. I ft he r ang e of t h e pot ent i ali sl e s st han t he i nt er par t i cl es paci ng,t he nt hi se xcl us i on hol ei s cr uc i al i n de t er mi ni ng t he gr ounds t at e ener gy. I n cont r as t ,a l ong r ange pot ent i alex t ends f ar be yond t he i nt er par t i c l es pa ci ng,and t he e xcl us i on hol e
v e r y di mc ul tt os ol v e ,b e c a u s et h es i n g l e pa r t i c l e wa v ef u n c t i o nsp/x )a n d
e ner gi e se lmus tbot h bede t er mi ne ds el f c ons i s t ent l y. The s ee quat i onsA ome
mu c hs i mpl e rf ora u ni f or ms y s t e m,wh e r e U( x )v a ni s h e sa n dt h epr om rRl f e n e r g yt a k e st h ef o r m E* ( x- x' ) .I ti sr e a di l yv e r i s e dt ha ta pl an e wa v e @k ( x) = F-k t ' d k * xs a t i s s e st hes e l f c on s i s t e n c yr e q ui r e me n t s , s i n i ti saKl u t i o n o fEq. ( 1 0 . 1 7 ) . Thec o r r e s po n di n gs e l f c on s i s t e n t s i n g l e p a r t i c l ee n e r g y% m%
e k= 6 2+ X* ( k )
whe r e
( 1 0. 2 0)
E* ( k) =j#3 ( x-x' ) e k * t x x ' ) X* ( x-x' ) = ( 2 . v+ 1 )P ' ( 0 ) ( 2 , 43Jd' k ' 8 ( #z . -k' ) ( 2 =) 3J#3 k' F( k-k' )%k F-k' ) =aP ' ( 0) -( 2 x) 3J#3 k, F( k-k ' ) p t k s-k' ) ( 1 0. 21 )
-
Theg r ou n ds t a t ee n e r g y( 1 0 . 1 8 )r e du c e st ot hes i mp l ef o r m
E-( 2 &+ 1 )P ' ( 2 =) 3J#3 k( e k-. R X* ( k) ) 0 ( kF-k) - ( 2 J+ 1 )F( 2 =) 3fdb k( 4 +! 3X* ( k ) ) # t ks- k )
( 1 0. 2 2 )
whi c hs howshow t he s el f e ner gy modi se st he gr ounds t at e ene r gy oft he noni nt e r ac t i ng s ys t em. l ti si nt er es t i ng t hatt hes es e l f cons i s t e ntex pr es s i onsf ora
u n o r m me di u ma r ei d e n t i c a lwi t ht he c on t r i b u t i on se v a l u a t e di ns r s t or de r pe r t ur ba t i o nt h e or y( Eq s .( 9 . 3 5 )a n d( 9 . 3 6 ) 1 . Th i se qu a l i t ya r i s e son l yb e c a u s e t h eu n pe r t u r b e d( p l a n e wa v e )e i g e n f u n c t i o n si na un i f o r ms y s t e ma r ea l s ot h e
s el f c ons i s t e nt one s; f or a nonuni f or m s ys t e m, howe ver ,t he s e l f c ons i s t ent ca l cu l at i oncl ear l ygoe sf arbeyond t her s t or derex pr es s i on.
1 28
IILI M PERFECT FERM I GAS W es hal lnow c ons i de ri nde t ai ladi l ut eFer m igaswi t hs t r ongs hor t r anger e pul -
c o l l a ps e .( S e e Pr ob .1 . 2 . ) l np a r t i c u l a r ,t h e nu c l e on n uc l e o n po t e n t i a lh a sa
r e pul s i vecor ea ri s i ngf r om t he s t r ongl yi nt er ac t i ngm es on c l oud, and t he He3 -He3 pot ent i alhasar e pul s i vec or ear i s i ng f r om t hei nt e r a ct i on be t wee nt hee l e c t r ons .
SCATTERI NG FRO M A HARD SPHERE
Fou r i e rt r a n s f o r mo f t hep o t e n t i a l i sj us tt h eBo r na p pr o x i ma t i onf o rt h es c a t t e r i ng am pl i t ude;i ti spr opor t i onalt oP r t jand t he r e f or e di ve r ge sf ora har d cor e .
F( q )- Jc q xP ' ( x ) #3 . r. + . c o
X
/( k# ) - 2 1+ l i s ,k nj p ( c os j ) , l i -. . e s ,, =0
Si nce t he Sc hr di nge re quat i on i st r i vi al l ys ol ubl ei nt he r e gi on out s i de t he pot ent i al , ea ch phas es hi f tcan be obt a i ned ex pl i c i t l y wi t ht he boundar yc ondi t i on
'Wef ol l ow t h ea na l y s i sofV.M . Ga l i t s ki i , So t ' . Ph y s . JET P, 7: 1 0 4( 1 95 8 ) . 2K. A. Br u e c k ne r . Th e or yofNu c l e a rS t r u ct ur e . i n C. De Wi t t ( e d. ) , l s l h eM a n yBod yPr ob l e m, ' '
p.47,J ohn W i y eyandSons,I nc. .Ne w Yor k,1959. 3Fort he basi cel ement sofs cat t er i ng t heor y us ed i nt hi ss e ct i on,t he r e aderi sr ef er r ed t o any
ggaMl SYSTEM S
129
k a> . 0 , I> 0 1 ) ! ! ( j j . 3 ) 3 a ( k)= - k a ka. + . 0 wh e r e( 2 / +1 ) ! ! =1 ' 3' 5 ''.( 2 / -1 ) ' ( 2 / +1 ) . He n c et hes c a t t e r i n ga mpl i t u de
-
3 ( / f J ) 2 l * 1 1 4 / c )= -( 2 /+ 1 ) ! ! ( 2 l
v ani s hesi nt he l i mi tofvani s hi ng har dcor er ange ,asi sphys i cal l y obvi ous . I n
c o n t r a s t ,t heFou r i e rt r a n s f o r mo ft h ep o t e n t i a l( Eq.( 1 1 . 1 ) )i si nt i n i t ef o ra I l
val uesoft heha r dc or er ange. Thi sc onc l us i on c an beve r i fe di n anot he rway. Cons i dert heSchr di ng er e quat i on f or t wo par t i cl es of m as sm i nt er a ct i ng wi t h a pot ent i al P r . The Sc hr di nge requat i on i nt he ce nt er of ma s scoor di na t es ys t e m i sgi v en by
( V2+ k2 ) 4( x )= y ( x) /( x)
whe r exi st he s e par at i on oft het wo par t i c l e s ,
( 1 1 . 4 )
( 1 1 . 6 )
( V2 X+ k1 ) Gt + ) ( x- y )= -3 ( x- y )
and G r e e n' st heor e m t he n yi e l ds t he f ol l owi ng equat i on f ort he s c at t er i ng wave
/( k' , k)= -4 4 z 41.f#3 yc i k ' * y ? p ( y ) 4k + ) ( y ) Eq u a t i on ( 1 1 . 9 )i sc o r r e c tf ora nyf i n i t e r a n g ep ot e n t i a lr ( x ) ,a n d wec a n no w e x a mi n ei t sb e ha v i orf o ra h a r dc or e .I nt h i sl i mi t/k * 'v a ni s h e swhe r e v e rv
be c om e si nsni t e ,s ot ha tt he s ca t t e r i ng am pl i t ude r em ai ns sni t e. Thus t he
l x
The pr ec e di ng di s c us s i on hasbe en c onsne dt ot he coor di nat er e pr es ent at i on, buti ti sm or eus e f ul f ort hepr e s entana l ys i st oe xpr e s sa l lquant i t i e si n m om ent um s pac e. Si nc et he r es ul t i ng Sc hr di ngere quat i on i sl e s sf am i l i ar ,wes hal lde r i v e t hee xpr es s i onsi ns om edet ai l . Wi t ht hedesni t i ons
( 1 1 . 1 0 X ( 1 1 . 1 0 : )
/ k ( p ) ( 2 = ) 3 3 ( p k ) p , k u l i y J ( 4 2 . ' . ' ) j ! ? ( q ) k z k t p q )
i nt r oduceam odi he ds ca t t e r i ngam pl i t udewr i t t e ni n m om ent um s pac e
( 1 l . 1 1 )
( 1 1 . 1 2 )
( 1 l . 1 3 )
k Rp , k ) ' k ( P )= ( 2 =) 3 3 ( p- k )+ k2/ a
.
-
y. j j . y p .
/ ' ( P , k ) =r ( P k ) + 1( z g v j ; / c c q c . r , . n .
- d? qt , ( #- q ) /( q . , k )
( 1 1 . 1 4 )
s o l u t i on o fEq .( 1 l . 1 4)r e q ui r e st h ef u n c t i on. /( q , k)f ora I l q2 0 ,no tj u s tf o r q2=k2 : t hi si se x p r e s s e db ys a y i n gt h a t /i sn e e d e d s o f l t h ee n e r g ys h e l l ' ' a swe l l
as t t on t he en er gy s hel l . ' ' I ft he pot ent i alhasno bound s t at e s ,as wi l lbeas s um e dt hr oughoutt hi s s ec t i on,t hen t he e xa cts ca t t er i ng s ol ut i onswi t h a gi ve n bounda r y condi t i on f or m acom pl et es e tofs t at esand s at i s f yt he r el at i on
FERM ISYSTEM S
131
Thenum e r i cal f a ct or sher em aybeche cke d bynot i ngt hatt hee xactwa vef unct i on obe ys t he s a me c om pl e t ene s sr e l at i on as t he unper t ur be d wave f unct i on el k * K
( 1 1 . 1 6 )
r t p- p ' ) *= ? ? ( p ' -p )
whi c h hnal l yyi el ds
Eq. ( 1 1 . 1 7 )v a n i s h , an dweo bt a i n
a n d 9. j ' ,a n dt h el e f ts i d eo ft h i sr e l a t i on b e c o me s2 f I m. / * . Th er e s u l t i ng
e xpr es s i on
' P I m Jt p ,p) =1 6 z
-
JD
z r
RP . k) . / RP ' , k ) * k/
.
( 1 1 . 1 9 )
Thepr e vi ousdi s c us s i on hasbee nr e s t ri c t ed t ot he s c at t er i ng oft wo par t i cl esi n f r ees pac e,a nd wenow t ur nt ot he m uc h m or ec om pl i ca t e d pr obl em ofa di l ut e m anypar t i c l e as s em bl yi nt e r ac t i ng wi t hs i n gul ar r e pul s i ve pot ent i al s. The har d cor ec l e ar l y pr e cl udesany s t r ai ght f or wa r d pe r t ur bat i on ex pans i on i nt he s t r e ngt h oft hei nt er par t i cl epot e nt i al . I ns t ea d,i ti ses s ent i alfr s tt oi nc or por at e
13 2
t he e f r e ctoft he r e pul s i ve pot ent i alon t he wav ef unc t i on oft wo par t i cl e si nt he me di um ' .onl yt he nc an we c ons i derhow t he m anypar t i c l e backgr ound af l kc t s t he i nt er a ct i ng pai r . Al t hough t he pot e nt i al i ss i ngul ar . a di l ut eFer mi gass t i l lc ont ai nson es m al l par am e t e r ,namel ykpa.whe r ekpi st heFer mi w' avenum ber , and a i st he s cat t e r i ng
l e ng t h( e qu a lt ot h ep a r t i c l e di a me t e rf o rah a r d s p h e r eg a s ) . Wet h e r e f o r e
e xpe ctt he gr ounds t a t e ener gy t o have a s er i e se xpans i on oft he f or m
- F h = ..2 j , g f+ BL . yapC( ky a ) l+ '.' j , , 7
hlk2
( I1 . 20)
whi ch s houl d beme ani ngf ulei t he rf ors mal ls c at t e r i ng l engt h( a. > . 0)orf orl ow dens i t y( ky, .0) . I nt hl ss ec t i on wecal cul at et he t i r s tt hr e ec oemci ent si nt hi s
s er i es . I n addi t i on, t he t ec hni que s deve l ope d her e can be us e d as a bas i sf or r e al i s t i ct he or i esof Fe r m is ys t e m sa tphys i caldens i t i es . A t r t l l yi nGni t er epul s i ve cor ei nt r oduc es ce r t ai n ar t i hci alc om pl i cat i ons , be c aus ee ve r yt er m ofany per t ur bat i on e xpans i on di v er ges . W es hal li ns t ead
c o ns i d e ra s t r o n g bu tf i ni t ep o t e n t i a lj Fi g.l l . 1 .w i t hl z ' :< : c Ja n dp a s st ot h e l i mi tI G> .: x .onl y att he e nd oft he cal cul a t i on. As s hown i nt he f o1 l owi ng
ca l cul at i ons ,t hi s pr oc edur e yi el ds hni t e ans wer st hat ar ei ndependent of U( , .
Fo rs u c ha ni t ep o t e n t i a l , t h et wo p a r t i c l es c a t t e r i n ge qu a t i on s( l 1 . 8 ) a n d( I I . 9 )
i nf r e es pac ecan bee xpande d as
( J k b ) ( x )r s u r ' i k * x- ) ' ( / . 3 ) ' G F ) ( x. -y ) l j y ) ' i k e y + . fd? y#3 zGt + J ( x- y ) ! ' ( y ) Gt * 1 ( y- z ) l . ( z ) f a i k * z + ... ( 1 1 . 21 t z ) /( k' , k )= ( 4 =) ) -l j ' #3 r ' t r z i k ' e r I . , ( y ) /k * ' J ( y )
. -
The t e r m si nt he wav ef unct i on hav e as i m pl ei nt e r pr e t at i on ast he unper t ur be d s ol ut i on pl us pr opagat i on wi t h one or m or er epe at e di nt e r ac t i ons . W e may
h)
FERM I SYSTEM S
13z
a r ea g a i nj u s ta wa yo fk e e pi ngt r a c ko ft h et e r mst h a tc o n t r i bu t et ot h et i me i nde pende ntpe r t ur bat i on s e r i e sf ort hes cat t er i ng am pl i t ude. A we ak r e pul si ve
I nas i mi l a rwa y . t h eh r s t or de rp r o pe rs e l f e n e r g yh tt k t ( Fi g . 1 0. 1 ) i st o t a l l y
i nade quat ef oras t r ongr epul s i v epot ent i al ,and wem us tr et ai na s el e ct e d cl as sof hi gher or de r Fe ynman di agr am s . Fr om t he pr es entdi s cus s i on ti squi t ecl ear whi c h di agr am s m us tbe k ept;ev er yt i me t he i nt e r ac t i on appear s .i tm us t be a l l owe dt o ac tr e peat e dl ys o ast oi ncl ude t he ef l kctoft he pot ent i alon t he wa ve
+ ''' +
+ ' ''
w.
>
<-
. >
f u nc t i o n. t he r e byy i e l di ngawe l l de f i ne dpr o du c t ' /. l no t h e rwor ds . t her e l e va ntquant i t yi nat wopar t i cl ec ol l i s i on i st he t wobody s cat t e r i ng am pl i t ude i n t he pr es enc e of t he m edi um .whi ch r em ai nswel lde sne de ven f or a s i ngul ar t wobody pot e nt i al . W et he r e f or er et ai n al lt he l adde r di agr ams i ndi c at e di n Fi g.l1. 3. 't hi sehoi cec l e ar l yr e pr es ent sa ge ner al i zat i on oft he abovedi s cus s i on bec aus et het er m si n Fi g.1 1. 3denot eFe ynm an di agr am sandhe ncecont ai n b0t h hol eand par t i c l epr opagat i on. l n par t i cul ar ,we s um onl yt hel adder sbe t we en Gr e e nsf unc t i ons wi t h ar r ows r unni ng i nt he s am e di r e c t i on. Si nc et het wopar t i c l ei nt er a c t i on i si ns t ant ane ous ,t hi ss e tofdi a gr am si ncl udesasa s ubs eta 1 l t hos epr oc e s s e swher e bot hi nt e r me di at ef kr mi onsar epar t i cl e sabov et he Fe r mi s e a ate ve r ys t ep. Suc h par t i cl e par t i c l e cont r i but i ons c ome f r om t he par t i c l e par toft he Fe ynm a n pr opagat or ,whi ch pr opagat e sf or war di nt i me. A ss hown bel ow,t hedi a gr am si n Fi g.ll . 3s u c et o obt ai nt he sr s tt hr ee
t e r ms i n Eq. ( 1 1 . 2 0 ) f or ah a r d s p h e r eFe r mi g a s . Th i sr e s u l t ha s ad i r e c t ph y s i c a l
i nt e r pr e t a t i on:t he f i r s tt er mi nt heexpans i on i st he ene r gy ofa noni nt er ac t i n g Fer m is ys t em . The s ec ond t e r m , whi c h i sl i nea ri nt he s c at t er i ng l engt h.
r e p r e s e nt st h ef o r wa r ds c a t t e r i n g( b ot h di r e c ta n de x c ha ng e )f r om t h eo t h e r
par t i c l e si nt he m e di um . Thi si de nt i sc at i on f ol l ows bec aus et he 1 ow dens i t y '
f ( k, k' )> . . . a
k= k'>0
( 1 1 . 2 2 )
1%
t u d e di se r sf r o mfY a us et h eo t h e rp a r t i c l e sl i mi tt h ei n t e r me d i a t es t a t e s
avai l abl et ot he i nt e r ac t i ng pai r . The Paul ipr i n ci pl er es t r i ct i on sr s t app ear s when a par t i cl ei sex ci t e d abovet he Fe r mis ea and i st he n de ex ci t ed;i ft he s um
+. . . .
whe r et he s ha de d box de not e st he s um ofl a dder di ag r ams . The s e pr oc es s es cl ear l yi ncl ude t he s c at t er i ng ofan i nt er medi at e par t i c l eand hol e ,whi ch r e al l y r e pr e s e nt st he t r ans f erofan addi t i onalpar t i cl ei ns i de t he Fer m is e a,sl l i ng t he or i gi nalhol e and l e avi ng a new one i ni t spl ac e. Thusa c ol l i s i on be t wee na par t i c l eandahol eal waysi nvol ve sane xt r apar t i c l eand i nt r odu ce sane xt r apowe r
o fkp a. I ti se v i d e n tf r o m Eq s .( 1 1 . 2 )a n d( 1 1 . 3 )t h att wo bo dyc o l l i s i o n si n r e l a t i v eps t a t e sa l s ol e a dt oc o r r e c t i o n so fo r d e r( kF a j 3 , whi c hi sa g a i nn e g l i g i b l e i no u ra pp r o x i ma t i on . Wes ha l l j u s t i f yo urc h oi c eofdi a g r a msi n mo r ede t a i l
att hee nd oft hi ss e ct i on. Be f or epr oce edi ngwi t ht hedet ai l e d anal ys i soft hes um ofl adde rdi a gr am s , wenow s how t hatt hef or eg oi ngdi s c us s i oni mme di at el yyi e l dst hesr s tt wot er ms
i nt h es e r i e s( 1 1 . 2 0 ) . Con s i de rau ni f o r ms y s t e mo fs pi n f e r mi on si n t e r a c t i n g
t hr ough a s pi ni nde m nde nt nons i ngul ar pot ent i al . Then t he l owes t or de r
g r ou n d s t a t ee n e r g yi so bt a i n e df r o m Eq s . ( 1 0 . 21 )a n d( 1 0 . 2 2 )
E 3 a k /x l k r :3 k k rd' k'
P = Jl m# ' 6 1 2 J( 2 , * 3 J( 2 , 0 3 6 2 Z P ) -Z ( k k ' ) 1 ( l l . 2 3 )
FERM I SYSTEM S
13:
4 =h2
. &( k, k )*
4*:2
J s
( 1 l . 2 4 )
a s+ . a ( 1 l . 2 5 ) He r ea t ' s? / ? t 2a c t u a ls c a t t e r i n gI e n gt hf o rf r e et wo p a r t i c l es c a t t e r i n g ,wh i c h
r emai ns wel lde sne de ven f or s i ngul ar pot ent i a l s . l nt he l owdens i t yl i mi t whe r ekr-+ . 0.wec anf ur t her mor eappr oxi mat e
F( k- k' ); k ;F( 0)
' # # q p
t,
+
k+ q
k- p
+
k k k- q k- q -p p+ q
k
p
p- q
p -q
Fi g.11 . 5 Fi r s tt wo o r de r si nl a dd e ra p pr o xi ma t i o nt o X* .
un d e rt h ei nt e g r a l , an d Eq. ( 1 1 . 2 3 )t hu sb e c ome s
E = 3h l k; 1N4 , 42 aN Ji Q N + i' P m
Th es t a n da r dr e l a t i o n( 3 . 2 9 )b e t we e nt h ed e n s i t ya n dt h e Fe r miwa v e nu mb e r
NI V= :) / 3 w . 2t h e r e f o r eg i v e s E :2 : . / .3 2 =j y j
t j + gk s a + ' '
( 1 l . 2 6 )
An e qui v al en tr e s ul tw a sde r i ve d by Lenzlf r om t he r el a t i on b et we en t hei nde x ofr e f r act i on and t hef or war ds c at t e r i ngam pl i t ude. Wi t ht he s er e m ar ks i nmi nd.we t ur nt o ourbas i c appr oxi m at i on.whi c h i st or et ai no nl yt he Feynm an di agr am sofFi g. l1 . 3i ne val uat i ng t he pr oper s el f e ner gy E*. To c l ar i f yt hevar i ousf ac t or s ,we s hal li ni t i a l l yc onc ent r at e on t hesr s t -and s ec ondor de rc ont r i but i onss hown i n Fi g.l 1. 5i n moment um s pa c e. 'w .Lenz,z. Phys i k. 5 6: 7 7 8( 1 9 2 9 ) .
1a 6
f r s t or d e rc o n t r i b ut i o ni sg i v e nb y( c o mp a r eEq . ( 9. 2 3 ) )
J ' t
ht : * 4 J , )=
p
p . j
/ v .+
p
h X n &j l pl= 2 h 1 4 2 , 7 7 18( d* kG ' 0 ( #)(dn q( z r o t q) G0 ( p-q) GQ ( kyq)Uo q -qj h l ( 2 ' ; r ) Bf d* kG0 ( / f )f dk qU( ) ( t y ) G0 ( p+ . q' ) G0 ( # -q)& / r 0 ( / (-q- p)
-
z '
#2 +:
#4
F( N :1 #2 , #3 p4 $= . x.
Jl
Z w + /1 -q
#3
#1
r pj- p? N ' pj /4
A; 7 ) - q- p ?
FERM I SYSTEM S
1a7
t h a ta u t o ma t i c a l l yi n c l u de sa I Io r de r sg Fi g .I l . 8a n dEq. ( 1 l . 3 0 ) j
N
p #2
z '
#z
#1- q #1 72
72+ q
N
:3
A
74
A pj
N #4
p?
N# 4
1 3g
The l abel i ng and or der i ng oft he moment um var i abl e sr e qui r es c ons i de r abl e c ar e ,and t her e aderi sur g ed t o ve r i f yt he s ee qua t i onsi n de t ai l . I ti sconveni entt oi nt r oducet het ot alc ent erofmas swaveve ct or P =/ ) 1+ fz= pq+ p6 wher et hel as tequal i t yf ol l ows f r om t hecons er vat i on oft ot a lf our m om e nt um i n a hom og eneouss ys t e m ,a nd t her e l at i v ewaveve c t or s
# = V:1 -#2 ) p' = V#3-J h) l na d di t i o n . t h ei ns t a nt a n e ou s i n t e r a c t i onme a ns t h a t( 7 0 ( 4)= &c ( q ) i s l h d e p e n d e nt o ff r e q u e n c ye,a n d wec a np e r f o r mt hef r e q u e n c yi n t e g r a li n Eq. ( 1 1 . 3 2 )f ora
hxe dc ent e r of m as sf our m om e nt um hp of t he i nt er act i ng pai r . I nt egr at e
z ( p , p ' , # ) H( 2 = ) 1 j P d p z Q ( 1 ' #+p , I ' . #-p ; ' ' . #+# ' , ' L ' P-p ' 4
-
( 2 = ) 1 ( p # l l o Q l p t J ' 2 . , , 3 , . )
.
y ( p , p' . #)- ( 2 =) 3 ( 5 t p-p ' )+ m1 ( 2 r r ) 1fd pz G0 ( ! . #+p j G0 ( ! # -pj ( 2 . , ) 3 s f d3 q&a ( q ) ' l p- q p ' , #) ( 1 l . 3 4 ) whi c h,a ss h o wn i n Eq. ( 1 l . 3 9 ) , i sv e r ys i mi l a rt ot h es c a t t e r i n ge qu a t i on i nf r e e s p a c e( Eq.( 1 l . l 1 ) ) .l ft hi se qu a t i on i si t e r a t e da sa ne x p a n s i on i n Uo ,e a c h t e r m de p e n dse x p l i c i t l yont h ev a r i a b l e s( p , p ' , #) ,t hu s j u s t i f y i n gou rn o t a t i oni n Eq . ( 1 1 . 3 3 ) . I t i sno wn e c e s s a r yt oe v a l u a t et hec o e mc i e n to f t hel a s tt e r mi n Eq. ( 1 1 . 3 4 ) . S i nc ee a c h G0h a st wo t e r ms( Eq.( 9 . 1 4 ) J ,t h ei n t e g r a n dh asf ou rt e r msi na l l .
Two oft he s et er m sha ve b0t h pol eson t hes ame s i deoft he r eal poaxi s;i nt hi s cas e,wecl os et hecont ouri nt he oppos i t e hal fpl ane,s howi ng t hatt hes et er ms make no cont r i but i on. l n cont r as t ,eac h oft he r em a i ni ng t wo t er m s has one pol e above and one pol ebe l ow t he r e alaxi s . Thes e cont r i but i onsar er e adi l y eval uat e d wi t hac ont ouri nt e gr a l ,an d weEnd
i *o cn ( !
.
FERM I SYSTEM S
4z9
Thi se xpr es s i on ha st he phys i c al i nt e r pr e t a t i on t ha tt he pai r of i nt er ac t i ng par t i c l e si nt he i nt e r me di at es t at esofFi g.11 . 3c an pr opa gat eei t he rasa pai rof
pa r t i c l e sa b ov et h eFe r mis e af t h esr s tt e r mi nEq. ( 1 l . 3 5 ) ) ora sap a i ro fho l e s be l o wt h eFe r mi s e a( t h es e c o n dt e r mi nEq . ( 1 1 . 3 5 ) ) . Si nc eFe y n ma ndi a g r a ms
cont ai n al lpos s i bl et i meor der i ngs ,bot h modesofpr opagat i on ar ei Mcl ude di n t hedi agr am ofFi g.ll . 8.
Th ef or m ofEq .( 1 1 . 3 5 )c a nb es i mpl i s e db yi n t r o du c i n gt h et o t a le n e r g y
E - hpo- 4 m
h2 /2
( 1 I . 3 6 )
( 1 1 . 3 8 )
X( P, P )
.
J ( ; x ) 3
d%
Cor r e s pondi ng l y,P may ber e expr e s s e di nt e r msofc e nt e rof mas sand r el at i ve
wa v ev e c t o r sus i n gEqs . ( 1 l . 31 )a n d( 1 1 . 3 3 ) : 1 Xp. p ' . #)H f ' ( i ' # +p, i ' -p; ! ' #A p' , ' ' # -#' )
-
( 2 , , ) 3jJ3 t ?r s r gq ) y ( p- q , p ' , #)
( 1 1 . 4 0 )
U nt i lt hi spoi nt ,t he e quat i ons have bee n wr i t t e ni nt e r m soft he i nt e r par t i cl e pot e nt i alUo . Such an appr oac hc an ne verde s c r i be an i nsni t er e pul s i v e cor e ,
1 4 0
ma t i on t ol ' i spr opor t i onalL o.?a n dt h eh i g h e r or d e rc or r e c t i o nsa r i s ee x p l i c i t l y f r om t he many par t i cl e ba ckgr ound. I ti s conv eni ent t o de sne t he r e duc ed v ar i abl es
Thi sr epr e s ent at i ol li se as i l yver i ed by s ubs t i t ut i n g Eq.(1l . 44)i 1 ) t o Eq,(1 1. 42) , a n d us i n g Eq.( l ) . 43 )an dt h ec omp l e t e n e s sr e l a t i ol )t Eq.( 1 1 . 1 6 4 ) . Ac o mb i n a t i onwi t ht h ec o mp l e xc on j u g a t eo fEq. ( 1 l . 1 3 )t h e ny i e l d s
wh e r eEq s . ( 1 1 . 1 2 )a nd( 1 1 . 41 )h . a v eb e e nu s e d, Th i se x p r e s s i onh a st h ei mp or t antf e at t l r et hati tcont ai nsonl yt heG' ee par t i cl es c at t er i ng anl pl i t t l de sal l dt hus r em ai ns m e ani n gf ul eve nf ora s i n gl dar r epul s i ve pot ent i al .
FERM I SYSTEMS
1*1
( 1 1 . 4 6 ) wh i c hi sj u s tt h ef r e es c a t t e r i n ga mp l i t u de . Mor eg e n e r a l l y sE q.( 1 1 . 4 5 )de t e r mi nesraf ors cat t er i ng of l t heene r gy s hel l ,nam e l y,f orval ue sofp' 1# k . N ot e t hatwe al s o ne ed t he qua nt i t y./o f l t h ee n e r g ys h e l l ,f o ra l lv a l u e sofi t st wo m om e nt um ar gum e nt s . l na f r e es ca t t e r i ng exper i m ent ,howe ver , t he s cat t er i ng am pl i t ude ./ i s me a s u r e do nl yf o re qu a lma g n i t u d e so ft h et wo mome n t u m
p ? ' pj - . z . YJ u c y t p ' p . E : p + t , ? x ) t P , p j j( d 2 . 3 y 1 t , ( q ) y ( p q , p , , p ) ( a . ) 3 3 t p p , )
. .
x t p . p z , p 4 , 6 p 1 j g p z ? j ( # 2 , 3 r , 3 r ( q ) k ( p q , p , p ) = ( 2 . , ) 3 , ! t p p , ) + ( 6 . . p ) + ( P y x ! ) ? N ) ( p , p ; , y g 1 z + j , y j p D 1 I a ( p , p , . p ) ( j j . 4 , y )
Co mpa r i s o nwi t h Eq. ( 1 1 . 4 2 )di v i de dby6. p2+ i . r )s h owst h a tt heop e r a t o ron t h el e f ts i deofEq .( 1 I . 4 7 )i sj u s tt h ei n v e r s eof; o,whi c h me a n st ha ty c a nb e
e xpr es s e di nt er m sofxoasf ol l ows:
: ( p, p ' , #)= : 0 ( p , #, P1+ ( 2 3 :0 ( #X, P) =) x N( k ) 1 m , +P, y jrt k, p . Pj E- i ' n#( P, k)- e- kz+ i . r lj
Thi se quat i on can beve r i l i e d bycar r yi ng outt heope r at i on i ndi cat e d on t he l ef t
d3 k
1 4 a
Asn o t e db e f or e , ho we v e r , /( p . p ' )mu s tb ek n ownf o ra I lv a l u e so fpa n dp '( q # t hee n e r g ys he l l ) ,wh i l ei tc a nb eme a s u r e d on l yo nt h ee n e r g ys he l l . Rou g h l y s ma ki n g .t he q ua n t i t yl n ( )( Eq.( 1 1 . 4 5 ) )c on t a i n st h ee / e c t so fs c a t t e r i n go f f t hee n e r g ys he l l ,whi l e Eq.( 1 l . 4 8 ) ,whi c hi ss t i l la ni n t e g r a le q u at i on f o rI ' ,
i ncor por at es t he e xc l us i on pr i nc i pl ei ni nt er me di at es t at es . Wes hal lr e f er t o
whe nt h ev e c t o r sI . P +kb o t hl i eo ut s i det heFe r mis e a;s i n c ewea r ei nt e r e s t e d i ne n e r g i e so ft h eor d e re s , t hel a s tt e r m ofEq.( 1 1 . 4 8 )c a nb ee s t i ma t e d( a p a r t f r o mn ume r i c a lf a c t or s )a s ' o k p mvh z . Thu st h to r d e rofma g ni t u d eo ft he
V#- k)= q
P+ k = P
p z+ V c=Pz
( 1 l . 5 0 )
3 := -ka+ O( ( * w) 3 J
Fur t h e r mo r e , t h eI e a di n gt e r m of t h ef t hp a r t i a l wa v ei sg i v e nb yd , = O( ( k J ) 2 ' + 1 J .
: V. M .Gal i t s ki i ,l o c . c i t .
zS. T. Nl i a e v, So v . Ph y s . J ETP, . 7: 2 9 9( 1 95 8 ) .
FERM ISYSTEM S
143
* 21+ I
c o r r e s p o n di n gamp l i t u d e /l E q. ( 1 l . 1 2 ) )b e c o me s
J ' f k f 4 =a- 4 =i a 2 k J kJ =J k' p . + . 0 ( l 1 . 5 3 )
A snot e d att hebe gi nni ng oft hi ss e c t i on.t he e xpans i on par am e t erf oran
h iro ( q , q #)
=
4 n a- 4 =i q a 2i -( 4 . ; r u) 2 ( y mi )j . s. .. j s. j mj t . j r y ( ; a. -c j 2u j y ,
y
d3 k'i
l
'
, ,
j +. . .
4 = + ( 4 = w) 2 ( 2 j , j - . +, j . c + .'. r r ) E- k + l n k -q
#3 / c'
, ? /
4 =i q a 2 . Th i se x p a n s i o nt oo r d e ra 2n ow c a n be c omb i n e d wi t hE q.( 1 1 . 4 8 )
t o obt ai n
m r(
d? k'
z V( P, k' )
. ' # .
( l l . 5 4 )
( 1 l . 5 5 )
1 4 4
( 1 1 . 5 6 )
whi ch i s va l i dt hr ough or de r a2 . Thi sc anc e l l a t i on t ypi fest he gene r alr es ul t not ed i n Sec .1 0t hatt hedi r ec tand ex changet e r msar ecompar abl ei n ma gni t ude f oras hor t r a ng epot ent i al .
d* k
4=ah2
#( k' ) . @ a , a P, ,> , a e- k + i T N( P, k) k -q
and t he s ubs cr i pt she r e de not e powe r sofa,notor de r si n per t ur bat i on t he or y. Thefr s tt e r mi seas i l ye va l uat ed bycl os i ng t hecont ouri nt he upperhal fpl ane
i!
d3 k 4na h2 dk y y oy ; ,
h l k;2 / c sJ
s i mi l a rt ot h a tofEq. ( 1 1 . 3 5 ) , a n d wehn d
X) 2 ) ( p , P 0 )
= ul 6 . = aj. j s y (- t n g v j y . j y ) z . j . g a . g , z . j . y y
.
:2
- qz - k, 2 ( 1 l . 5 8)
FERM I SYSTEM S
.
145
whi c hha sbe e ns i mp l i h e db ywr i t i n gg c o mp a r eEq. ( 1 l5 0) ) h kl h P2 h C2 h 2 L 2 - k % m r n Equ a t i o n s( 1 l . 5 7 )a n d( 1 l . 5 8 )t o g e t h e re x p r e s sX*a sas e r i e s nc l udi ng al lt e r ms ,i ofor de r( kpal l .
-
of
( l1 . 60)
hpl
=i 2 p 2h 2 k 2 j( !
0 ( k- 1 )0 ( l- i .P - k ')0 ( 1- 1 . P - k')
qc .-- k . @. -t . , y
7$1 k4 y -qj y t r s -( ) ( k ) . a3 ) /
, .
-
P = p- k. q= J ( p- k )( 1 1 . 6 2 )
w he r e: hei nt egr alhasbee nr ende r e d di me ns i onl e s sb) ' e xpr es s i nga1 l u i r aveve ct or s nt er m sofkr . Thi s equat i on r es em bl es a s e condor der ex pans i on obt ai ned wi t ht i i nde pe mende nt per t ur bat i on t he or yf or an i nt e r par t i c l e pot e nt i al 4. : 42 t z' , ? 2i n m om ent um s pac et hat i sc hos e nt o r e pr oduc et he c or r e ct - wav es cat t e r i ng
: *6
am pl i t ude . The qua nt i t yi n br a c es i s pr opor t i onalt ot he pr ope rs el f e ner g y and ha st hephys i e ali nt e r pr e t at i on s hown s c hem a t i ca l l yi n Fi g.1l.9 .( Th e s e ar e now m ea ntt o be di agr a m s oft i m ei ndepe nde ntper t ur bat i on t heor y, t he anal og of t he Gol ds t one di agr a ms . An ar r ow r unni n g upwar d de not es a
i n di c a t e di n Fi g .1 1 . 9 :a n dc ,whi l et h el a s tt e r mL t f / hql-#' 2 ) -1 jmu s tb s ub t r a ct e d ex pl i ci t l y be caus et he r e alpar toft he e xacts c at t er i ng ampl i t udew oul d
p.
#m
4n ' h2 a
p
4z r 1a
t
4. 2 #
2 21 : . + k'
l P+k '
k
1pk' ) ' . 4. , r ,?a
y P- k. 1
p )l
)m
4x:2 a m
( c)
Fi g.11. 9 Schemat i cexpans i on opr ope rs el f e ne rgy.
be gi ven by -a t ot hi s or de ri ft he r e wer e no sl l e d Fe r m fs ea asa backgr ound. The t e r m si n Fi g.1 1. 9: and cde not et he f ol l owi ng phys i c alpr oc e s s e s . l nt he f i r s tca s e,t hei nc i de ntpa rt i cl ecol l f dcswi t h a par t i cl ei nt hem e di um ,exc i t i ng i t t os om e s t at eabov et heFer m is e a,t her e by l ea vi ng t he hol ei nt he m e di um ;t he s am e t wo par t i cl es t hen c ol l i de a s e cond t i m e,br i ngi ng t he s ys t em bac kt oi t s i ni t i als t at e ofa Fe r m is ea and t he i nci de nt par t i cl e . The s e cond c as ei s an ex chang e pr oc es s . Tw' o par t i cl esi nt he medi um i nt er act .t ' he y ar e b0t h ex ci t ed above t he Fer mis e a,t he r e by l ea vi ng t wo hol esi nt he m e di um . The i nci dent par t i cl ec ol l i de sw' i t h one oft heex ci t ed par t f cl e s .and t he s et wo par t f el est hen f i l l t he t wo hol es . The s ys t e m t husr e t ur nst oi t si ni t i als t at e,t he onl y al t e r at i on be i ngt hee xchangeoft hei ni t i al i nci de ntpar t i cl ewi t honeoft hee xci t edpar t i c l e s.
PHYSI CA L G UANTI TI ES
FERM I SYSTEM S
147
y p -z m. ( k r J ) (k ,)S g n ( k F p )
h2 / c /2
zp c s- p l
whi c hi sv a l i df br 1 / -/ t ' s l . , . :kF .l na c c o r da n c e wi t ht h eg e n e r a lLe hma n n r e p r e s e n t a t i on ( Fi g .7 . l )t h ep o l el i e sb e l ow ( a b ov e )t h er e a la x i sf orp > V s ( p< / f s ) .S i n c ey sv a n i s he sl i k e( p - kr ) l ,t he l i f e t i me b e c o me si ns n i t ea s p. > . kr ,a n dt h ec o n di t i o ne p- J . t% > h yp i ss a t i s s e d( c o mp a r et h e di s c u s s i on l e a di n gt o Eq.( 7 . 7 9 ) J . 2 Th e s el o ng l i v e ds i n g l e p a r t i c l ee x c i t a t i o ns a r eo f t e n
ksJ) 2 ,be ca us et he known asqu as i par t i c l e s . Not et hatyv i spr opor t i onalt o(
.
( 1. . 6 4 )
i mp l i e st h a tt h eg r o u n ds t a t er e ma i n sa Fe r mi s e af i l l e du pt owa v e n umb e ks , t
but wi t h a di f l kr e nt di s pe r s i on r e l at i on E p . Si nce yv c hangek s i gn a t ky,t he Le hm ann r e pr es ent at i on s howst hatt he c hem i c alpot ent i ali sgi ve n by y = c s. I ti st he r e f or e ne c es s ar yt oe val uat ee p att he Fer m is ur f a ce. A l engt hy i nt e gr a-
2Thi sde t a i l e dr e s u l tt y pi s e sag e n e r a lt he or e m of J .M . Lu t t i n g e rL Pl ; ) ' s .Rc l ' . .1 2 1: 9 4 2( 1 96 1 ) ) t h a tI m E* v a ni s he sl i ke( t p- / , . z ) 2n e a rt h e Fe r mis ur f a c e .u' hi c h hol d st oa l lor d e r so fp e r t ur bat i on t heor y.
tA mor ede t a i l e de v a l ua t i o nb a s e do n Eq. ( 1 1 , 5 9 )s ho w' st h at di s t r i bu t i on f un c t i o nn pi ss l i g ht l y al t e r e d.b utt hi sd o e s no ta f r e c tours ubs e qu e ntr e s ul t s( V.A.Be l l ' a ko v ,So t ' .#/ ? y . j , J f F#. 1 3: 8 5 0( 1 96 1 ) ) .
148
GROUNDSTAT E( ZE ROTE MPE 9AT URE) F ORMALI SM whi ch de hnest heeFec t i vem as s
m + n z k , j p D e p p ! j k s ) '
( 1 1 . 6 2 )y i e l d s
m ... 8 -. l+ 15. 7l n2- 1 ) ( / c s J ) 2 m nz(
( 1 1 . 6 , 7 )
( 1 1 . 6 8 )
g i ve nb y( c o mp a r eEq .( 5 . 6 0 ) J
s u g g e s t( m* j mj v v s ; k : 2. 9i n qu a l i t a t i v ea g r e e me n twi t h Eq .( 1 l . 6 8 ) . Un f br t un at e l y,t he l ar ge num er i c alval ue pr ec l ude sasi m pl e pe r t ur ba t i one xpans i on, and a m or es ophi s t i c at ed a ppr oa ch i sr equi r ed. z 3.Gr ou ndst at ee ner gy:The gr ounds t at ee ner gy can be r ea di l y obt a i ned wi t ht he r m odynam i ci dent i t i e s ,as not ed by G al i t s ki i . I tc oul d,ofcour s e , be
c a l c ul a t e dd i r e c t l yf r om Z* ( p , p 0 )wi t h Eq .( 9 . 3 6 ) , b utt h ef o l l o wi n ga p p r o a c hi s
m uc hs i m pl er . By de f i ni t i on,t he c he mi calpot e nt i alatS = 0 i sr e l at e dt ot he
e x a c tg r o un ds t a t ee n e r g yE b yt h ee q u a t i o n( 4 . 3 )
# . =I W
b '
Pf
.
S= 0
# . ykts j v # A ' , L k F ( N, ) 1 A -3 3
.
lAn ex cel l ents ur ve y maybef ound i n J.W i l ks,% h l he Proper t i esofLi qui d and Sol i d Hel i um q'' chap.1 7,Oxf or d Uni ver si t y Pr es s, Oxf or d,1 967. 2Seef orexampl e, L. D. La nd au ,S ov . Ph ys . J ET P. 3: 9 2 0( 1 95 7 ) .
FERM I SYSTEM S
149
and wef i nd
wr i t t e nh e r e aEq. ( 1 l . 7 l )d e s c r i b e sa ha r d s p h e r e Fe r mig a swi t ht wo d e g r e e sof f r e e d om ; t h ec or r e s p o n di n ge x pr e s s i on f or n u c l e a r ma t t e r( f ou rd e g r e e so f f r ee dom,ne ut r on and pr ot on,s pi nup and s pi ndown)i s
E
3
+
J i 2 kj .
k,a +. 1 2( 11 s l , r 3 5 , , 2 z , l n a l t k s u l z + . O . J 8 ( k s u ) 3 h . . . j( 1 1 . 7 2 )
. -.
hg m n u a c t ! t e a r r j j j g
2 -
Wes ha l lno wf ur t he rj u s t i f yo urb a s i ca p pr o x i ma t i ono fr e t ai ni n gon l yt h es e l f e ner g y of Fi g. l1 . 3, i n whi ch t wo par t i cl e s or t wo hol es i nt er a ct r epe at e dl y. One oft he s et er msi ss hown i n Fi g.11 . 1 0J,a l ong wi t h at ypi c alom i t t e d one
F i g . 1 . 1 0 C o m p a r i s o n o f d i a g r a m s ( J ) r e t a i n e d >>
a n d( : )o mi t t e dj nl a dd e rap pr ox i ma t i o n. 1K . Hua n gan d C. N. Ya ng , Ph y s . Re t ' . , 1 05: 7 6 7( 1 9 5 7 ) ; T. D, Le ea ndC. N. Ya ng , Ph y s . Re v . , 1 0 5: 1 1 1 9( 1 95 7 ) . 2St r i ct l yspeaki ng, C. De Do mi ni c i sa ndP. C.M a r t i nL ph ys .Re t ' . ,1 0 5: 1 41 7( 1 9 5 7 ) )ob t a i ne dt h e( / c z . c ) 3c or r e c t i o nf o rnu c l e a rmat t e r( Eq.( 11 . 7 2 ) 1 ,a n dt h eg e ne r a le xp r e s s i o n wa ss ubs e q ue n t l ydt r i v e db yV. N. Es mo va n dM. Ya. Amus y a ,So v . Ph ys . J ET P, 2 0: 3 8 8( 1 9 6 5 ) .
1 B 0
t h ed i s c u s s i o nf ol l o wi n g Eq.( 1 1 . 2 7 ) ) . Th ec or r e s po n di n gi n t e g r a t i on sov e rq
ar egi ve n,r e s pe ct i v el y,by
( 1 1 . 7 3 / ) ( 1 1 . 7 3 : )
t9 1
# l t
q
4# 2
Fz+ q
pl- q :1+ q
( ) Fi g.11. 11 Pi e c e s ofg r a ph s( t 8r et a i ne da n d( b )
om i t t ed i nl adderappr oxi mat i on.
a n dn j , + q ( 1- w 9 , + q )( c omp a r et h ec a l c u l a t i on l e a di n gt o Eq .( 1 1 . 3 5 ) ) . Fo rt h e
pr e s e ntl owdens i t ys ys t e m,moment um i nt e gr a t i ons i ns i de t he Fer mis e a have
pa r t i c l ee n e r g i e se 2=hl kl ( 2 ma p pe a r i n gi n Eq. ( 1 1 . 5 8 )i n t oi n t e r a c t i n ge n e r g i e s
e kand i nt r oduc e saddi t i onalf r eque nc y dem ndenc e. I nt hi sappr oac h,X* t hus depends on t he e xacts i ngl epar t i c l e ener gi e s ,whi c h,i nt ur n,de pe nd on Z*. Al t houg h di f l kr enti n det ai l ,t hi sm odi f l e dt heor yi sv tr ys i mi l a rt o Br ue ckner ' s
FERM I SYSTEM S
151
Fo rt h efn a l e x a mp l ei nt h i sc h a p t e r , wer e t u r nt ot h ed e g e n e r a t e( h i g h de n s i t y )
el e ct r ongast r eat e di n Se c.3. The mos ts t r ai ght f or war d appr oac hi st o anal y ze
To s i m pl i f y ourt r ea t m ent ,t he pr e s ents ec t i on i sr es t r i ct ed t oas pat i al l yhomogene ouss ys t e m ofpar t i cl eswi t h as pi ni nd e pe nd ents t a t i c pot ent i al
( f ' )= ! . j #3 xJ3 x' F( x- x' ) ( ' f ) ( x ) fj # ( x' ) l ; j t x ' lf a ( x ) ) = ! . jJ3 xJ3 x'p ' t x-x' ) ( ( ? i ( x) H ( x ' ) )- t i ' t x-x' ) ( ( ? i ( x ) ) 1
( 1 2. 2 )
H ( x) HH ( x)- ( H ( x) )
i nwhi c hc a s eEq. ( 1 2. 2 )b e c o me s
( 1 2 . 3 )
Thi sequat i on de s c r i besan ar bi t r ar yi nt e r a ct i ng s ys t e m and i st her ef or e qui t e c om pl i cat e d. l t sr eal us e f ul nes s , howev er ,i sf or a uni f or m s ys t em , wher e
l Dl x. x )= . . . ' p C j ( ) j t jo )
.
15 2
D( x, x' ) = D( x' , x)
( 1 2 . 6 )
For r e as ons t hatar e m ade c l e ar i nt he s ubs equentdi s c us s i on,D i sf r e que nt l y c al l e dt hepol ar i zat i o npr o pagat or . l nt he us ualcas eofa uni f or m m edi um wi t h
( 1 2. 7 )
t he nt he i nt e r ac t i on ene r gy c an be s e par at e di nt o a hr s t or dercont r i but i on and al lt he hi gher or derc ont r i but i ons
Thi ss e pa r at i on i sver y conveni ent ,f orwe haveal r e ady e val uat e dt hefr s tt er m
r ma l z 3: *a )+ Fc o r r
wher et he i nt e gr alov er t he v ar i abl e coupl i ng c ons t ant A ha s be en eva l ua t ed expl i c i t l yi nt hesr s t or de rt e r m . Fort he pr e s e ntuni f or ms ys t e m ,t hi se xpr e s s i on bec om e sm uc hs i m pl e ri n m om ent um s pac e,wher e we 5nd
E c o r r -! . p ' ( 2 = ) 4( ' J z A , . f l kz p e t q l g f oz t q , c o ) -f oo t q t s l q 0
.
( 1 2 . 1 1 )
( j ;. j g j
FERM I SYSTEM S
163
t ' .
i D0 ( x, x' )- i Go = x ( x , x+ ) i Go g ( x' x' + )- i G% ( v x' ) i G? x' x)- r H ( x ) > . ' ? i ( x' ) ) ) b , a, 3 ; , pa( , . , ( 2 s+ 1 , ) G0 ( x , x' ) G0 ( x ' , x)
t i o nf un c t i o n( J )i nc o or di n at es p a c e , ( b )i n mome n t u ms p a c e .
c o nt r i bu t i on st o U( x, x' )a r es ho wn i n Fi g .1 2 . 2 , a n d ma ybewr i t t e na s
Wet he r e f o r ei de n t i f y( c o mp a r e( 9 . 4 4 ) )
.
H0 ( x, x' )
( 1 2. 1 4)
1 : 4
Fu r t h e r mor e ,Dy s on ' se qu a t i o na l l o wsust or e wr i t eJd 4 xL ( &( x, xj ) H( xl , x' )a s J#4 xl &( x, xI ) l 1* ( xl , x' ) ,Wh e r eI 1 *i st h ep r o p e r po l a r i z a t i on . Th ec o r r e s p on d i n gr e l a t i o ni nmo me n t um s pa c ei sg i v e nb y&( ) 4 t ? ) 1 1 4 )= &( t ? ) H* ( ) , a n d t hec or r e l a t i one n e r g y( Eq. ( 1 2 . 1 l ) J b e c ome s
E C o r -+ ! . f p 4 ( 2 = ) 4 j 0 b J z z l . f d . q ( g A ( ) r I * A ( ) -z t & ( : ) I I o ( ) )( 1 2 . 1 5 )
N ot et ha t
I 1 0 ( )M I 1 A) ( ) wh e r e1 1 $, ( t ? )i st h el o we s t o r d e rp r o p e rp o l a r i z a t i onpr o p a g a t o r .
X1 X
( 1 2 . 1 6 )
A'
X .
= G > ' . X
x'+
X1
Equ a t i on( 1 2. 1 5 )c a na l s ob ee x p r e s s e di nt e r mso ft h eg e n t r a l i z e ddi e l e c t r i c c o ns t a n tv ( q , a ? )= K L qj ,d e sn e d byEqs .( 9 . 4 6 )a n d( 9 . 47 ) . Thu st hei n t e g r a n d ofEq. ( 1 2 . 1 5 )ma yb er e wr i t t e nwi t ht h er e l a t i o n Ul Uqb 1 1 * ( :) q) H* ( t ? )- l Uo l q) H. ( q 4 ( q4= 1 - 1 = 1- x K l q) K ( #)
-
w hi c h yi el ds
s , -+ . f r m ( 2 = ) . j 0 ' y z z l j . # k( E s A ( ) ! 1 -l -, j v o l q ) n 0 ( ) )( 1 2 . 1 8 )
RI NG Dl AG RA M S
t h e po t e n t i a l ,s ot h a t U( 0 )v a n i s he si d e n t i c a l l y . Thi sr e i e c t st h ep h y s i c a l
obs er v at i on t hatt her ei s no f or war ds c at t er i ng f r om a neut r al medi um . I n
FERM I SYSTEM S
155
( JJ
( :)
( c )
( d4
( e )
( 1 2 . 1 9 )
E J = J Z / i ( 2 ' z r ) 4 j 0 d h X 1 j d * q g 2 L % ( g ) Z 0 ( t ? ) 1 2
e t . c ' d =. j j p 4 ( 2 = ) 4 j 0 ( . / A A l j d 4 q g A & / ( ) t ( y ) I ' l l j ) j , , c , c j q ) j
1
( 1 2 . 2 0 )
( 1 2 . 2 1 )
wi t ht h ei n t e g r a nd( 6 7 t ) ( 4 2 ) l 1 0 ( t y ) ) n . For t u n a t e l y , t he s es i n g ul a rt e r msa r er e a d i l y i n c l u d e dt oa ) l o r de r s i np e r t u r ba t i o nt h e o r yb yi nt r o d u c i ngt he e ye c l i t ' ez a/ ' t a r t z t / / t ? a I hl q)( c o mp a r eEq. ( 9 . 4 5 ) ) Ur l q) = b' j l q)i -U( ) ( t ? ) 1 70 ( t ? )b ' z l q)+ '''
.
t . ) ( f j t -1 l 0 ( k j t hl q l
.
( 1 2 . 2 2 )
166
'*
&r = 6 / 0 + ''' Fi g.12. 4 Ri ng appr oxi mat i onf oreFe ct i vei nt e r act i on.
b yr e t a i n i n g on l yt hez e r o or d e rp r o pe rp ol a r i z a t i o nf l A) > H0 i n Eq .( 9 . 4 5 ) .
Equ a t i o n( 1 2 . 2 2 )c on t a i n st h ed i a g r a mss ho wn i n Fi g .1 2 . 4a n di sk n o wn a st h e
s um ofr ? ' ? 7 g di a gr ams. Forhi s t or i calr eas ons ,i ti sal s o known ast he r an dom ph as ea p pr oxi mat i on,al t hough t hi sname i s notes pe c i al l yi l l um i nat i ng her e. l Thi ss e l e c t e dc l as sofhi ghe r or derr i ngdi agr am sm akest hef ol l owi ngcont r i but i on t ot he gr ounds t at e ene r gy:
X
Er = a=2 ) (Ea r
-
! . / p ' ? j ( 2 = ) 4 j b o # A z l . f d n q , t 4 . a : A r . & ( ( ? ) I . I o ( t ? ) ) -
1- ' j bv l q ) q
- .
( 1 2 . 2 3 )
Er =
i . / F ( 2 = ) 4 j v # A.
.
lfdn qL luo t t ? l Z0 ( t ? ) 1 2
K A t ( y jr
( 1 2 . 2 5 )
FERM I SYSTEM S
157
Ec o r r = Er- E2t E+ Ed 2- .
( l 2 . 2 6 )
I t m us t be em phas i z ed t ha tt he s e di s conne c t ed di a gr am s c annot be obt ai ne d di r e c t l yf r om t he Fe ynm an r ul esofChap.3,be caus et hecount i ng ofi ndepe ndent c ont r i but i ons di f l kr sf r om t hat of t he c onnec t ed par t sa si se vi denti n Fi g. 1 2. 5
r e a di l ye x p r e s s e di nt e r msof : ( S e c .1 1 )o r1 7( S e c . 1 2 ) .
'Thi s cont ri but i on wasf i r s teval uat ed by M .Gel l Nl ann and K .A .Br ue ckner.Phv s.Rc! ' . ,
1 0 6: 3 6 4( 1 9 57 4 . W' e he r ef ol l ow t he a p pr oa c h ofJ .Hub b ar d.Pr o c .Ro y.So c.( Lo n d on q . AM 3: 3 3 6( 1 9 5 7) ' . s e eal s oT. D. Sc h ul t z . ' oua n t um Fl e l dTh e or ya ndt h eMan y Bod yPr ob l e m. * '
s ec s.l I l . Ht oI I I. J .Gor don and Br each.Sci e nctPubl i s her s ,New Yor k,1 96 4.
1s g
EVALUATI O N O F H0
Forf ur t her de t ai l e d anal ys i s ,we m us te val uat et he l owes t or der pol ar i zat i on
( 1 2. 2 7 )
( j 2. 2 s )
a sc a nb ev e r i s e de i t he rb ya ne xp l i c i t c a l c u l a t i o nwi t hEq. ( 1 2 . 2 7 )o rb yu s i n gt h e
Fe ynm an rul esofSe c.9 wi t h Fi g.1 2. 1 :. A sa sr s ts t e p,i ti sconve ni entt o per f or m t he f r e que ncy i nt e gr ali n Eq.
nn ( )- z n
(j , , j : 3 ' c 1 ) # ( I c q + k l k F 4 # t k + s f , k ) 0 ( k .+ F l q + k I ) 0 ( k . k s ) 1( 1 2 . 2 9 '
2 d3 k
l 1
wh e r e ,a sb e f o r e ,o , k= 1 e 2= h k z / z m. Th es e c o nd t e r mc a nb er e wr i t t e n
wi t ht hechangeofvar i a bl e sk'= . . k - q;t hi st r ans f br m at i on l ea dst o l ' l n
( q . n ) j J( 2 = ) j P ( I q + k l k , ' ) h k r k s
x * Vf 1 2. 3 0 ) ' O k- f ' O q b kf 'i l l- W 1 -f ' t l q + k- f ' Ok- i ' f l (
'
whe r et hes upe r quouspr i m ehasnow bee n om i t t e d. Byi ns pe ct i on, t hei nt e gr and i saneve nf unc t i on ofq n,and wec onc l udet hat
l 1 0 ( q . ( )' 0( q o 2 )
Thi ss ym m e t r y al l owsust os t udyonl ypos i t i v eqz . I ft hef r eque ncydi f l kr enc ei nt hede nom i nat or si sde not e d
t z a q kH f z a q s k- t z : k= g m Rk+ q ) - k 1= - ( q* k+ ' W)
1J .Li nd ha r d, Kg l .Da n s keVi d e n s ka b. Se l s ka b . Ma t . F ys .M e d d. , 2 8, no. 8( 1 9 5 4 ) .
( 1 2. 31 )
FEBM ISYSTEM S
159
t h e nt h es y mbo l i ci de n t i t y( 7 . 6 9 )i mme di a t e l yy i e l ds
2. 7 ( d3 kn. . , .n. , , 2t t uk
Re r I 0 ( q . : ) = y jt j x ) ; L 1 -V b R ' F -I k+q l l l U b K F -t l g j .4 0 q k l z
( 1 2. 3 2 )
whe r et hesr s ts t ep f unct i on ha sbe en r ewr i t t en wi t ht her el at i on
R e n e t q . t ? ( ) -,J ( a . ) a # ( k , . k , l ' 2 -q l j p a -l t qk +. pz ) x ( f s J i p , , l t q k + l . ) o + 1( 1 2 . 3 4 )
v= h q o y yF
( 1 2 . 3 5 )
R e H 0 ( q , v ) =h zp j ( : 2 = 3 k ) y y j k ) I l ,- v gcoso.j x ( v q k c o s e l v + q qz )
. .
zmk.,
Reun t q , v )- l mkF
,, y,
3 : o
f o u r mo me n t u m( q , f ? c )t oaf r e eFe r mig a s ;t h ep r o c e s smo v e sa p a r t i c l ef r om i n s i det heFe r mis e a( k<k F )t oo ut s i d e( ! k +ql >ks ) , whi l et h ede l t af un c t i o n
Wi t ht he s a me d i me n s i o n l e s sv a r i a b l e sa si n Eq.( 1 2 . 3 6 ) ,t h ei d e n t i t y
3 ( J x )= ! Ji 1 3 ( x ) ( 1 2. 3 8 ) c a nb eu s e dt or e wr i t et h eo n l yr e l e v a nt de l t af u n c t i o ni nEq. ( 1 2 . 3 7 )a s
3 ( o- Yqk)= h m k ;3 ( 1 z - q@ k- ' Wz )
and wet he r e f or e ne e dt oe val u at e
i t ? + I' k= -
L '
l . q> 2
j q2+q> ry . j q2-q
( 1 2 , 4 0 )
l fq > 2,t hen t he t wo Fe r m is phe r e si n Fi g.1 2. 6 do noti nt er s e ct ed , and we ne onl yt hear eaofi nt e r s ec t i onoft hepl aneand t heupp ers pher e. Thi sar eac l e ar l y vani s hesi ft heener gy t r ans f e rwi st oo l ar g e ort oo s m al l ,an dt hecondi t i on t hat
l +' ' % . k = qq
q+ k -- - - q
Fi g.1 2. 6 I n t e g r a t i on r e gi o n f or
F EgM ,SYSTEM S
1e1
t h e yi n t e r s e c ti sj us tt h es e c on dc on d i t i o ni n Eq .( 1 2 . 4 0 ) . Th ei nt e g r a t i o nc a n
beper f or med wi t ht hes ubs t i t ut i on t= c os0
kt '
a nd an e l e m ent ar yc al c ul at i on y i el ds
I mI 1 0 ( q, $ = - hz 4 1- q -- jq , a : ,
m kF l
v 1 2
( 1 2 . 41 )
u n de rt h er e s t r i c t i o nsont h ev a r i a b l e ss e ti n Eq .( 1 2 . 4 0 ) .I fvI i e sou t s i det h e r e g i on sde sn e di n Eq. ( 1 2 . 4 0 ) , t hei n t e g r a l i sz e r o . 2 . q< 2 q+ j q2> T z > q- l . 2 ( 1 2 . 4 2 ) I f < 2 , t h e nt hes p he r e sd e sn e db yt h ec o n di t i on sk< la n dI q+ kl> 1i nt e r s e c t ,
wi t ht het ypi calc onf i gur at i on s hown i n Fi g.1 2. 7. Thepl anew i l lnoti nt er s e ct
k
q+ k
'
i q+ ' q. k= v / q
1 !l- aq
t he uppers pher ei f t heener gy t r ans f e rv i st oo l ar g e,and I m H0vani s hesi nt hi s ca s e. As v de cr eas es ,t he i nt e r s e ct i on i s a ci r c l e unt i ly 'bec om e ss u ci ent l y
g 1 ( ' # ? j l q ) 2 j
os : vxq- ! . 2
( 1 2. 4 4)
l nt hi scas e.t he i nt er s e ct i ng pl ane pas s est hr ough t he f or bi dden Fe r mis phe r e att he bot t om ,and t he al l owe dr egi on ofi nt er s e ct i on bec omesan a nnul us ,as i ndi ca t e di n Fi g. l 2. 7. The ar e a of t hi s annul us c an be ev al uat ed wi t ht he ge om e t r i cr el at i ons i n Fi g.1 2. 8,whi ch s how t hatt he m i ni m um val ue ofk i s gi v en by
1 6 2
@#
.
kmm / # '
' !
q
m kF 1
hz 4 ( 1- ( 1- 2 $) =q
= -
r r l ks 1 h zj 2 : , ' n . q
I m H0 ( t h0 )= 0
( 1 2 . 4 6 / )
R e r I o ( , o ) m h k , F 2 . 1 c g 1 + q 1 ( 1 t q z l l n 1 j + b j ' q ! j
I ml R 0 ( 0 , v )= 0 2 mkF Re1 R 0 ( , v ); k ; z 2l z2 jya
..
( 1 2 . 4 6 : )
( 1 2 . 4 7 4 )
( 1 2 . 47 : )
. n
3 . Fi na l l y ,f i xt h er a t i o ofe n e r g yt r a ns f e rt o mo me n t u mt r a n s f e rv ( qH x,a n d
l e tt he m om e nt um t r ans f e rq appr oach ze r o:
I mI 1 0 ( , : . x ) =
R
mkF x 0
2i h
( 1 2 . 4 8 J )
( 1 2 . 4 8 : )
e r I 0 ( g , x ) = -y z j . p( 2 x l n ; j . x j )q + 0
mkF 1
r l+ xl
FERMI SYSYEM S
16:
-1
2- q
q t 1 q+ l 4p ' t l q
-
'
i 4 -q
q +q
>$ '
Thee x p r e s s i o n sf o rH0 ( , v )c a nn ow b eus e dt o 5n dt h ec o r r e s p o n di n g d i e l e c t r i cc on s t a ntK ' r ( . $ = 1- &o ( ) I 1 0 ( . $i nt h er i n ga p p r o x i ma t i o n. Th e z e r o or d e r po l a r i z a t i on ha sb e e ne x pr e s s e da s? ? 7 ks / zt i me s a di me n s i o n l e s s f un c t i o n;c on s e qu e nt l y ,t h e di me n s i o n l e s squ a n t i t yt %1 10h a st het y pi c a lv a l u e
1 ( j , r ( t ? . 0 ) -1 +n . q zq uz ) I n ( I 1 l + j ' q j
-
lar s 1-
( 1 2 . 4 9 )
2.Fi xv ,1 e tq . c , . ( ) :
$x%
( 1 2 . 5 0 )
G( ( A( B )= l+ n' n( t+ qL # ( l- , x ) q; l- jl ; 1 - xl
wber eq and par ebot h di m ens i onl e s sand xi sa numer i calc ons t ant t
( 1 2. 5 1 )
x> j g j
4 1
( 1 2 . 5 2 )
CORRELATI ON ENERGY
g a s . Al t h o ug hi ti sp os s i b l et oe v a l u a t ea l lt het e r ms i n Eq.( 1 2 . 2 6 ) ,s u c ha
ca kul a t i on woul dl ar ge l y dupl i cat et hatofSec.30. Hen ct we her e cons i der onl yEv , whi chcont ai nsapr opert r e at me ntoft hel ogar l m' 'er genc eappe ar tWef ol l ow t hi sh i s t or i c a lb utu nf o r t un a t eno t a t i on;xi sn ott hehh e s t r u c t u r ec o ns t a n 'i nt hi s
pr ob l e m.
:64
GROUNn-
= -
q' v a r i a bl e s p =n qo j i h k; a n d =z l ks . Ther i n ge n e r g yt he nb e c o me s - wi t ht he a i d of Eq s ( 3 ( 3 . 21 ) ,( 3 . 2 2 ) ,
.
2 9 ) , an d( 1 2 . 5 2 ) Er= Nel e r
whe r e
2 J c
( l 2 . 5 4 ) ( 1 2 . 5 5 )
. ( 1 2 . 5 5 ) . I na d di t i o n ,K r i sa ne v e nf u n c t i o no fy ' l i c h al i owsust os i mpl i f yt he , whi mi t so fi n t e g r a t i on( wen ow omi tt h epr i meo nqj : g . 2 d o ( , j q c dv t a nls . ' L1 V .- &a L %az / . 2 v ( ( g, p ) ( 1 2 . 5 6 ) : 0 0 r l ,v ) ,
Theene r gy e rmus tber e al hal lc ons i deronl yt her ea lpar tofEq , and we s
e g 1=
Thi ss e par at i on i s ol at e st he di v er genc e, whi ch oc cur sonl yi nt he f i r s tt e r m e f ort hi sr e as on, e r I ; r zi ssni t eand c an bee xpande di n powe r sofr Fur t her m or e ,. , i fqci schos ent obem u ch l es st han l hen<rmaybtappr oxi ma t e d byi t sl i mi t i ng ,t f o r m( Eq.( l 2 . 5 1 ) Ji nc v a l ua t i n ge , l ,t he r eby gi vi n g at r ac t abl ei nt e gr al . The
FERMISYSTEMS
166
i ma g i n a r ypa r to fx ,i spr op or t i o na lt o -F( ) 1 m1 1 0 ( : ,v ) ,wh i c hi sp os i t i v eo r z e r ot s e eE q.( 1 2 . 3 9 ) 2 . Thu st a n l ( < r 2 J K r 2 jv a r i e sf r o m 0t o =. l n par t i cul ar , t a nl ( x r c / x r j )= 0 i fK r z= 0 a n dK , ,> 0 ,wh i l et a n -' ( n2 / K r j ) == i fx y c= 0a nd n j< : :0. I nt her e gi on0 < q < qc < l ,t hea ppr oxi m at ee xpr es s i on i n Eq. ( 1 2 . 51 ) maybeus e d,and w' et i nd
3 - -
. -4 . 4 . ,
j q ( ) q 3 d q t j 0 ' d xt a n l ( q , . j l y x y t x ) ) j 2 (
+ j = l p . x v r o f q l A y ( x ) y ) ( 1 2
.
whe r e
H1 L+ l z
5 7 )
f( x) 2 '
and
> g j I j x 1 n ( 1 j .. x ,
! l+ xg
( 1 2 . 5 8 )
an d Kr 1= 0,r es pe ct i v el y. l fwe now expand e rs er i esi nt hec oupl i ng c ons t antA x el r asa powe l he ,t
l uc j; k:-6 . a z
l x :2 / ' ( x) x 7 T z sJ l q 3 d q0 d x. a -. S , -+... -A z 0 qq q
j; k ; -g
-
j y j . j ( ; d x x f ( x )
.
(l n L q n ' j c ) ( ' ( s x ( l ! . x I n j i + ) )
. ,
=p ( 1-l n2 ) l n O
( 1 260)
.
1ee
whi ch means
e c o r r =2 =2 4 1- l n2 ) l nr ,+ c on s t
r s*0
( l 2. 61 )
Thi sr es ul ti sor i gi nal l yduet o M ac ke . i Not et hatt hi sexpr e s s i on i snonanal yt i c i nr 'and ha sno powe rs er i esar oun dr ,= 0. The c ons t antt e r mi nt hecor r el a t i on ener gy r e qui r est he e va l uat i on of -a 1 1
i s j u s tt h es e c on do r d e re x c h a n g ee n e r g ys t u d i e di nPr ob .l . 4. Th e5n a l e x p r e s s i on can onl y be obt ai ne d numer i cal l y,and t he c or r el at i on ener gy be com e s
E --.
N s F r r =2 -j ( j- I n2 , ) l nr s-( 4 . +) 4+ of r s j nr , ) J0 =
2
e2 2
=j a ( 0 . 0 6 2 2l nr s- 0. 0 9 4+ Ot r , l nr s l ) n
( 1 2. 6 2 )
i np e r t u r b a t i ont h e or y( t ho s et e r mswi t hon el e s sp owe rofL %( t / ' ) )g i v e sac o r r e c t i ono rOt r s l nr , )t o Eq. ( 1 2 . 6 2 ) .
EFFECTI VE I NTERACTI ON
&r ( q . 0 )-q u j / +( x r . ) k k yg g j k s ) s
( l 2 . 6 3 )
was t hen der i ved by M .Gel l M ann and K.A.Br ueckner ,I oc.c i t . Seeal s o L.Onsager , L.
Mi t t a g aa n dM. J .S t ep h e n. An n. Ph y s i k,1 *: 7l( 1 9 6 6) . 2D.F.DuBoi s .An n.Ph y s .( N. F . ) ,7: 1 7 4,a p pe n di x C,( 1 9 5 9 ) . Du Boi s 'c a l c ul a t i on wa s r epeat e d and corr ect ed byW .J.Car r,Jr . .and A.A.M ar adudi n.Phv s .Re l ' . ,1 33: A37I( 1 9 6 4) ,
whohnd. i 8r sl nr ,ast henextcor r ect i on t oe c o r r .
FERM ISYSTEM S
167
wher e
l 1 z 1l . x . j x g ( x)- j- s ( l- 1 . *) l nI jj I
. .
( 1 2. 6 4 )
Thust heme di um c ompos e doft heel ec t r onsandt hepos i t i vebackgr ound modi fes
Cou l o mb ' sl a w. l ti sc l e a rf r o m Eq. ( 1 2 . 6 3 )t h a tt h i smo di fc a t i oni si mp o r t a n t on l yf o rwa v e l e n g t h s( q / kp j z< r , ;i nt h eh i g hd e n s i t yl i mi twh e r er s+ . 0 , wec an t h e r e f o r ea p pr ox i ma t eg ( Wks )b yg( 0 )= l , s ot ha t Ur ( q . 0 )r ; k ; c+ ( 4 . , . / . ) : . j a , oq ,
4=e2
( l 2 . 1)
q I r=
4ar s
T r
' /= s r s k;= 0 . 6 6 r , * / T r
4 4 1
( 1 2 . 6 7 )
1 6 a
4. 2. Us eEq. ( 1 1 . 7 0 ) t od e t e r mi n et h ef i r s t or de rs h i f t i nt h eg r o un d s t a t ee n e r g y
f owt he s ys t em cons i der ed i n Pr ob.4. 1. Compar et hi sc al c ul at i on wi t h a di r e ct appr oa ch. 4. 3. Us i ng 1 5'coul omb wa ve f unc t i ons as appr ox i mat e Ha r t r e eFoc k wav e f unc t i ons ,com put et he i oni z at i on ene r gi e sofat om i c He,and c om par e wi t ht he
Gx b i y s ( xj t 1 , x2 t 2 , xl ' t 1 ' , x 2 ' t 2 ' ) G3 ? ( x1 t 1 , x1 f k ' ) Gj t xc ? z , x a ' ? a ' )+ Gu ( xk t l , x z ' / 2 ' ) Gj y t x at : L , x, ' t ' , )
A ppr oxi mat et he i nt e r act i n g 2 par t i cl e G wi t ht he s am e e xpr e s s i on and ve r i f y t hatt he r es ul t i ng s el f c ons i s t e nta ppr oxi mat i on f ort he lpar t i cl eG r e pr odu c es t heH ar t r e e Fock appr oxi m at i on.
*. 5. Ho wa r et h e Ha r t r e e Fo c ke q u a t i o n sf o rs pi n p a r t i c l e smo d i h e df o r s pi n d e p e n de ntp o t e n t i a l so ft h ef o r mg i v e ni nEq . ( 9. 21 ) ? 4. 6. A un i f o r ms p i n l Fe r mig a si n t e r a c t son l yt h r o u g h arwa v eh a r d c o r e po t e nt i a lo fr a n g eas ot ha t3 1> . -( k J ) 3 / 3f o rk a*0 . ( J )S ho wf r o m Ga l i t s k i i ' se q ua t i o nt ha tt h ep r o p e rs e l f e n e r g yi sg i v e nt oo r d e r ( k z . X3by
, u* ( k )- h l 2 i ' 6' *3 3
,-
j , + ( u ) j
k2
FERM I SYSTEM S
1e9
( J )t h eg r ou nd s t a t ee n e r g ye x p a n s i o nf o ra h a r d c o r e po t e nt i a lo fr a n g ea
bec om es E=
9h l m k / ( 3 ' ! . y . L g j ) j 2 k 3 s = a . 4 . 3 5 4 = z ( j j z j n o ( k s u l j. j . g g t k s u l 3 j j
W am jj ( g + . ) )s nj
E - h2 k/ 3 ( ks u ) 3
( b )t h er e s u l ti nPr o b. 4. 6be c o me s
) 2 ) l / q ) s e 2 ( / c / q q 2 l n ( t J : f s + q ( j + g g F j
Sket c h t he r e s ul t i ng s i ngl epar t i c l e s pec t r um . D i s c us s t he ef l kct i v e m as s
j x
Re t ' . , 1 0 *: 5 0 7( 1 9 5 7 ) .
i I I
I
!
l
l
i
l 1 !
l
l
l t 1 I t l
The pr e c edi ng c hapt e rc onc e nt r at ed on t he e qui l i br i um pr oper t i e s of a Fe r mi s ys t e m atz er ot e m pe r at ur e, al ongwi t ht hes pe c t r um ofs i ngl e par t i cl ee xc i t at i ons f ol l owi ng t he addi t i on or r em ovalofonepar t i c l e. Thes ef e r mi on e xci t a t i ons c an be di r e ct l y obs e r ve dt hr ough s uc h pr oc e s s e sa s pos i t r on a nni hi l a t i on i n me t al s ,nucl ear r ea ct i ons ,e t c . I na ddi t i on,mos tphys i ca ls ys t e m s al s o ha ve l ongl i ve de xc i t e ds t at e st hatdo not c hang et he num ber of par t i c l e s . The s e
e x c i t at i o n s( p hon o n s , s p i n wa v e s , e t c . ) h a v ea b o s onc h a r a c t e ra n da r ef r e qu e nt l y
known asc ol l e ct i vem o de s. Theyc an bedet e c t e d wi t hexpe r i me nt a lpr obest ha t coupl e di r e c t l yt ot hepar t i c l ede ns i t y,s pi n dens i t y,orot he rpar t i c l e cons er vi ng oper at or s . Typi c al e xper i me nt ss c at t e re l e c t r om a gnet i c wave s or e l e c t r ons f r om m et al sa ndnuc l e i ,orneut r onsf r om cr ys t a l sand l i qui d He4 . Thes epr obe s a1 l i nt e r a ctwe akl ywi t ht hes ys t em ofi nt e r e s tand t her e f or ec anbet r eat edi nBor n appr oxi m at i on. To pr ovi de a ge ner a lbac kgr ound,we s hal lsr s t di s c us st he t he or y ofl i ne arr e s pons et o aweak e xt e r nalpe r t ur ba t i on.
171
1 72
I3LGENERAL THEORY O F LI NEAR RESPONSE TO AN EXTERNA L PERTURBATI ON Cons i de r an i nt er ac t i ng manypar t i c l es ys t e m wi t hat i me i ndepe ndenthami l t on i a nX. Th ee xa q t s t a t ev e c t o ri nt h eSc h r di n g e rpi c t u r e/ k 1 s ( J ) z ,s a t i s sest he Sc hr di ngere quat i on
( : . 1 , -( r ) )= t p f z ? r / n t l ,( 0 ) )
Suppos et hatt he s ys t e mi spe r t ur be d att= t sbyt ur ni ng on an addi t i onalt i me-
de p e n d e n t ha mi l t on i a n Xe x t f ) . Th en e w S c h r d i n g e rs t a t ev e c t o r, t l s t f ) ) s a t i s s e st hemo di he de qu a t i o n( ?> ? 0 )
and we s ha l ls e ek a s ol ut i on i nt he f or m
X( J )= 1
#g( ? ) v j j t l
( 1 3 . 6 )
173
f ' 1 p s ' ( 0 ) l ( 1 +, ' J ' d t 47 ( / 3 +. . 1 e i * t / ' o s l ' t s c i / r / . x ( l -i h 1 j ' f : d t ' Xj x t f ' ) +. . 1 l ' P s ( 0 ) ) ( k l ' s ' ( 0 ) I 0 , ( r ) I ' 1 ' , ( ) ) + ' r k l ' z ' , ( 0 ) I J ' l c d t ' x( z ? 7( ? ' ) , :s ( ? ) ! f ' l . ' s ( 0 ) )+ .. ( 1 3 . 9 )
8 r ( ? ) )- t t r l l e x- ( :( ? ) )
=
( 1 3 . 1 0 )
*b x l t j - J#3 xg s t x/ l t ye z t x/ )
( 1 3 . 1 1 )
whe r egs i st heex actpar t i cl e dens i t y ope r at ori nt he unp er t ur bed s y st em . The l i nearr e s pons em aybechar ac t er i z e d byt hec hang ei nt hedens i t y
b L ' h l x t l ? b =/ l J ! ' : # ? ' . f # 3 x ' t y e x t x ' t ' ) ( Y I %J y s ( x ' t ' ) , H s ( x / ) ) ) Y 1 P a ) =1 4 1 J t ' o # ? ' j i # 3 x ' E ' + * ' ( X ' J ' ) ( V ' 0 l ( H l f ( x ' t ' ) , H z f ( X ? ) 1 l Y % ' )( 1 3 . l 2 )
whe r ewe ha v en o wi n t r o du c e dt h ed e v i a t i onop e r a t o r sl q t j l xt j =? i n ( x J )- I t k t l x t j f ( c o mpa r e Eq.( 1 2 . 3 ) ) .( No t et h a tt h e c nu mb e r sa l wa y sc ommu t e . )I ft h e r e t a r ded dens i t ycor r el at i on f un ct i oni sde f i ne di n anal ogy wi t h Eq.( 1 2. 5) q ) : 1 ' * g ( ( ? 1( x ) , ? 1 z f ( x' ) 1 ( . 1 a , ,(
..
( 1 3 . 1 4 )
1 74
wher tt h tcaus a lbe hav i ori se nf or c e d byt he r et ar de d nat ur eofD R,and wthav e
( 1 3 . 1 5 ) ( t l 3 . l 6 ) ( 1 3 . 1 7 )
( l 3 . 1 8 )
whi ch s howst hatt hes ys t e mr e s pondsa tt hes a m ewaveve c t orand f r equ enc y as t he per t ur bat i on. Thi sr el at i on i ss om e t i me s us e dt o dehne a g ener al i z e d s us ce pt i bi l i t y
J wa l kr t z a lN
3( ? i ( k, t s ) ) oa t k r xk ( . , )= h ' ( . , ) e t (,
( j ? . j 9 )
Such r e l at i ons ar te s pe ci a l l y us ef ul i ns t udyi ng t r ans por t coe ci ent s , whi c h r epr es entc er t ai nl ongwave l engt h and l owf r e que ncy l i mi t soft h e ge ner al i z e d
s u s c e p t i bi l i t i e s( c o mp a r ePr ob . 9 . 7 ) .
The f or egoi ng anal ys i ss hows t hat t he l i ne ar r e s pons ei s mos ts i mpl y e xpr e s s e di nt er m sor et ar de d cor r e l at i on f unc t i onsofexa ctHe i s e nbe r g oper a t or s . Unf or t unat el y, s uch f unc t i ons c annot be c al cul at e d di r ec t l y wi t ht he Feynm anDy s on pe r t ur bat i on s er i e s be cat l s eW i c kst he or em appl i esonl yt oa t i m eor de r ed pr oduetofope r at or s . Cons equent l y.i ti sge ner al l yeonveni e ntt o de t i ne an as s oci at ed t i me or der e dc or r e l at i on f un ct i on oft he s ame oper a t or s ,
f o rt h ed e n s i t yc or r e l a t i o nf kn c t i on s( Pr ob .3 . 8 )
Rep( q , o 4 = ReDR ( q , f . t ) ) l m D( q , o 4s g nf . t l =I m. DR ( q , o a )
( 1 3 . 2 0 )
175
f unc t i on occ urat t he ex actex ci t at i on ener gi e s of t hos es t at e s oft h ei nt er a ct i ng as s em bl yt hatar ec oupl e dt ot he gr ound s t at et hr ou gh t l n e dens i t y oper at or .
IK SC REEN I NG I N A N ELECTRO N G A S A s our f i r s te xam pl e,w e c ons i de rt he r es pons e ofa dcge ner at ee l e ct r on gast oa s t at i ci m pur i t y wi t h pos i t i ve char g e Ze,w he r et he ex t e r nalpot e nt l ali s gi ven by
( r e f t xl )= Ze x1
and
( I 4 . l )
t J ' * X ( q, t z ? )- br r l ze q-23( ( z p )
N ot et hat we hav e he r el e tt v. . . +- c c. Thi s poi nt c har ge al t e r st he el e ct r on
di s t r i but i on i ni t s vi ci ni t y,and Eqs .(l 3. l 6)and ( l 3. l SJt og et herde t u r mi ne t ht t i nduc e d par t i cl ede ns i t yt o be ( f ore l e ct r ons .t he i 1t er ac t i on i s. e ( ;e x ) t i r ' ? i ( X ) ) ' = -4 2 =) 3j ' J3 t ? ' f q * XDR ( q. 0 ) 4 n . ze z l h q2 ) ' ' 1 Equat i on ( 1 2. 1 4)s howst hatt he t i meor der ed de ns i t l ' cor r el a t i on f unct i on D i $
e qualt oJ k I ' I swher e1 1i st het i me or der e d pol ar i zat i on par t . I f1 7Ri sdef i ned as t he c or r es pondi ng r et ar de d pol ar i z at i on. t he n Eq. ( l 4. 3) as s um es t he s i m p1 e f or m
3r ' . ? i ( x) , '= -( 27 r ) -3(J3 g ' I Q* Xf l R( q>0)4. c . 2 7 6 : 2 t j2 = . --( 2 7 , 7 . ) 3fJ3 t yv f q * x 1 1 R ( q , 0 ) Z( . ' t ) ( q ) = - ( 2 c' , ) 3 zf Jb q p i q * x g H* ( q, O) f . , . ' ( q. O ) j R = , -( . 2 : 7 . ) 3 Z( dJ t : / c f q ' i t l K . R ( q . 0) 1 ' t- 1 ) ( l 4. 4) wh e r et het hi r dl i n eh as be e no bt a i ne d wi t h Dl ' s o nse qu a t l on ( s e eEqs . ( 9 . 4 3 ) a n d ( 1 4 . 5 ) ) ,a n dt h ef ou r t h wi t ht h er e t a r de dv e r s i onofEq. ( l 2 . 1 ' ; ) . Th epr e N t ou s per t ur bat i on anal ys i s( Se c.l 2)al l owsust oc al c ul at et het i me or de r e df unc t i ons F la n d <,a n dt h eLe h ma n nr e pr e s e n t a t i o nt he nl ' i e l d sg c ompa r e Eq .( 1 3 . . 2 0) f o r o, . , . s/ j I I 1 ) 1 1 R ( q . c o ' ) >( Rec . 1 s g nu ? l m) l 1( q , ( o ) = Re 1 1( q. ( o)+ 1s gnt sl mF 1 ( q. t . z ? ) xR( ' q. a ? )= Rea ' ( q, ( z ? )z . l ' s gnu )l m vt qs ( , ? l Ac om bi nat i on ofEqs .( 1 4. 4)and ( l 4. 6)t hen pr oNi desan e xac lde s cr i pt i o1 )of
.
r e a lg Eq. ( 1 2 . 4 9 ) 1 , a n dt h er e t a r de df u n c t i o nb e c o me s
x r ' ( q , 0 ) -, o ( q . 0 ) -1 +4 a r , F c s z t = f ? 2 ) i g j j . j
1 76
He r et h ef un c t i ong( x )( Eq. ( 1 2 . 6 4 ) )i sg i v e nb y
l aj nI r ( x ) =1 j -j k ( 1 -' $ x ) 1 j - + j x t 1 ,
( . j 4 g )
: ( x ); k ; 1+ O( x 2 ) g ( x ); =! . +. t ( x- 2 ) l nR1 x- 2l )
I x- 21 <1
( 1 4 . 9 c ) ( 1 4 . 9 : )
g ( x)e jx 2
t hen r e duc est o
. x> 1
( 1 4. 9 c )
Eq ua t i o n( 1 4. 7 )ma yb es ub s t i t u t e di n t o Eq. ( 1 4. 4 ) ; t h ei n d u c e dc h a r g ed e n s i t y
3 t ) ( x ) ) r - -p 3 ( ? 1 ( x ) ) r
- -
Z e j ( a . ) 3 e( w k s ) 2 + y x r s = l g l q l k p
dT q i qx
4 a r s =1 gl q l k
( l 4 . 1 0 )
2.Th ei n t e g r a n d ofEq. ( 1 4. 1 0 )i sb ou n de df o ra l 11 t ?Ia ndv a n i s h e sl i k eq4a s q> . : ; o( c omp a r eEq.( 1 4. 9 c ) 1 . He n c et h ei n du c e dc h a r g ed e n s i t yi se v e r y wher efni t ei nc l udi ng t heo r i gi n be ca us e
1 ( 3 ? ( x ) ) )< 1 4 3 / ( 0 ) ) r !
-
Ze
J ( 2 0 , 3 ( f p k s ) 2 + 4 a r , , r 1 g t q / k s ) < *
4kF 1
v l s q
z ur s , r -l gt wl s l
( 1 4. 1 2 )
He r et hesr s ti ne qual i t yar i s e sf r om t heos c i l l at or ye xponent i alwhi c hr e duc es t hec har gede ns i t yf orx# 0. 3.Thes i ngul arqldepe nde ncef ors mal lqli scutof l at
mi n=
4ar s1
' r r
kr=
' n ' a t
6=ne2 +
E k
Mq r F
( 1 4 . 1 3 )
wave num be r .
wh e r eb p w s t x )i st ha to bt a i n e di nt h eTh o ma s l l kr mi a p p r o xl ma t i o n.
P= 5 -2 - -( . 3 v : 2 ) ' i n!
z A ?
2 h2
( 1 4. 1 6)
ne ut r a l ) .t hen t he c ondi t i on ofl oc alhydr os t at i cc qui l i br i um r e qui r est ha tt he f or c e son a s mal l( uni t )Nol umeel ementmus tbal anc e
7 whe r e& i st her e s ul t i ng e l e c t r i cf l e l d. Poi s s onse quat i on be com e s
whe r e( J -i st he e l e c t r os t a t i c pot ent i a l . W ec an now wr i t e N 'Fj= 0 = -V# - t a / ? t j
n-l l v= n
V? ?= V 3 z ?
2-k2 l --( 3 , ; r 2 ) i. . - vjp := r vv 32 p? n%
( l 4. 2 0)
z ? 7? ? f )
178
( V2-f ? 1 . , . ) 3 p ( x )- ze q l w3 ( x )
( 1 4 . 2 2 )
Vr s t x )= -Ze q I w( 4 = x4 t e q r r x
( 1 4 . 2 3 )
Th ea p pr o x i ma t er e s u l ti n Eq.( 1 4. 1 5 )i si n c o r r e c t ,h owe v e r ,b e c au s eg l x)
has a s i ngul ar i t y at x = 2, whe r ei t s sr s t der i vat i v e bec om es i nfni t e. The
t+ L /2 + y l l n; k. : . -I i m j I n. j u yj . n . + o. ( q+uj s ' n
--
2 / f s ;
-
f q- 2 / :
.. .
Si n c eg i sa ne v e nf u n c t i o no fi t sa r g u me n t ,t hei n t e g r a li n Eq.( 1 4 , 1 4 )c a n be
wr i t t en as
j . ' ; ( x ) . r . j . r . ( . l ; . x j . . q # t ? e k q x q , + q l t ? r g l q . / k v ' l -1
c o
( 1 4 . 2 4 )
Fhe i nt e gr and i s now an anal yt i cf unct i on ofq wi t ht he s i ngul ar i t ys t r uc t ur e s how' ni n Fi g.1 4. 1 ,and t hebr anc h cut soft hel ogar i t hmshavebe en c hos e ns o t hatt he l ogar i t hm i sr e ala l ong t he r ea laxi s . Thecont ourcan bedef or med as
i n d i c a t e d ,a n dt he p o l ea tq; 4 ; i q v yg i v e st h ee o n t r i bu t i o no fEq.( 1 4. 1 5 ) ,whi c h v an i s he se x po n e n t i a l l yf o rI a r g ex. I nc o nt r a s t , t h ec ut se x t e n d do wn t o( wi t h i n n)t her eal axi s . Thei nt e gr al sal ongt het wobr anchcut sde pendont hedi fer e nce
oft he f unc t i on a cr os st he cut 't . hi sdi P kr enc e ar i s e ss ol el yf r om t h e phas e oft he 1 ogar i t hm .and u' i t ht he br anch c ut sass hown w' e have
. .
'
l q-2 k ; . ) 2 . . r ) 2 2 l og( . . . 2 . . 2 . =j
t f y- 2 l s )? ;
o nCj
o nC2
) -=
l a F t i g o . n 1 o 4 f . 1 8 ( / C ( x o ) n r t . o u r f o r a s y m p t o t i c e v a l u -
179
whe r eu ' i ndi c at es t he val ue oft he phas e on t he r i ghts i de of t he cut m i nust he val ue of t he phas e on t he l ef t . Be caus e of t he dec r e as i ng exponent i al i nt he i nt egr and,a l lt he s l owl yv ar yi ng f unct i ons i nt he i nt e gr and can t hen b er epl ac e d by t he i rval uesatt he s t a r toft he br anc h cut . Thus we have
H 2 k j ; r z
..
q2
whi ch was f i r s t de r i : ed by Lange r and N' osko. 1 The e xpr e s s i on ( 1 4.2 64 7 i < qual i t a t i ve l y di f f er entf r om t hatpr e di ct e di nL q. ( l 4. 1 f)and eN hi bi t s1 ongr angc os ci l l at i onsN N . i t har adi alwave l c ngt h =,I k ' y and an e nN ' el ope pr opor t i onait o .v''. I ti s cl e ar t hat 3 .p ' k ( x),i s an i m pr oN ' em( ! 1 1 t oN ' t ? r f . l z . f( x) .s 1 ! 1 c ct 1 1 ef or r r l e 1 'i 1 1 cor por at es t he di s t r i but i on f t l nc t i on of t he i nt e r a ct i ng medi un) i 1 1c om pL l t i 1 1 g t her e s pons et ot heext e r nalt i el d. Fr om a phl ' s i calpoi ntofs ' i e u. t he l ongr al l ge os t ? i l l at i ons i nt he s c r c cl ) i I ) g char g ear i s ef r om t hes har pFer r r i iS ur f a ce . bec aus el ti sI l otpos s i bl et oc ons t r uc t as m oot hf unc t i o1 outo1 -t he r e s t r i ct e ds etot -$ 5a' k e ve t z t 0r sq ' -ky. T hi set l kc t was t i r s ts ugg es t e d by Fr i ede l j zand s u ch Fr i e ( l ( ' Ios c i l l at i ot l s ha ve bee n obs e r :e t l asa br oadeni ng ofnuc l e arm agne t i cr e s onanc el i nesi n di l ut e al l oys . 3 As i nl i l al ef l kc t al s o oc cur si 1 1di l ut e m agne t i c a1 l oj$, 't he conduct i on e l e c t r ons l nduc e: ) .i l wher e xi st he s e par at i on of t he i m pur i t i e s. 4 . Atl ou butf i ni t et e l npcr a t t l 1 ' e s . . li t he Fe r m is ur f ac ei ss me ar e d ove ra t hi ckne s s/ . ' sF i n ene r gy. and i tt ur ns ot l tt l l at
i n di r e c ti nt e r a c t i on be t we e n ma g n e t i ci n ' l p ur i t i e soft h ef o r m xl /c o s ( 7 1 . / . . v j , ) .
iJ,S.Langerand S. H .Vos ko,J.Ph vs .( / ? t ? ? ? ? .Sol i t 1 .12: 1 96(l 960) . 2J.Fr i edel ,Phi l .At f t z g. .43 : 1 5 3( l 9 5 2 ) :N ' l l o t ' oC' I ' ? > ' l ' ? ? / ( ? , 7: 2 8 7, St l p pl . 2( l 9 5 8) . 3N .Bl oem ber gen and T. J.Rowl a n d,Ac t uWt z ? . ,1; 7 31( 1 9 53 ) ;T.J .Rowl a nd. Ph b ' s .Ret ' . . 11 9: 900(I 960) ;% V.Kohnand S. H . Vos k o. #/ l p . .Re k ' . .1 1 9: 91 2( 1 9 6 0 ) : s c ea l s o .J . N . 1 .Zl n p a n. op.ci t . ,s e cs,5. 4 .qnd 5. 5. 4M .A.Rude rmanand C.Ki t t el l , Pl . b ' s . Re t ' . , 9 6: 9 9( 1 95 4) .
18 c
Eq.( 1 4 . 2 6 J ) mu s tb e mu l t i p l i e db yt h ef a c t o re x pt -z z r n ? / k s r x, / / j 2 : ' s ) . Th e
i m por t anc e ofa s har p Fer mis ur f ac ei sc onsr me d by t he behavi or i nas upe r -
ISZPLASM A OSCI LLATI ONS I N AN ELECTRON GAS l t hasal r e ady been poi nt ed outt hat1 1( q, c g)has pol esatt he ex ac te xc i t at i on e ner gy oft hos ecol l e c t i ve s t at esoft he i nt er ac t i ng s ys t em t hatar econne ct e dt o
t hegr ound s t at et hr ou ght hedens i t yoper at or . Rec al l i ng Eqs. ( 9. 435)and ( 9. 46) &( y .) -. -l.= j. j -g( ) t q l I I ( q ,( V s )
o
t q ) K l q , f t ) i
..
K r l q s t z ? l= 1- 1 X 7 . 7 . : , 2
v2
J ' j= 4= r s ( 3 =) 1
Re wr i t i n gt h i se x p r e s s i on i nd i me n s i on a lu ni t s( s e e Eq s . ( 3 . 2 0 )t o( 3 . 2 2 ) , ( 1 2. 3 5 ) , a n d( 1 2 . 5 2 ) )we hn dac ol l e c t i v ee x c i t a t i on a tt h ec l a s s i c a lp l a s ma f r e q u e n c y z
gi ven by
j )2 #j =
4=ne l
(I 5. 4)
W es hal li nv es t i g at et h es e pl as m a os ci l l at i ons i n m or e det ai lby c ons i de r i ng t he l i ne ar r es pons e of a dege ner at e el e c t r on gas t o an i m pul s i v e per t ur bat i on
I
e x t x f ) =p q x( ) ? a 3 ( : )
%* ' ( k, f . o )- +0 ( 2 7 r ) 3 3 ( q- k )
The c or r e s pondi ng i nduc e d dens i t y pe r t ur bat i on be c omes
3 ( l i ( xp ) )= -t > ( 2 =) 4j #3 / f d u l c i k * x e i l x ' t I 4R ( k( s l ( ? c e x t k, ( z ? l
2Thecl as si c alt heoryofpl as maos ci l l at i onsi sdi s cus s ed att heend oft hi ss ect i on.
'
181
whi c hs howst hatt hes i ngul ar i t i esof1 lRi nt h ec on ) pl ex ( . o pl aneal s o det er mi ne t he r e s onantf r e quenc i e s oft he s y s t em .
AI t hough Eq.(I 5 . 7)i sexa ct ,wes hal lcons i deronI yt he appr oxi m at i on or r e t ai ni ng t he r i ng di agr ams . I nt hi scas eK . R( v q. r . sli qgi v en by L ' qs .( l 2. 24)and
( 1 4. 6 )a s
K
wh e r eg c omp a r eEqs . ( 1 2 . 2 9 )a n d Eq s . ( I 4 . f ) j
1 10 R ( q, . r s). .Re1 10 ( q. u , )-. 1s gn( . z )I m 1I C ' t q( . r ? )
2 -c l 5 l ' ( 1-? ? C k 'q) ? ? 0 l l b (1-. n% k k -q k) q h ( 27 7 . ) 3( s. -c o l o k i 1 t ' f . o . f t l k r z p k k q
. . .
l ' b ' ;
. . ,
- -
1-k ' ( q) 1 1 0 R( q. f . . 1 -i yq ) q.
I n ge ne r al ,t hi s equ at i on c an be s ol l k ed on1 ) .u . i t h1 ) um er ! caI a: 1 a1 j s l s: i t -t he dampi ngi ss mai l( ' y qw ' ktj q ) .houev er . t hent her ealand i magi nar ) , ' par t ss epar at e, and w e l i nd
(i f. l1 )
z:
? R el l O R ( q. t ? . ? ) -i l ml 1O R ( qf . 1 t ). .. . ? J #
Equa t i on (l 5. 1 l )det e r mi ne st he di s per s l on r e l at i on ( 1 # oft he col l ec t i se mode, whi l e Eq.( l5. l 2)t hen yi e l ds an e xpl i c i tf or m ul af or t h e dam pi ng c ons t ant .
Thi s appr oxi m at es e par at i on of r e al and i m agi nar y par t sui l lbe how' nt o be val i d atl ong wa vel engt hs .and we now cons i de rt he e xpans i on ofl I 0 Rf orq -' . 0.
A1 t hough i ti spos s i b1 et o expand Eq.t l 2. 3 6)f ors m a1 l f / .& &e i ns t eadwor k di r e c t l y wi t h Eq.( l 5. 9) . As i m pl e change ofN ' ar i abl esi nt h ef i r s tt er m oft hi s
lln g ener al l&al s o hasacuti nt hecompl ex ( spl aneJ us tbel ow't her ealaxi s. wi ,f t h adi s cont i n ui t yp r op or t i on a lt oI m1 1R ( q. u ? )( s e e ,f ore x an l pl e g.1 2. 9) . As?'c c,how' ever ,t hi scut , Fi ma k e s a ne gl i g i b l ec on t r i b ut i on t o Eq.( l 5 , 7 ) ;h e n c et h ed on l i n an tl o ng t l n l eb e h av i orhr r e ar i s esf rom t hecol l ec t i vem ode,whl ch i sundam ped i nt hepr es entappr oxl nl at i on.
182
Re1 2 y2 o s( 1 q , t s )- sy t , -2 ,
.. .
#3 k
2 k. q
k. q2
( 1 5 . 1 4 ) ( l 5 . l 5 )
=y y y j j j y j
3' hk q l
( 1 5 . 1 6 )
j l q =+ : D p l l + j 9 j t t y q s j , j , 2 +. . .
wher e
j j
$ =ne 21
p j = . . ? . ? . 1 . . -
( j 5 . j g )
183
n f xt )= n o+ b n l x t )
( 1 5 . l 9 )
t he r e s ul t i ng unc om pens at ed c har gegi ve sr i s et o an e l e c t r i che l dJ*t hats at i s fes Poi s s on' se quat i on
V. d : ( x? )= -4 r r e ( x / )- n , ) =. Ane b n l xt ) ( l 5 . 2 0 ) Ne wt o n' ss e c on d1 a wd e t e r mi n e st h ef o r c e on t he e l e c t r on si n as ma l l( u ni t )
vol um e e l e m ent
m# d l n ? f l m g p t ? n / v ) + . ( y . v ) ( ? y ) j . e n i
pv mno . -e nn b
J + . V. ( r l Y ); 4 : t . t .- ? 7 o V. v. -0
8 3n
( 1 5 . 2 2 )
Bot h Eqs . ( 1 5 . 2 1 )a n d( 1 5 . 2 2 )ha v eb e e nI i n e a r i z e di nt h es ma l l q ua nt i t i e sb na n d v . Thet i mede r i v a t i v eo fEq. ( 1 5 . 2 2 )ma yb ec o mb i n e dwi t h Po i s s on ' se qu a t i o n a nd t hedi v er g enc e ofEq.( 1 5. 21 )t o yi e l d q . : : 2 0 2 3 n ( x ? )= -, V . n ? =n 0 7 f ) y & ' t x? ) =e V. d ' ( x? )= -4 n l x t )
. . . .
t2
or
82b nl x:)= tl
- --
-.
--
j ) 2 g y t x/ ) >'j
: 84
r el at i on ( . o= c o qf orq . > . 0 and i s known as z er os ound. l Neve r t hel es s,z e ro s ound i sphys i c al l y ve r y di f l kr entf r om or di nar y fr s ts ound,des pi t et he s i mi l ar di s per s i on r el at i on ( . o= cj q. The di s t i nct i on be t we en t he t wo dens i t y os c i l l at i ons depends on t he r ol e of col l i s i ons:or di nar ys ound c an pr opagat e onl yi f t he s ys t e m i si nl ocalt her m odynam i ce qui l i br i um ;t hi sc ondi t i on r e qui r es t ha t t hem eani nt er par t i cl ec ol l i s i ont i m e' rbes hor tcom par e dt ot heper i od ofos c i l l a -
( 1 6 . 1 )
He r e U' s l x t )i sa ne x t e r na l t i me d e p e nd e n tp o t e n t i a l t h a t c o u pl e st ot h ede n s i t y .
Thes ubs equentanal ys i si si de nt i ca lwi t ht hatofSec.13 ,and t hel i ne arr es pons e i sgi ven by
3 ( t ? i ( xr ) )= ( . 2 *4Jd3 kJ ( oe i k * xF t z : t HR ( k1 ( s l&e x ( k, f . t ) )
Fort he s pe ci alcas e ofan i m pul s i v e pe r t ur ba t i on
( 1 6 . 2 )
( 1 6 . 3 )
Ut x l xt )= &7 ) K e i q xb ( t )
as i m pl eca l cul at i onyi e l ds
r e t a r d e dg e n e r a l i z e ddi e l e c t r i cf u n c t i o n& R ( q , ( , ? ) . Th es i mp l e s ta p pr ox i ma t i o nt ov t q , ( s lc o ns i s t si nr e t a i n i n go n l yt h ez e r o or der pr oper pol ar i zat i on par tl 10;i nt hi s cas e.t he pol e oc cur sa tt he val ue f . q- i yqde t er mi ned by
l= P ' t q l l I 0 A ( q, f l q- l kq )
( 1 6 . 5 )
( 1 6 . 6 )
lL. D.La nd a u. Sov . Ph y s . 4ET P, 3: 9 2 0( 1 9 57 ) ; 5: 1 01( 1 95 7 ) . 1Thi s r e s u l t d e p e nd so nl yo nt he av a i l a bl eph a s es p a c ea ndwa s f i r s t not e db yl . I a . Po me r a nc h uk, Zh .Ek s p.T e o r . Fl ' z . , 2 0: 9l 9( 1 9 5 0 ) .
185
s ot hatt he r at i oL j ' q / ' qr en l ai nsf i xe d as . + 0. Ther el e vantl i mi tof1 10ha sal r e ady
i spos s i bl e onl yi f' : x. . 1> l . l nt hi scas e,t he l ongwav el engt h di sp er s i on r el at i on i sgi v en by l i m whe r e
q 0 t n k s j ; y ( ( y j = l . x 1 n j x . j 1 , 1 = * ( x )
: + 0 h k Fq # t s t , F
= 2:2
' x+ l
j o >1 x= l i m mL %= mc ?- and L ' si st he Fe r m ivel oci t y. W e s e et hatz e r os ound i spos s i bl e onl yi fc ' o> ' s.
atx = 1 .l fwe as s ume t hat U( t ? )appr oac he sa sni t econs t ant P , ( 0)a sq . +0, t hen t he s pee d ofze r os ound i sdet e r mi ne d by t he i nt er s e c t i on of*( . v)w i t ht he hor i zont a ll i ne r r 2 2 / p? / t . sP ( 0) ,l ti sc l e ar t ha tt her ei s no i nt er s e c t i on unl es s U( 0 )7 w0,w ' hi c hi mp l i e sa r e p u l s i v ep ot e nt i a lb e c a us eU ' ( 0) = ft / 3 xI z ' ( x) .I n
t hi sca s e,t he e xpl i ci ts ol ut i on i sr eadi l yf ound i nt he we ak- and s t r on gcoupl i ng l i mi t s: We ak coupl i ng:
2=2hl
P ' ( 0 ). , tmV. .
hl
( 1 6. l 0 )
186
c o; k;rs
; 4 J ( nP ' ( 0 ) r n -1 ) 1
c a nn o tb e j u s t i h e dont heb a s i so fp e r t ur b a t i ont he o r yf or as ho r t r a n g epo t e n t i a l . l ns t e ad,weexpe ctt ha tt hel ogar i t hmi cs i ngul ar i t y of*( x)f orx , . > lwoul d al s o
oc curi n mor er e al i s t i ca ppr oxi m at i ons, 'ani nl pr ov edc al cul at i onwoul dt he r e f br e
r e nor mal i z et he numer i c alva l u e ofco / t ' y butnotal t ert he qual i t at i ve phys i c al
phe nom e non i nt he we akc oupl i ng l i mi t . Thi s as s um pt i on i s bor ne out by ' Pr ob. 5. 8. w he r eas e l e ct e dc l as sofhi gher or de rpol ar i zat i on i ns e r t i ol l si si nc l ude d.
l ti si n t e r e s t i n gt or e wr i t e Eq. ( l 6 . l l )a s ( I 6 . l 2 )
Xxt )= P o+ 5 P ( X . ! )
( 1 6 . 1 3 )
Ther e s t or i ng f or cear i s esf r om t hepr es s ur egr adi e nt ,and N e wt on' ss e cond l aw be com e s
dt
( 1 6 . l 4 )
' t t
v. ( p v )x . p o v. v
wh e r eb ot h Eqs . ( 1 6. 1 4 )a n d( 1 6. 1 5 )h a v eb e e nl i n e a r i z e di nt h es ma l l qu a n t i t i e s .
187
( 1 6 . 1 6 )
v , p v 2 z ' ( p , , s ) ? ( P j # p j s 3 p . . . ; z' P # p ) s r c a p
Henc e3p obe ysawavee quat i on 82 p, a
( 1 6 . 1 7 )
3 t l, . .( y yv2 j p .
OP
pm s
c t= P
and t he s ubs cr i ptm now e xpl i ci t l y de not e st he m as sdens i t y. H e r et he r e s t r i c t i on t o cons t a nte nt r opy m e ans t ha tt he pr oc e s si s adi abat i c and t hatno he ati s t r ans f kr r e d whi l et hecom pr es s i onalwave pr opa gat es t hr ough t he s ys t e m .For
C j =j (P Pj 1 h k s u v
o p y j j = sj y j =x . z j Z
( 1 6 . 21 )
i nd i c a t et h a t z( c ( ) -t j l y c l ; z0. 0 3 ,i ng o o da g r e e me n t wi t ht he t he o r e t i c a le s t i m at e s . Landau' st heor y al s o al l owsa det ai l e ds t udy oft he at t enuat i on ofze r o s ound and f i r s ts ound, 'e xper i m ent sf ul l yconsr mt hes e pr edi c t i ons .
lL. D .La nd a u,I oc .c i t . ;A.A. Abr i ko s o va nd 1 .M .Kha l a t ni k ov .Re p.Pr o p. Ph y s . , 2 2: 3 2 9
Ab e l , A. C. An de r s on , a nd J . C. Wh e a t l e y. Phv s . #e l . . Le t t e r s .1 7: 7 4( 1 9 6 6 ) .
18 8
I7JI NELASTI C ELECTRO N SCAU ERI NGI W e ne xtcons i de ri nel as t i ce l ec t r on s ca t t e r i ng f r om s ys t e mss uc h asnuc l e iand m et al s . For s i m pl i ci t y we r e t ai n onl yt he c oul om b i nt e r a ct i on be t we en t he el e c t r onsand t hechar ged par t i c l esi nt he t ar ge t
#e x= - p2
q> t k- k' )
t he( po s i t i v e )e n e r g yl o s s h f . oE B( V- k' ) h c> 0
( 1 7 . 3 )
( 1 7 . 4 )
m aybevar i e di ndepe ndent l y, t heonl yr e s t r i c t i on bei ngt ha tt hef our m om e nt um t r ans f erbe pos i t i v e
f e f q x 1 ) ( x ) ds xds x, = = 4 j x x' ( . q ) 1 qz
,
-
( 1 7 . 6 )
/ ( -t 0K fP C Q * X ) ( x ) #3 x
1Foradet ai l ed accountofel e ct r on s cat t er i ngf r om nucl e i .s eeT.deFor es tand J. D .W al e cka, El e c t r on S c at t e r i nga nd Nu c l e arSt r u c t u r e , i nAd v a n . Ph ys . '1 5: 1( 1 96 6) .
189
t he e l e c t r on s c at t er i ng cr os ss e ct i on f or an unpol ar i z e dt ar g etm ay be wr i t t en as #2
a =j j/,
s
20 -1 q
s'
f 2 )c 1 ? k'
( q ? 1( j 2 )I u 1 ' ( k ' ) ? . , ( k ) 2 t j j )
4 . n .2 c , 22
/c . -l
c) , c )4 k z s l I : t t ? ( , c )q -c e s z ( ? ), (
' . -
g . 2 24) . ' 2
( p : 2 oos 2( ( ' ( 2 )
.
Q ., . , ,, --
t ' 7. ' C ) )
s i de of Eq.
( 1 7 . 9 )a s
x
V 1 , , ? ( -q) V 1 . ( )2 bg / k f . z p- ( En- 1 ( ) ) j
(l 7. 1 2 t z )
I m .N. xV 1o I ;( -q ) I H ' n . n; q :y = n ( s o. ( u -y j .j l y . ' t j * g;' F ( -q ! ' t j @ ' x t ' j * jl . j a = j)m . ) n ) n ? -q . o 1 . ' . . . .( . . n . N r . o- ( En- Eo ) -1 1 )
= - . ,- .
( En -z ; 0 ) : r s1 3 ) ,
1 90
O . M#f 1 z ,d ,=
-
- -
r r I mr l t q , q; ( s l
( l 7 . 1 3 J )
l #2 c = cM dL 1' t &'
- -
1 ml 1 R ( q , q; ( s l =I
( 1 7 . 1 3 : )
wher ewehavede sne dag ener alpol ar i z at i on pr opagat orf ort het ar g et z
I 1 ( . x , > ' )- ( : ' l ' o h rE ?, / ( x ) ? ' s ( . p ) 1 1 % ' o ) ( 1 7 . 1 *) mI 1 ( d% #3 t ? . d t . ve . x' y) - ( 1 q x e f o a f l x f y ) c i q . y f r l t q q ' ; o . ) ) , , ) 3 ( 2 *3 ' . j z r' ' ( 1 7 . 1 4 : ) a p p r o pr i a t et ob o t hu n i f or ma n d no nu n i f o r ms y s t e ms( e . g . ,hn i t enu c l e i ) ,a n d
cor r es pondi ng r e t a r de df unc t i on
f I 1 R ( x, > ' )- b l t x- / J( ' l ' o 1 ( # , z ( x) . J , , ( > ' ) ! ! k F( ) ) ( 1 7 . 1 5 ) Eq ua t i on( 1 7. 1 3 J )i si mme di a t e l yv e r i s e db yi n v e r t i n gt h eFo u r i e rt r a n s f or mi n ( 1 7 . 1 4 : ) an dt h e ns e t t i n gq= q' , whi c hg i v e s
un i f o r ms y s t e m
= -
( 1 7 . 1 7 )
F T r
I mH ( q , o
'W . Cz y a n d K. Got t f r i e d, An n. Ph ys .( N. F. ) ,2 1: 4 7( 1 9 63 ) .
191
No t et ha ti ti st h ec r o s ss e c t i o n N ru n i tv o l u me( o rN rt a r g e tp a r t i c l e )t h a ti s
t hemeani ngf ulquant i t yf oran e xt e nde ds ys t e m. I nel as t i cel ec t r on s ca t t e r i ng t her e f or e mea s ur e st he i ma gi nar y partoft he
pol ar i zat i on pr opagat ordi r ec t l y;c ompl et e knowl e dg e oft he i ma gi nar y par ti s
s uci ent ,howe ve r ,bec aus et he f unct i on i t s e l ff ol l ows i m medi at e l yf r om Eq.
( 1 7 . 1 8 )
l ' x , 1 1 l RR ( q . q; )= m HR ( q , q; t z ) ' ) h , , ' ) t s+ j , #( . n . cI - h - i . t t+ f , a +x
l ti sp os s i b l et oc on s t r u c ts um r u l e sd i r e c t l yf r o m Eq s .( 1 7 . 9 )a n d( 1 7 . 1 3 ) .
f orweobs er vet hat
J c h d f x ' l t w l k o # 2 ; c w , ) . h, * I m I 1 ( q , q ; ) A
-' t ' l %I J # ( q ) # ( ' *l Tn ) =( : 1' 0 1 / 1 ( -: ) Xq ) 1 ' 1 %)- l ( T: l ) ( YI ' I %)I 2( 1 7 . 1 9 )
I tf ol l owst hatt het ot ali nt e gr at ed i ne l as t i ccr os ss e c t i on di r e c t l y de t er mi nest he means quar ede ns i t yquc t ua t i onsi nt hegr ound s t at e. W r i t i ngoutt heope r a t or s
( 9%l ? 1 ( q ) ? ( -q ) l ' l %)
-
Jd' x#1 ( x) #a t x l- Z
Thus we c an wr i t e
-
( 1 7. 2 2 )
=
-
h *
o
( 1 7 . 2 3 /)
1 92
I nt h es p e c i a lc a s eo fa un i f o r m me di u m,wh e r eg ( x , y )= g ( I x- yl ) ,we h a v e
-
P' c o
' / F o
d u l I ml 1 ( q, )=Z + F fe i q ' x g l z j dz
un i f or ms y s t e m
# 0 4 p x y j ) = V J g 5 1 ' k 6 2 F S j x 1 X y Y j . J 1 1 2
X X
- -
b ( h. , -( E n-Ef j ) ) --
--
X
X
( J )I I 0 ( t ? . t o )
m -T r
h x '
0
I mI 1 ( q. q; u ) ) # ( s =Z
( l 7 . 2 6 )
l nt h i sl i mi tt h es c a t t e r i n gp a r t i c l es e e s j u a tt heZ i n di v i du a l c h a r g e s . ' No t et ha t
t hi sl i mi t pr ov i dest heonl yr ea l l y meani ng f ulex pr es s i on be caus e oft he r e s t r i c t i on
z =P : ) F o= j ;
( 1 7 . 2 7 )
193
t z s y d e #f )
= - -
) '
. n '
3 2
I ml 7( q, ( z ) )= 4. 1 42
3=Z
/ c )
I m H( q, ( s ) ( 1 7 . 2 8 )
x8 -
I mr I 0 ( q, ( , , )
f r ma x= l * m
32a2
( 1 7 . 2 9 )
( s e eEq. ( 1 2 . 41 ) ) . Equ a t i on ( 1 7 . 2 9 )i ss i mp l yt h ek i n e ma t i c a lr e l a t i on b e t we e n
t heener gy and m om ent um t r ans f er r e dt oas i ngl et ar g etpar t i c l ei ni t i a l l yatr e s t . The s pr e ad of t he quas i el as t i c pe ak i s due t ot he Fe r m i m ot i on of t he t ar get nucl e onsand t he hal f wi dt hi sa di r e ctm e as ur eoft he Fe r m im om ent um . Fi gur e 1 7. 2s hows a c om par i s on oft he t he or y wi t he l e ct r on s cat t e r i ng da t ai n Ca * 0 . Asa s e cond ex am pl e,c ons i dert he pol ar i z at i on pr opagat orc omput ed by s um m i ng t he r i ng di a gr am s a si n Fi g. 1 7. 1 :. I n us i ng t he i m agi nar y par tof
I I r ( q , ( , J ) ,wei n c l u det h e pr op a g a t i on o ft h ep a r t i c l e h ol ep a i rt hr ou g ht h ei n t e r ac t i ng as s em bl y
1I
k i n e ma t i c a lr e g i on swhe r eI mI 7 0 ( q , ( s )# 0 bu tr e di s t r i b u t e st h es t r e n g t h wi t hi n
t he pe ak. I n addi t i on t ot he quas i el as t i c peak,t he r e ar e al s o pe aksatt he di s c r e t e col l e ct i ve e xc i t at i onsoft he s ys t e m . For an i s ol at ed r es onantpe ak ate ner gy ht o= f a a r e s ,t hei nt egr at ed s t r engt h gi vest he a bs ol ut eval ue oft he i ne l as t i cf or m f ac t or
( 1 7 . 31 )
wher e
1GROUNDST ATE ( ZE ROTE MPE RATURE )F ORMALI SM Atsx ed e ner g yl os so a r e s .t hei nel as t i cf or mf a ct orc an now bem ea s ur e df ora 1 l
Fi g.17. 2 Qu a s i e l as t i cp e a ki n Ca 4 0 .I P.
Zi mme rman, St anf or d Uni ver s i t y Ph. D.
% o1 . 0
* 0 . 8 E Q t : 0.6
. -
8=O O
z- l NI Z Nz #' NN / z
Th e s i s ,1 9 6 9( unp ub l i s h e dl . ) Thet he or e t i c a l
cur ves ar e cal cul at ed f r om a noni nt e rg ct i ng Fer mi gas m odel usi ng t he expe ri me nt al r el at i vi st i c el ct r omagnet i ci nt er act i on wi t h
Y F g, / q0 .4 z / ' u / Q . 2 z w0 y
0
h II h y yI
wa v e n umb e r wa st a k e na s kF= 2 3 5 Me V/
3 *
hc= 1. 1 9 x1 01 3 cm-l . The s ol i d cur ve i n t he l ower ri ght i sa t he or et i cales t i mat e of pi onpr oduct i on.
p j . r
2 *
El e c t r o ne n e r g yl o s sAt a ? ( Me V)
( s e eEqs . ( 1 5 . 8 ) , ( 1 5 . 1 0 ) t o( 1 5 . 1 2 ) , a n d( 1 7 . 1 7 ) )
( 1 7 . 3 2 )
wher eZ i st he num be r ofconduc t i on e l e c t r ons . The c r os ss e c t i on i ss ha r pl y
ma k e da t a ne n e r g yl o s s h f h, wi t hawi dt hh y s . Su c he f l k c t sh a v eb e e no b s e r v e d
i nt he t r ans mi s s i on of e l e c t r ons t hr ough t hl n me t al l i cf i l ms . 3 A ver ys i mi l ar t r eat me ntde s c r i % si nel a s t i cneut r on s c at t er i ng,ass howni n Pr ob.5. 1 3.
PRO BLEM S 6. 1. Cons i de r a uni f or m noni nt e r ac t i ng s ys t em ofs pi n. f e r mi ons . Re duc e t her e t ar ded de ns i t ycor r e l at i on f unc t i on
: t r e n g t ha J Td t t t , p -t ' I v ) I +y D' Q $ =i nE q . ( 1 7 . 3 2 ) i s i n d e p e n d q n t o f t h ed a mp i n g .
Qua n t um Li qui ds , ' 'v ol . 1 , s e c . 4. 4 , W. A. Be n j a mi n, I nc . , Ne w Yor k.1 9 6 6.
196
3 ( ) ( x ) ) ze 2 f k/ c o s2 ksx s i n2 k sx 2 r- .( 4+ . oz x
( ( k s x ) 2-t k s x ) 3 4 + f
x( fl n4 ksx- 3+ ( ( y-j ) )
wher ey = 0. 577 .' . i sEul e r ' sc ons t antand t her e m ai ni ngcont r i but i onsvani s h
f a s t e rt ha nx *a sx + . . 1
5. 3. De r i vet heThomas Fer mie quat i onsf ort hepot e nt i aland e l e c t r on c har ge di s t r i but i on i n aneut r alat om ofa t om i cnum berZ i nt hef ol l owi ngway:
( J ) Us et h ehy dr o d y n a mi ce qu a t i o no fs t a t i ce qu i l i b r i u m( Eq. ( 1 4. 1 7 ) )an dt h e bo un d a r yc on d i t i o na tr. > . ( x ) t os h ow t h a tp( r )= ( l / e ) ( 2 / 2 ? n ) ( 3 >2 n ( r ) ) 1wh e r e @( r )i st h ee l e c t r o s t a t i cpo t e n t i a l . ( ) Fr o m Po i s s on ' se q u a t i on a n dt h e ph y s i c so ft hepr ob l e ms h ow t h a tw ( r ) s a t i s s e sV2 +=K +*wi t ht hebo un d a r yc o nd i t i o n s: 4 0 ); >Ze / ra n dr @t r l. . > . 0a s
5. 4. Ve r i f yt h ed i s p e r s i on r e l a t i on f o r pl a s ma o s c i l l a t i o ns ( Eq s .( 1 5 . 1 6 )t o ( 1 5 . 1 8 ) ) di r e c t l yf r o m Eq. ( 1 2 . 3 6 ) .
5. 5. Show t hatt hepl a s ma os ci l l a t i on i sdam p ed above a c r i t i c alwaveve ct or k ' ma s de t er mi ned by t he e quat i on .p 2= ( = r s ( =) ( ( 2+ y l l n( 1+ 2 y1 ) -2 ) .whe r e
g i v e nb y( c o mp a r e Eq-( 1 6 . 8 ) )*( x) = =l 4 kF a wh e r e x= h/ v r . Wh a ti st h e
r es ul t i ng ve l oci t y ofz er os ound?
!: 6
f o r m( 9 . 21 ) . ( c ) Con s i d e ra p e r t u r b a t i on X e x t / ). -(J3 v t x/ l . l J e x l x; ) ,a n dp r o v et h att h e s ame s ys t em c an s uppor ts pi n wav es ,des cr i be d by Eq.( 1 6. 5 )wi t hP ' ( )r e pl ac e d b yP ' 1 ( t ? ) .
.
' '
.
5. 8. ( a) For a u n i f or m s p i n . s Fe r mi s y s t e m wi t ha s h or t r a n g ep o t e n t i a l P ' ( t ? ); k ;P ' ( 0)( =c ons t ) , s how t hata1 1pr operpol ar i z at i oni ns e r t i onswi t hr epe at e d
hor i zont al i nt e r ac t i on l l ne s ac r os st he f kr mi on l oop can be s um med t o gi v e
197
I ft hi s pot ent i ali st r ea t e di n Bor n appr oxi m at i on.i t gi vest he exa ctl owener gy J wav enucl e ars c at t e r i ngoft heneut r onf r om oneoft het ar g etpar t i cl es . l nt hi s
e x pr e s s i onr n r e u a n da l ; k : 1 0 1 3 c m) a r et h ea pp r o pr i a t er e du c e dma s s a n ds c a t t e r i n g I e n g t h . S h ow t h a tt hi sr e s u l tf o l l o wsi mme d i a t e l yf r o m Eq s . ( 1 l . 5 ) , ( 1 l . 9 ) , a n d ( 1 l . 2 2 ) . ( > )He n c es h ow t h a t t h ei nt e r a c t i o no ft h en e u t r o nwi t ht h ema n y b o dya s s e mb l y i sW * X= ( 4= w 2 / 2 / ? ? r e a ) H ( x n ) . Th i s ha mi l t on i anmu s tb et r e a t e di nBor na p p r o x i mat i on.
6 Bose System s
I nSe c.5wes aw t hedr as t i cef l kc tofs t at i s t i cson t hel owt em per at ur e pr oper t i es ofan i de algas . Fe r mi ons obey t he ex cl us i on pr i nc i pl e,and t he gr ound s t at e cons i s t s ofa 5l l e d Fe r m is e a. I n cont r as t ,t he gr ound s t at e ofan i de alBos e s y s t em ha sa l lt he par t i cl esi nt he one s i ng l e par t i cl e m ode wi t hl owes tene r gy. Si nc et he i de algasf or ms t he bas i sf orcal cul at i ng t hepr oper t i esofi nt er ac t i ng m anypar t i cl e as s em bl i es ,i ti s nat ur alt ha tt he per t ur bat i on t heor yf or bos ons has a ver y di f l kr e nt s t r uc t ur ef r om t ha t pr ev i ous l y di s cus s e df or f er mi ons . I nde ed,t he m ac r os copi c occ upat i on ofone s i ngl e m ode pos e sa f undam ent al di cul t y,and i ti ses s ent i a lt or ef or m ul at et hepr obl e mi n or dert o obt ai na we l l de sne dt he or y.
198
BOSE SYSTEMS
199
IK FORM ULATI O N O F THE PRO BLEM n eus ua lf or m ofm rt ur bat i ont he or yc annotl x appl i edt o bos onsf ort hef ol l owi ngr ea son. Thenoni nt e r ac t i nggr ound s t at eofN bos onsi sgi ven by
1 *21) )= I #, 0 , 0 ,.
( 1 8 . 1 )
whe r ea1 lt hepar t i cl esar ei nt hel owes tene r gy mode. Fordefni t ene s s ,wehe r e c ons i de ral ar geboxofvol ume F wi t hmr i odi cboundar yc ondi t i ons ,whe r et hi s pr e f er r e ds t a t ehasz e r o mome nt um,buts i mi l armac r os copi cocc upa t i on oc cur s
i no t h e r s i t u a t i o n s ( s e eCh a p . 1 4 ) .I f t h ec r e a t i o na n dd e s t r u c t i o no mr a t o r s 4 1
a n dt uf o rt h ez e r o mo me n t u m mo dea r ea p pl i e dt ot h egr ou n ds t a t e , Eq. ( 1 . 2 8 )
i m pl i e st hat
el t h( A) )- N*t +q ( N-1 ) )
( 1 8 . 2 )
c 1 l *n ( #) )-( N+ 1 ) 1 1 *( / 1+ 1 ) ) Th u sn e i t h e ra o n o rJ Ja n n i h i l a t e s t h eg r o u n ds t a t e , a n dt h eu s u a l s e p a r a t i o no f
op e r a t o r si n t oc r e a t i o na nd d e s t r u c t i o n pa r t s( Se c .8 )f a i l sc o mp l e t e l y . Co n s e que nt l y,i ti s notpos s i bl et o de ne nor ma l or de r e d pr oduct s wi t hv ani s hi ng gr ounds t at ee xpec t at i on v al ue,and t heappl i c at i onofW i ck' st heor e m Gc omes m uc h m or ecom pl i c at e d.
1 0 - F1 a z I J = F1 ' c 1
wi t ht hef ol l owi ngpr ope rt i e s
( 1 8 . 3 )
( 1 8 . 4 )
( 1 g . 5 )
dQ , 1 1 1 = F1
l : l * c ( x ) ) ( v # ) * I * n ( x l ) ) l # t h I * o ( x ) ) ( X + p ' 1 ) * l * : ( x + 1 ) )
Al t h o u g h1 :a n dl oe % a c h mu l t i p l y1 *n )b ya s n i t ef a c t o r ,t h e i rc o mmu t a t o r
v a n i s he si nt het he r mo d y na mi cl i mi t( N> . *,F -> . *,Nl V> . c on s t ) . He n c e
:N. N. Bog o l i ub ov , J . Ph y s . ( &SSA) .1 1: 2 3( 1 9 4 7) .> a l s oP.A.M . Di r a c ,t e n ePl i nc i p l ofQua n t um Me c ha ni c ' '2 4e d. . = . 6 3 , Ox f o r dUn i v e r s i t yPr e s s , Ox f or d,1 9 3 5.
2x
c ons i der onl ys t at eswher e a fni t ef r ac t i on oft he par t i cl es oc c upi e st he k = 0 m ode. Thi sappr oxi m at epr oc e dur ec l e ar l y ne gl e c t siu ct ua t i onsi nt heocc upa t i on num be roft hecondens at e. Thepr e c edi ng di s cus s i on hasi mpl i c i t l yas s ume d a pe r f e ctBos egas ,whe r e a l 1t he pa r t i c l e s ar ei nt he z e r om om e nt um s t a t e. l n an i nt e r ac t i ng s ys t em , howe ver , t hei nt e r par t i cl epot ent i al ene r g yr e duc %t heoc cupat i onof t hepr ef er r ed m ode,s ot ha tt hegr ounds t at ee xpe ct at i on val ue
me n to f l ( ) a n da ? : t b ycn u mb e r sc o r r e c t l yd e s c r i b e s , t h ei n t e r a c t i n gg r o u n ds t a t e
i nt he t her m odyna mi cl i mi t whene ve rt he num ber of par t i c l e si nt he z er omoment um s t at er ema i nsafni t ef r a ct i on ofN . W ear et he r e f or el e dt o wr i t e t hebos on f i el d ope r at oras
,
( 1 8 . 7 )
whe r et h epr i meme a nst oomi tt h et e r m k= 0. Th eop e r a t o r/( x )h a sn oz e r omo me nt u mc ompon e n t s , a nd( 0i sac o ns t a ntcn u mb e r . Th es e p a r a t i ono f ' ;i l n t ot wopa r t smo d i f i e s t h eha mi l t o ni a ni naf u nd a me nt a l
w ay. Cons i dert hepot ent i ale ne r g y
( 1 8 . 8 )
( 1 8 , 9 )
( l 8. 1 0 )
f ' 2= l . n OJJ3 xJ3 ' v ' ( / A ( x) ( / f t x' )1 . z ' ( . x-x' ) Pa= 2 ( r l f ) )j#3 xJ3 x ' ( / i ( x' )P ' t x- x' ) /( x )
f ' j= 2 ( n j )jJ3 xJ3 x' Q f l x) t / . 1 ( x' )P t x- x' ) f / t x) 3 5 6= 2 ( 1 . n j )Jdb xdb x ' t / A ( x )P ' t x- x' )( / ( x' )# ( x ) f 7= ! . f#3 x#3 x' $# ( x ) ( / ' 1 ( x' )Ut x- x' )Y ( x' ) t / . ( x ) .
.
( 1 8 . 1 4 ) ( 1 8 . 1 5 ) ( 1 8 . 1 6 )
BosE SYSTEMS
201
( 1 8 . 1 7 )
( 1 8 . 1 8 )
No =N. S i n c et h eB o g o l i u b o vp r e s c r i p t i o ne l i mi n a t e st h eo p e r a t o r sa oa n dJ 1
P j
z
z'
#
N
, e
x '
Y' N
y' N
&
: 5
: 6 -
I 0 )H 1 *0 )- I A ' , 0, 0 ,
( 1 8 . 9 ) ( 01 X) 0 )= En= ! . P ' -i NlF( 0 )
( 1 8. l 9 )
( 1 8 . 2 0 )
Th e us eo f Eq.( 1 8 . 7 )r e mo v e st h e pr o b l e m a s s o e i a t e d wi t ht he z e r o m om ent um s t at e, butt hef ol l owi ngdi cul t ys t i l lr e m ai ns . Cons i de rt hcnum be r oper at or
( 1 8 . 2 1 )
( T + Eo. + Pl + ...+ P7 , XJ #0
( 1 8 . 2 2 )
z :2
s i nc et he va r i ous i nt e r ac t i on t er ms al t e rt he number of par t i c l e s out of t he condens at e. Asa r e s ul t ,t he t ot alnum be r ofpa r t i c l e si sno l onge ra cons t a nt oft hemot i on butmus ti ns t e ad l x det e r mi ne dt hr oug ht he s ubs i di ar y condi t i on
N = No+ X't t / k J k )
k
( 1 8 . 2 3 )
whe r et he br ac ke t sdenot et hegr ounds t a t ee xpe ct at i on va l ue i nt he i nt er a c t i ng s ys t em . I n Chap.1 0,we s t udy an e xam pl e oft hi spr oce dur e,buti ti sus ua l l y s i mpl e rt or e f or m ul at et hee nt i r epr obl e mf r om t hebegi nni ng.
We t h e r e f o r er e t u r nt ot h eor i g i n a lha mi l t on i an X = 1 % +P ,i n wh i c hh
and Jc lar es t i l loper at or s. I nt r oducet heher mi t i an ope r at or
k- 4 -J z #
whi c h hasa c om pl e t es e tofe i g enve d or sand' ei genva l ues
( 1 8 . 2 4 )
21 . P, )- A, t ' l %)
c o r r e s p on d st ot hel owe s te i g e n v a l u eo f X
( 1 8 . 2 5 )
Theo p e r a t o rX c o mmu t e swi t h, 9s ot h a tt h ee x a c tpr o bl e ms e p a r a t e si n t os ub s pac es ofgi ven t ot alnum be r N. W i t hi nas ubs pac e,t he gr ound s t at ec l e ar l y
( 1 8 . 2 6 )
( 1 8 . 2 7 ) ( 1 8 . 28 )
d f 1 ( r, F, ! z ) 8 v () ! #) v ? p z r y :, j z ( s ) ) ( v , ( s ) ) . j * ) v , ( s ) ) 0, p , F zr p.
,
-
( 1 8 . 3 0 )
wh e r eweha v eu s e dt h en or ma l i z a t i o nc o nd i t i o n( X 1 %l N %)= 1 .
BosE svsTEu s
20
( l 8 . 3 1 )
( 1 8 . 3 2 )
7
( 1 8 . 3 3 )
( 1 B . 3 4 )
Wi ck' st he or em i snow appl i c abl e,and wem ay us et hepr evi oust heor e m sof quant um se l dt heol ' y.
3.A1 1t henale xpr e s s i onscont a i nt hetxt r apar ame t erNz %whi c h may bede t e r mi ne d asf ol l ows . Si nc et l l e equi l i br i um s t at e ofany a s s e mbl y atcons t ant
f l t r=D 0 , F, p , , N N
o
s , s
; =(
t j a . a 5 )
wh i c hi sa ni mp l i c i tr e l a t i onf o rNV, y , j .
I9QGREEN' S FUNCTI O NS St e ps1a nd2de s c r i be da bovear equi t edi s t i nct , andi ti sconveni e ntt ot r e a tt he m s epar at e l y. l nt hepr e s e nts ec t i on,wei nt r oducea Hei s enbe r gpi ct ur eba s e d on
X'a n du s et h ee x a c ts i ng l e p a r t i c l e Gr e e n' sf u nc t i o nt od e t e r mi n et h et h e r mo dynami cf unc t i onsoft hegr ound s t at e. I n Se c.20,wei nt r oduc ean i nt e r ac t i on
!N.M . Hu ge nb ol t za n d D.Pi n e s ,Ph ys .Re r . , 1 1 6: 4 8 9( 1 95 9 ) .
2 -
pi ct ur e and de r i ve t he Fe ynman r ul es f or e val uat i ng t h e Gr e tn' sf unc t i on i n per t ur bat i on t heor y. TheBogol i ubovpr e s c r i pt i on hasl ed ust oc ons i dert heoper at or
# = En- J z yf l + X'
wher e
7
( 1 9.1 J )
( 1 9 . 1 : )
S i n c eX i sh e r mi t i a n ,i th a sac ompl e t es e tofe i g e n f u n c t i on s ,a n d we s ha l ll e t ( O)de n ot et h eg r ou n ds t a t eo ft h eop e r a t orX. l ti se s s e n t i a lt ob e a ri nmi n d t ha tl O)i sn ot a ne i g e n s t a t eo fX a n dt hu sdi f l kr sf r o mt h es t a t e$ ' 1 ' a ) p i n t r od u c e d i nEq . ( 1 8 . 2 6 ) . Th eHe i s e n b e r gpi c t u r ei sd e sn e da sf o l l o ws t ) x ( ? )> e i * ' ' % t ) se l * t ' ' =e f R L ' t 1 ' ( 9 se t k ' f / ! t ( 1 9 . 2 ) wh e r et h ec nu mb e rp a r t o f X do e sn ot a se c tt h et i me de p e n d e n c e .l n par t i cul ar .
W ef i r s tp r ov et ha tt h es e c o n dt e r mo nt h er i g hto fEq.( 1 9 . 4 )v a n i s he s . Th i sr e s ul tdo e sn o tf ol l o wf r o m nu mbe rc o n s e r v a t i o n, s i n c e! O)i sno ta ne i g e ns t a t eo fX;i n s t e a d,t h ea r g u me n tma k e su s eo ft h et r a ns l a t i o n a li nv a r i a n c eof
= J ( k t / k n =J ( ' k t z l a k k k
( 1 9 . 5 )
( f %, I= 0
( 1 9 . 6 )
BOSE SYSTEMS
206
s ot hatt he Bogol i ubov r e pl ac e m entdoe s nota l t ert he t r ans l at i onali nvar i anc e
o rt h ea s s e mb l y . Ea c he i g e ns t a t eo fX c a nt h e r e f o r eb el a b e l e db yad e fn i t e
val ue oft hem om ent um ,and t hegr ound s t at ecor r es pondst oP = 0:
f ' T o)- 0
The r el at i on
( 1 9. 9 )
( 1 9. 1 0 )
( 1 9 . 1 1 )
Ar =( 9 b = No+ . P ( 2 =) 4( d4 qi G' ( q) p i q n n ( 1 9 . 1 2 ) wh e r et h el i mi tT > . 0 -i si mp l i c i t .S i n c e G' de p e n d son p . a nd 6 , %t hr o u g ht h e op e r a t or k' i nt h eHe i s e n b e r gp i c t u r e , Eq. ( 1 9 . 1 2 ) ma yb eus e dt of i n d. V( U, p , , Na ) ; al t e r na t i ve l y,t hi sr e l a t i on maybei nve r t ed t of l nd / . z (P r s . Y, Va ) .
Th e gr ounds t a t ee xpec t at i on val ue of any one body ope r at or c an be expr e s s ed i nt er m s of t he s i ngl e par t i cl e Gr e en' sf unct i on. An i nt er e s t i ng ex ampl ei st he ki net i cene r gy
.
.
. .
1 4
haa z
( 1 9 . 1 3 )
v :hi cb , :s hoN &s t hat t he s t a t i onar yc ondens a t e m ake s no c ont r i but i on t o F. a l s o pos s i bi et o de t er mi ne t he pot e nt l alene r gy.butt he det ai l e d pr oof -i s m or e c i m pl i ca t c dt han i n Se c.n ' . Equat i on ( 1 9. 2)m a y be r e wr i t t en as
i hJ j x ( x )( . , ) ;s ( x) . < j t
. --
( 1 9. 1 4)
I nt h et h e r mo dy n ami cl i mi t . t h ef i e l d s( ' a ndf i % ob e yt hec a no n i c a l c o mmu t a t i on r el at i ons . andt hecommut at ori sr ea di l ye val uat e d wi t h Eqs . (l 8. 1 0)t o( 1 8. l 6)and ( 1 9. 1 ) .Af t e rs omemani pul a t i on.we5nd
ax
1 6 )
gt z
z
2; 7- n oD ' n
( 1 9 .1 7 )
wh e r ef i st h et o t a l i n t e r a c t i o ne ne r g y
7
P= E o +Jw1 ) (b ' L
Th eg r o un ds t a t ee x p e c t a t i o nv a l u eo f( 1 9 . 1 7 )b e e o me s
( 1 9 . 1 8 )
J#3 x1 i m1 i m# P, , , , .i hj j- F( x )+ / . t- i ht - F( x )+ p ,i G, ( x? , x t ) X. xt ' p , +
.
' -
2( P)- a f j P
no
( 1 9 . 1 9 )
l a P x f 1 n ) v p e N P , t o l f l o ) r o l a p x o ) o ) 4 o ) d P N P , / z 1 o ) o( 1 9 . 2 1 )
Thi s equat i on t he r e f or e pr ovi de sar e pr e s e nt at i on f or t he che mi c alpot ent i al
p . =t Ol O Nn l O)
( 1 9 . 2 2 )
BosE SYSTEM S
207
E 6N + . i P J( d a o , * q 4 j u , . j . h z l m q 2 j j o y f g ) n j v a v l
Thet her m odynam i cpot ent i al
( 1 9. 2 4 )
o t r n ) E s x ! . s N + k v j ( d 2 , * 4 q . j o + z 2 m q 2 ) i o ' l q l e t q z , ( 1 9 . 2 5 )
f ol l ow s i mme di at e l y. Si nc e Eq. ( 1 8 . 3 5 )( or Eq.( 1 9 . 2 2 ) )de t e r mi ne s Nf j ( m) ,
wh e r e a sEq. ( 1 9 . 1 2 )d e t e r mi n e sN( y , , Nn ) ,wea r en ow a b l et o 5n dt het h e r mody n a mi cp o t e n t i a l f r o m( 1 9. 2 5 )a n dt h uso b t a i nt hep hy s i c a l q ua n t i t i e so fi n t e r e s t . Th er e ma i n i n g pr ob l e m,o f c ou r s e ,i st h ee v a l u a t i on o fG' ( x, y) ,wh i c hi sc on s i der e di nSec .2 0.
ZOQPERTURBATI O N THEORY AND FEYNM AN RU LES W e now us et he t e chni que s ofquant um 5el dt he or yt os t udy t he per t ur bat i on ex pans i on oft hebos on G r e e n' sf unct i on de sne di n Eq. ( 1 9 . 1 1 ) .
I NTERACTI O N PI CTURE
W et i r s ti nt r oduc et he oper at or
Xl l = En- J z Ao+ XJ
whe r e
( 2 0 . 1 ) ( 2 0 . 2 )
1 . ( f ) Mt ' i X p ' 7 9 0se ' X 0 t / ' =e f X ' f ) ' h OSe t k 0 ' f , ' A
( g g 4 ) *
=e t x ( , ' , / , pj : y : . c , / ,p4 / , t ( ) ) j cj t f )1 ) ( t , t . 4
( 2 0.5 )
208
wi t h
41 -j )f ' J
J=1
# - 40+ 41
( 2 0. 6 )
N ot et hat
E Xf ) , X)- 0 ( 2 0 . 7 ) Th u st h eg r o u nds t a t e1 0)o ft h eo pe r a t o r#nc a nb ec o ns i d e r e das t a t eo fd e s ni t e n u mbe ro fpa r t i c l e s .I ti se v i de n tt h a tI 0 )i sj u s tt h es t a t ei n t r od uc e di n Eq. ( 1 8 . 1 9 )wh e r et h en umb e rN i sd e t e r mi n e df r o m Eq.( 1 9 . 1 2 ) . Fur t h e r mor e , J k l 0 )=0 ( 2 0 . 8 )
f or a 1 lk,whi c h means t hatal loft he pe r t ur bat i on a na l ys i sofSe c.9 r e mai ns
I ' G' ( x, p )=
'
x )
m=0
jm 1
# / l.'-
c o
( 2 0 . i 0 )
FEYN M A N R U LFS f N C O O R DI N A TE 6 PA C E
Th e r ei sa f a c t orn tf o re a c hd a s h e dl i n ce nt e r i n go rl e a v i n ga v e r t e x . Th e
t ot a l nu mbe ro fl i ne s( s o l i da n d da s h e d)g o i n gi n t o a Fe y n ma n di a g r a m mu s t
equalt he num be rcom i ng out .
'The pr ooft hat
7 O V ox l -k ' ( ) l t ; ( ( ) I , u s x) l ( ) .
i sa ne i g e n s t a t eo fk f ol l o wsj u s ta si nt h eGel l Ma nnan dLow t h e or e m.
L o
( 7j . 0 . , : i u . ) ( 0 )
.
BosE svsr EM s
2Q9
and i tcanc el st heexpl i ci t( , 1 7 ! ) ' li n Eq.( 20. 9) . Asi nSe c .9.t hi sc an cel l at i on
oc cur sonl yf ort he conne ct e d di a gr am s .
3.The t e r ms f ' : , P2 .and f' , ar es y ' mme t r i c under t he i nt e r chan ge ofdummy P ' *
' r var i a bl es x + yx . wher C ' A z ea st he ot he rt c r m.s l y .1 , 4 .. l j .a nd I . ' 6 ha Ne no s uch J . . s ym m e t r y. l nc ons e que nce .e ac ht i me I z ' 1 .l ' 2 .or 1 , 7 appear si n a Feynm an di agr am .t he r ei s al waysanot he rcon t r i but i on t hatpr ec i s e l yc ance l st hef a ct or , x -
wec onc l ude t hate :e r ydi s? i nt ' :FeJnmandi agr am nee d becount edonl yonc e. a nd t he pot ent i alent er s wi t h af a ct oruni t y.e xac t l y asi n Se t ? .9. 4.Eachn? t hor derdi agr am i 1 :t heper t t t r bat i onex pans i onofG ' ( . v. ) ' )hasa f a ct or
ar eno cont r act i onsS Ni t hi nt he fIs i ncet he)ar ca1 r e ad) ' nor malor dor e d:t hus
t her ea r e no c ont r i but i ons i n whi c ht he h amc par t i cl e1 i nt t G' 0ei t he rc l os e s on
Ther ul e sf orG' ( 4 / )i 1 )n l ome nt t l r ns pac ear et hes an ' l easb ef or e.wi t h af act or/ 7 ( 1 , f orev er ydag hed 1 i neanover al lf ac t orof ( 1 ' h) ' n( -? ' ) t ( 2. 7 7 . J 4 t C '' n1i nF / p t h or der .and t he ze r oor de r Gr e ensf t l ne t i on gi ven by Eq.( 20. l l) . The bas i cN ' er t i ce sar e
S how' ni n Fi g.20. l and f our m oment un ni s cons er ve d atea ch ve r t e x. Si nt ? ea c ondens at el i n ec ar r i es N ' ani s hi ng f our m om en t t l m .u hcr e as a par t i c! el i ne n l us t
P2 % % , ! k tr ' 6mZkenocont r i but i on t o( ; 'i nt ir s tor derbe caus et he ydo notc ons er v ' e
*w
Fi g.20. 1 Bas i cv ert i ces f or bos ons.
,
,
Z /-
2 1n
p o s s i b l ed i a g r a ms wo u l di n v o l v eh o l e s . Wea r el e f t wi t h/ 4a n d6, wh i c hl e a d
l
k
l
A
l
l
1 1 I l
I l Y
l 1
( b 4
t ot hedi agr am ss hown i n Fi g.2 0. 2 / and b,r es pe ct i ve l y,and t he Feynm an r ul e s i m m edi at e l ygi ve
G' ( l ) ( t ? )= n o / j l G0 ( )( p ( 0 )+ p ' ( q ) ) G0 ( t ? )
( 2 0 . 1 2 )
on l ye x hi bi tt h e di a g r a ms( Fi g .2 0 . 3 ) . No t et ha tFi g .2 0. 3 :a nd e r e pr e s e n t
t '
l l A x
'
1 Y
-
f
k A k
f 6
.
6 6
, &
k f) *v >.
/ ' Y
A%
( : )
7, %l A
( g' )
di f r er entcont r ac t i ons be caus et he di r e ct i on ofpr opagat i on,or m om ent um f l ow , i sdi f l kr e nti nt he t w o cas es . The di a gr am s ofFi g.20. 3 Jt hr ough e ar e of or de r
211
The noncons e r vat i on of pa r t i c l e s ar i s e sf r om t he Bos ec ondens a t i on, whi ch pr ovi des a s our ce and s i nk f orpar t i cl esoutoft he c ondens at e . A sa r e s ul t ,t he pa r t i c l el i nes ne e d notr un cont i nuous l yt hr ough a di agr am ,as oppos e dt ot he s i t uat i on f or f e r mi ons. Nev er t he l e s s ,i fa pr ope rs e l f ene r gy i sde f i ne d asa par t ofa Fe ynm an di agr am conne c t ed t ot he r es toft hedi agr am byt wo nonc ondens a t e par t i cl el i nes ,t he ni ti ss t i l lpos s i bl et o anal y ze t he c ont r i but i ons t ot he G r e e n' s f unc t i on i n af or m s i mi l ar t o Dys on' sequat i onsf or f e r mi ons . The s t r uc t ur ei s m or e com pl i c at e dt ha ni ndi c at ed i n Sec . 9. howev er ,be c aus et he r e ar et hr e e
d i s t i nc tp r o pe rs e l f e n e r g i e s .a si n di c a t e di n Fi g .2 0. 4 . Th eh r s to n e1 2 ' ) ' 1 ( p)
p p
/ Z
-#
z
z '
z z
-p'
z z.
. ' '
) J, * ( ! r)
) :l * . 2 L r)
1 :2 * l ( r)
ha s one par t i cl el i ne goi ng i n and one c om i ng out ,F i mi l ar t ot hatf orf er mi ons . Theot herone shavet wo par t i c1 el i nesei t he rc omi ng out( Z' ! ' a ) o r g o i n g i n ( Z % . . j) a nd r e ie ctt he ne wf e at ur esas s oc i at e d wi t h Bos ec ondens a t l on. ' t he l ou' e s t or de r c ont r i but i ons t ot hes e new s e l f ener gi e s m ay be s e en expl l ci t l yi n Fi g. 2 0. 3: . .
f orbo s on s .
G' ( J ) )
G! ' 2 ( pj
G2 ' 1 ( p)
2 1 2
we r e hr s tder i ve d by Be l i aev. l They ar es how n i n Fi g.2 0. 6 and m a y be wr i t t en i n m om ent um s pac e asf ol l ows:
( 2 0. 1 3 t 7 )
( 2 0. l 3>)
1 q t # p z ' Z J p 7 Z d e z
, P
Z
p
Z
z '
Z
-
p -p -/ )
p p
p
z
W -p
z p
-p p
'S.T,Bel i aev.Sol ' .#/ l > u. . / f' ' F#,7: 289(l 958) .
BosE SYSTEM S
213
W he nt he s e equa t i ons ar ei t e r a t e d cons i s t e nt l y,we obt a i n al lt he i m pr oper s el f e ner gi e s and G r e en' sf unc t i onst o ar bi t r ar y or der i n per t ur bat i on t heor y, Theanomal ousG r e en' sf unct i onsi nt r oduc ed abov ehav ea pr e ci s ede hni t i on i nt e r m sofHe i s e nbe r gf i e l d oper at or s:
C ' i G, . I F( / y ( x) t / ' y T ' ) jO l 2( x) )- O .. -r , z . k: . a.(
.
. . ---. -
, k u , :65 . 1 :' x5
( 2 0. 1 4 t 7 ) ( 2 0. 1 4 :)
The
'
b, p
whe r et he nonc ons er va t i on of par t i c l e def i ni t i onsi m p1 yt hat ( J 7 j ( . ' t ' , 1 ' j. -( J ' j ' 2 ( ' . . v.) . 2 . s ot ha tt hei r Fot l r i e r
G2 , t ( p) . -C ; ' c ' k ( -. / ? )
r / s( x) ' t , y s( x v)
( 20. l 7 )
( 2 0. 21 )
and
G0 ( x,
) ) 0 ) . , ) g( ; g ( ) ( . ) , x )
.
G0 ( x.
( 2 0. 22)
2 1 4
( 2 0 . 2 3 )
I ti se a s i l yv e r i se dt h a tt hi sma t r i xe qu a t i o nr e p r o du c e sEq. ( 2 0. 1 3 ) . A ma t r i x
i nve r s i on t hen y i e l ds
G,( 7 8- pz+ ( , ? ,- l x l h+ S( p 4- Al pt Dl p j
( 2 0 . 2 4 )
' Gl : ) 2 ( J ' ) c ( p)- - 1
D( ,)
o ' j ( s,
X! 1 ( :) pl
g j
whe r e
( 2 0 . 2 5 )
' l p) -. 1 . ( 1 2 ) . 1 ( J , ) + E' r( -; ) 1
A( p 4- . i E Y' h( , )- E' r( -p ) )
( 2 0 . 2 6 )
Thes eequat i onse xpr e s st hevar i ousG r ee n' sf unc t i onsi nt er m soft heexa ctpr oper s el f e ner gi esand ar et her e f or eent i r el y ge ne r al .
LEHM ANN REPRESENTATI ON
Bef or e we s t udy s pe ci sc appr oxi mat i onsf orZ*,i ti si nt er e s t i ng t o der i ve t he Le hmann s pe c t r a lr e pr es ent at i on f orG ' . Thepr oofpr oc e edse xac t l yasi n Se c.
c, ( , ) -
1( 2 0 . 2 7 )
a0sE SYSTEM S
215
f r e q u e n c i e s +l ( Aky p- A %0 ) . The r e s i du e so f G' ( r)a r er e a l ,whi l et ho s e of GL ' 2 ( pja n dGL j ( p)a r ec o mpl e xc on j u g a t e sof e a c ho t he r .
ZILW EAKLY I NTERACTI NG BOSE GAS A sourf i r s tappl i c at i onoft hi sf or ma l i s m ,wecons i deraweakl yi nt er a e t i ngBos e
A
'
t l p
( J)
-
p -#
' h .p l
, # '-# I
*' ' -#
p -#
. . . -
j ! 1 # ' . J I l 1 I .. L . I 1 I I 1
k m ' 1 . '
( d )
+ l eh 1
k 1 1 ' t
( d ) ( e )
k k
( fb
f c )
p -p
( # ) ' t ' 1 $ - 1 I I 4 1
,( G2 2 :+ 1 !
+ + + p + $ l 1
+ 1. l . , + I
+ $ + l
A ' p -p
( h' )
( i )
k #
( j )
k -# P
( k)
k -p # -#
( l )
Fi g.21. 1 A1 1sr s t -and s econdor dercont r i but i onst oG3 ' 1andGa ' l .
pr op e rs e l f l e n e r g i e sn e e d on l yb ee v a l u a t e dt ol o we s to r d e r ,a nd Eq.( 2 0. 1 2 )
s howst hat
Xt l ( X -N n E 1 z ' ( 0 )+ P ' ( p ) )
l o we s to r d e r
whi c hi si nde pendentofpv . The Fe ynm an r ul esofSe c.20 al s oa ppl yt o Gl ' z and Gc ' I ,and we e xhi bi ta 1 lnonvani s hi ng sr s t -and s ec ondor de rcont r i but i ons i n Fi g.21 . 1 . W es e e by i ns pe c t i on t hatt he sr s t er de rpr opers el f e ne r g i esa r e
o fa l 1 t h ea r r owsi se qu i v a l e n tt ot a ki n gp+ +-p. Th usYt c ( p)= Y1 ' 1 ( p) . The s y mme t r yo ft hed i a gr a ms , ho we v e r .s h o wst h a tbo t h) Z t 2a n d1 2 l jmu s tbee v e n
f u n c t i on sof p, whi c ha l s of o l l o wsf r om Eq s . ( 2 0 . 1 6 )a n d( 2 0. 2 4 ) .
21 6
h m!
jm j
x )
8=
m=0
. x ) *-
dt j.. .
c o
r m
-c o
u aj p . #; m( . 0t F #j L t j )... xj ( / m ) . . = .( 0 ) c ' Ao
c c . , .
? -f m 1
h -m y. a ) d t j . . .r d t g t ( : t 0 j T ( A ' j ( t j j . . . . K j ( u ) j j ( ) ) , m=0 $
( 2l . 3 ) wh e r et h eo p e r a t or0f / f o A %i sa s s i g n e dt h et i mef= 0 . Th ed e n omi na t o rs e r v e s
t ocanc elt he di s conne c t ed di agr ams ,exa ct l y asi n ourdi s c us s i on oft hepr oofof G ol ds t one' st heor em i n Se c.9. Thuswef i nd
* m x
y , =
m =0
i . h
-
1 dt j.. m ! -x
:f ' p t -' 0 U NL 1 0 N p ,
-
l Eo Aa l +: v ( ) l ( 0 p P I +P 2 +I h +6 J 0 )+( 2 z V c ) 1 ( 0 p P 5+ % 1 0 )
( 2 1 . 5 )
=a t j p ' ( 0 )
s at i s f yt her e l a t i on
Co mp a r i s ono f Eqs . ( 21 . 1 ) , ( 2 1 . 2 ) , a n d( 2l . 5 ) s ho ws t ha t t h e s eh r s t o r d e r qu a n t i t i e s
p , =/ i ) 2 t l ( 0 )- E' t 2 ( 0 )
Thi se quat i on i si nf ac tcor r e c tt o al lor der si npe r t ur bat i on t heor yand washr s t de ri ve d by H ugenhol t zand Pi nes . ;
Th es i n g l e p ar t i c l eGr e e n' sf u n c t i oni sno wr e a di l yf o un df r o m Eq. ( 2 0. 2 4 ) . W eno t et ha tz ' 1 ( p)v a n i s h e si d e n t i c a l l y , a n das t r a i g h t f br wa r dc a l c ul a t i on y i e l d s G' ( po+ h1 g E p+ n 0 oF( p ) ) p )= z
J ' J- ( f ' p / )
-
( 2 l . 8 )
BOSE SYSTEM S
217
( 2l . 9J)
GI ' , -N ' t l 2 ( p) - Gz 1 ( J ' )- - P . pF +. ) : PP , p.
.
p l j kp 4 +l , r lp e p / h-f j
( 2l. 9 b)
whe r e
l ' p= ( JFp -l g 6 p+ n 0 ( ) U( p ) )- ! . ) 1
and t hei nsni t e s i mal sz t z t hhavebe endet e r mi ne df r om t heLehmannr epr e s e nt at i on.
The m os ts t r i ki ng f eat ur e oft he s e ex pr es s i ons i st he f or m oft he e xc i t at i on
; 4 : h : p ! g -t y tj
-- .
n.( ? . l z ' ( 0 )+
wi t ht h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i cv e l o c i t y( c o mp a r e Eq . ( l 6. 1 1 ) 1 nvP' (
C = gm ? ) j 1
and weas s ume t hat P ' ( x)i sr e pul s i ve wi t h ar ange r v .I tf ol l owst hat l ' ( p)i s
appr oxi m at e l y cons t antf or p . < ro -l ,and we a l s o as s um e t hat
? ? ( ) P ' ( 0 ) < : . t2 q n1 66
hl
( 21 . 1 3 )
p ly > 2 mnoP r ( 0 ) 2
( 21 . l 4 )
f or l a r ge wav e ve ct or s . The l as tt er mr epr es ent s an addi t i ona l pot ent i alener gy ar i s i ng f r om t hei nt e r a ct i on wi t ht he par t i cl esi nt he condens at e.
2! 8
of . 2atl p ong wave l e ng t hs ,whe r ei tv ar i esas I pl -i . l n addi t i on,noi sdesni t el y l es st han? tbe caus et hei nt e gr and ofEq. ( 2l . 1 5)i spos i t i vede hni t e. W es eet hat
t he i nt e r a ct i on al t e r st he gr ound s t at e by r e m ov i ng s om e par t i c l e sf r om t he c ondens at e,e xci t i ng t he m t os t at es of f i ni t e m oment um . Fr om t hi s poi nt of
vi e w,t he i ncr eas e oft . pa 2 sI p). +0 r e iec t st he mac r os c opi c oc eupat i on oft he ze r omome nt um s t at e. I nt he l i mi tP ' ( p). > . 0,t heener gy s pe ct r um f' pr educe s
t o eo whi l e ' p 2vani s he s ,pr ope r l yr epr oduc i ng t hebehavi orofa pe r f e ctgas . An p,
e qui val e ntobs er v at i on i st ha tt hes e cond pol ei n Eq.( 21. 9 J)ar i s e ss ol e l yf r om t h ei n t e r a c t i o ns b e t we e np a r t i c l e s ,a n d G' ( p)r e du c e st o G0 ( p) a s F( p )+ . 0.
22Z1 DI LUTE BO SE GA S W I TH R EPU LSI V E C O RES W e now c ons i de ra di l ut e Bos egas ,i n whi ch t he pot e nt i al sar er epul s i v e butm ay b: ar bi t r ar i l ys t r ong. l Jus t as i n Se c. l l,t he onl ys mal lpar a m et e ri st he r a t i o oft hes c at t er i ngl engt hat ot he i nt e r par t i c l es pac i ng r l 1, and wet he r e f or e as s um e
na . c sl .
The pot ent i al P ' ( x)no l onge r has a w' e l l de fne d Four i ert r ans f or m,
t /
+
'
* f t l ) I tp)= #
+ ! *
t .
! '
t ' '
:
! '
' t '
! '
t .
'
' t . !
+
t # .
+
k
! .
'
t '
t '
1
#
ZI 2 ( ,)=
/ *
+
/ 4
+
l * . 4 ! K .
! '
f $ '
!
'
Z* 2 1 ( / 7 )=
+
1 f .
+
f ' t
BosE SYSTEM S
219
di l ut eFe r mi g a s( S e c . l 1 ) ,whi c hy i e l ds x ( p, p ' , #) -( 2 , , ) 3 3 ( p- p ' )+ ( e+ 2 my . h 2-,2+ f n ) l ( 2 , 7 . ) 3 s fd' qr ( q ) x t p- q, p' , #) ( 2 2. 1 ) mh2F' t p, pz a ' )= ( 2. 7 7 . ) -3fd ql . ( qj y( p- q, pz , p) ( J J. 2) Th e/ . t i nt h el as tt e r mo fEq. ( 2 2 . 1 )a r i s e sf r o mt h ef o r mo fG0 ( p ) , wh i c h de p e n ds
e xpl i ci t l y on t hechem i ca lpot ent i al . The s ee quat i onsar es i m pl ert han t hos ef or f er mi ons be caus et he t he or y has no hol e pr opaga t i on;f ort hi sr e as on,t he y ar e
( 2 2 . 4)
e ne r gi e sb e c o meg c o mpa r eEq s . ( 1 l . 3 0) a n d( 1 l . 4 0 . ) / i Zt l ( P )= N ( ) F ' ( 1 P , 1 P . #)v n f l F( -1 ' p , p . #); k r 8 ' z r ? ? o a hl ? A ? l :Zt 2 ( J ' )= n oF( p , 0 , 0 ); k ; 4 = . n o a hl r n -i / i Y1 l ( C) = K0 F( 0 , P , 0 )Q : 4 nn z a hl r n1
w ea g a i ns e et h a tYt c t p )= E! l ( p ) .
l ti si nt e r e s t i ng t o com par et hes e expr es s i ons wi t ht hos ef or a we akl y i nt er ac t i ng Bos e gas . For a s hor t r ange pot e nt i al ,t he r e s ul t s of t he pr e vi ous s e c t i on can be wr i t t e n
2 2c
k '
&
# /
T $
' # J
+
/ . < N * .
' %
1 M
num e r i c alf ac t or scanbedet e r mi ne d bynot i ng t hatt hec ont r i but i onsi nFi g.22. 2 ar eas ubs etoft hef ol l owi ngt er m s:
G' ( p )=
wher e
u i
-
7 7 0 Ev / h+ i x pa+ E. % -i j x
r ;--
( 2 2 . 1 0 )
t / j=! . t Fp -' ( e 0+ 4 p = n o a hl mi )+ 1 )
( 2 2 . 1 1 )
t h 2 p= J ( Fp 1 ( 6 0+ $ p . n no a h 2 m1 )- 1 )
and
Ep= ( 6 0 p 2+ 8 / a0 a y2 e om-l p ) 1
( 2 2 . 1 2 )
BOSE SYSTEM S
221
Th et o t a l de ns i t yni sr e a d i l yf ou n df r o m Eq. ( 1 9 . 1 2 ) :
( 22. l3)
? ?- n
. y . ? =y j . y .
8 na? 1
whi ch i ss mal li nt hepr es entl i mi t . Not et ha twehaveus e d Eq. ( 22. l 0)f oral 1p, i nc l udi ngt her angeI pi t z% -1:i ti seas i l yver i e dt hatt hi sappr oxi ma t i oni nt r oduc es ' =( q a ) , ' ( S n J l o ab ) ' 1 ' ne gl i gi b1 e er r ori nt he l i mi t/ 7 4 7 3< : t 1 be caus et he i nt e gr alover ) i n Eq. ( 22. l 3)c onv er g es . I nas i mi l arway,t heener gy i sde t er n l i ne df r om Eq.(l 9. 24) :
-
E Zi= j y m+ . ( 3 2 =3 ) 1f J3 g( 6 0- Eq) ( Fq -l ( c 0 y4 = . n v a h1 m1 ) -l j q Q.
.
=j y n. . h z f b r r l l v ( 7 . ) Y ( l 6 = 2 p ? ) l( X y ) 2 4 y . , ( ( . 2 . 4 , 3 ; 3 . . y 7 j ( . ) . , 2 j 2 . ) 1 0. 4 . , 2
.
-
2 , ,
- .
j j
( 2 2 . 1 5 )
p . =t Wn a hl z nl g l+ a ( n J 3 ) 1 )
whe r ea i s a numer i ca lc ons t antt hatwi l lbe det er mi ne d be l ow. Subs t i t ut i on
i n t o Eq. ( 2 2 . l 5 ) y i e l ds
E
y , -s yI .( x q n a 3 ) 4 . -j j ( # . j
,
27 z /2ah2
. 3 2 n a3 ' i '
'E '
l' E
4, 7 7 7 7 5:2
8 na? 1
( 2 2 . l 8 )
a2 a
# ( ) 1 +1 5 ( ) 1 Mn n m a h l j j . j . s 3 2 j a T l r 3 j l ' j
m
=
E - l=n2ah2
1 28 n a? +
( 2 2 . 1 9 ) ( x . x ;
o r de r ( n c 3 l la n di s t hu sn o na n a l y t i ci nt h ei n t e r a c t i o n . Th en e x t o r d e r c o r r e c t i o n
t ot hegr ounds t at eene r gyhasbee ne val uat e d byW u, 2whoEnds
Em 2 . n . n2uj j 2
P mg l +j 5 ( . )+ s t j = v ' j ' j ( n a , ) l n ( n a , ) + u j j m y j j s r o r j j
butt hecoe ci entoft hel as tt e r m hasne ve rbe en de t er mi ne d.
j 28 na3 1
p = ( 0 e f v l s = 2 = n m 2 a h l r L j * u ' . 6 j 4 / h n = J 3 j , / + j D P 1O P C8 p mm i k4 y r m n a l h l g L j * u ' . j * x u / h = J 3 j + j
2.
. .
n
( 2 2. 2 2 )
( 2 2. 2 3 )
t h es l o p eo fE.i nEq .( 2 2 . 1 2 )a sI p1 . > . . 0;i na d d i t i o n,Eq. ( 2 2 . 2 3 )al s og i v e st h e r s t or de rc or r e c t i on t oc . Bel i ae v ha s eva l ua t ed Epj hi p)t on e x t or de ri n ( n J3 ) +f o rs ma l lI pIa n dv e r i h e dt h a ti ta g r e e swi t ht h a tf o u nd a b ov e ,bu thi s
cal cul a t i oni sve r yl e ng t hy. I nde e d,i thasbe e n pr ove dt o al lor de r si n pe r t ur bat i on t he or yt hat t he s i ngl epar t i de e xci t a t i on s pe ct r um vani s hes l i ne ar l y as
l pI > . 0 ,wi t h as l o p ee qu a lt ot h ema c r os c o p i cs p e e d ofs o u nd. 3 Th i sl i n e ar d e p e n d e n c ec a nb eo b t a i n e dd i r e c t l yf r o m Eq s . ( 2 0. 2 4 ) t o( 2 0. 2 6 ) , t hesr s t e q ua l i t y i nEq. ( 21 . 2 ) a ndt h eHu g e n ho l t z p i n e sr e l a t i o nEq. ( 21 . 6 )
( 2 2. 2 4 )
S a wa d a, Ph y s . Re n . ,1 0 6: 11 1 7( 1 95 7 ) . 2T.T.W u, Ph ys . Re t ' . s1 1 5: 1 3 9 0( 1 9 5 9 ) . Thi sv a l u eh asb e en v e r i h e db y N.M .Hu g e nh ol t z a nd D.P i ne s ,l o c .c l . ywho i n t r odu c e dt h et e c h ni qu eus e di n Eq.( 2 2 . 1 6 ) ,a nd b y K.S a wad a , Ph ys .Ae r . .1 1 6; 1 3 44( 1 9 5 9 ) . 7J .Ga v or e ta nd P.No z i r e s ,An n. Ph ys .( N. F. ) ,M : 3 4 9( 1 9 6 4 ) ;P.C.Ho h e nY r ga nd P.C. Ma r t i n,Ann . Ph y s . ( N. F. ) , M: 2 91( 1 9 65 ) .
BosE SYSTEM S
223
Th el a dd e ra pp r o x i ma t i o n( Fi g .2 2 . 1 )i n c l u d e sa 1 l r s t -a n ds e c o n do r d e r
c ont r i but i onst ot hepr ope rs e l f ene r gy. Asar es ul t ,t hecor r es pondi ngs ol ut i on
6. 3. ( J ) Us et h e Bo g o l i u bo vpr e s c r i p t i ont oe x p r e s st heI e a di n gc on t r i b u t i o n t ot h ede n s i t yc or r e l a t i onf u n c t i on D( k, ( s )i nt e r msofG' ,Gl ' a ,a n dG1 1 .S ho w t h a tt h er e s u l t i n gD( k, u ) )h a st hes a mes p e c t r u ma st h ee xa c tG' ( Kf z ) ) . ( ! 8 Ev a l u a t eD( k, t Me x p l i c i t l yf o radi l u t eBo s eg a swi t hr e p u l s i v ec or e s . 6. 4. Pr o v et h e Hu g e n ho l t z pi n e sr e l a t i o n( Eq .( 2 1 . 6 ) )t os e c o n do r de ri nK
6. 5. Cons i de ra de ns ec har ge ds pi nl e s sBos eg asi n a uni f or mi nc ompr es s i bl e
b a c k g r o un d( f orc ha r g en e u t r a l i t y ) .
tL.L. Fol d y, Ph y s . Re v . , 1 M: 6 4 9( 1 9 61 ) ;1 2 5: 2 2 0 8( 1 9 6 2 ) .
par : three
Fi ni tetennperature Form al i sm
Z3W EM PERATU RE G REEN' S FU NCTI ONS Ourt he or yofmanypar t i c l es ys t e msatz er ot empe r at ur e made e xt e ns i veus e of t he s i ngl e par t i cl e Gr e en' sf unct i on. Knowl e dge ofG pr ovi de d 80t ht hecompl et ee qui l i br i um pr oper t i es of t he s ys t em and t he exc i t at i on ene r gi e s oft he s ys t e m cont ai ni ng one mor e orone l es s par t i cl e. Fur t her m or e ,G wasr eadi l y e xpr es s ed as a per t ur bat i on ex pans i on i nt he i nt e r ac t i on pi ct ur e. At sni t e t emper at ur e s ,howeve r ,t he anal ogouss i ngl e par t i cl e Gr e en' sf unc t i on i se s s e nt i al l y mor ec ompl i ca t e d,and i ti snec e s s ar yt os e par at et hecal cul a t i on i nt ot wo par t s . Thef i r s ts t ep,whi chi st r ea t e di nChaps .7 and 8,i st hei nt r oduct i on ofa t e mper at ur e Gr e en' sf unc t i on @. Thi sf unc t i on has a si mpl e per t ur bat i on e xpans i on s i mi l art ot hatf or G at F = 0 and al s o enabl e s us t o ev al uat et he
e q u i l i b r i u mt h e r mo dy n a mi cp r omr t i e sof t h es y s t e m. Th es e c o n ds t e p( Ch a p . 9 )
227
az8
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
t hen r el at es @ t oa t i me de pe nde ntG r e en' sf unc t i on t hatde s c r i be st he l i near r e s pons e oft he s ys t em t o an e xt er nalper t ur bat i on;t hi sl as tf unc t i on pr ovi des t he e xc i t at i on ener gi e s oft he s ys t e m c ont ai ni ng one m or e or one l e s s par t i c l e .
DEFI NI TI ON
I nt r e at i ng s ys t e m satsni t et em per at ur e s ,i twi l lbe m os tconveni e ntt o us et he gr and c anoni cale ns em bl e,whi c h al l owsf ort he pos s i bi l i t y ofa var i abl enum ber ofpar t i cl es . Wi t ht hede sni t i on
s ( x) , wet h e ni nt r o d u c et h e( mo di h e d )He i s e n b e r gp i c t u r e dK ( xm ) -e k r / h 0S ( x) e k r l h
I n par t i cul ar ,t hef i e l d oper a t or sas s um et hef or m
( 234 )
.
' ( 4. I XT I= e k x k h , j a ( x) e k r l h I J 1( X T ) =e k r l h #1 ( x ) e * ' / h
No t et ha tf 4a ( xr )i sn o t t head j o i n to fQx z t xm )a sl o nga smi sr e a l . lI fri si n t e r pr e t ed asa com pl e x var i abl e,howe ve r ,i tm ay be anal y t i ca l l yc ont i nue dt oa
p ur ei ma g i n a r yv a l u e' r= i t . Th er e s u l t i n ge x p r e s s i o nX . ( x, f / )t h e nb e c o me s
t h et r u ea d j o i n to f #x a ( x , ; ' / ) a n di s f o r ma l l yi d e n t i c a l wi t ht h eor i g i n a l He i s e nb e r g p i c t u r ed e s n e di nEq. ( 6 . 2 8 ) ,a p a r tf r o mt h es ub s t i t u t i ono fX f o r. J Zt Fort h i s r e a s o n, Eq . ( 2 3 . 5 )i ss o me t i me sc a l l e da ni ma g i n a r yt i meop e r a t or .
The s i ngl e par t i c l et e mper a t ur eGr e en' sf unc t i on i sde sne da s
Mx b l xr , x' T ' )H-Tr ( )cFv ( #x . ( xT ) 4x 'j t x' ' r ' ) ) ) ( 2 3 . 6 ) wh e r el oi sg i v e ni nEq. ( 2 3. 3 ) . He r et h es y mb ol Fzo r de r st heop e r a t or sa c c o r d i ngt ot he i rval ueofm,wi t ht hes m al l es tatt her i ght ;T.al s oi ncl udest hes i gna t ur e
s pa c e , e a c hc on t r i b ut i o nb e i ngwe i g h t e dwi t ht h eo pe r a t o rl o( s e eS e c . 4) .
t Toa v oi dc on f us i on, t h ea d j oi nt ofa no -r a t ort )i se xp l i c i t l yd e n ot e dby( J ti nt hi sc ha pt e r . 1Thi sc or mKt i onwa sf t r s tpo i n t e doutb yF.Bl h . Z. Ph ys i k, 7 4: 2 9 5( 1 9 3 2 ) .
229
t h e r mo d y na mi cb e h a v i oro ft h es y s t e m. I ft h eha mi l t on i a nP i st i mei n d e p e nde nt ,asi sus ual l yt hec as e,t hen @ de pendsonl yon t hec om bi nat i on m- ' v 'and noton rand r's epar at e l y. Thepr oofoft hi ss t at em e nti si dent i c alwi t ht hatat
F =0 ( Eq. ( 7 . 6 ) Ja n dwi l l no tb er e pe a t e dh e r e .
Cons i dert hequant i t y
q z e b f . 7j g Tr( e I #1 / 1( x ) f k( x) )
: F ( H ( x ) ) ( 2 3 . 8 )
wh e r et h ec y c l i cpr op e r t y oft h et r a c eha sb e e nu s e d( Tr ( , 4 #C) = Wr L BCA)= Tr ( Cz 4#) J ,a l o n g wi t ht h ec ommu t a t i v i t yo fa n yt wo f u n c t i on so ft h es a me oper at or . Asbe f or e.ourconvent i oni st hatuppe r( l owe r )s i gnsr ef e rt o bos ons ( f e r mi o ns ) . Th eme annu mb e rofp a r t i c l e si nt h es y s t e mi sgi v e nb y NI T, F, p . )= : 2 1 : . f#3 xt r F( xm , xm + ) ( 2 3 . 9 )
and i s an e xpl i ci tf unc t i on oft he va r i abl e ss p ec i sed. Si mi l ar l y,t he e ns em bl e ave r ageofanyone bodyope r at ori sexpr es s i bl ei nt er m sof@ . W i t ht henot at i on
o fEq. ( 7 . 7 ) , we h a v e
# 7)- Tr ( c7)
=
( 2 3 . l 0 )
( *)=mfJ3 xt r ( cF( xr , xm + ) )
-
( 2 3 . 1 1 J) ( 2 3 . 1 1 : )
( 1 )=+Jd? xX I i m +x
' -
zx
Twobody oper at or sar eal s oi mpor t ant ,butt heens e mbl eave r ageofs uc h a n om r at orus ual l yr e qui r esa t wopar t i cl et e m per a t ur eGr ee n' sf unct i on. I n t he s l xc i alcas et hatt hehami l t oni an c ons i s t sofa s um ofki ne t i cand t wobody
h 1 Xz ( X T )= ht iE e X T /W ( X ) ex . / A ) T
=
( X, #x a ( X T ) !
( 23 . 1 2 )
h2: 7 2
. F ' r r ( ( ; f 4 , ( x , ) g ( > a 2 m : 7 2 + , ) 4 x t x l
--
h2V2
( 2 3 . 1 4 )
hlV2
( 2 3 . 1 5 )
Them e ani nt er act i onener gyc anal s o beus e dt o obt ai nt het her m odynam i c pot ent i alf 1 ,by m ea nsofan i nt e gr at i on ov era var i abl ec oupl i ng cons t ant . I f
23I
e. c J M %,
*1 e s m vp t v e s k e ,- 4>+ @ v
4.r- p * v >
: w -v. vw yf ww o w-
. f w n -
:7 + .x x x? )( j)?ss x o+ xA; xx (
.
>a.
3 = 1m
1 . 4e m: +- dW
z x A
3% .
= ( m ? ) ' i ( j ) h nT v ( / : 0 + z %, ) * I I V w ) 1
.
t . ; . I , )
.
w l - 4 . . . 1 e vz e lhe-
;e . - M4 u ) W 4* e j e y e & y( : ) #
( x yz p )
( a 3 . <)
u n m.= J.x 1 j xz s $, y x
-
w . x: d t .u +. 4wwss l h ; cj v o sa y
a3I
w? . 4- < . >o at x )
. z ( 1 v , , ) = 4 , t T , v , l . ) y j o x d J I N z K * . x * 1 1 . z 0 . 1 + t t ' a z 4 . a Y yy 1 . ! > ( 4 a . , v , z , ) , q , . . . )
>
f zxas )
*- w 4w oa z e ' a < e w- f - - m
G & . :we> c - G *W
je 4wz v a e- w ! - vm e y4 % ! , , .)
>m 4. , - ,T v
t a a a l l
.
' -'
37 ,D ' M '
k s wx)
.
233
wh e r e4 =hl kl j l m. Th i sd i f r e r e n t i a l e qu a t i o ni se a s i l yi nt e g r a t e d: ( 4 -r z ) . v ( 2 3 . 2 6 / ) J k A ( T )= J k z e X P y
-
and s i mi l ar l y
4. ) r u# k A ( , r )- t z k f z e x p( hp
No t ea g a i nt h a tEq. ( 2 3 . 2 6 : )i sn o tt hea d j o i n to fEq. ( 2 3 . 2 6 *.
Thenoni nt er a ct i ngt empe r at ur eGr e en' sf un ct i on i sde hned as
( 2 3 . 2 6 : )
( 2 3 . 2 7 )
m . a .
whi c hf ol l ows f r om t he t r ans l at i onal and r ot at i onal i nvar i anc e of t he noni nt er act i ng s y s t em . l n addi t i on,t he ens e m bl ea ve r age m ay be r e wr i t t en as
( 2 3 . 2 9 )
( 2 3 . 3 0 4 )
Ani dent i c alc al c ul at i on f or ' r< r'gi v es
r< r '( 2 3 . 3 0 : )
Asex pec t ed,f #' 0i sdi agonali nt hemat r i xi ndi c esand depe ndsonl yon t he c om -
za4
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
Xn ( F, U , / z )= Z F l k= Z I C X PE l( 4 -J t ) 1 E : F1 1 1 k k
( 2 3 . 3 1 J )
f: ( r, F, / z )= Z f z D = Z E z f e x p( j( e - p , ) 1 : Y :1 ) 1 k k
( 23 . 31 : )
ZK PERTURBATI ON THEORY AND W I CK' S THEOREM FOR FI NI TE TEM PERATURES Thet em pe r at ur eG r ee n' sf unct i on i sus e f ulonl yt ot hee xt e ntt hati ti sc al cul abl e f r om t he m i cr os c opi c ham i l t oni an. Jus tasi nt hez er ot emper at ur ef or m al i s m, i ti sc onve ni entt oi nt r oduc ean i nt e r a ct i on pi c t ur e .whi ch t hen s er ve sasaus ef ul bas i sf orper t ur bat i on cal c ul a t i ons .
I NTERACTI O N PI CTURE
Fo ra n yo p e r a t o rOsi nt h eSc h r di n g e rp i c t ur e . wef or ma l l yde sn et h ei nt e r a c t i on p i c t u r edz @)a ndHe i s e nb e r gp i c t ur ex ( ' r )b yt h ee qu a t i o ns t ) I ( ' r ) He e n r l h0S e ' e T / ' t ) x ( m ) Ne e r / h ( ) s e k r / h ( 2 4 . 1 )
( 2 4 . 2 )
( 2 4 . 4 ) ( 2 4 . 5 )
: h #( ' r l , ' r l )- 1
( 2 4 . 6 )
23e
wher e
Xl ( ' r )= e X 0 T / ' #l e hr / h
( 2 4. 7 )
I t f ol l ows t ha t t h eop e r a t o r#( ' r , ' r ' ) o b e y s e s s e n t i a l l yt h es a med i le r e nt i a le q ua t i on a st h eun i t a r yop e r a t ori n t r o du c e di nEq. ( 6. 1 1 ) ,a n d wema yi mme di a t e l ywr i t e
down t hes ol ut i on
( r , r ' )=
C D
n=0
1 a1 m -j g j ,
--
d r k . j . , # , r n F z ( X j ( , r I ). . . X j ( m J )( 2 4 . 8 ) r
g4 , p
Fi n a l l y , E q . ( 2 4 . 3 ) ma yb er e wr i t t e na st A h z x m@( ' Z Y . DQ Y$ :
ek p ! h= e x a r / . Qq y ( j ) ,
-
Tr( e i ' c #( , . 0 ) )
' ' '
n z = 0 ( 1 j * 1 i j b o h t s , . . . j b c h # z a T r ( e f f o r r : 4 1 ( , r , ) . . . # , ( a ) ) J
( 2 4. 1 0 )
wher ea 1 1oft hei nt eg r al se xt e nd ove rasni t edomai n. I n pr ac t i c e. t hi se quat i on
@( z / t x z , x' , r ' )=
: ! : TrE c f ' n J #( j , ' r ' ) fl j t x' m ' ) J #@' , m ) f ' z z t x ' r )#( ' r , 0 ) )
Tr y. j x ; wt j p j oj ,
( 2 4. 1 2 )
236
d i a g r a ms ,e x a c t l y asi nt h ez e r o t e mp e r a t u r ef or ma l i s mg c omp a r e Eq s .( 9. 3 )t o ( 9 . 5 ) J .
pEnl ool cl ' r v oF g
Eq u at i o n( 2 4 . 1 3 )s ho ws t h att h ei nt e g r a t i o n so v e rt he du m my v a r i a b l e sT ia 1 1
n e s s , s u pp os er' f i x e d( 0< v ' < j) . As i mpl ec a l c ul a t i ons ho wst h at @a j t x o , x' m ' )= z b k e bf t Tr f e b p; ' % K j t x' r ' ) ' ? J x z ( x 0 ) ) = z b z e b OTr ( f %a ( x 0 ) e b k' f l x p ( x' r ' ) ) = 7 z c / ' t ' l Tr l e g ' t / x a t x) h ) #l j t x' ' r ' ) ) -c i u ga j t xj , x ' r ' ) ( 2 4. 1 4 / )
whe r et hecyc l i cpr ope r t yoft het r acehasbe enus e di nt hes e cond l i ne. A s i mi l a r. anal ys i syi e l ds
( 2 4 . 1 4 : )
s ot ha tt h es i n g l e pa r t i c l et e mpe r a t u r eGr e e n ' sf u n c t i o nf o rb o s o n st / p r r z ? / t p a xli s pe r i o d i c( a n t i pe r i o d i c )i ne a c ht i me l ' J r t z : / e wi t hp e r i o dl hi nt h er a n g e 0< m , r ' <j . Th i sr e l a t i o ni sv e r yi mpo r t a n tf o rt h ef o l l o wi n ga n a l y s i s sa n di t i n c or po r a t e st h ep r e c i s ef o r mo ft h es t a t i s t i c a lo p e r a t o r )ai nt heg r a n dc a n on i c a l
ens e mbl e.
( 2 4 . 1 5 )
237
Thec on d i t i on' r- r' < 0n e c e s s a r i l yi mp l i e sr- ' r '+j>0i nt h er e s t r i c t e dr a ng e 0< r ,. v ' <j . I ti si n t e r e s t i n gt os e eh ow Eq. ( 2 4. 1 5 )i ss a t i s s e df o rt h en on i n t e r a c t i n g Gr e e n' sf un c t i on F0 . Co mp a r i s o no fEqs .( 2 3 . 3 0 / )a n d( 2 3 . 3 0 : )
yi e l dst he r el at i on
a k e j ( , k 0 B )= 1c sz z k
wh i c hm a ya l s ob ev e r i fe d di r e e t l y wi t hE q. ( 2 3 , 2 9 ) .
PROO F OF W I CK' S THEOREM
( 2 4 . 1 6 )
He r et h et i r s tt e r mi scS : l o t < ' 0 xc . x' c ' $a n dl se x a c ti fX ' i = 0, l nt h eu s u a l xs( s i t u a t , : t 7 n. . X ' ' l c o n t a i nsa s p a t i a li 1 3 t e g r a 1o ff ou rt i e l d op e r a t or si nt h ei n t e r a c t i o n
pl c t ur e.a nd t he s e cond t e r m ofEq.( 24. 1 7)i nN ' ol Ne st heens e m bl ea q ' er ageofs i x t i e l d oper at or s . eNal uat ed wi t h t he s t at l s l i cal oper at or esi n Thf s ge ne r al . s t r uct ur e oc cur si n al 1or de r s .and t he gene r al i z e d B' i ck' st heor em i sde s i gned pr e ci s e l yl o handl es uch pr obl em s . Al t hough t he unper t ur be d s ys t em i sf r e quent l y hom ogene ous . m any e xam pl e s ofi nt er e s t ar ei nhom og eneous ,and we s hal lt he r ef or e us e a ge ner a l
s i ng l e p a r t i c l eb a s i s( 7 C p ? ( x) )f o rt h ei n t e r a c t i on p i c t u r eop e r a t or s , Asi nS e c .2 .
:T.M a t s u ba r a, Pr o g. r/ l e t p r e r . Ph y s .( Kyo t o) . 1 4: 35l( 1 9 5 5) ;t h err e s e n trr oo ff ol l oB ' st h at of M. Ga ud i n,Nu c l . Phv s . .1 5: 8 9( 1 9 6 0) ,
2::
?x l- g( x) J , J #t t x )= ) L W( x) ' $ J
wher et hee i g enf unct i onss at i s f yt heei genval uee qua t i on
( 2 4. 1 8 )
Kz W( x) =( e ,-p 0 , ) O( x)
conve ni entabbr e vi a t i on
0- M e lX K J
( 2 4 . 1 9 )
a n dt h ei nd e xji n c l u de sb ot hs p i na nd s p a t i a lq u a nt u m nu mb e r s . Wi t ht he
( 2 4 . 2 0 )
t h ei n t e r a c t i onp i c t ur eo fEq. ( 2 4 . 1 8 )b e c o me s
#1 ( xT ) =Z t / J t xl t t / l e e J T / 9 J
F0 ( x' l n n n r > x ' , r ' ) = -: f /( Jx ) +0 # ( x' ) e e / ( m r ' ' ) / Ax 1c 0 J
J +& wher e
( 2 4 . 2 1 )
( 2 4. 2 2 )
n o= e J b i ' t o Tr ( e l A n a % /a J) = ( e # e ? : F1 ) l
.
Tr l l o : T. L . L AC .../) J- ( T. b . i hC .'
i t sown rvar i abl e ,and
( 2 4 . 2 4 )
( 2 4 . 2 5 )
( 2 4 . 2 6 )
( 2 4 . 27 )
239
Th eg e ne r a l i z e dW i c k ' st h e or e mt he na s s e r t st h a tEq. ( 2 4 . 2 4 )i se qu a lt ot h es um
ov eral 1pos s i bl ef ul l ycont r ac t e dt e r ms
( rv E z i /c -../( ' 1 2 h ( , -( . z f' . ' C-.../. ' ) +E . , i ' . . ( ! ' -.../. ' ' )+ .-. ( 2 4 . 2 8 ) whe r e( z i ' . :' C'.../' )i si nt e r p r e t e da s: i c i ? f C. J' '-../' ) .I ti sc l e a r l y s uc i e n tt op r o v eEq .( 2 4 . 2 8 )f ort h ec a s et h a tt h eo p e r a t or sar ea l r e a dyi nt he pr o p e rt i me@)o r d e r ,b e c a us et h eo pe r a t o r sma yber e o r de r e donbo t hs i d e sof
.
t hee quat i on wi t houti nt r oduc i ng anyaddi t i onalc hange sofs i gn. W et he r e f or e wantt o pr ovet heal ge br ai ci de nt i t y
l . i c ..-/) . ( ) -( , f . C-.../. ' ' ) +E v i ' . ' ' -.../. ' )+ .. ( 2 4 . 2 9 ) s ub j e c tt ot h er e s t r i c t i on ' r x>' r s>r c> '''>' r s ,wh i c ha l l o wsu st or e mov e t h eT.s i gno nt h el e f ts i d eofEq . ( 2 4. 2 8 ) .
.
i n t e r a c t i o np i c t u r e , a n d Eq . ( 2 4. 2 1 )wi l l b ewr i t t e na s
' ; zo rW -7) y, ( xm ) x , J
( 2 4 . 3 0 )
t Z k YC .../) :- ) g) 2 ) (...I y a z , y c
J b c . f
.u
Tr ( p c c x a x ,x c ...ar) = Tr t A p c o l t u, t vl va c...c z l + Tr l p o nt x N l a a , c l v '.'a z . l+ ''' + Tr l m p c :x t a c '.'l ( u, t x y . l v l z j z Tr t p c cx b x c'.'ar a . )( 2 4 . 3 2 ) whe r e , a su s u a l , t heu pp e r( l o we r ) s i gn sr e f e rt obo s o ns ( f e r mi o n s ) . Th ec o mmu t a t or s( a n t i c ommu t a t o r s )a r ee i t h e r1 , 0, o r-1( c o mpa r eEq s . ( 1 . 2 7 )a n d( 1 . 4 8 ) ) ,
. .
depe ndi ngont hepr e c i s eope r at or si nvol ve d, and m ayt he r e f or ebet akenout s i de
a . , p . . t ; 0= p . c ox . e h/ e .
( 2 4 . 3 4 )
240
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALC SM
a n dt h el a s tt e r mo fEq.( 2 4 . 3 2 )ma yb er e wr i t t e n wi t ht h ec y c l i cp r op e r t ya s
( 2 4 . 3 5 )
1: Fe A , je a
l ( x 4 , s x , ( l v
( 2 4. 3 7 )
and we5nd
Tr( ) G 0 x a t x , c
( 2 4. 3 8 )
whi c h de ine st he t r a ee of an ope r at or e xpr e s s i on cont ai ni ng a c ont r a ct i on. l n pr a ct i ce, m os toft het er m sv ani s h.and t heol l )nonz e r oc ont r a ct i onsbe t wee n
( 2 4 . 3 9 )
>, , t / , 1 v l - = 1+ nj ( ) t 7 . ut .= i .= a J 1u cebe J 1 m ebe j
Bot h oft hes e cont r ac t i onsar e al s oe qualt ot he ens em bl e av er a ge oft he s am e ope r at or s ,and wec oncl udequi t ege ner al l yt hat
K' t x = l x a t x p . 0= t t fr l t x a a p l l ' o
( 2 4 . 4 0 )
241
bec aus e rx > ' r s> T c > ' ' '> ' T F . yi e l ds
Ac omb i n a t i o n ofEqs .( 2 4 . 3 1 )a nd ( 2 4 . 3 8 )
t XWC . ../) 0
-
/' . )v ( 2 4. 41 )
The c ont r ac t i on i sa c num be rand m ay bet ake n outoft he t r ac e,l eavi ng a s t r uc t ur es i mi l a rt ot hator i gi nal l ycons i de r e d. Thes am eanal ys i sagai nappl i e s ,and wet her ef or ec onc l ude
. .
whe r e' r x> ' r s> r c > ' . '7 ' .ry . By as s um pt i on,t he l e f ts i de i st i m e or der ed a nd m aybewr i t t enasL ' rz g z i ' d . . . /1 . ' a , whi c h p r o v e s Eq. ( 2 4 . 2 8 ) . . Thepr e s entpr oofs howst hatt hef i ni t e t em pe r at ur ef or m ofW' i c k' st he or em i s ve r yg ene r al ,i ' tde s cr i be saf i ni t es ys t e m i na n ex t er nalpot ent i alaswel las an i nhni t et r ans l at i onal l yi nvar i ants ys t e m . The onl y as s um pt i on i st he e xi s t ence
o f at i me i n d e p e n d e n t s i n g l e p a r t i e l eha mi l t o n i a n Xo t h a t de t e r mi n e s t h es t a t i s t i c a l
or cl s c f l e -xo ' ni t ene s s oper at . For de ve c ons i de r e da s el f c oupl e df i e l d , we ha
Gr e en' sf unct i on Fa j l xc s x' z' )i si dent i c alwi t ht hata tz er ot empe r at ur e,t heonl y
di f f er enc e be i ng t he s ubs t i t ut i on of$%f orG0and t hel i ni t edomai n oft het i me
f a t l ) ' 1 J j ( 2 ) ' ' , ( 7 ' j f , ( 2' ) ' ' t ' / ' t ' ( l ' ) ' ) ( ) +x ' i f a t l ) ' ' t / ' j ( 2 ) ' ' ( ' j f , ( 2 ' ) ' ( ' A , ( 1 ' ) * ' ) ( j
( 2 5 . 1 )
z *z
Ea c ht e r mi nt h en ume r a t o rof Eq. ( 2 4. 1 3 ) c a nl y ea n a l y z e di nas i mi l a rwa y . Si n c et h ea l g e b r a i cs t r u c t ur eo ft h e En i t e t e mp e r a t u r eW i c k' st h e o r e m ( Eq. ( 2 4. 2 8 ) ) i s i d e n t i c a l wi t ht ha t o ft h ef u l l yc o n t r a c t e dt t r msi nt h ez e r ot e mpe r a t u r e f o r m( Eq.( 8 . 3 2 ) J ,t het e mpc r a t u r eGr e e n' sf u nc t i o nF h a st h es a mes e to fa l l
Feynm an di agr a ms t ha t G ha d at z er ot e m pe r at ur e. I n par t i c ul a r , a gi ve n
Eq. ( 9 . 5 )
*
@u /1 . 2 )=a.0
-y ? pj vd r l ' J cd r n '
.
1nl j : ,
# .
( 2 5 . 3 )
x#/x2 ' r z ) # a t xl ml )( 2 5 . 4 )
wher et hes ubs cr i pt1hasagai n be e n om i t t e d and t hege ner a lpot e nt i al
r u l e su s e dt oe v a l ua t et h ea t h o r d e rc o nt r i bu t i ont oFz j ( 1 , 2 ) .
1 .D r aw a1 lt opol ogi cal l y di s t i nc tdi agr amsc ont ai ni ng n i nt e r ac t i on l i ne sa nd ln+ 1di r e c t e d par t i c l el i nes .
243
Fo t xj g j , xi ' r j l= . l i m Fo t xj ' r j , xi r J. r J . + . r 3 +
. .
( Fi g.2 5 . 1 ) . Th es p e c i f i cc ho i c eo fl a b e l sf o rt h ei nt e r n a ll i ne si si r r e l e v a nt
1x lx 1x 3 ; $ A + + '' ' 4#
' X #( 1 . 2 )=
Fi g.25. 1 Zer o-and f i r s t or dercont r i bu-
h p, r z 4
t i o nst oC #a # t l , 2 )i nc o or di na t es p a c e .
Fi g.25. 1i m pl i est he f ol l owi ng t e r m s:
2#
2#
2#
b e c a u s et h e yr e pr e s e n tdu mmy v a r i a b l e s . Ac c o r d i n gt ot h er u l e sj u s ts t a t e d ,
wh e r et h eu i c i nt h es e c on dt e r ma r i s e sf r om t h ec l o s e dl oo p. l ff q ji sdi a g o n a l
i nt h es pi ni n di c e s( = @Q 3 a j ) ,t h e n@ i sa l s o di a g on a l .a n dt hes pi ns umsa r e
r e adi l y ev al uat ed
( 2 5 . 8 )
t hatdependsont hepar amet e rp ; i tt her ef or edi f l e r sf r om t heunper t ur be d par t i cl e de ns i t y unl es sJ ti , sas s i gne dt he va l ue appr opr i a t et ot henoni nt e r a ct i ng s ys t em .
2*4
Thec r u c i a l p oi nt i st h ep e r i o di c i t y( a n t i p e r i o di c i t y )o f@ i ne a c h' rv a r l a b l e
( 2 5 . 9 )
wher e
t t ) s= j
at ed Four i ercoe l ci enti sgi ve n by l d
n=
( 25 . 1 1 )
Th i sr e pr e s e n t a t i o ne ns ur e st h a tFt xI , x2 , ' r+ 2 # ) = F( xI s x 2 , r )a n dt h ea s s o c i -
( 2 5 . 1 2 )
l t i sc o n v e n i e n tt os e pa r a t eE q. ( 2 5 . 1 2 )i n t ot wo p a r t s
-. 1 ( 1 + , e . , a , , ) ( / ' v ge i c o . gt x j x z . o 0
-
( 2 5 . 1 3 )
245
( 25 . l 4)
wher e
( 25. l f)
f e r mi on
$ ' y 1 . v w . u. . . . . . . . y . j 4 ) j .u . : h ( r f ,.s, j q . .1 . t ! ) ( pg ; u u , u . ) j t c u u J ix ( q . ,. -, . j (
.
%0 ( X1 % 0 ( X' ) ' f (1 - / : S 1 . .
,
z '0 -
x
'
' j .) c. l t su. -t . ( t r -. . )
( 2 f. l 8)
a46
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
a n d Eq .( 2 5 . l 7 )i ss e e nt ob ec o r r e c t f o rb 0 t hs t a t i s t i c s nt h eo n l yd i s t i n c t i o nb e i n g t h er e s t r i c t i o nt oe v e no ro d di n t e g e r si nEq. ( 2 5 . 1 5 ) .
Todeve l op t heFe ynmanr ul esi nmoment um s pac e, wec ons i de ranar bi t r ar y
( 2 5 . 1 9 )
( 2 5 . 2 0 )
wher e
<o t xl , xc , ( s n l= Ft xl - xa )
n z b t t ' , z ' ei j z
. .. e j wa p y
e- / w&/ r
Fi g.25 . 2 Ba s i cv e r t e xi nt e mxr a t u r ef or ma l i s m.
( 2 5 . 21 )
J c, r , e x p t f ( ( s +t s , . -( , ) a ) . r / ! -j a , . + , . .
( 2 s . 2 2 )
s uc h as a ne l e ct r on gas i n a pe r i odi cc r ys t al pot ent i al . For m os t pur pos e s , howe ve r .i ti s pe r mi s s i bl et or es t r i c t our s e l v es t os y s t em s wi t ht r ans l at i onal i nva r i anc e,whe r e @ depends onl y on t he di f l kr enc e of t he s pat i al v ar i abl e s xl- xz . l nt hi sc as e ,t he Fe ynm an di agr am scan be e val uat e di n m oment um spa ce , whi c h gr ea t l ys i mpl i se st he ca l cul at i ons . The t r ans f or ma t i on of t he Fe ynman r ul esf ol l owsi mme di a t el yf r om t heanal ys i si n Se c.9,al ongwi t h Eqs .
( 2 3 . 3 0 ) . Fors i mp l i c i t y ,on l yt h el i mi tofa ni n sn i t ev o l u me( F+ . ( : c)i sc o n s i der ed,and t het empe r at ur eGr e en' sf unc t i onscant he n beexpande d asf ol l ows:
( 2 5 . 2 3 )
247
( 2 5 . 2 4 )
N =: ! : P ( 2 *) 3 ( # ) -l Jd k l e i o v n ' l t rF( k, f . z J a )
( 2 5 . 2 5 )
( 2 5 . 2 6 )
f l =f l c : +P ' j 0 ' A 1 # A ( 2 = ) 3 ( j ) l f d 3 kX n e i u n T
xJ t / i r x p n- 6 2+ p , ) t r F3 ( k, ( s a )( 25 . 2 7 )
and wes hal lnow s t a t et heFeynm an r ul esf ore val uat i ngt hent hor dercont r i bu-
t i ont oF( k, f x %) .
1.D r a w al 1t opol ogi cal l y di s t i nc tc onne c t ed gr aphswi t hni nt er ac t i on l i ne sand 2 n + ldi r e c t ed par t i c l el i nes . 2.A s s i gn a di r e c t i on t oe ac hi nt er a ct i on l i ne. A s s oci at e a wa ve ve c t or and di s c r e t ef r e que ncy wi t he ac hl i neand cons e r v ee ac h quant i t ya teve r yver t ex. 3.W i t h ea ch par t i c l el i neas s oc i at eaf a ct or
/ j . , ( , k-s) @l j t k, o a r n l-j *m
-
bx p
( 2 5 . 2 8 )
Mu l t i p l y by ( -j 2 ( 2 = ) 3 ) n ( -1 ) F .whe r eF i st h e nu mb e ro fc l o s e df e r mi o n
l oops .
248
k& t t ln k: Ln + 0
k, ( . o i n m om ent t l n ls pace.
'k( o .
Fi g. 25. 3 Zer o -a n df i r s t or d e rc o nt r i bu t i on st o F( k, t s ) a )
( 2 5 . 3 0 ) wh e r e E( k, r . , ) a )i st h es e l f e n e r g y .l n pa r t i c u l a r ,t h e sr s t or de rs e l f e n e r g yi s g i v e nbyg c o mp a r eEq . ( 9 . 2 3 ) ) X( l ) ( k , f . t G )K X( j ) ( k)
=
=j
#3 k'
Th ef r e q u e n c ys um i n Eq.( 2 5 . 3 1 )i st y p i c a lo ft h o s e oc c u r r i n gi n ma n y b o d y
phys i cs ,and we t he r e f or es t udy i ti n det ai l . For dehni t ene s s ,cons i dert he ca s e
zpl a ne r
C
C' c#
C
7= A ' C, * 7= l . t t l n C#
249
Xe u ' n TU t t ) a- x) -l
( 2 5 . 3 2 )
di ve r gel ogar i t hm i ca l l ywi t houtt heconver ge ncef ac t or;x )m us tt her ef or er em ai n pos i t i ve unt i laf t ert he s um i seval uat e d. The m os t di r e ct a ppr oac hi st o us ec ont our i nt egr at i on,whi ch r e qui r e sa m er om or phi cf unc t i on wi t h pol es at t he e ven i nt eg er s . One pos s i b l ec hoi ce i s
( 2 5 . 3 3)
e x a c t l yr e p r od u c e st h es u mi n Eq .( 2 5 . 3 2 ) ,b e c a u s et hei n t e g r a nd h a sa ni n hn i t e
t he nt h ei n t e g r a n di sofo r d e rI z( 1 e x p( -( j - z ) ) Re z ) 'i , f' ; z+x a l on ga r a y wi t h R ez < 0. t hen t he i nt egr a nd i sofor derh zl 1 e x pt p Rez ) . S i n c e n h > ' ? ) > 0 , ,
Jor dan' sI emmas howst hatt he c ont r i bt i onsoft hel ar gear c sf 'v ani s h and we
ar el e f twi t ht he i nt e gr al sal ong C '
e i t z l x n
n
l h
d z
: n z
i u l ? t- x
2 =1 c ,e / l z- l z - x
( 2 5 . 3 4 )
The onl ys i ngul ar i t yi nc l uded i n C'i sa s i m pl e pol e atz= . , ' t .and Cauc hy' s t he or em yi e l ds
l i m
)h = i s x- l 5 * Qn r c o x e b ! Ve ! J 1 n
-
gi u a an
( 2 5 . 3 5 )
wher et he m i nus s i gn ar i s e sf r om t he ne gat i v es ens e of C ' , and i ti s now pe r mi s s i bl et ol e tT> . 0. Thi s der i va t i on exhi bi t st he e s s e nt i a!r ol e oft he con-
) h
y z
e T z
f . sK- x F l 0 dd
l =i c e b ' z+ 1z - x
( 25 . 3 6 )
2*
l i m
: *0at i - x e' h x+ 1 x , d n
e l a u , l=
pk
( 2 5 . 3 7 )
l i m
=: ! : : 1 *: a i t a t e ' ' x: ! :1 a- x
e l t t h '
p h
( 2 5 . 3 8 )
( l ) ( k ) = J g s je x p ( g 4 . s l j : j u j
=
Thi se xpr es s i onappl i est of e r mi onsata 1 1t emper a t ur e sandt obos onsats uci e nt l y hi gh t e mper a t ur e st ha tt he unpe r t ur bed s ys t e m hasno Bos e Ei ns t e i n condens a-
t h ef or m( c o mpa r eS e c . 9 )
q f ( 1 , 2 ) = =q f 0 ( l , 2 )+J#3#46 / 0 4 1 , 3 ) 14 3 , 4 ) f 0 ( 4, 2 )
( 2 6. 1 )
whe r et hei nt e gr al sc ont ai nan i mpl i ci ts pi ns ummat i on and t het i mei nt egr at i ons
251
Y( 1 , 2 )= X* 4 1 , 2 )+J#3#4E* ( 1 , 3 )F0 ( 3 , 4 ) Y* j 4 , 2 )+ .
equat i on
( 2 6. 2 )
e x pr e s s i o nsf ors p a t i a l l yv a r y i ngs y s t e ms( c or r e s p o n di n gt ot h eGr e e n' sf u n c t i on f # t xl , xc , o p n l l ,we s ha l lc on c e n t r a t eo nt h em o r eu s u a ls i t u a t i on wh e r et h ef kl l Fo ur i e rr e p r e s e n t a t i on i sp o s s i b l e( s e e Eq s . ( 2 5 . 2 3 )a n d( 2 5. 2 4) 1 . Th es u msa n d i n t e g r a l si n Eq. ( 2 6 . 3 )a r et he nr e a d i l ye v a l u a t e d, l e a v i n ga na l ge b r a i ce qu a t i on Fl k, f . t ? a l= F0 ( k, ( s a )+ F0 ( k, ( s n )X* ( k, t z ) Jf # ' t k, f , e n l ( 2 6 . 4 )
whe r e al 1 quant i t i e s ar e as s um e d di agonal i n t he m at r i xi ndi c es . Equat i on
( 2 6 . 4 )ha st h ee x p l i c i ts o l u t i on Ft k , ( 5 n l- ( F0 ( k, f . z ) n ) -l - Y* ( k, ( s a ) ) -l
Fa j t k, t z y n l =b u f l i u ) n- -1 ( e 2- p , )- Y* ( k , t s n ) ) 1
( 2 6 . 5 )
N ( F , F , p , ) = : T E l z ' ( 2 . 8 i l ) j( z z p ; yF s l u . a . j u o ( y k . s j ' j ; w ( k , c o j j
( 2 6 . 6 )
e k k ' n ' l
f ( F , U , J z ) = E F P ' ( 2 J + 1 ) j( a , a . ) a j j F . ) c w a . , y
xj h .
d3 k 1 i
J3 -1
i t p + 1 ( 6 2+sw r z ) 1 t k l o l n-h ( e 2- / z ), .a )
u r p , ( a , +1 ) j( a . ) , sy e . . , ? c +. p x* ( k, o a . ) x j + j . . y , ( , k s ) z . ( k , . x ) j
. .
262
f 1 ( F ,
l d A g d: k j. y k o s y p P ' , r z ) = f c ( F , F , J z ) E F P ' ( 2 J + 1 ) j o j j ( z s ) jm u .o
s
s' ! + i 1e k s) o l . sw A ( k, ( s a ) ( 2 6 . 8 ) n- h (
-
! 4E* A ( k, J
Theconver g enc ef ac t oragai n pl a ysani m por t antr ol es f ori tal l owsust oe l i mi nat e t hec ons t antt er mi nt hel as tt woexpr e s s i ons . Fordefni t e nes s ,cons i de rbos ons whe r e
( 2 6 . 9 )
The s e cond l i ne i sm e r e l yt he s um ofa geom et r i cs e r i eswhi l et he l as tI i ne f ol l ows
f l = t ' ) o : ! : P r ( 2 J + 1 ) j o u j j j p( ) h ) j ( e j a s y j j j u w z j k y t s z s A y k y s a ;
( 2 6 . 1 1 )
whe r e b0t h1 : *2 and GA m us t be e xal uat e df orva r i a bl e coupl i ng c ons t ant . I ti sa l s o us e f ult oi nt r oduce t he pol ar i z at i on A and e f l kct i v ei nt er ac t i on
ldv j
#3 k
( 2 6. 1 2 )
I ft hepr o perpol ar i z at i onJ 1*i sde Ene d ast hes um ofal lpol ar i z at i on i ns er t i ons
t h a tc a n n o tb es e pa r a t e di n t ot wop a r t sb yc u t t i n gas i n g l ei n t e r a c t i onl i n e' # %, Eq. ( 2 6 . 1 2 )c a nt he nb er e wr i t t e na s( c omp a r eEq. ( 9 . 4 3 *) <( q , f . t Gl =Ao t q, t z ) n l+ A o t q, t z ? 2Z* ( q, t z G ) At q , f . ' : a l ( 2 6 . 1 3 )
wi t ht hee xpl i c i ts ol ut i on
'
( 2 6 . l 4 )
253
i nt e r ac t i on f ora gi v en m om ent um and e ner g yt r ans f e r . Thust he det e r mi nat i on oft hecol l ec t i vem odesas s oc i at e d wi t h dens i t yos ci l l at i onsatf i ni t et em per at ur e r equi r esa m or ec ar e f ulana l ys i s ,whi c hi sgi ve ni n Chap.9.
t ' g lVf h& . +h -- / . t- & ' ( xj ) $= f j ( xj rI , xj ' ' r J ) u c. f d? . v cl z ( xj - xa ) j s ? l xf f a y ; j y ( xI r1 , x zr ) ; x1 ' r j ' , x2T 1 )= h b l xI- xL ' ) b ( rl -r / ) b x ;
7. 3. As s umi n g a un i f o r ms y s t e m o fs p i n !f e r mi o n sa tt e mp e r a t u r e F,a nd
us i ng t he Fe ynman r ul e si n m om e nt um s pac e.
( : )e v a l ua t et h ef r e q ue n c ys u ms .
7. 4. Cons i dera s ys t em ofnoni nt e r ac t i ng par t i c l esi n an e xt er nal s t at i cpot ent i al
j ( c t u l n ; r r ' ) Fe a x j / l u b a . ' a l s z . , wn , = . . ? n
asl
l i mi t sy p= 3 p . ! n / 2 e sa s F+ . 0( Pa u l ip a r a ma g n e t i s m) a n dy c= J z l n / ksr a s
T. > . c c( Cu r i e ' sl a w) , wh e r eni st h epa r t i c l ed e ns i t y . ( c )H z ' / l yd o e st h ez e r o t e mpe r a t u r e fo r ma l i s mg f p pt h ewz wz ? ga n s we r?
7. 6. Pr ove
2 . p ' fc
y( z ) t a nhzJ z= *
... .
/ (a i n j
2 n+ 1
Z7LHA RTREEFOCK APPROXI M ATI ON A sdi s cus s e di n Se c.1 0,t her e ar e m any phys i c als ys t em swhe r ei ti sm e ani ngf ul t ot a l k aboutt he mot i on ofs i ngl e par t i c l e si nt he av er ag es el f c ons i s t enthel d gene r at e d bya 1 1 t heot herpar t i c l es . Thes i m pl es toft hes es e l f cons i s t entappr oxi -
t 1
2B6
zs6
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
gene r al i za t i on oft he Har t r e eFoc k equat i onst ha ti sval i df orbot h bos onsand f e r mi ons . W ea gai nc ons i de ras ys t e mi n as t at i cs pi ni ndepe nde ntext e r nalpot ent i al
( 2 7 . 2 )
.
whe r et he i nt er par t i c l e pot e nt i ali sagai n as s um ed t o be s pi ni nde pendent . .l n t hepr es entappr oxi m at i on,D ys on' sequat i ont ake st hef or ms how ni n Fi g.2 7. 2,
t ) + .* $ ) 0
wh i c hi sf or ma l l yi d e n t i c a lwi t ht h a ta tz e r ot e mp e r a t ur e( Fi g.1 0. 5 ) . Si n c eX
i st i me i n depen dent ,i ti sper mi s s i bl et oi nt r oducea Four i e rs er i e s wi t hr e s pe gt t ot he' rv ar i abl e s:
( 2 7 . 4 )
F0 ( x, x' ,
( 2 7 . 7 )
257
F( x @k ( x ) n ( x' ) * ,x' , f w) - Ji : n- h ( 0 -p , )
( 2 7 . 8 )
( H ( x ) )= : ! u ( 2 5 , +l ) ( j ) 1j ) e t u , n ' l r #t x , x, f . s a l
-
( 2 ,+ 1 )z ! ( s( x ) 1 2 , , , J
( 2 7 . 1 0 )
wher e
n J= l e b l E l l a t : J :l ) l
mean num be rofpar t i c l e si sgi ve n by
r es pondi ngl y,t he i st hee qui l i br i um di s t r i but i on f unc t i on f ort heyt hs t at e. Cor
N( F, # ' , / . t ) =( 2 . +1 )X n i
J
( 2 7 . 1 1 )
Ac omb i n a t i o no fEqs . ( 2 7 . 6 )a n d( 2 7 . 1 2 )y i e l d sa no nl i n e a re q ua t i on f o rJ ; Ji n
t e r mso f( /. J
I ti sc onve ni entt oi nt r oduc ea di f l kr e nt i alope r at or
, ,
F j= i t hu ) n+ 2 '+ p, - U( xl )= i hu ) n- Kn
m
h2V2
whi ch i st he i nver s e ofh-3 @% . The s ubs e quentanal ys i si si dent i c alw' i t ht hat ofSec.1 0,and wes hal lonl ys t at et hesnale quat i onf or%y:
-
( 2 7 . 1 3 )
asg
whe r ehX*now de pendse xpl i c i t l y on F and y , . Thi ss e tofs e l f cons i s t e nte quat i onsi sa ge ner al i zat i on oft he Har t r ee Fock t he or yt o hni t et e mper a t ur e s;t he t em pe r at ur e af l kc t st he di s t r i but i on f unc t i on nl di r e c t l y and al s o m odi he se l and J' Jt hr ough t he s e l f cons i s t e nt pot e nt i al . Al t hough t he t heor yl os es i t s phys i c alcont e ntf or bos ons bel ow t he c ondens at i on t e mpe r at ur e,i tr e mai ns val i df orf e r mi onsatal lt emper at ur es . I n par t i c ul ar ,t heFer mi Di r acf unc t i on
wi t hag e n e r a l i z a t i o no fEq . ( 2 3 . 1 5 )
hlV2
whe r e &( x )= 0 a n d E* ( x . x' )= Y* ( x - x' ) . Th es e l f c on s i s t e n c yc o n di t i on s t hen bec ome m u ch s i mpl e r ,s i nc e@, ( x)may bet ake na sa pl ane wav e U-it ? k e l
and onl ye kr e m ai ns t o be de t er mi ned. D i r ec ts ubs t i t ut i on s hows t hat p f k * l t
e g= 4 + Y* ( k)
( 2 7 . 1 6 )
2B9
( 2 7 . l 8 )
i n whi ch e kbot h det e r mi ne s ,and i sde t e r mi ne d bynk . N ot et hatnka nd n kbot h depe nd on p. , whi ch maybeExe d byt her equi r e ment
( 2 7 . 1 9 )
( 2 7 . 2 0 )
t h ei n t r o du c t i on o fi n t e r a c t i o n s omp l i c a t e st h ep r o bl e mc o ns i d e r a bl y ,s i n c e
t h epo t e n t i a lU( x )h a sb ot has t r e n g t ha n dar a n g ea. Ass h o wn b e l o w,t h e
pr e s entca l cul at i on i sval i d whe n hlnk h2 ksrc= ksTo ; k : < < z
m MJ
( 2 8 . 1 )
nF( 0 ) x tmaz : whe r eP ' ( 0 )H P ' t k= 0 ) . Thesr s tc on di t i on s ho wst ha tt h i si sa l o wd e ns i t y a pp r o x i ma t i o n( n a 3< 1 ) ,whi l et hes e c on dc o n di t i on l i mi t st h es t r e n g t h oft h e
pot ent i a l . N ot e,howe ve r ,t hatwe do notr equi r et he us ualcondi t i on f ort he
h2
l m + e k= -
:2 k2
#3 k' F( 0 ) + F( k - k' ) ( 2 =) ) e ( r : , pj y k s r j
. .
( 2 8 . 4 )
a6c
( 2 8 . 5 )
( 2 8 . 6 )
For a s phe r i c al l ys ym m e t r i c pot ent i al ,t he l i ne ar t e r m vani s hes . l ft he mean s quar er adi us ali sdefne d by t he r el at i on
f #3 xP ( x ) . x 2 a2 = - - . --
J#3 xP r ( x )
( 2 g . J )
( 2 8 . 8 )
wh e r e F( 0 )a n da la r e bo t hp o s i t i v ei f U( x )i se v e r y whe r er e pu l s i v e . Th e
( 2 8. 9 )
wh e r e , f r o m Eqs . ( 2 8 . 3 )a nd( 2 8 . 4 ) ,
e t l = l n F ( 0 ) . . U ( 0 ) a l j j j s , z g f r : , j t w s z j = 2 n F ( 0 ) g l + O ( m a 2 y k z s F j j
a n d 1 1g j.n F( 0 ) ma 2
t / 3 k/
k' l
( 2 8. 1 0 ) ( 2 8 . 1 1 )
Thes ec ondt er mi nbot hoft hes eexpr es s i onsr epr e s e nt sas m al lc or r e ct i onbec aus e
o fc on d i t i on s( 2 8 . 1 )a n d( 2 8 . 2 ) ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .S i nc et h ee f l k c t i v e ma s sa r i s e s e nt i r e l yf r om t he e x c h a n g ei nt e r a c t i o ni n Eq. ( 2 8 . 4 ) ,i tc l e a r l yr e p r e s e n t sa
quant um m ec hani ca le f l kct .
261
The t r ans i t i on t e m per a t ur e and c or r e s pondi ng c he mi cal pot ent i al ar e de t er mi ned by t hepai rofequa t i ons
n-
J( 2 , 4 3 e x p ( 2 k 2 / 2 * k s r c ) l
lnhl n 1
dq k
( 2 8. 1 2 )
k sFc= v
r n ( ( 1 )
( 2 8 . 1 4 )
l fTv de not e st he t r a ns i t i on t emper a t ur ef or a noni nt e r ac t i ng gasoft he s am e dens i t y and m as sm,t hei nt er par t i cl e pot e nt i als hi f t st he t r ans i t i on t em pe r at ur e byan am ount l
( 2 8 . 1 5 )
N ot et hat a pur el yr e pul s i ve pot ent i all owe r st he t r ans i t i on t empe r at ur e. The
( : J w ) ( z % f ' ) F M + s + r ( % ) S ) F p
lThi sr e s ul t wa sob t a i ne d by M . Lu ba n,Ph ys . Ae n . ,1 M: 9 6 5( 1 9 62 )a ndb yV.K. W on g, Ph. D. Th e s i s ,Uni v e r s i t y ofCa l i f o mi a,Be r k e l e y ,1 9 6 6( u np ub l i s h e d) .
'Someoft het e chni quesus ed her e wer ei nt r oduced by A . A.Abr i kos ov,L.P.Gor kov,and
z62
D T
zs
FC Yp . s
9 5 -
( 2 9 . 3 )
Thi se xpr es s i on di f l kr sf r om t he us ua ls pec i sc hea tbec aus ep,i she l d sxe d.but i ta l l owsust oc om put et heent r opybyi nt egr at i ngatc ons t ant# 'and y , .
Equ a t i o n( 2 9. 1 )i sc o mp l e t e l yg e ne r a l , b utt h ep r e s e n tc a l c u l a t i o nc a nb es i mpl i 5ed c ons i de r abl y by s t udx p i ng onl yt he l eadi ng sni t et em pe r at ur e cor r e c t i on. Theex ac tG r e en' sf unct i on @ depe ndson F b0t ht hr ough t hedi s c r e t ef r e que ncy
z o n= ( 2 n+ l l r r / j a n dt h r ou g ht h es e l f e n e r g y E* ( k, ( s a , F) ( s e e ,f o re x a mp l e ,
Eq.( 2 7 . 1 7 ) ) . Th i sf u nc t i o na ld e p e n d e n c e ma y be ma d ee x p l i c i tb y wr i t i n g
D ys on' sequat i on as
( 2 9. 4 )
( 2 9. 5 ) F( k, . , 0 ) l= F0 ( k, ( s a ) l- X* ( k, ( s a , 0 )
whos edi se r e nceyi el ds
F( k, ( z ) n . F) F( k, ( z ) a , 0 )+ F( k. f . , a a , 0 ) E X* ( k, ( . t ) n , F)- Y* ( k . ( s a , 0) ) F( k, ( , ) n , 0 ) ( 2 9 . 8 )
HARTREE-FOCK A PPROXI M ATI ON
( 2 9 . 9 )
263
wh e r e we n ow wr i t e @u g= 3 . j @. Equ a t i o n( 2 9. 8 ) ma yb eu s e dt or e wr i t e
t hi sexpr e s s i on as
( # ) 1 j ) > . ( 2 . v ) 1 ( * n , a# J *X d
( 2 9 . 1 1 )
Suc h a pr oce dur ei sper mi s s i bl e onl yi ft he s um and t hei nt e gr albot hc onve r g e t ot he s am e l i mi t . I nt he pr es entc as e,howe ver ,t he r es ul t i ng i nt e gr ali st oo s i ngul art o per mi tt hes ubs t i t ut i on. l To de m ons t r at et hi sr at hers ubt l e di s t i nct i on,we s hal leva l uat et he s um e xpl i c i t l y and t hen compar ei t wi t ht he appr oxi mat ei nt egr a l . Cons i der t he
qu a n t i t yo c c ur r i n gi n Eq. ( 2 9 . 1 0 ) :
a /F) h? 0
( 2 9 . 1 2 ) ( 2 9 . 1 3 )
and
v x2 =l f ( . & ) - 1 ( e :- p , ) ) 2
( 2 9 . 1 5 )
t h e or ye x a mi n e di nEq . ( 2 9. 1 2 )s e r v e sj u s t t h i sp u r po s e . z
'Th i sp oi n twm s f i r s t e mph a s i z e dbyJ . M. Lu t t i n g e ra ndJ . C. Wa r d, Ph y s . Ae r . , 1 1 8: 1 41 7( 1 9 K) .
2Not et hatt he adi abat i c dampi ng t er ms ii zi z .t he denomi nat or s oft he c or r es pondi ng r e e al f r e qu e n c yi n t e g r a l si nt h ez e r o t e mm r a t ur et h e or ys e l ' v ee x a c t l yt h i ss a mef u n c t i o n.
264
- ' --
bef ound
( 2 9 . l 8 )
whi c hma ybec on s i de r e da ni n t e g r a le q ua t i o nf orX* ( q . F)- Y* ( q , 0 ) . Thef undament a lt her m odynami cf unct i on KI T,1 , ' , J . t )can now ber ewr i t t en b yc o mbi n i n gEq s . ( 2 9 . 1 )a n d( 2 9. 8 )
( j ) 1( j ) e l c o n T l i h u ) n+ e k- p , )g l ua- l ( E ' 2- p , )- Y* ( k, 0 ) ) 1
=
( 2 ( e :- p . )- E* ( k, 0 ) ) n k t r) ( 2 9 . 2 0 )
( j ) lj ) e l n T l i h u ; n+ e - y , )( F( k, t s a , 0 ) ) 2
=
n k ( T) ( h n k l l ' )+ ( 2 ( e :- J z )- E* ( k, 0 ) ) h8 t 2 9. 21 ) e k
26s
f u n c t i o no n k ( Q l l o k= -3 ( 6 k- p . ) . Th i sc a n c e l l a t i ono c c u r sb e c a us ea l l q ua n t i t i e s
hav e bee ne xpr e s s e di nt er msoft he e xac ts pe c t r um e k ,s howi n gt he ne ce s s i t y of r et ai ni ng t hef ul ls el f c ons i s t e nc yi nt he H ar t r ee Fock t heor y. I n addi t i on,t he
( 2 9 . 2 4 ) ( 2 9 . 2 5 )
W ( ) a s / j p , s . . i r l k p ' . r 2( * ) k z v t k l c , s ) 2 s e c h z e 2 k . T M
whi c hl eav es a s i ngl ei nt e gr a lov er k. A tl ow t e m per at ur e s ,t he i nt e gr and i s pe ake d att he poi nte k= p, ,wi t h a wi dt ht hatvani s he sasF -. > . 0. I fwec ha nge
aee
v a r i a b l e st o tH ( l / 2 ksF) ( e :- / z ) ,t h el o we rl i mi tma yb ee x t e n d e dt o J= -c c
wi t h ne gl i gi bl ee r r or:
( 2 9 . 2 6 )
whe r et h es l o wl yv a r y i n gf a c t o rk l d k j d q kh a sb e e nt a k e n ou t s i de t he i n t e g r a l .
SI T , P , / z )= . jl z ' / c jF k2 k !
dz -1
rk -p
( 2 9. 2 7 )
The e nt r opy i sa t he r m odynam i cf unct i on oft he s t at e oft he s ys t em ,and i ti snow pe r mi s s i bl et oc hange var i abl esf r om fxe d p,t of i xed N . To obt ai n t he l e adi ng or de ri nt he l owt em per at ur e cor r e ct i ons ,we m a y us et he z e r ot em pe r at ur ee quat i on
( 2 9. 2 8 )
wh e r et h eFe r mi e ne r g yi s no wd e f i n e db yt h er e l a t i o n( s e eEq s . ( 2 9 . 1 3 ) a n d( 2 9. 1 7 ) )
( 2 9 . 2 9 )
blk
r n*F
( 2 9 . 3 0)
i Ds j . 2m * =2
and t he l owt em per at ur e ent r opy and hea tca pac i t y be com e
S ( T s V s Nj , =C k=Tj j y / v y =N k L F j j y j' j
As i m pl ec al c ul at i on yi e l ds
( 2 9 . 3 1 )
mw -z=m - +n z a s. sj y . a v ' a r k s
lP E* ( k, 0) !
( 2 9 . 3 2 )
I ti snot abl et ha tt hel owt empe r at ur et her modynami cf unc t i onsar e det er mi ne d s ol e l y by t heze r ot e m per at ur ee xc i t at i on s pec t r um . Thi ss i m pl er es ul t ,whi c h
267
s e l f e n e r g y . S i n c e X* ( k, F) i si n de p e n d e n to ff r e qu e n c y ,t h es p e c t r um e k
me r e l ys hi f t st he e ne r g y ofe ac hs i ng l epar t i c l el e ve l ,and t he i nt e r ac t i ng' g r ound s t at es t i l lcons i s t s ofa sl l e d Fer mis ea. The l owt e mper at ur e he atc apa ci t yi s de t er mi ne d by t hos epar t i c l e swi t hi n an e ner g ys hel loft hi cknes s; a J ksr ar ound t heFer miene r gy e rE se k s . Ata t emper at ur e r.t hei nc r e as ei nt het ot alene r or LE i spr oport i onalt ot heener gy chang e perpar t i c l e ksT t i me st he numbe r of ex c i t e d pa r t i cl es
h Ec( k s r ) p ' ( 2 , r r ) 3 j s : 3 k
ksF < : <: s ,weobt ai n
' '
( 2 9 . 3 3 )
nc e whe r et he s u bs c r i pts d e n o t e st h ei n t e g r a t i o nr e g i on I e k -e Fl f ks F. Si
hE c c( k sr) 2a r rj
Thuswes e et hat
j z k # t j k r ( ur ) 2 ( a 3 ) j ' ) * ) F )
( 2 9. 3 4 )
C #( F) Nk kTm* v= d T C c h z k
( 2 9 . 3 5 )
and t he cons t ant ofpr opor t i onal i t y m us tc l e ar l y be t he s ame asf or a per f e c t Fer m igaswi t h m as sm *.
3OLELECTRON GAS I nt he pr e vi ouss e ct i ons ,we s t udi e dt he H ar t r e eFock appr oxi m at i on a tf mi t e t e m per a t ur e ,whi c h appl i e st os ys t e m s wi t hs i m pl et wobody pot ent i a l s . For
e x a mp l e , t heFo ur i e rt r a ns f o r m F( q )mu s tbewe l lde f l ne da n dbo un d e df o ra l l q; t he s er e s t r i c t i o n sp r e c l ud eb ot hah a r dc o r e( U( x)> . c of orx< J )a n dal on g r a ng ec o u l o mb t a i lg U( q )> . . a za sq> . 0) . Mo s tph y s i c a ls y s t e msha v e mo r e
c om pl i c at e di nt er a ct i ons ,howe ve r ,whi c h m us tbet r ea t e d by s um m i ng s e l e ct e d
268
A PPROXI M ATE PROPER SELFENERGY
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
TheAami l t oni an i st hats t udi edpr e vi ous l yi nSe c s .3and 1 2,i nwhi c ht heuni f or m
ma t i ce x p a n s i o no fF h a sn ot e r ms c o n t a i n i n g' # %t q=0, ( s a )= U( 0 ) . Th e
e qui l i br i um be havi ori sm os teas i l yc al cul at e df r om t het her modynam i cpot ent i a l
( s e eEq. ( 2 6 . 1 1 ) )
!d, j
dq k 1
t e r m d i v e r g e s ,j u s ta sa tF= 0 ( s e eP r ob .8 . 4 ) .l ti st h e r e f or en e c e s s a r yt o
'
tk' a ' n
k-q, ( s .-o l n ,
Fi g.30. 1 Fi r s t or dercont ri but i on t ot hepropers ei f ener g yf oranel ect r on gas.
j ; ( * l ) ( k& o , n )= q , t s a ,
'
tk. o , a
i nc l ude a s e l e ct e dc l as s of hi gher or der di agr a ms , whos es um yi e l ds a l i ni t e c ont r i but i on. Thechoi c e ofdi agr am scan bem adebyex am i ni ng t he pe r t ur bat i on e xpans i on,and we now t ur nt ot he Fe ynm an s er i e sf or Z* and @ . I ti s conve ni entt oi s ol a t et he e f l kctoft he i nt er ac t i on i nt he pr opers el f e ne r gy;we
Th ec o nd i t i o n F( 0 )= 0 me an st h a ta l lt a d po l ed i a g r a ms v a n i s h. l n p a r t i c ul a r ,t he r ei son l yo n e sr s t o r d e rpr op e rs e l f e ne r g y( Fi g .3 0 . 1 ) . Th i s
c ont r i but i on i se as i l ye val uat e d wi t ht heFe ynm an r ul e sofChap.7:
XC) ( k, t , & )
= =
1 ( 2 r r ) 3jd3 q( # ) 1j l e t o n ' T' Ft l t k-q, ( z ) a-t t ) a , )F0 ( q , t t ) s , ) n' - 1 ( 2 r r ) 3Jd% P ' t k-q ) n ( 3 0. 2 )
whe r e Eq.( 2 5 . 3 8 )h a sb e e nu s e dt oe v a l u a t et hes u m an d1 0= ( e n n q ' l a t +1 ) 1 i sa f u nc t i o n oft h ec he mi c a lpo t e n t i a ly . . Equ a t i on ( 3 0. 2 )di f l k r sf r om Eq. ( 2 5 . 3 9 )be c a us et heu n i f or mp os i t i v eb a c k g r ou n dc a n c e l st hed i r e c t c on t r i b u t i on .
The cor r e s pondi ng fr s t or de rt e r m i nt he t he r m odyna mi c pot e nt i al i s gi ve n by
( 3 0 . 3 u )
269
( 3 0 . 3 : )
tk. t t l n
R> P k - q. p+ q k- q- p
t A ) Al n* V - ( 1
tk , t l
p+ q, t sj +v p, t t l l
k - q, f x l a-v
tks / w
Qy -j
q-p
p, 2
k- q
.- l
u t &- v o ) ) +v
q,v
p , t z j
q& v
t /l -f z N
4. *1
'
tk. / . o
( J)
' t k . t s
( : )
t k. . x v
( c )
a pp e a r e di nt h el l a r t r e e Fo c kt h e o r yo f as hi e l d e dpo t e n t i a lP ' ( x )= Fc xl e x / a
whe r et he e f l kct i v e m as sm* and l owt em pe r at ur es pec i f ! c hea tbot h vani s hl i ke
( 1 n( ks J ) 1 1a sa+ . c c( s e ePr o bs . 4 . 1a n d8 . 2 ) .
The unphys i calbehavi orpr edi c t e d by t he f i r s t or dercont r i but i on ne c es s i t at esan e xam i nat i on oft he hi ghe r or de rt e r ms . AtF = 0,t he s ec ondor de r pr oper s e l f ene r gi e s have al r e ady bee ne num er at ed i n Fi g.9. 1 6,and t he s am e di agr am soc curi nt hehni t et e m pe r at ur ef or m al i s m. I nt he pr es e ntcal cul a t i on
s po n di n ga n a l y t i ce x p r e s s i o n sa r e( t h es ub s c r i p trd e n o t e st h er i n gc o nt r i bu t i o n ofFi g . 3 0 . 2 4 )
270
ar ef or m al l yofor dere 4 ,t hehr s tdi Fer sf r om t heot he rt woi nt hef ol l owi ngway. I ne ac ht e r m,t he f r e quenc ys ums yi el dv ar i ous c om bi nat i ons of Fe r mi Di r ac di s t r i but i on f unc t i onsnobutdo notqua l i t at i v el ya l t e rt hem om e nt um i nt egr a l s
i ncl udesonl y ir s t -and s ec on dor de rt er ms i n X* c annot be c ons i de r ed s at i s f a ct or y,and i ti ses s ent i alt oexa mi net hehi gher or de rdi a gr ams .
t um t r ans f e rh q on e ach i nt er ac t i on l i ne;i nc ont r as t , t heot herdi agr am st r ans f er di se r e ntmoment um on t he t wo i nt e r ac t i on l i nes . As i mi l ar s t ru ct ur e per s i s t s
t oa l lor de r s . Fo re x a mp l e ,t he t h i r d o r de r pr op e rs e l f e n e r g yh a so n e( a n d
tk
tk
pz +q
pz
: :q
: : :
k-q
t l
k -q
q
p+4
p
q
t k Q
tq k
( X ( : ) Fi g.30. 3 Ri n gc on t r i b ut i o nt ot h ep r op e rs e l f e n e r g yi n( J )t h i r do r d e r ( b )h i gh e ror d er .
271
E*; zE* ( l ) + E* ( 2 ) b+ Y* ( 2 ) c+ n ) () 2 * ( n ) r =2
=
I : * ( l )+ Y* ( 2 ) b+ ) 2 * ( 2 ) c+ X* r
( 3 0. 5)
( c o mpa r eS e c s . 9 . 1 2 , a n d2 6 ) a s s o c i a t e d wi t ht h ec l o s e dl o opi n1 2 ; * . Fi g u r e3 0. 4
q, v n q, G
.
q. v a
q+ p
* =v w -v q z v q+ v + .1 n
q& G
p, a , j
F i g . 3 . 4 Ri n ga p p r o + a t i o nt ot h ee f e c t i v et wo b o d yi n t e r a c t i o n .
s hows t he r e l e vant di agr am s and t he c or r es pondi ng anal yt l ce xpr e s s i ons ar e
'
# ' r t q , wl-Y' ( , ( q, y , n )+ ' / ' o ( q , ' z a ) J 1 0 ( q, v n ) ' # ' o ( q , y , n )+ .'' - ' # ' o ( q, p ' 2+ ' # ' o ( q , v 2J I Q ( q, r 2' f z r t q , r a )
( 3 0. 6 )
p ' ( q ) I l- p ( q ) . r I qq , p , , ) ) 1
( 3 0. 7 )
272
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
Th ea na l y t i cf o r m ofJ 1 0 ( q , v a )i se a s i l yd e t e r mi n e dbywr i t i n go u tt h es r s t
t wo t er m sofFi g.3 0. 4
'
= ( 2 ,) 3 j v
f l sl - -t ( e 0 ? -p , )i o l k+ i v n- 1 ( : 0 -/ P+Q . t )
( 3 0 . 8 )
J l 0 ( q, v n ) -j ( a ) 3 j s y a j l , ? ' z v a- , 1 ( : 0 p + q- el pj j( sj
X
d3 p
1
-
i j- h j ( % ( ) -p , ) -j g s j +i v n- h j ( 6 ( p ) + q' p . )
( 3 :. 9 )
= -2 ( 2 j p + q ( ) p ( j j =) i h v n-( E p + q- e p
#3 p
n 0 - nn
wher et hei de nt i t yei h v n= 1hasbe enus e d. W eemphas i zeagai nt hatnp ode pends
+ ''' =
273
'
l- p t q j ho t q , r ) j
( 3 0 . 1 1 )
IV W
t )2 b Fi g.30. 6
gaS.
274
s e c o n dor de rc o n t r i bu t i o n( 2 2 ,a r i s i n gf r o mt h ei t e r a t i o no fY? k t . Th et e r m D,
cont ai ns t he m os ti nt er e s t i ng phys i c alese c t s and i ss t udi e dl n de t ai li nt he
( 1 a ,
-1
1#A j - d% 1
e
.
,
A 2 ( F( q) j 2 J 1 0 ( q , p a )
275
i t sa r g u me n t s . ) S i n c e F0i si n d e p e n d e n to fA ,t h ei n t e g r a t i on ov e rA i se a s i l y
c ar r i e d out ,and we f i nd
f L ,=
=
j z J *d3 q gl dh 2 j F( q) J ' I 0 ( q p y rl
.
I f Eq.( 3 0 . 1 6)i se x p a nd e di n a po we rs e r i e si nc 2 ,t h el e a di n gc on t r i b ut i o ni s
f or m al l y of or der : 4 owi ng t ot he expl i ci tr e m oval of t he r s t or de rt e r m . As s hown be l ow ,howev er ,t he s um m at i on oft he i nfni t es e r i e s m odi se st hi ss i m pl e pow e r l aw dependenc eon e l ,and,i ndee d,e4j 1 rdi ve r ge sasel. > . 0.
J 1 0 ( q, p u )=J 1 0 ( q , -s)
-qr ? 0 Add and s ubt r a ctr l p o pi nt hen ume r a t o ro fEq. ( 3 0 . 9 )
J I 0 ( d3 ; ) n0 . ( 1 n 0 )-n 0 ( 1 n o p , , ) q, v u ) = -2 ( 2 . u ? . 9 . . -p P . ' =) 3 I f v n -( e p o y q / p )Thef i l ' s tt e r m ma yb er e wr i t t e nwi t ht h es u bs t i t u t i o n( p+q > . -p ) a l on gwi t ht h e a s s u me di s o t r o p yo ft h ed i s t r i b u t i onf un c t i o n( no t et h a tE ' p= 6 o 0 p= 6 p 0 )
0
( q , p a )= -2 j . y -. j n p 0 ( 1- n 0 p + q )i j j v, ( ( ) r ( p ) .s j . y . g ;-yy , u.. ( s ( p ) . j y .r j ;
-
' . d3 ,
- -
4j ( 2 = ' ) j n p 0 ( l ? : o p + q ) t y j s s j a -t p s J p t q j j p . q j j .
' * d3 n
s0- < . 0
( 3 0 . 1 8 )
wh i c hp r o v e s Eq. ( 3 0. 1 7 ) .l ti sa l s oc l e a rf r om t h ea b ov ec a l c ul a t i on st ha tJ l 0 i san e venf unct i on ofq a nd ofor derr , -2as' p n 1-> .c c: J 1 0 ( p3 q , v n )' - 4 c d5 n 0 p ( 1- n p 0 . q ) ( e D p- s o . h q l ( 3 0 . 1 9 ) i v a s ' c o( %) ( 2 =)
cLAssl cAL LI MI T
Ther i ngdi agr am c ont r i but i on t ot he t her m odynam i cpot ent i alD rc an now be us e dt os t udy t wo l i mi t i ng c as e s ,and we sr s tc ons i de rt he be hav i or athi g h t e m pe r at ur e and 1 ow de ns i t y, when t he quant um m ec hani ca l Fe r mi Di r a c
( ? g. J ( ) )
276
-
FI NI TETEMPERATURE FORMALI SM
Thi sa pp r o x i ma t i o ni s j u s t i s e dwhe n e v e re H / k B ' r< t1o rt q ui v a l e n t l yf o rJ z / k sF + . c c ) .I nt h i sl i mi t ,Eq .( 3 0. 1 9 )s ho wst h a tJ 1 0 ( , p , j )v a ni s h e sa sF2f o r /# 0. Th ef r e qu e n c ys um i nEq. ( 3 0 . 1 6 )s e p a r a t e si n t ot wop a r t s
f 1 , =. . V k pF( 2 = ) 3jd3 qt l ng l- P r ( t ? ) J l 0 4 , 0 ) )+ P r ( t ? ) J l 0 ( g, 0 ) )
*
t h eh i g h t e mp e r a t u r el i mi tEqs . ( 3 0 . 1 9 )a n d( 3 0. 2 0 )g i v e
n o= 2 ( 2 g 43Jdq pn n
Fur t her m or e ,t heproduct
, .,
Thes um ove rl c onve r ge s ,a ndt hes i ngul arbe ha vi orat t ?; k : 0hast husdi s appe ar e d.
zz . p J l % , 0 ) =2 ( 3e c ; 2 =) p . . q- e p
#3 p nz p + q- nz p .
:3 n n . . p +q- nn 2p ) aa p
. . ..
(= p + q a p
-
( 3 0 . 2 2 )
Si ncet henume r a t orvani s hesatt hes amepl ac east hede nomi nat or ,wec an kee p t r ac k oft hes i ngul ar i t ybyt r e at i ngt hei nt e gr a lasaCauc hypr i nc i palv al ue. The
277
r e m ai ni ng i nt e gr at i onsar e el em e nt ar y and gi ve
( 3 0 . 2 3 )
whe r e
A. z ' n ph l ' 1
(. j. ( p , yv )
l =h l1
( 3 0 . 2 4)
( 3 0 . 2 5 5 )
wi t ht he l i mi t i ng behavi or
( 3 0. 25:) ( 30. 25 c)
x 2 wg z t p t z z r jt 2 6 MAl ) 1. x 1 )( 3 0. 2 6 )
Whe r et hes ec ondl i nei sobt ai ne dwi t ht hechangeofv ar i abl esz= 8, 7 7 . 62, 3e bl x el xz . Thi s equat i on cont ai ns t he coupl i ng cons t ant : 2 bot hi n an ove r al l coeci ent and i nt he ar gum ent of t p ;we m ay obt ai nt he l ea di ng cont r i but i on by s et t i ng e= 0 i nf / l t ai nt e gr and,s i nc et he t er m s negl e ct e d ar e ofhi gheror de ri nE ' 2 . A
'
c o mbi na t i o no fEq s . ( 3 0 . 2 5 5 )a n d( 3 0. 2 6 )y i e l ds ( 3 0 . 2 7 )
whe r et hec onve r ge ntde sni t ei nt e gr alhasbee ne val uat e d by par t i ali nt e gr at i on. l ti snot a bl et ha tf l , ri sofor de rt a 3 ,al t hough t he l owe s t or de rt er mi n Y* r i sf or m al l y ofor der e 4 . Thi s be ha vi or can be unde r s t ood by ex am i ni ng t he
z7g
p e r t u r b a t i o ns e r i e sf o rDr , wh i c hi so b t a i n e db ye x p a n di ngEq. ( 3 0 . 2 6 )
Dt r, F, p , )= f l n+ f 1 l + Dr + O( e 4 ) ( 3 0 . 2 9 ) b e c a u s et h er e ma i ni n g( h ni t e )s e c on d or de rt e r msa r ee x pl i c i t l y ofo r d e re 4 .
W es how,i nt hef ol l owi ngdi s cus s i on,t hatt he hr s t or dere xc ha ng econt r i but i on
( 3 0 . 31 )
D ( F , F , p ) = p -se s / k s z ' g l + j ( 2 = ) + ( k C 2 / p A j 1 e s / 2 u z . j
ofJ z
2P' : w
( 3 0 . 3 2 )
k s / k ; l l n t 1 2 3 ( 1 n . 1 ( : C 2 s N y 1 j j ' j
# ( F , V , N 4 = - p ,; k J n s ' r y * ( e k 2 s a y l . ) ! '
-
( 3 0 . 3 4 )
( 3 0 . 3 5 )
279
whi ch i st he De by el l i i cke lequa t i on ofs t a t ef ora c l as s i c ali oni ze d gas . l The I e adi ngt er m de s c r i be saper f e ct gas , whi l et hec or r e ct i ont e r mr educ e st hepr e s s ur e
( 3 :. 3 6 )
V2 p=4 xe t a- n o ) +4 z r e 3 ( x )= z We n o k e e *' k B T- l )+ 4 z , r p 3 ( x )
ck nz+ + 4 ; k ; 4 =e g r e 3 ( x )
aT
( 3 0. 3 7 )
when t he l as t equal i t y hol ds under t he condi t i ons di s c us s e d above,t hati s , e w. c 4ksr. Thi se quat i on c an be r ewr i t t e n
( V2- q j ) ( / ? =4 =e 3 ( x)
wher eqo i st her e ci pr oe aloft heD e by es hi e l di ngl e ngt h
( 3 0. 3 8 )
( 3 0. 3 9 )
( 3 0. 4 0 )
( ) %' = 0e wq ox
t ? lH k Fs
4=nzel
c l o u u
= -
y g
V2+
x >0
=-
k Bj . k Bp y
( 3 0 . 41 J )
oral t e r nat i v el y
Pc 2 4=x l o u u= e qn
e-qDx'
( 3 0 . 41 : )
'P.De by ea n d E. Hu c ke l , Ph y s i k. Z. . 2 4: 1 8 5( 1 9 2 3 ) .
ax
The w or k ne c es s ar yt o br i ng an i nhni t es i m alc har ge e l e m ent -de f r om i nEni t yt ot hec ent e roft hi sc har gec l oudi sgi ve n by t hee l e c t r os t at i cpot ent i alat t heor i gi n. Thusi fdW i st hewor k doneby t hes ys t em whe nt hechar geon ea ch oft heN el ec t r onsi si ncr eas e d by-d e,we5nd
dW = y# e ec l o u d t o )= Nd efp c l o u u t x ) x1 #3 x
= N q p e d e = N j u 4 = w N y z j + e z d e
l ' p ' e 1 j o d W -a( p w s r )
Fr o m Eq. ( 4 . 4 )t h ec ha n g ei nHe l mh o l t zf r e ee n e r g yc a nb ewr i t t e n J F= d E - Td S- Sd T= -dW - SdT
e
( 3 0 . 4 2 )
( 3 0 . 4 3 )
( 3 0 . 4 4 / )
Thewor k donebyt hes ys t em i n bui l di ng upt heent i r ec har ge, -eonea chel ec t r on i st he r e f or e
Ne 5 4z r 1 *
# FI w= -dW t r
( 3 0 . 4 4 : )
wh e r et h el a s tf o r m of Eq . ( 3 0 . 4 4 4 ) f o l l owsf r o mt h esr s tl a w of t he r mo d y na mi c s .
Thust hechangei nt he H e l m hol t zf r e ee ner gy oft heas s em bl y due t oe l e ct r i ca l wor ki s Ne3 4=N + ( 3 0 . 45 ) gw
F . k =p ' e y =- a( v g
p Fe l F P. .. S t = - pP' zw = . 2P P el r r l e 2al 0 1
Th ec o r r e s p o nd i n gc h a n g ei np r e s s u r ei so bt a i ne df r o m Eq . ( 4. 5 ) ( 3 0. 4 6 ) ( 3 0. 4 7 )
n o / c sT
j - kaT
l m
( , r A )
x 2 -# 2 ) ye 2 s x s rj jdq xdq ye a
l x- yl
( 3 ( ) . 4 g )
281
c l a s s i c a l l i mi t( h. . +0 )o ra sF . +c o . Theq ua n t i t yh l n k l mi sa na v e r a g ek i ne t i c
ener gy pe rpar t i c l e,and f 1lt husbe c om e sneg l i gi bl ei ft hi se ner gyi sm uch s m al l er t han t he g eom et r i cm e an oft heave r a ge t her m aland pot ent i ale ne r gy perpar t i c l e . Fi na l l y,we r e m ar kt hat t he l i r s t quant um me c hani cal c or r e c t i on t ot he
c l a s s i c a l e qu a t i o nofs t a t ef orap e r f e c t g a s( S e c . 5 )i so fo r d e r
e b HQ s. i n /3; k r 1 mk st
'
ll =hlnk
pot ent i a le ne r g y. I ns ummar y,t he t hr e er e l e vant e ne r gi e s( ki net i c ,pot ent i al , and t he r mal )m us ts at i s f yt he s e tofi nequal i t i eshln kl ! m< xe 2 nk< : 4ksF;t hefr s t
al l ow st heus eofBol t z m ann s t at i s t i csand r ende r sD lne gl i gi bl e,whi l et hes e cond e ns ur e st hatt he D e bye l di i ckelt e r m r epr e s e nt sa s m al lc or r e ct i on t ot he per f e c t ga sl aw.
ZEROTEM PERATU RE LI MI T
D r I F =0 , F , p , ) =! . P / 4 2 r r ) 4 j *d v J d ht 1 n ( 1 -U ( t ? ) J l 0 ( , p ) ) +P ' ( t ? ) J 1 0 ( . ' z ) l( 3 0 . 4 9 )
'M . Ge l l Ma n na ndK . A. Br u e c kn e r .Ph y s . Re v ,1 *: 3 6 4( 1 95 7 ) .
282
J l( : , $=-
3 . p ( 2 *) l v- q y z j n t ) ( pw qs j qa ) ( ( p. 5 ( , )
#3 p
n0 p + q- a 0
s i nc et hecor r e c t i onsofor derq2i nt hedenomi nat orcan bene gl ec t ed asl ong as vi shni t e. A tz er ot empe r at ur e,n0 pr educe st o as t ep f unc t i on,and i t sgr adi ent
( 3 0. 51 )
( 4 , r )= -N/zj h -j z- i mv l h q ko
= -
kom
dzz
kont
x ) . n . ah a A(
( 3 0 . 5 2 )
( 3 0. 5 3 )
whe r e X = k
and
.
mv
&x )=
-+ xz = ( )zz
1 Jz22
l- . xa r c t a nx
( 3 0 . 5 4 )
o =V h 2 / C J 4 %g xd yr X( q aj j u g j .4=e2
.
r2 ( 2 , 4 4 j .: ( ) - $L k ( 2 a ( ) ( y g o ( , / c m l x t j j 4. : , e2 + k l ( z a t j y ( ) t , k m d x l j j( a ( j . 5 5 )
p r o c e d ur ey i e l dsE c o mp a r et h et r e a t me n to fEq. ( 1 2 . 5 6 ) ) Dr = Dr l + Dr a
( 3 0 . 5 6 )
283
w her e 12 ol- 1 8 .3
k M l J ( x d x J ( 0 t e ( 3 d ( t I n g l + k o z j, ( t ) 2 a t x j k , 4 = m # i ( c t j 2 s t x j j( y ( ) . j , y u ) o r 2 , ' . w x z . . g 1 V g , h m l 3 / p c y ) j ( * * : r t s c g : ( r ( ) t . a C ; j s 4 r j e t . z j a o ( q j ; , ( , h k m x t j j z ( y ( ; , y g y j
Th e(i nt e g r a t i onl nEq. ( 3 0. 5 7 5 )c a nno w bee v a l u a t e de x p l i c i t l y:
* ( ' ( , . : 3 d ( t l n g l + d t e s z q d g z j t . a z e . t v i t , g I n ( l + t j t z l , ' d t e j z j 1 , ( , + t d ) )
-
*. $ . 1 2 : 4 ( 1 n( a d , 2 )- J . - 2l n( o )+ O( e 6 ) ( 3 0. 5 8 )
wher e
, d t x l =k o r ' r h zF c o 4 m ' r c ( j . . x a r o t a n x 1 . )
di ver ges:
4 mR( x) .
( 3 0 . 5 9 )
i n t e g r a li s fn i t ef o ra n y( 0> 0 .e a c ht e r m o ft h ef o r ma lp e r t u r b a t i o ns e r i e s
. ( 1 0 B ( 3 # ( ) l n g l + / ' j' X ( C c 2 )
= -
J , 4 2 e 4 j 0y + > + j z 4 3 e 6 . j 1 0y * j + . ( 3 0 . 6 0 )
( ( , dy
1 . * ( 0d
t ot h eP de p e n de n c eo f e a c ht e r mi nEq. ( 3 0. 2 8 ) .I ti st h i si s o l a t i o no ft h e: 4 1 nE z
be ha vi ort hata l l owe d ust o de t er mi ne t hel e adi ng t e r mi nt hec or r e l at i onene r gy
d i r e c t l yf r o m t h es e c o n do r d e rt e r mi nt h eg r o un d s t a t ee ne r g y( Pr ob .1 . 5 ) . Th ec o n t r i bu t i o n Dr ca l s oe x hi bi t sa l o g a r i t h mi cs i n gu l a r i t ya s( c. > . 0 ,
284
32 k p * DrQ ;P : = 3m
a a( x ) ) a j ng e z xt xl j- j ya xt x l j z j . d x ) ' l ' E f + 4 j = ( m z e k l z 4 2 u x j j( g p . 6 p
di me n s i o n a l i n t e g r a l c o n t a i ni n gt h ef u nc t i on s:( . x )a n d1 ( x ) s g i v e ni nEqs . ( 3 0 . 5 9 ) a n d( 3 0 . 61 ) .
Bef or ewec ompl e t et hee val uat i on off 1 , ,i ti sus ef ult ocol l e c ta1 lt het er ms of( 1t hr ough or dere4l ndand e 4:
D( F, F, p )= f l c+ Dj +t ' 1 ,+ f l z ,+ 2 f 1 z c
#( r, M f I f l c p f l l p a ,+ 2 f 1 c r ) F , p ) = t uj s s = a s -o g -(f1r+ (1 a s
( 3 0 . 6 3 )
( 3 0 . 6 4 )
M= / z 0+ J L l +/ 1 2+ '''
( 3 0 . 6 5 )
whe r et hes ubs cr i ptde not est hecor r es pondi ngor deri ne 2 ,andt he n bye xpandi ng
N=
df l c . d r zs -s o
( 3 0 . 6 6 )
( p f 1 l / a p , ) , , , , , # ' l = -( a z f t o / a r z 2 j .-..
( 3 0. 6 7 )
285
pf l
?2j 1
+ P ' 1, ? + / t j
,
? - -
p-l x l l
Thes ec ond and l as tt er msc anc elbec aus eofEq.( 3 0. 66)s ot hatt heex pl i ci tf or m o fy . zi sn e v e rn e e de d. Equ a t i on s( 3 0 . 6 7 )a n d( 3 0 . 6 8 )c a nb ec ombi n e dt og i v e F( F, V, N)= Fo ( F, P ' . . N)+ D I ( / . t a )+ f ' l r t r z o l+ f 2 2 , ( / . t : ) l( 8 ( a1 / ' 8 r z ) 2 . , + 2 f 2 2 c ( / z 0 )- j( j k o-o a P ' ? ' ? - ( 3 0 . 6 9 ) ( ) // . zl , x , . , whe r ep , ai sa f u n c t i o n ofN,a n dF v ( T, U , A' ) -f o t p , e l +p , o Ni st he He l mho l t z
f r e e ene r gy ofan i de alFe r m igas .
Thep r e s e n td e s c r i pt i o nb e c o me se s p e c i a l l ys i mp l ea t z e r ot e mpe r a t u r e( s e e Eq . ( 5 . 5 3 ) 1 :
( 8 f ? . p . ( e 0 g , I q j j ) j y s s , / 9 2 ( ) a ( 0 , # ' , r z ) ! , a s2 ) , s ,
I nt hi sl i mi t ,t he z e r oor de rt e r m p , oi sgi ve n by
( 3 0. 7 0 )
# ' o ( X )= g sy
hl 7 3 7 , 7 . 2 N' i h 2 / ( . k -
(p ' Kj / / / =6 1
( 3 0. 71 )
t ha tt h el a s tt e r mo fEq.( 3 0. 6 9 )( i ns qu a r e br a c k e t s )v a n i s h e sa tF = 0 . Con s e que nt l y,t he gr ounds t at e ene r gy oft he Atpa r t i c l ei nt er act i ng s ys t e m hast he f ol l owi ngex pans i on
( 3 0. 7 2 )
f 1 l ( 6 ) )= -4 =e 2P r ( 2 =) 6jd? p( / 3 ( y4 p- qj 2 j j ks-pj p j k s- q j
t he c or r e l at i on e ne r gy
( 3 0. 7 3 )
( 3 0 . 7 4 )
fc o r r = Dr ( 6 / )+ ( 1 1 , ( e . )
28e
fc o r , =2 e c o r r
whe r ef r o m Eqs .( 3 0. 5 9 ) an d( 3 0 . 6 2 )
3 c o z
Ne l .
( 3 0. 7 5 )
e c o r =4 j l n GJ . I A @) )d x G*0
( 3 0 . 7 6 )
.
j * x ( R ( x ) ) 2 =j v d y j t j ( f z J# : , 2 z 2 Xd x( y z. y . x z ; ( z z. j . a z j
..
c o
3 =( 1- l n2 ) r ,> . 0
( 3 0 . 7 7 ) ( 3 0. 7 8 )
Thus
e c o r r =4 1 ( 1- l n2 ) l nr , +c o n s t
Eq s . ( 3 0. 1 3 c )a nd( 3 0 . 6 2 )g i v e s
D
2,
( 4)= z a t ' l 0
Ne l .
Ne 2
( 3 0 . 7 9 / )
f 1 r ( 6 k )= z a 3 * 3 j w d x R l x b j l ( l n ( 4 a G z r 1 ) +l n A @) - ) +3 j ( 3 0 . 7 9 : ) o(
wh e r ex= ( 4 / 9 , 01 , e li sad e sn i t ei n t e g r a l g i v e ni nP r ob .1 . 4 , a n d
3 J d x l l p( I , i m . ( = 4 a ( l I n 2 ) l n ( , a 3 . , j * ( a q . # . z d3 :d3 ,0 6 1- k) $ 1-p) # ( l p+ q x j j- g z . y . q , ( p . y . k ; j 1 ) % I k + q I -1 ) j
.
( 3 0 . 8 0 )
-W
'
7 .
'
$ '
! 1
h
287
f c o r r = = j ; i l n 2 ) l n ( 4 = G ) + ( j n R ) . . l+ j 3 + 4
-
( 3 O . g l )
( 3 0 . 8 2 5 ) ( 3 0 . 8 %)
J * . # x R l l n R ( 1 n A l a v >J . dx Rz o . j s j
= . -
--
&= 0. 05 08
3
( 3 0. 8 3 )
Eq.( 3 0. 6 9 )i n de e dv a n i s h e s . Th es e c o n dor d e rc o r r e c t i on Dz r( Eq .( 3 0. 1 3 5 ) )
c an ber ewr i t t e nf oral It em pe r at ur e sas
Dac
( 3 0 . 8 5 )
P ? 4 ja 1 ( 1-n 2 )= e
I nt h el i mi tr. > . 0,t h ef a c t o r n j / e lr e du c e st o-J 4 p , - 4) ,an dwec a nwr i t e Q2 e ( 0 , F, p , ( )= -. i ' F( 2 =) 3fd%3 ( p m-4) ( . / :2 ( 3 0 . 8 6 )
He r e
( 3 0 . 8 7 )
28:
( j s . ! ) s . . , p ' J y j . ) , 3 y p ' ( k q ) l ? 2 o . j n . s 6 . 0 + A ? z D j n s k s . s a
. .. .
' ?D
#3 k#
, v.,
= -
( 3 0 . 8 8 )
( 3 0 . 8 9 )
( 0 . j 2 . / ( 7 2 ) ' j 2 p * ( d y x . 3 . 6 y / 3 ( s ( ) e ( : ) 1 # ( -vo =
.
' '
( 3 0 . 9 0 )
U( ( ( / q- x . / k ) s ) 2 s ) ( 2 =) 3fd? q3 ( J z ( ) -e q 0 )
( 3 0 . 91 )
Thi sc ont r i but i on t ot he gr ounds t at ee ner gy i spr opor t i onalt ot he mean s quar e
f o rs pi nll e r mi on st h a tt h eF+0 l i mi to ft h et i n i t et e mp e r a t u r ef or ma l i s m
al ways gi v es t he s am e gr oun ds t at ee ner gy a st hat cal cul at e d wi t ht he r = 0
f or ma l i s m( e i t h e ri n Fe y n ma no ri n Br u e c k n e r Gol ds t o n ef o r m) , a sl o n ga st h e
unpe r t ur bed Fer m is ur f ac ei ss pher i ca l l ys ym m e t r i c and t he i nt er a et i ons ar e i n var i antunde rs pat i alr ot at i ons . Thi sr es ul ti snotata1 1obvi ous ,be caus et he t wo appr oa ches des cr i be t he i nt e r ac t i ng s ys t em i nv er y di f l kr e nt ways . The F+ 0 f or m al i s m com put e st het her m odynam i c pot ent i alD asaf unct i on oft he par am e t e rJ z , and i t sF . > . 0l i mi ti nvol ve si nt e gr al s ov er Fe r m i di s t r i but i on f unct i ons t hat ar es i ngul ar wher et he e ner gy i s equalt oy , . A tt he end of t he
ca l cul at i on,/ . tmay bee l i mi na t ed i nf avoroft hepa r t i c l edens i t yNj P ' ,and p, t he n
de hne st he Fer m ie ner gy e s oft he i nt e r ac t i n g gr ound s t at e . Ont he ot her hand, t he us ua lF = 0 f or m al i s mc ons i der sa f i xe d num berofpar t i c l e sN f r om t he s t ar t and e val uat est he gr ounds t at e ene r gy as a s e r i e si nt he c oupl i ng cons t antoft he
tW .Kohn and J.M .Lut t i nger ,I oc.ci t . ;J.M .Lut t i ngerand J.C.W ar d,I oc.ci t .
289
t wobody pot ent i al . Eac ht er m i nt hi ss er i e si nv ol v es i nt e gr al s ove rt he u nper t u r be d Fer m idi s t r i but i on f unc t i on,whi ch ha si t s di s c ont i nui t ya tt he un-
p e r t u r b e d Fe r mi e n e r g ye /= ( h l ( 2 m) ( 3 =2 A' / F) 9 .
l n com pa r i ng t he t wo f or ma l i s ms ,we i mme di at el y not et hat t he F # 0 e xpans i oncont ai nst e r m st hatar e ne ve rc ons i der e d atr = 0. Fore xam pl e,t he
z e r ot e mp e r a t u r ev e r s i o no fXt i l cc o n t a i n sa ni n t e g r a lo v e ro k r- qj # ( - ks )
a n dt h e r e f o r ev a ni s h e s( Pr o b. 3 . 1 2 ) . At hn i t et e mp e r a t ur e , h o we v e r , t h et he r ma l
wi dt h yi el dsanonze r o val uet hatr em ai nssni t eeve ni nt hel i mi tF = 0. A 1 lof t he s eaddi t i onaldi agr am scont ai ns i ngul arf a ct or satze r ot em per at ur e,s uc h as
8. 1. Ve r i f yt hatCk f or an el ec t r on gas i nt he Har t r e eFoc k appr oxi mat i on b e ha v e sl i k e - F( 1 nF) 1a sF. + . 0. ( Comp a r et h ed i s c u s s i on f o l l owi n g Eq. ( 3 0. 3 ) . )
290
8. 4. ( J ) Us et h e Fe y nma nr u l e st oe v a l u a t et h es e c on do r d e rs e l f e n e r g y
cont r i but i ons t ot he t em pe r at ur e Gr ee n' sf unc t i on s how n i n Fi g. 3 0. 2 / and b
f o rau ni f o r ms y s t e m of s p i n !f e r mi on s . Fi n dt h ec or r e s p on di ngc on t r i bu t i o n s t ot het her modynami c pot e nt i aland ev al uat et he ne c es s ar yf r e que ncysums( s ee Pr o b. 7 . 3 )t oo b t a i n
f l z a v t p, 2 / 8 ( z n pz q . . ' # j . w t i p ' b J . A. .
j 2 ( / c 2 ,+p2 , ) 1 ' i m t ? ( pI I +/ c ! , )+q
He nce c onc l ude t ha tf l : ai sI i ne ar l y di ver ge nt at s m al l m om ent um t r ans f e r
m Z ' 4
l ' n
2 d3 q
* x
c c
( q+0 ) .
ha st hea s y mpt o t i cf o r mJ 1 0 ( q , r l ) , w-L . 6 = $e b l x ( ql ( ; j ) ( ( 4 / A ) 4+ ( 8 =2 / ) 2 j lf orl a r g e q, j-ql z n hl l mkzTl ka n d1 / 1 . ( b )I f3 f 1 ,de n ot e st h es umma t i on o ft e r msf orl>0 i nEq .( 3 0. 21 ) ,v e r i f yt h a t 3 t l r / f 1 r = &( ( e 2 ai ) 1( n 1 2 / r n ) 1 ( 1 / #sF) ) whe r et ' 1 ,i st a k e nf r om Eq. ( 3 0. 2 7 ) .
8. 6. ( J ) Us e Eq. ( 3 0 . 3 2 )t oc omp u t et h es p e c i fch e a to fa ne l e c t r on g a si nt he
8. 7. Ev a l u a t e( 1 / j )( ) (( J 1 0 ( q , y , ) 1 2wi t ht hei nt e g r a lr e p r e s e nt a t i o n( 3 0. 9 ) .I n P
t he ze r ot em per at ur el i mi t ,t hi ss um m ay be appr oxi m at ed by an i nt e gr alov e r
ac o n t i nu ou sv a r i a bl e . He n c ee v a l u a t eJ X xd xl l x ) ,wh e r e1 ( x 4i sg i v e ni n Eq.
( 3 0 . 6 1 ) , a n dv e r i f yEq. ( 3 0 . 8 0 ) .
1M . Ge l l Ma n n, Ph y s .Re ! , ' . s1 0 6: 3 6 9( 1 9 5 7 ) .
292
3IQGENERALI ZED LEHM ANN REPRESENTATI ON W es t ar tourdi s eus s i on by gene r al i zi ng t he not i on ofa G r e en' sf unct i on f r om t he gr ounds t at ee xpec t at i on val ueofa t i me or der e d pr oduc tofhe l d oper at or s t ot hee ns em bl eave r ag e oft hi ss am equant i t y.
DEFI NI TI ON oF '
i cx b l xt , x' t ' ) eTr t / sF( #x . ( x/ ) #f x j t x' t ' ) ) ) whe r e) ( ; i st h es t a t i s t i c a lo p e r a t o rf ort h eg r a ndc a n on i c a l e n s e mb l e( Eq. ( 4 . 1 5 ) 1 a n dgx u l xt )i sat r u eHe i s e nb e r go p e r a t or 9X a ( X/ )H t ' i l / ' 9x ( X ) e i k t l b
.
wi t hr e s p e c tt ot h e ha mi l t on i a n X. As i n Ch a p.3 ,t h e or d e r i n g op e r a t or F i n c l u de saf a c t o r( -1 ) Pf o rf e r mi on s . Eq u a t i o n( 31 . 1 )h a so n ei mp or t a n tn e w f eat ur ebe c aus e C de pe ndse xpl i ci t l y on F and p .i n addi t i on t ot he us uals pac et i m evar i abl e s . I n m os t cas es ,t he ha mi l t oni an i st i me i nde pendent ,and t he r es ul t i ng Gr e en' sf unc t i on cont af nsonl yt he c om bi nat i on t- ?' . Fur t her m or e ,we s hal l cons i der onl y hom ogene ous s ys t e ms , and t he G r ee n' sf unc t i on as s um es t he s i m pl ef or m
( 31 . 3 )
0a j ( x, l ) = a jC( X, t )
Each oft hes eas s um pt i onsc an ber e l ax ed,butt hes ubs e quentanal ys i sbec omes c ons i de r abl y m or e cum be r s om e.
a . sE c o mpa r eEq. ( 7 . 5 2 ) )
/ N ' ) ' A 1 . 6 )
293
whe r et het r ac ecan beeval uat e di n anybas i s . A par t i c ul a r l yc onveni entc hoi c e
i st hee x a c te i g e n s t a t e so f/ ? , , a n dX :
( 3l . 8 )
xe i x n t l h e i r a w x / . t nj y t t o l l r n )
t Rx . ? )= # ( ? ) ;> ( x, ? )+ p ( -J ) ;<( x, ? )
a n di t sFo u r i e rt r an s f o r m ma yb ec a l c u l a t e de x a c t l ya si nEq. ( 7 . 5 4 )
( 3 1 . 1 1 )
Equ a t i o n( 3l . 1 2 )s h o wst h a t( Rk, f . s ) i same r o mo r p hi cf u n c t i ono fh u l wi t hs i mp l e p ol e sa tt h es e tofv a l u e sKn - Km> En- Em- y . ( Nn-Nm ) ;t hec or r e s po n di ng r e s i d uei spr o p or t i on a lt ol t r r l 1 ( ' , ! n )1 2a n dv a n i s he sun l e s sNn= Nm+ l . Th e
ens e m bl e ave r ag e atsni t et em pe r at ur e cl e ar l yg ener al i ze st hez er ot em per at ur e
Ct - V ) l r ' o= G( t z 9
whe r eG( ( s )i st h eg r o un d s t a t eGr e e n ' sf u n c t i o nf r om Ch a p. 3 .
( 31 . 1 3 )
2%
I f( z )i sr e a l ,t h er e a la n di ma g i n a r yp a r t so fd( k, f , ) )a r er e a d i l yf ou n d wi t h Eq. ( 7 . 6 9 ) :
r e wr i t t en as
Ret Rk, ( z ) )= -. t . #
= - .
' ( z ;- o A ' l: i : ee h ,,
( 3 1 . 1 6 )
# o a / l mt Rk, f x ) / ) # * , . ( t a n h( Jj f , ) ' ) ) t t X = O -
-
whi c h wassr s tder i ve d by Landau. l Formanypur pos es ,i ti smor ec onve ni entt o de alwi t hr e t a r dedoradv ance d
( 31 . 1 7 )
CR ( k9 ( t ) )= ( 2 J+ 1 ) -1 e l f lj ( e # X m ( 2 r r ) 33 ( k- l ( PF l - Pm ) ) j t r nj j kn j 1 2
mn
x( 1: Fe # t K n X p , ) )g t . s-h 1 ( n/ K - um K )- i y j -1 )
l ti se vi dentt ha tbot h CRand GA ar e mer omor phi cf unc t i onsof( , ) ;i na ddi t i on, CR I CA )i sa n a l y t i ci nt h eu pp e r( l owe r )h a l ft z apl a n e .
lL. D. Lan da u, So v . Ph y s . JETP, 7: l 8 2( 1 95 8 ) .
29:
I mt P( k , ) =1 p ( k, t M ( 3 1 . 2 0 ) I m( P( k, )= . i . p t k, l Fu r t h e r mo r e ,a c omb i n a t i o no f Eq s .( 31 . 1 8 )a n d( 31 . 1 9 )y i e l d st he i n t e g r a l
r epr e s e nt at i ons
JR ( k
*) =
*d ' p ( k, o , ' ) j r r( , ,- ( . o, +i . b
( 31 . 21 )
-
. n z- f . o
GR ( k, o)= P( k, ( . o+ i T l
- f ' '
( 1: Fe x' * ' l -i CA ( k. ( s )+ ( 1: Fe l A ) l t P( k, )
( 3 1 . 2 4 ) ( 3 1 . 2 5 )
ae
whi l et h ei ma g i n a r yp a r t sa r eg i v e nb yEq. ( 3l . 2 0 )a n db y
I m( : ( k, f a ) )= -l t a n h( . # f . , ) ) ) 7 1 p t k, f . t ) l
( 31 . 2 6 )
t Rk,
d e s ni ng e q ua t i on ( 31 . 1 9 ) . Ea c ht e r mi nt he s u mi sp os i t i v ei f( . vi sp o s i t i v e;
m or e gene r al l y,p hast he f ol l owi ng pos i t i ve de f i ni t e pr oper t i es:
( S gna k l p t k, t t J l> 0
b os o n s ( 31 . 2 8 )
p l k, t z a l> 0
f e r mi o n s
l n addi t i on,p s at i s sesani mpor t ants um r ul e,whi c h we now de r i ve. Cons i der t hef ol l owi ng i nt e gr al
( 3 1 . 2 9 )
whe r et he( . oi nt e gr ali seval ua t ed by c l os i ng t hecont ouri nt hel owerhal fpl ane.
( 3 1 . 3 0 )
whe r et h ec a no n i c a lc o mmu t a t i onr e l a t i on s( 2 . 3 )ha v eb e e nu s e di na r r i v i n ga t t h et h i r dl i n e . Comp a r i s o no fEq s . ( 3l . 2 9 )a n d( 31 . 3 0 )i mme d i a t e l yy i e l ds * d u l '( 2 P k,( s' ) =l = ( 3l . 31 )
297
( . o .2 =
( , )
( 31 . 3 2 )
I nt hepr ev i ouss e ct i on, t hewei ghtf unc t i ons e r ve donl yt ode t e r mi neandor r el at e t hevar i ousr e al t i meGr e en' sf unc t i ons . Al t houg hs uc hr e l at i onsar eval uabl e,
r epr e s e nt at i on a tsni t et em pe r at ur e,andwes hal lnow pr ovet hei m por t antr es ul t t hatt hes amewei ghtf unct i on al s o de t e r mi ne st het em pe r at ur e Gr e en' sf unct i on @. By t hi smeans ,t he Lehmann r e pr e s e nt at i on pr ovi desa di r e c tconne ct i on
bet we en@ and C andt huspl aysac ent r a lr ol ei nt hefni t et e mpe r a t ur ef or mal i s m.
l ti ss uci e ntt oc ons i de ronl y pos i t i versand F t he n bec omes
( 2 . 9 +1 ) 1 e j f l J; L e p x m: f I %P m ) * x / 1 ( ? t A ' . A u) m / Al s t . r a( . f / zj n) t 2 )
mn
( 3 1 . 3 3 ) Th ec o r r e s p o n di n gFo ur i e rc o e mc i e n ti sg i v e nb yE s e eEq . ( 25 . 1 4 ) ) F( k, j ,
wh e r u ) t =2 / ' v / # f o r bo s o ns a n d( 2 / +1 ) =/ # f or f e r mi on s . Co mpa r i s o n
wi t hEq. ( 3 1 . 1 9 )i mme d i a t e l yy i e l d st h ei mp o r t a n tr e l a t i on F( k, = l t s ,p ( k, ( s ' )
2 = J . . 2 x i c o . ( z ) '
( 3 1 . 3 5 )
wh i c hs h owst h a tt h ef u n c t i on rt k, z ,I ) Eq .( 31 . 2 2 ) )d e t e r mi n e st h et e mp e r a t u r e
Gr e en' sf unc t i on as wel lasCR and CA. l n any pr a ct i calca l c ul at i on,we Er s t
e v a l ua t e Ft ks f . s a la n dt h e r e f o r ek no w r( k. z )o nl ya tt h edi s c r e t es e to fp o i n t s L i n j .I ti st h e nn e c e s s a r yt op e r f o r ma na na l y t i cc on t i nu a t i o nt ot h ew' ho l e
c om pl e x z pl ane. W i t hout t ur t he ri nf or mat i on.s uc h a pr oc e dur e cannotbe
29:
p ( k, x) = ' 1 ( Fl k. a l l i u u x i n- f # l k, t / a n l t i f a u x . i n l
( 3 l . 3 6 )
p 0 ( k , x )= i
=
a nd s o mes i mpl ea l g e b r awi t h Eq. ( 31 . 2 4 )g i v e st het i me or d e r e df u n c t i on ( ; o t kjt 1 -1 -uj= l+ e . r ) x pl i j ( ' d -p ' i l o , j ' Z ' t e t-J z ) , l . q
1 1
+j . ' ! n e x p yt e t . p . 1( a , y . u j ( e ( . J z j . . i q( 3 j . J 8 )
Equ a t i o n( 31 . 3 8 )c a na l s ob eo b t a i n e ddi r e c t l yf r om t h ede sn i t i o n( Eq.( 3 l . l ) 1
wi t ht h er e l a t i o nTr t l ct z l u k )= / 1 2= ( e x pE j ( E 2- p . ) ) D . r1 ) l .
32LLI NEAR RESPONSE AT FI NI TE TEM PERATURE
299
b i j NI :( l ) l / N)- j
.
i
f0
( 3 2 . 1 )
j N)i sa ne x a c te i g e ns t a t eo fX a n d 9 wi t he i g e n v a l u e s h a mi l t o ni a nX,a n d1
.
l ' t
-j
t :
JJ , ' r r t c l /kt xf , ) , ys ( ? ) ) j
4e x ( ? )= fdq x:( x? ) Se x t x? )
( 3 2 . 3 )
3 ( :( x? ) ) e x- -j
=
j t
r :
j $
f ;
eval uat e di nt he e qui l i br i um gr and c anoni c ale ns em bl e. Theanal ys i sofl i ne ar r es pons ei st husr e duc ed t ot he c al cul at i on ofa r e t ar ded c or r e l at i on f unct i on. Si nce t he unpe r t ur be d ham i l t oni an i st i me i nde pe nde nt ,DR t ake st he f or m
t on i a n# = W' -p . X: On l xt )= e i k t l h d( x) e 6 k t l h. Jx ( x/ ) ( 3 2 . 6 ) Th e Fo ur i e rt r a n s f o r m DR ( x, x' , *)h a sas i mp l eLe h man nr e p r e s e nt a t i o n, wh i c h s h owst h a tDR ( x , x' , u ) )i san a l y t i cf o rI mo p>0.
3*
I ti si nc onveni entt oc al cul at e D R di r e ct l y. .i ns t ea d,wei nt r odu cea c or r e s pondi ng t emper at ur ef unc t i on V t hatde pendson t he l ' magi na r yt i mevar i abl es
T:
The pr e ci s ef or m of -t he Lehm ann r epr e s e nt at i on depends on t he par t i cul ar ope r a t or si nvol ve d. As an e xam pl e of gr eat i nt er es t , we now c ons i de rt he par t i c l e dens i t y and c ar r yt hr ou gh t he pr ec e di ng anal yt i c cont i nuat i on i n de t ai l . Fors i m pl i c i t y,t hes ys t em i st akenashom oge neous ,butt hes am ege ner almet hod appl i e st o m or ec om pl i cat e ds i t uat i ons . The oper at ori n qu es t i on i st he dens i t y devi at i on oper at or
H( x )= H ( x)-. x ' H ( x ) )
i DR l xt , x' t ' )= Tr l ) c( ? ' i x ( x/ ) , # x ( x ' / ' ) J ) # ( ? -t ' ) gl xr s x' r ' )= -Tr1 / GFv ( : x ( x m ) h K ( x' r ' ) ) )
and havet he us ualFour i e rr e pr e s e nt at i ons
( 3 2 . l 0 ) ( 3 2 . l 1 )
DR L xtx ' ; ' )= ( 2 z r ) 4Jdhd c oe f q * t x x ' ) : t z a ( ! l ' ) oR ( q( z ) l gl x r , x' , r ' )= ( 2 7 43Jd3 ql ph l -') y e f q * t x x ' ) e ' z a t m r ' ) 5> ( q , p a ) 1 1
Le hmann r epr e s e nt a t i on ofea ch oft hes ef unc t i ons ,and wef i nd
( 3 2 . 1 2 ) ( 3 2 . l 3 )
wh e r ev a =l n n ' l lhde n ot e sa ne v e ni n t e g e r .l ti ss t r a i g h t f o r wa r dt oe v a l u a t et h e
DR ( . ,d c o ' h( q, ( s ' ) q, t z , )- h ' 1 V( . o- o ) ,+ i x l 9( c od l . o ' a( q , ( s ' ) q , ? %)= h X 2 , vi vn- t o,
-
( 3 2 . l 4 )
( 3 2 . 1 5 )
301
Whe r e
z t qq t s l= - . ( -q, -( , ? )
=e C 1j ( ( e # X l ( 2 . r r ) 3 jl q- -l ( P - Pj ) ) z r . r l g ( s- h1 ( #m- A ' j l j
l l n
x( 1- e b h c v l i l l ( J1 -)i 2 )( 3 2 . 1 6 )
Equ a t i o n s( 3 2 . l 4 )a n d( 3 2 . l 6 )t o g e t h e rs ho wt h a tD& ( q, f . , ) )i sa me r o mor ph i c f u n c t i ono ff . , ywi t hi t sp ol e sj u s tb e l ow t h er e a la x i s . Ea c hp oi ec o r r t s p o nd st o
a pos s i bl et r ans i t i on bet we en s t at est hatar econne c t ed by t he dens i t y oper at or .
I f. @ we r eg i v e ne x p l i c i t l yi ns pe c t r a lr e p r e s e nt a t i o n( Eq. ( 3 2 . 1 5 ) ) , t h e nt he
anal yt i cc ont i nuat i onwoul dbee l ement ar y. l npr ac t i c e, howev er , t hee xpr es s i ons t akea di f r er entf or m ,and i ti snec e s s ar yt o exam i n et he per t ur bat i on expans i on
f orf i ' i nmor ede t a i l . Equ a t i on( 3 2. l 1 )ma yb er e wr i t t e na s N' t x m , x' r ' )- v H x ( xm ) ) ) t l i x t x' z ' ) )
- -
whi ch can be t r ans f or me dt ot he i nt er act i on pi ct ur e. The s t e psar ei dent i c al wi t ht hos ei n Chap.7 ,an d we mer e l ys t at et he hnalr es ul t
*
-
j lj b h
:' 0
j h
0
1= ( ) ' 4
u- s
# ml'''
d r l
( 3 2 . 1 8 )
whe r et hes ubs cr i ptm e anst hatonl yc onne ct e d di agr am sar et o ber e t ai ned. I ti si m por t antt or e m embe rt hata connec t ed di agr am i s one i n whi ch
o fa 1 ls u c hs e pa r a bl ec o nt r i bu t i on si sj u s tt h ep e r t u r b a t i o ne x p a n s i o no f ( ? i x ( xm ) )( H x ( x? ' r ' ) ) ,a n dp r e c i s e l yc a n c e l st h ef l r s tt e r m o nt h er i g h ts i d eo f Eq.( 3 2 . 1 8 ) . Co ns e q u e n t l y V' t x c , x' ' r ' )c o n s i s t sofa 1 lc on n e c t e d di a g r a msi n wh i c ht h ep oi n t sx ' ra n d x' r 'a r ej oi n e d by i n t e r n a ll i n e s . Fo re x a mp l e ,t h e
-
XT
17
Fi g.3 2. 1 Lowe s t or d e rc o nt r i bu t i on st o( J ) 1( x' r , x' r ' ) ( :)' r z i x t xr l )' t x t x' ' r . ' ) ) .
X' m'
( J)
( h )
x:
a p pl i e dt oEq. ( 3 2 . 1 8 )y i e l d s
( 3 2 . 1 9 )
I ti scl ea rt hat9 hast hts t r uct ur eofa pol ar i zat i on par t ,and,i ndee d, , V' ( l , 2)i s pr o po r t i o na lt ot h et ot a l po l a r i z a t i onJ l ( 1 , 2 ) . Ana r g u me n te x a c t l ya n a l o g o u s t ot h a tu s e di nob t a i n i n gEq. ( 1 2 . l 4 )g i v e s T( 1 , 2 ) = J 1 ( 1 , 2 ) ( 3 2 . 2 0 )
I nanys pe ci scpr obl e m, i ti sal wayse as i e rt oeval uat et hepr ope rpol ar i za t i on
J 1 ( q, w) =J 1 * ( q , p ' 2( 1- A t ) t q y y t 2J 1 * ( q , v 21 1 = J 1 * ( q, v 2( 1- F( q ) J l * ( q , p ' a ) ) 1
( 3 2 . 2 1 )
Si n c eJ l * ( q , v a )i sap a r t i c u l a rpo l a r i z a t i oni n s e r t i o n, i t sLe hma nnr e p r e s e n t a t i on mu s th a v et h es a mef or ma st h a t f o rJ 1 ( q , %)a n d. @( q , p . ) : 'f J I * ( 4, =J f t t p ' * ( q s. ) L % ) = -x , xr I z ( 3 2 . 2 2 ) , ) / zl Pa (
-
( 3 2 . 2 3 )
J 1 * ( 4 , 1 G)= F( q , i > a )
( 3 2 . 2 4 )
Z( q, & % )t o1 1R ( q, a ) +i T s .
303
( 3 2. 2 5 )
S i n c et h ezd e pe n de n c ean da na l y t i cp r o p e r t i e so f F( q , z ) ( 1- P r t q l F( q , z ) j la r e
expl i ci ti n bot ht he upper and l owe r z pl ane ,t hi sf unc t i on can be i mm edi at e l y
l l R ( q . ( s )= 1 DR ( q , f . t ) )= F( q, ( . o+ j ? . y l ( 1- ) ' ( q) F( q , u ) +, ' ? . y ) j 1
( 3 2 . 2 6 )
3D SCREENI NG I N AN ELECTRON GAS A san e xam pl e oft hi st he or y,we s hal ls t udy t he r es pons eofa ne l e ct r on gast o an
appl i e ds c al ar pot ent i a l( p e x t xr ) . The e xt e r nalper t ur bat i on i st he s ame as i n Eq. ( l 3 . l l )( t h ec h a r g eon t h ee l e c t r on i s-e ' ) I q x l t )- -(db xH s( x/ ) t a t p e x t x/ ) ( 3 3 . j )
wh e r et h es u bs c r i ptH n ow de no t e s a He i s e n b e r gp i c t u r e wi t hr e s pe c tt oX = W -y , , 9,a si n Eq. ( 3 2. 6 ) . Fo rau ni f o r ms y s t e m,t h ei nd u c e dd e n s i t ya twa v e v e c t orqa ndf r e qu e n c y( . oi sg i v e nb y( c o mpa r eEq . ( 1 3 . l 8 ) j 3 ( ? i ( q , ( , a ) )= - 1DR ( q . ( s ) t ye x t q , t =)= -I I R ( q, t . s ) g ve x t q , t z ? ) Si n c e F( q , ( . o+ i T4i st h ec on t i n ua t i on ofp ' 1 * ( q , p ' o ) ,Eq s .( . 3 2 . 2 6 )a n d( 3 3 . 2 )r e l a t e
t hel i nearr e s pons eofa s ys t em i nt he r m odynam i cequi l i br i um t ot het ot alpr oper pol ar i z at i on e val uat ed i nt he t em per at ur ef or m al i s m. l npr ac t i ce : J1 *mus tbeappr oxi mat edbys omes el ec t eds e tofdi agr a ms ,and we now cons i der t he s i m pl e s tc hoi c e J1 0 ,s t u di e di n Se c.3 0. Com par s on of
F( q, ( z ) +i T l= -2 ( 2 aj - . p + q op c =) ( . o+ I T- ( e p y . q- e p )
= -
d3 p
( 2 z 43 > +1 Qh u t +i x l - h2 p. q / r a
-
nn
l
1
h 3 3 . 4 ) ut+ I T + h2pq/ r n (
,
wher et hel a s tf or mi sobt ai ne d wi t h as i m pl eehangeofvar i a bl e s . Thi se quat i on appl i e sf or a l lF and p ,and cl ear l yr e pr oduce st he ze r ot em pe r at ur er et ar de d
a-
wh e r eA= l z np hz l ml ki st h et h e r ma l wa v e l e ng t h( s e eEq. ( 3 0 . 2 4 ) 2 .
I t i sn ow c o nv e n i e n tt os e pa r a t eEq. ( 3 3 . 5 ) i n t oi t sr e a l a n di ma g i n a r yp a r t s :
F0 ( q, ( . o+ i T )= Ff ( q , f z ) ) + F ( q , t z ) )
( 3 3 . 6 )
z ? ( q , ( s ) 2 , p , z c . ,j . a A . e x p g / x r + z m b q t z h l j ( l z ' b o h o l + l l p q l m j( 3 3 . 7 * z @ ( q . r . , ) l e j s z z . ( o . t y e x p g # ( # z f m 1 4 ) 2 2 j j j l a j ( s f m p q j / ) z j ( y y ( . v + h l m p q ) j( a a . , 7 , )
' x
t e r me b i ; k . ! . n A 3 . Th ei ma g i n a r yp a r tFi se a s i l ye v a l u a t e d, a n dwe5n d
( 3 3 . 8 ) I ti sc l e a rt ha tFi sa no d df un c t i ono f( . oa n dv a n i s h e sa t( . o= 0 ,i na g r e e me n t
305
b y( x+ y ) , I ( x4 y ) , t h er e s u l tma yb er e wr i t t e na s ( 3 3 . 1 1 )
ym pt ot i cf or mi s obt ai ne d wh i c hs ho ws t h a t*( x)i sa n od df u n c t i o n. The as
by e xpandi ng t he i nt egr and f or l ar ge x
*( . X )- X -1 ( l+ 1 . 1 2i -''
.
( 3 3 . l 2 )
butt he behav i or f or s ma l l. , ' tr e qui r es a l i t t l e mor e ef l br t . Equat i on ( 3 3. 1 0) s howst hat*( 0 )= 0 ,b e u a u s et hei n t e g r a n di st he na no dd f u n c t i o no fy. Di f f e r e n t i a t eEq.( 3 3 . 1 0 )wi t hr e s p e c tt oxa n di n t e g r a t eb yp a r t s . Ther e s u l t i n g
expr e s s i on m ay be r ear r ange dt o yi e l d
*' ( x )= 2 - 2 x*( x . )
whi c h hast hes ol ut i on
( 3 3 . l 3 )
( 3 3 . 1 4 )
t D( Y )1 k 7 2 . X ( 1- i ' . X 2+ .'' )
To be s pe ei f i c , as s um e t hat t he ex t er nal pe r t ur ba t i on i s a pos i t i v e poi nt
3g6
( 3 3 . 8 ) , a n d( 3 3 . 9 )y i e l d st h ei n d uc e dc h a r g ed e ns i t y
( ) ( x ) )= -e 3 ( ? i ( x) ) #% f q x P ( t ? ) F% . 0 ) = ze
= -
j( a , o ) ej s t t y ; s y t o o #3 : f ( ? / ) . g ' l ( A ) ze j( z . j y eg z . ) . g j g j f q y
qx
( 3 3 . 1 6 )
( 3 3 . 1 7 )
# 1 ( . $= 2 z ' r + . F 1 ( I I ( z J 1 1
and hast hef ol l owi ng l i mi t i ng beha vi or
3: =J#' x3 ( ) ( x) )=-ze
s ot hatt hei m pur i t yi sc om pl e t e l ys cr ee ned a tl ar gedi s t ance s .
( 3 3 . 2 0 )
l e n g t hq n= l 4 = n e z pl ' t ,whi c hj u s t i s e so uru s eo fa c u t o f m j nc ce i n Eq. ( 3 0. 2 8 ) . Si n c egl ( ( ? A )i sa ne n t i r ef u n c t i ono fqh ,i ti si n sn i t e l yd i f l kr e nt i a bl e t h r o u g ho u tt h ec ompl e xq p l a n e . Th ea s y mpt o i i cb e h a v i o ro f3 t ) ( x) ) t h e r e f o r ec a nb eob t a i n e dwi t ht h ea pp r o x i ma t i o ngj t )a ; gl ( 0 )= 1 , b e c a u s e t h et e r msn e g l e c t e da r eo fo r d e r( sA ) 2( x : ( a e 2 j) ( / i 2 j / n 1 )= ( n 1e l l j l hz n k pj l . n j < t1g : s e et h ed i s c us s i o nf o l l owi ngEq . ( 3 0 . 4 8 ) ) : 3 i q e x / ) Xj f : ? ( x) )- -Ze #3 je , ( 2 *) q + q o
= -
Zt N ( 4 ' r r x ) ' e q B x
( 3 3 . 21 )
307
3K PLASM A OSCI LL ATI O NS I N AN ELECTRON GAS The pr es e ntf or ma l i s m al s o can be us e dt os t udy t he c ol l e ct i ve os c i l l at i onsofa s ys t em i nt he r m odynam i ce qui l i br i um ,and w' e now exa mi ne t he pl as m a os ci l l a-
t i o n si na ne l e c t r ong a s .l f t hes y s t e mi ss u b j e c t e dt oa ni mpu l s i v ep e r t u r b a t i o n @e x t x/ l= @( ) t ? i q x 3 ( / ) ,t he a s s o c i a t e di n d uc e dd e n s i t yb e c o me s( c ompa r e Eq. ( 1 5 . 7 ) ) o io 3 ( H ( xr ) ) F. ( v , t . , a )+ i Fb l q, t t q-x dk a f =. -e poe yur sj g, ( s ). . j st ( y ) sz t t y ol = e 1( q) j wh e r eF( q , ( . o+ i T)h a sb e e ns e p a r a t e di n t oi t sr e a la nd i ma g i n a r yp a r t s ,a si n Eq.( 3 3 . 6 ) . Thena t u r a lo s c i l l a t i o nf r e qu e nc i e sa r ed e t e r mi n e d byt h ep ol e so f
..
t he r et ar de d dens i t y cor r el at i on f unc t i on,w' hi c h oc cura tt hes ol ut i onsf z q- i yq oft hee quat i on
( 3 4 . 4 )
nq2
3 V2
q*( )
4=nel 3 g2 y j. j . . y
mq
j r n t l q
wi t ht he a ppr oxi m at es ol t l t i on
f l q ' i n t a p l g l + 3 j j q . # n ) 2 1
( 3 4 . 7 )
at s
wh e r ef l p la n dq oa r eg i v e ni n Eq s .( 1 5. 1 8 )a nd ( 3 0. 3 9 ) . Thec ol l e c t i v emo d e
aga i nr e pr e s ent sa pl as m a os ci l l at i on,and t he di s pe r s i on r el at i on hast he s am e
f or ma sa tF = 0( c o mp a r eEq. ( 1 5 . 1 7 ) ) .
Thesni t et e m pe r at ur ei nt r oduc e sone ne wf e at ur e,howev er ,be caus et hes e c ol l e ct i v e m odesar e now dam pe d,e ve ni nt he l owe s t or de ra ppr oxi ma t i on of
r e t a i n i n go n l yJ l O . Si n c eJ f l p l = Ol q oh j < 1a th i g ht e mp e r a t u r e s ,Eq .( 3 3 . 8 )
ma yb ea pp r o x i ma t e db y( q< : . : q o )
K lt z l ( J F ( , ( s ) = q r r j r n l l e x p ( V K l 1 q t * 2 2 j
( 3 4. 8 )
O XI I SQ i ' g J ' j ( g , c i n o p j ) g a . ; . . ; o p y j = q3 f c l t ' ' ' * l t i ' r l ' e x p ( D l J ' q m 2 j 0 , ( . 4 . , , ) + ( % ; ) ' e x p g j ' ( % q 1 ? ) 2 j
-
As e xpe ct e df r om gene r alcons i de r at i ons ,w i spos i t i v e,and bot h pol e s of DR 1 i ei nt he I ower hal f pl ane a tu ); k ; u i n f p !- i yq . The appr oxi m at i on of s m al l
d a mpi n gi sf ul l yj u s t i : e da tl o n gwa v e l e n g t h s . b e c a u s el yq / f h v l v a n i s h e se x po n e n t i al l y. Thi swe ak dampi ngi sknownasLandauda m pi ng, lbec aus eLandau was
PRO BLEM S
9. 2. Eva l uat et he we i ght f unc t i on p( x, x' . ( s) f or t he Har t r e eFoc k Gr e en* s f u n c t i on ( 2 7 . 8 ) . Fi n dt h ec or r e s po n di n gr e a l t i meGr e e n' sf u n c t i o n C( x , x ' , Y)
and t her e t ar de d and a dvanc ed f unct i ons.
1L. D.La nd au . J, Ph ys .( USSR4 . 1 0: 2 5( 1 9 46 ) .
309
wi t hl z t l a n dcr e a l , u s et h ed e E ni t i onEt ( k, ( . t ) )+ f E1 ( k, ( , p ) O Y* ( k, t z ? n ) 1 i c o a u , -i , tt o
5 ndt h ec o r r e s p on d i n gwe i g h tf u nc t i onp t k, c t ? li n Eq . ( 3 1 . 3 5 ) . ( b )Ex pa n dp t k, t z ? la b o utt h ep oi n tf . , a= c o kde t e r mi n e db yt h es e l f c on s i s t e n t
e qua t i on h u l k= e 2- p , + Y) ( k, t s k ) ,a n d de r i v ea na p p r ox i ma t eq ua s i p a r t i c l e
( I o r e n t z i a n )we i g h tf un c t i o n. Co mpu t et h ea pp r o x i ma t e( ; q p t k, f x l l ,a n d pr o v e
t hatt he ex ci t a t i on ener gy and dam pi ng ofs i ngl epar t i c l ee xc i t at i onsar e gi ve n by
e k= h k+ p .a n dy k= ( 1- ?Yt ( k, f . t ) ) / ' 0 ( . t ) I u a . ) 1 Xl l ks t t ) k l( C o mp a r e Pr ob .3 . 1 4 ) .
9. 4. R e peatPr ob.5. 1f or t he r e t ar ded de ns i t y cor r el at i on f unc t i on a t hni t e
9. 5. Us et h es p i n de n s i t yo p e r a t o rJ z ( x )- ' ? / lt x l t t z z l x j ? k S ? j ( x )t oc o n s t r u c tt he
r et ar de dc or r el at i on f unct i on
Xe x= . y , vj#3 x z ( x ) . Y #( x/ ) .
( t 7 )Show t hatt hei nduc e d magnet i z at i on i sgi v en by
'
l i mz ( k, 0 )-
k + o
' i % . X 6 F p . n k / B
F= 0( Pa u l is p i npa r a ma g n e t i s m)
ww c ct cu r i e ' sl a w)
a1:
9. 7. Re pe att he c al cul at i on of Pr ob.9. 6i nt he z er ot empe r at ur ef or mal i s m. W hy does t bi s ze r ot em per at ur e cal cul a t i on w or k,wher eas t hati n Pr ob.7. 5 f ai l s?
9. 8. ( J )Us eP r o bs .5 . 9a n d9 . 6t os ho wt h a tt h es t a t i cs u s c e p t i bi l i t yf o ra s p i n Fe r mi s y s t e m wi t hs pi ni n d e p e n d e n t po t e n t i a l si sg i v e ne xa c t l yb yy( k, 0 )=
-
Ml Z) ( k , 0)= -p, ! I 1 * e ( k , 0 ) ,
Ve r i f yt h a tt h i se q u a t i on r e p r o du c e s Eq s .( 1 5 . 1 7 )a n d( 3 4 . 7 ) . Fi n dt h es r s t l o wt e mp e r a t ur ec o r r e c t i ont oEq. ( 1 5 . 1 7 ) .Re pe a tf orn on c o n d e ns e db os o n s . 9. 1 1. Ev a l ua t e F% , f , y )( Eq s .( 3 3 . 4 )a n d( 3 3 . 6 ) )f ora l lr a n dJ ta n dr e d e r i v e Eq s . ( 1 2 . 41 ) ,( 1 2 . 43 ) , ( 1 2 . 4 5 ) ,a n d( 3 3 . 8 ) . Fi n dt h ed a mp i n gofpl a s mao s c i l l a t i onsand z er os ound a tl ow t em per at ur e. W hathappenst oz er os ound i nt he c l as s i c all i mi t?
9. 12. Us et he r i ng a pp r o x i ma t i o n X* ( k, ( s a )= Zh) ( k )+ E) ( k, a u) , wi t h Y)
t a k e nf r o m Eq. ( 3 0. 1 2 ) , t os t u d yt h es i n g l e pa r t i c l ee x c i t a t i o n si nad e n s ee l e c t r on
g as atze r ot e m pe r at ur e.
( J )S ho wt h a tt h ee x c i t a t i ons p e c t r u m( s e ePr ob. 9. 3 : ) i sgi v e nt oo r de rr ,b y r s , p ( l- I K+ qI ) e k- e 2- e yx a d qq c+ g yv yt j-u . z r , j . j t y l wh e r ea= ( 4 / 9 r r ) 1 , /i sd e sn e di nEq. ( 1 2 . 5 8 ) , a n d K = k/ / c s . l He n c ed e t e r mi n e t hee h kc t i v ema s sm%( s e ePr o b. 8 . 2 *. ( b )S ho wt h a tc l o s et ot h eFe r mis u r f a c et h ed a mp i n gc o ns t a n t( Pr ob.9 . 3 : )i s
g i v e nb y ykQ J e X G) *( T X/ 1 6 ) ( k / kF- 1 ) 2 .
tTh er e s ul t sf orPr ob s . 9. 1 2 /a nd9 . 1 % we r ede r i v e dbyJ . J .Qui nna ndR. A.Fe r r e l l , Ph y s . Re v . ,1 1 :: 8 1 2( 1 95 8 ) .
par t four
I nt hepr e vi ousc ha pt e r s ,ourdi s cus s i on ofi nt e r act i ng m anypar t i c l eas s em bl i es em phas i ze dt heus e ofqua nt um hel dt heor y and Gr e en' sf unc t i ons . Form any s ys t e ms ,howe ve r ,t hephys i csbec omescl e ar e ri n am or edi r e cta ppr oac h,whe r e we s i m pl i f yt he or i gi na ls e condquant i z e d ha mi l t oni an a nd obt a i n an appr oxi m at e pr obl e m t hati s ex ac t l ys ol vabl e . Thi sc hapt e rs t udi es a c l a s s of s uc h pr obl e m st hatc an bes ol ve d wi t h ac anoni c alt r ans f or m at i on oft hecr e at i on and de s t r uct i on oper a t or si nt he abs t r a ct oc cupat i onnum be r Hi l ber tl pa ce. A s not edi n Chap.1 , t hec om m ut at i onr e l at i onsc om pl et e l yc har ac t e r i z et hec r e at i on and des t ru ct i on ope r at or s . Si nce ,by de sni t i on,a canoni ca lt r ans f or mat i on does notal t e rt he s ec om m ut a t i on r e l at i ons ,t he t r ans f or me d ope r at or s agai n
s a t i s f y Eq s .( 1 . 2 8 )i nt hec a s eo fbo s o nso rEq s . ( 1 . 5 0 )a n d( 1 . 5 1 )f o rf e r mi o n s . Asa f r s te x a mp l e ,wec on s i de rt h ei n t e r a c t i n g Bo s eg a s( S e c .3 5 )f o l l o wi n ga t r e a t me ntdu et o Bo g o l i u bo v , !an dt h e ns t u dya ni n t e r a c t i n g Fe r mig a s( S e c s . 3 6an d3 7 ) .
'N.N. Bog ol i ub ov , J . Ph y s . ( &u $ WA) , 1 1: 2 3( 1 9 47 ) .
313
314
3SLI NTERACTI NG BOSE GAS An i nt er act i ng Bos e gas at z er ot e m pe r at ur e has pr evi ous l y be en cons i der e d
wi t h i nt hef r a me wor ko fqu a n t um Ee l dt he or y( Cha p. 6 ) . W eh e r et r e a te s s e n t i al l yt he s ame pr obl e m as an exam pl e of a m ode l ham i l t oni an t hatcan be di agona l i z e de xac t l y,t her eby yi el di ng a l 1t hephys i c alpr ope r t i e sofSec .22i na di r e c tand i nt ui t i v ef as hi on. l ft heas s embl yi sdi l ut e,t hen mos toft hepar t i c l es oc cupy t he z e r omoment um s t at e , and onl yt wobody col l i s i ons wi t hs ma l l
mome n t u mt r a n s f e r s pl a ya ni mp or t a ntr o l e .t nS e c s .1 la n d2 2 we ha v e
al r ea dy s e en t hats uc hc ol l i s i onsc an be char a ct e r i ze d by a s i ngl e pa r am et erc, t he J wave s ca t t e r i ng l engt h. For t hi sr e as on,we s ha l li nt r oduc e a mode l hami l t oni an cons i s t i ngofa ki ne t i ce ner gy t e r m andanar t i sc i alpot ent i a le ner g y
( 3 5 . 1 )
/( k ' ,
( 3 5 . 2 )
( 35 . 3 )
Thel e f ts i der e duc est o 4=a atI ong wa ve l e ngt hs ,whi ch y i el dst her el at i on l Wa hl /. 2 #3 g 1 . .
2 ( 2 3 ' i+ ''' m - #- =) q
Thehr s t or de rr es ul t 4n hl a
.
- m
( 3 5 . 4 )
1 . / ( * )+f( =-# ) l
( 3 5 . 5 )
315
#I i sI 2 cl
.
#c .-
( 3 5 . 6 )
whi chi sf ourt i m est ha tf ordi s t i ngui s habl epar t i c l e s . The par a m et e rg hasnow be en r el at ed t o obs e r vabl e quant i t i e s ,a nd we
r e t ur nt ot h e or i g i n a lma n y p a r t i c l eh a mi l t o n i a n,Eq.( 3 5. 1 ) .I nv i e wo ft he
s pe ci alr ol eof t hez e r om om ent um s t at es i ti sag ai nnat ur a lt or e pl ac et heoper at or s
aoand t / ( ) by cnumber s
( 3 5 . 7 )
e xa ct l yasi n Se c.1 8. Thet er m soft hei nt e r a ct i on ham i l t oni a n canbec l as s i he d ac c or di ngt ot henum beroft i me st z aandJ' oappe ar and we s ha l l r e t ai n onl y t e r m s ,
+J lY k J0 t kVJ O Y Y ( ) J k Jk 1 )( 3 5 . 8 )
whe r et he pr i m e m eanst o om i tt he t e r m sk = 0. Thi st r unca t e d hami l t oni an cl ear l y ne gl e c t st he i nt e r a ct i on of par t i c l es out of t he c ondens a t e; i ts houl d pr ovi de a good appr oxi ma t i on a sl ong as N - N.< : 4N . The val i di t y of t hi s a s s um pt i on i se xam i ne d be l ow. l ti s pl aus i bl e ,howev er ,t hatt he t er m som i t t ed c an onl y cont r i but et ot heener gy i nt hi r d orhi gheror derofper t ur bat i on t heor y, f ort he yi nvol veonecol l i s i on t o ge tt hepa r t i c l esoutoft hecondens at e,as e cond col l i s i on above t he c onde ns at e,and a t hi r dc ol l i s i on t or e t ur nt he par t i c l est o
( 3 5 . 9 )
( 3 5 . 1 0 )
Thepr obl e m ofpar t i c l enoncons er vat i on t hatwass e eni n Se c.1 8e vi dent l y oc c ur she r e aswe l l . Al t hough i ti s pos s i bl et oi nt r oducea c hem i ca lpot ent i al ( P r ob . 1 0 . 3 ) , wep r e f e r t oc o ns i d e r N=v j 9' ;a sgi ve nandt oe l i mi nat eh' 0expl i ci t l y. ,
wh e r e n= N/ Ui st h e pa r t i c l ed e n s i t y .l n ob t a i n i n gt hi sr e s u l t ,t e r ms l i k e
a16
Eq ua t i on( 3 5 . 1 1 )h a st h ei mpo r t a n tf e a t u r et ha ti tc a nb es o l v e de x a c t l yb e c a u s e
i ti sa qua dr a t i cf or mi nt heope r at or s ,and t he r e f or ecan bedi agonal i ze d wi t ha canoni ca lt r ans f or m at i on.
a u= u kl k- U k t k
t / k= u k t z #- v k k l k
( 3 5 . 1 2 )
wher et hec oe ci ent sukandt ' kar eas s um e dt o ber e alands phe r i cal l ys ym m e t r i c . The t r ans f or m at i on i sc anoni c ali ft he new oper a t or sal s o obey t he c anoni c al c om m ut at i onr e l at i ons
' l t x k , t x k # l=3 k k '
.
( 3 5 . 1 3 )
( 3 5 . 1 4 )
and i ti sea s i l ys e ent ha tt hi scondi t i onm aybes at i s Ee d byi m pos i ngt her es t r i c t i on
/ . / 1- ! ) 1= 1 # =! . V g n l+ X' ( ( 4 +n g ) t j- n g u k ? J k l k
+11' t E ( e 2+n r ) ( ? z l+t ' )-2 ? z . t yn gl ( ( 4t h +a t ka k ) ) k +1 ' Z' f /# ( & 1+/ 7 1 )-l u k r k t e z+F l #l l t t x l ( Zk+ kJ k ) l( 3 5 . 1 5 ) k
Al t ho u g ht h epa r a me t e r su ka n dv ks a t i s f yt h er e s t r i c t i o no fEq.( 3 5 . 1 4 ) , t he i rr a t i oi ss t i l l a r b i t r a r ya ndc a nbeu s e dt os i mp l i f yEq. ( 3 5 . 1 5 ) .I np a r t i c u l a r , wec ho os et oe l i mi na t et h el a s tl i n eo f X. The r e s ul t i n gh a mi l t on i a ni st he n
ex pl i c i t l y di agona li nt hequa si par t i cl e numbe rope r at or st h tt x k ,whi ch al l owsus t ode t er mi neal l i t se i ge nv ec t or sandei genval ue s . Thecondi t i onont hepar am e t e r s u kand v kbe com e s
n g l u k+ r l ) =2 u k h( 4 +n gj
u y= c os hJ u v k= s i nhn
( 3 5 . 1 6 )
Th ec on s t r a i n t( 3 5 . 1 4 )c a nb ei n c o r po r a t e d wi t ht h epa r a me t r i cr e p r e s e n t a t i o n
wh i c hr e d u c e sEq. ( 3 5 . 1 6 )t o
t
a n h2 +k=4 + n g
n g
o n l yi ft h ep ot e n t i a li sr e p u l s i v e( g>0 ) . Th eu s e of s t a nd a r dh y p e r bo l i c
i dent i t i e sgi ve s
t , z- t 4 l- 1= ! . E . E ' : l ( 4 +n g )- 1 )
( 3 5 . 1 7 )
1Al t h ou g ht hi ss t e pi sus u a l l ykn own a saBo go l i u b ovt r a n s f or ma t i o n ,i twa sus e de a r l i e rb y T.Ho l s t e i n an d H.Pr i mak o Ph y s .Ae p . .5 8: 1 0 98 ( 1 9 4 0)i nas t u dy o fma g ne t i cs y s t e ms .
317
Whe r e
EkO ( ( 4 +n g j l- ( n g ) 2 ) +
Ac omb i n a t i ono fEqs . ( 3 5 . 1 4 )t o( 3 5 . 1 8 )y i e l ds
( 3 5 . 1 8 )
( 3 5 . 1 9 )
( 3 5 . 2 1 )
Fur t her m or e ,al 1e xc i t e ds t at esc or r e s pond t o va r i ousnum be r sofnoni nt e r a ct i ng bos ons ,ea ch wi t h an ex ci t at i on ene r gy fk . Thi ss pe dr um has t he s am e f or m ast ha tobt ai ne di n Se c .22f oradi l ut ehar dc or eBos egas:
X -.
( 3 5 . 2 2 / 8 ( 3 5 . 2 2 : )
6 2+
N =y k t , j= n - ( 2 y r , k =)
.
4 j 2 n = J . ) j 1 j r ( j y z y y j j j y . z + + 2 . y l z j , . j j 8/ n = j y n j +
a3
.
( 3 5 . 2 4 )
3,8
mn2 g2
A! . n ( g j j 2 j( d 2 * 3 k 3 V l ) j . j g j( z d . 3 j ) j t g j X n e g j + A g n d j 2 z r t m 0 2 n j l j . j . g t y z a = t p j / + J g * 0 y z y s j t y . + z y z l l ' . y , . j + s l z j j z z r a m h z n j j + 1 l 2 5 8 j n = c 3 j l j ( ? 5 . a 5 )
whi c hs ho ws t h a tt h e s et e r ms r e p r e s e n ta h i g h e r o r d e rc or r e c t i on t o EI N.
1Thi so b s e r v a t i o nwa sma debyK. A. Br u e c k ne ra n dK . S a wa da , Ph y s . Re v . ,1 0 6: 11 1 7( 1 9 57 ) .
319
gNl # A2 INI N - Nz 4
2F 2P ' P ' Thi sexpr e s s i on om i t st er m sofor der
W 2 U ( XX o ) 2 = N l R % m l & X ( 8 ( X & = 3 j i j 2
whi ch ar e aga i n ne gl i gi bl ei nt hi sappr oxi m at i on. Fi nal l y,we c om m e nton t he
A = 27+ .
- .
# E y
( 3 5 . 2 6 )
( 3 5. 27 )
( Eq. ( 1 1 . 2 6 ) )
E j l kra:2 k; 2 a n( A . e . =g z a y = =h nl 2- 1 )
.
( 3 5 . 28 )
whe r et he n ume r i c a lf a c t o r( 2- 1 )a r i s e sf r om t h e di r e c ta nd e x c h an g et e r ms , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Ap a r tf r om t h ed i F e r e n tde g e ne r a c yf a c t o r s ,Eqs .( 3 5 . 2 7 )a n d ( 3 5 . 2 8 )a r ei d e n t i c a l ,a n dt h e y bo t hc a nb ei n t e r pr e t e di nt e r msofa n op t i c a l p o t e n t i a lE s e et he d i s c u s s i on o fEq.( 1 1 . 2 6 ) ) . Th ec o r r e c t i on st o Eq .( 3 5 . 2 6 ) r e q ui r et h es e c o n do r d e rt e r msi n Eq .( 3 5 . 3 ) ,a swe l la st h ea d di t i o n a lt e r msi n Eq.( 3 5 . 21 ) . On c e we h a v ee l i mi n a t e dt h e di v e r g e n c e s ,ho we v e r ,i ti st h e n p e r mi s s i b l et os e t g= n n v a h l l mi nt h er e ma i n i n gc o r r e c t i on t e r ms .S i n c et he
ans weri swel lde hne d,t he er r or i nt r oduc e d by t hi sl as tappr oxi ma t i on i s of hi ghe ror de rand t husne gl i gi bl ei nt he pr e s e ntt r e at me nt . The above r es ul t sf or t he gr ounds t at e ene r gy and depl et i on oft he c onde ns at er epr oducet hos eobt ai ne di n Se c.2 2 wi t ht hem et hodsofquant um se l d t heor y. A l t hough t he c anoni c al t r ans f or m at i on pr ovi des a m or e phys i cal pi c t ur eoft hegr ound s t at eand ex ci t e ds t at e s .i ti sl es swel ls ui t e df orcal cul at i ons t o hi ghe ror de r . l n pr i nc i pl e ,ofc our s e,i ti spos s i bl et or e t a i n al lhi ghe r or der
t e r msi nt h ei nt e r a c t i o nh a mi l t o n i a n( 3 5 . 8 ) ; t h et wo a pp r o a c he smus tt h e nl e a d
t oi dent i ca lr es ul t ss i nc et he y ar e bas ed on t he s am e phys i calappr oxi m at i ons . N eve r t hel es s ,pr a ct i calc al c ul at i onshavege ner al l yr e l i e d on t hem or es y s t em a t i c met hodsus i ngG r e en' sf unc t i onsi nt r oduce di n Chap.6. 1
lS e e , f ore x a mp l e ,S. T.Be l i a e v ,S ov . Ph y s . J ETP, 7: 2 99( 1 9 5 8 ) .
320
36LCOOPER PAI RS Al t hought hemos tr em ar kabl epr ope r t i esofs uper conduct or sar et hos eas s oc i at e d
Ce tc ce x p -p. p
' *B =
F> . 0
( 3 6 . 1 )
w hi c hi st ypi calofan a s s e m bl y wi t hanene r gygap, s epar at i ngt hegr ound s t at e f r om t he e xci t ed s t at e s . A s ec ond i m por t antex per i ment alobs er vat i on i st he i s ot ope ef l kc t ,wher et he t r ans i t i on t em per a t ur e Fcofdi f l kr enti s ot ope s oft he s am e e l ementvar i eswi t ht he i oni c m as sM as
F cc cL Vk
( 3 6 . 2 )
Thi sr es ul ti ndi cat e st hat t he dynam i c s of t he i oni c cor e s af l kc t st hesupe r conduct i ngs t at e, e ve nt hought hei onsar enot es pe ci al l yi m por t anti nt henor m als t at e
( S e c . 3 ) .
l nt he pr e s ents e ct i on,we s t udy a s i m pl e m odeldue t o Cooper , ls howi ng t hatan at t r ac t i v ei nt e r ac t i on bet we en t wo f c r mi onsi nt he Fe r m is e al eadst ot he
i n t e r a c t i n gt hr ou g hap ot e n t i a lAFt xj , x c ) . Th e ma n y p a r t i c l e me di u ma f e c t s
t hes et wo par t i cl est hr ough t he ex cl us i on pr i nc i pl e ,whi ch r es t r i ct st heal l owe d i nt er medi at es t at e s ,exa ct l y asi n Se c.11 . TheSchr di ng ere quat i on
E FI + Fc+ AF( 1 , 2 ) J /( l , 2 )= f/ ( l , 2 )
1L. N. Coo p er , Ph y s .RF t , . . 1 0 4: 1 1 8 9( 1 95 6) ,
2 H . Fr hl i c h, Ph y s .Re v . , 7 9: 8 4 5( 1 95 0) .
( 3 6 . 3 )
321
( 3 6 . 4 ) ( 3 6 . 5 ) ( 3 6 . 6 )
S0 n =( L + Fz ) Tn= En Ta
r e l a t i o n( O)= ( /1 01 /) / 4 /1 /) .
I ft he s ys t em i sconine dt o al ar g e box wi t hv ol ume F,t he unpe r t ur be d wavef unc t i onsar epl anewave swi t h pe r i odi cboundar ycondi t i ons
Pk T k z ( j , ; )= p r +p f k l p x l p r +e l k z . x z
( J 6 . 8 )
To s i m pl i f yt hedi s cus s i on we s hal lnegl ec tt heeFe c tofs pi nsand t r e att het wo i ni t i alpar t i c l e sasdi s t i ngui s habl e . Thi si sper mi s s i bl ei ft het wo par t i cl esha ve oppos i t es pi ns ,whi l e P' mus tbe s pi ni nde pende nt . The manybody as pec t sof t he pr obl em a r e now i nc or por at e d by r es t r i c t i ng t he s um over i nt er m edi at e
( 3 6 . 9 )
bec aus eal 1ot he rs t at e si nt heFe r mis eaar eal r e adysl l e d. I n a hom ogeneousm edi um ,t het ot alm om e nt um oft he pai rwi l lbecons e r ve d,and wet he r e f or ei nt r oduc et hef ol l owi ngde Eni t i ons
( 3 6 . 1 0 ) ( 3 6 . 1 1 ) ( 3 6 . 1 2 ) ( 3 6 . 1 3 )
/4 1 , 2 )= F+c d P * RF+4.k ( x )
( 3 6 . 1 4 )
wher et he sr s tf ac t orcont ai ns t he c ent er of mas s mot i on,whi l et he s e cond i s t hei nt er nal wavef unc t i onoft hei nt e r ac t i ngpai r . I ncont r a s tt ot heSc hr di ng er
a22
wavef unc t i onbe caus et heEl l e d Fe r mi s e apr ovi desapr e f e r r edf r ameofr tf e r e nce. W enot et hat #c annotex ce e d lkFi ft hepar t i cl e sar ei ni t i al l yi ns i det heFer mis ea.
d3 t
( 3 6 . 1 5 )
( 3 6 . 1 6 )
whi c hi sknown ast heBe t he Gol ds t onee quat i on. l I ti ss i mpl yt heSc hr di ng e r equat i on f ort wo f e r mi onsi n a Fer migas ,whe r et hePaul ipr i nc i pl ef or bi dst he appe ar anc e ofi nt e r me di at es t at e st hatar e al r e ady oc cupi e d by ot herf e r mi ons . Si nc et he i nt er act i ng pai ri ni t i al l yl i e si ns i de t heFer m is e a,i tc annotm a ker e al t r a ns i t i ons . Ne ve r t he l e s s ,i tc an m ake v i r t ua lt r ans i t i ons t o al 1s t at es out s i de
po n e n t sI . P +k a n dI . P - k.
I ng ene r al , t heBet heGol ds t oneequat i onc anbes ol v edonl ywi t h numer i c al t e c hni ques . Al t hough s t r ai ght f or war di n pr i nc i pl e, t hi sappr oac hi snotal wa ys s uci ent l y ac cur at et o unc ov ert he r a t he rs ubt l ef e at ur e s as s oc i at e d wi t ht he Fe r m is ea,and wes hal lt her ef or ei nt r oducea m ode lt wopar t i c l epot ent i alt hat al l owsust o obt ai nan e xac ts ol ut i on. Thec onc eptofapot ent i ali sir s tge ner al i z ed t oi nc l udeno nl oc alpot e nt i al s
( 3 6 . 1 7 J )
( 3 6 . 1 7 : )
l . ( x, x' ). + . n ( l x1 ) 3 ( x- x' )
W enow c hoos et oc ons i deranon l oc als e par abl epot ent i al .whi c ht ake st hef or m
( 3 6 . 1 8 )
323
Wi t ht h es e p a r a b l ep ot e nt i a l ,Eq. ( 3 6 . 1 6 )b e c o me s
x . 2-
( 3 6 . 2 0 ) ( 3 6 . 21 )
1 1I l 4k ) I 2 d5 t1 l 4f ) l 2 g ; = f ' , 2 k 2 X l r ( 2 , 4 3 , 2 t 2 K f ' c )
LE = h l v1 ( s 2- k2 )
r
k
( 3 6 . 2 2 )
( 3 6 . 2 3 )
JP
k r
Fi g.36. 1 Int e gr at i onr egi oni nmoment um s pacef or Bet heGol ds t oneequat i on.
I JP : i : k1 <k r
r e s ul t , /( s 2 )c o ns i s t so fa s i ng u l a r i t y wi t hn a r r o w wi dt ha tt h ev a r i a bl ep oi n t
s2= k2 ,s uper pos e d on t heba ckgr ound cur v et ha ti sl ogar i t hmi c al l ys i ngul arat
K 2= k /- j PZ .
Th ee i g e n v a l u ei s de t e r mi ne db yt h ei n t e r s e c t i ono f /( M 2 ) wi t ht heho r i z o n t a l
l i ne A-i . I ti se vi de ntt ha tt her ei s onl y one s ol ut i on f orA > 0,occ ur r i ng at
K2 -
k2; k ; F1 j u t kl j z+ &( 2 )
( 3 6 . 2 4 )
324
Her et he i nt eg r al t e r m has be en negl e ct e d,be ca us ei ti s fni t e at<2= k2and c ont r i but e s onl yt o hi g he r or deri n A. W e conc l ude t hatt he onl ye se c t ofa r e pul s i vepot e nt i a li st os hi f tt hee ne r gyoft hepai rbyas ma l lamountpr opor t i onal
t oI l z ( k) l 2F1 ,a se x p e c t e df o ra ni n t e r a c t i n g me d i u m. I nc o n t r a s t ,Fi g .3 6 . 2
s howst hatan at t r act i v e pot ent i alA < 0 al waysl e ads t o/ wt ?s ol ut i onsf orea ch
cor r es pondi ng c r i t i c alval ue kc ls uch t hatt he anom al ouss ol ut i on i st he l ower ei ge nva l ue f or a1 lk > kc ,whi l et he or di nar ys ol ut i on i sl owe rf ork < kc . An appr oxi ma t eval uef orkci sobt ai ne df r om t hes ol ut i on oft he e quat i on
( 2 . *3 J r d 3 t 1 N ( 1 ) 1 2 ( / c J -/ 2 ) i =A 1
( 3 6 . 2 5 )
wh i c hi st hei n t e r s e c t i onoft hel i n eA 1wi t ht h ep a r tof f( K l )a r i s i n gf r o mt h e i n t e g r a l i nEq . ( 3 6 . 2 2 ) .I ti sc l e a rf r om Fi g. 3 6. 2t h a t t h ea n o ma l o use i g e n v a l u e i se s s e nt i a l l yi n de p e n de n tofk2 ,a n dt hu st h eg r o u n d s t at ee n e r g yo ft h ep a i ri s i n d e pe n d e n to fi t si ni t i a l r e l at i v ewl t l cv e c t o rk a sI o n ga sk >kc . Th i sb e h a v i or i sv e r ydi l l kr e n tf r o mt h a toft h eo r d i na r ys o l ut i o n( 3 6. 2 4 ) ,wh e r e< 2; k J k2a p a r t
f r om cor r e c t i onsofor derF -1 . W es hal lnow s t udy t he anom al ous ei genval u ei n det ai l . The sr s tt er m
I A 1 1 -( 2 * ) 3 J y , d 5 t l u ( f ) l 2 ( / 2 -a : 2 ) 1
( 3 6 . 2 6 )
:26
Al t hough t hi se quat i oncan bes t udi e df ora l 1# < 2ks,i ti ss i m pl e s tt os e tP = 0, whent heei ge nv al uecondi t i on be com e s
1 *t 2 d t1 1 z ( / ) 1 2 $ j I = k 2= 2 t 2 < 2 r kF *xc I ? z ( k sx ) I 2 - 2 z : z = I dx x -( s / ks )
( 3 6 . 2 7 )
1 ; k $ k FI c kl c Q1 l 4 .2 ? z ( / f F ) I l nk / <
-
( 3 6 . 2 8 )
( 3 6 . 2 9 )
l h 2 ky 4 =2 = m e xp - / z c sl A1 I N ( k21
( 3 6 . 3 0 )
Asno t e da b o v e ,Eq.( 3 6 . 2 9 )d e t e r mi n e st h eg r ou n ds t a t ee n e r g yo ft h e pa i r
whe nev erk > kc . Thec or r es pondi nge xpr es s i on f or. ( ha ss eve r alv er yr e mar kabl ef eat ur es:
e x c e e dss o me c r i t i c a lv a l u e . Th i sr e s ul ta l s oc a nb es e e ni n Eq.( 3 6 . 3 0 ) ,
bec aus e' vani s hesex ponent i al l y askF . > . 0. Thef or eg oi ngc al c ul at i on i m pl i est hatt wopar t i cl eswi t ho ppos i t emome nt a and s pi ns ne art he Fer m is ur f a ce wi l lf or m a bound pai r ,as l ong ast he i nt er -
z26
par t i cl e pot e nt i ali s at t r ac t i ve. l l nt hi sway,t he s ys t e m l owe r si t sener gy by an amount,and t he or i gi nalunper t ur bed gr ound s t a t ec l e ar l y be comesuns t abl e . Unf or t unat e l y, Cooper ' s mode li sr es t r i c t ed t ot wo par t i cl es' ,i ti s t her e f or ei nca pabl eofdes cr i bi ngt he ne w gr ound s t at e,whi c he vi dent l yi nvol ve s m any bound pai r s . Ne ver t he l e s s ,t hec al c ul at i on haspr ovi de d a qual i t at i vede s c r i pt i on oft he i ns t abi l i t y,and i tal s oi ndi c at est ha tt he new gr ound s t at e cannotbe obt ai n ed wi t h aper t ur bat i on e xpans i on. I nSec .37wes how how t heBogol i ubovc anoni ca 1t r ans f or m at i on al l ows us t os t udy t he m anybody gr ound s t at e of s uc ha
s ys t e m.
37UI NTERACTI NG FERM I GAS W e now di s c us show t hef or mat i on ofCooperpai r sc an bei ncor por at ed i nt oa cons i s t entmanybody t heor y. The bas i ci de ai st hatpa i r i ng be t we e n par t i c l es
8, k= & k J k tV ' VY k !
( 3 7 .1 )
Th ec n u mb e rc o e c i e n t su ka n dr k a r er e a l an ddb p e n do n l yo nI k( . Th i sl i n e a r
t r ans f or mat i on i sc anoni c ali fand onl yi ft he new ope r at or sobey t he r e l at i ons
( 3 7 . 2 )
( 3 7 . 3 ) ( 3 7 . 4 ) ( 3 7 . 5 4 ) ( 3 7 . 5 : )
Jk ?= u k k+ t ' k #1 k
J k t=u k #k-r k l
1I n pri nci pl e,a bound pai rc an al s ol xf or med by t wo part i cl eswi t h par al l els pi nsi n an ant i s ymme t ri cs pat i als t at e. To t he ext entt hatt he at t r act i ve i nt e ra ct i on i s of s hor tr ange,we
( e d. ) ,A b ' f ' heM a n yBod yPr o bl e m. ' 'p. 3 43 , J oh nW i l e ya ndSo ns ,I n c. , Ne w Yor k,1 9 5 9; S. T. Be l i a e v. Kgl . Da n s ke Vi d e ns k a b. Se l s ka b . Ma t . F y s .Me e, 3 1 ,n o.1 1( 1 95 9 ) .
327
t e mp e r a t u r e D( F= 0, P , p , ) .whi c hi st h ee x p e c t a t i o nv a l u eo f( c o mp a r e Eq. ( 1 8. 2 9) ) k -# -/ z #
=
) (c 1 z J k A ( E 2- / z )-' l ' Z t kl AI kz l a l FI k3 A ) k4 l 4 ) k 2 k l l , k z z , l k , l + . k 4 XJ 1 l , J l z z J uz . l k z A ,( 3 7 . 6 )
The us e oft he t he r m odynam i c pot e nt i a la l l ows ust ot r e atas s e m bl i eswi t h an i ndesni t e num ber ofpar t i cl es . I nt he end,ofc our s e,t he c hem i ca lpot ent i a l
4: c k , ! ,whi c hc a nbee x p r e s s e da sf o l l o ws t / k ! J k ' l=X( 4! J k ' ! )F ' t 4 J k ' t ( 3 7 . 7 ) He r eN s t a n dsf orn o r ma lo r d e rwi t hr e s p e c tt ot h eo p e r a t o r sx a nd j. 1I f
1 O)i st h en e wv a c u u mc h a r a c t e r i z e dbyt h ec on d i t i o ns J k l O)=#k ) O)= 0 t h ev a c uu me x p e c t a t i o nv a l u eo fEq. ( 3 7 . 7 )y i e l d s ( 3 7 . 8 )
k , p 2 .k k
( 3 7 . 9 ) ( 3 7 . 1 0 )
and s i mi l ar l y
1To maket hef or malconnect i on wi t hW i ck' st heor em compl et e,wemayconsi dert hex o> l ' at o r st ob et i mede p e n de ntwi t ht het i meo ft h eop e r a t oro nt h el e f t i n hni t e s i mal l yl at e rt ha nt ha t on t he r i ght;howtv er,a l i t t l er eqect i on on t her eader ' spar twi l lconvi nc e hi mt hatt hi sar t i f i ce i sun ne c e s s a r y.
a2:
( k1 A I k 2 A2 I FI k3 A3 k4 A 4 )= 3 A , A , 3 A a A . t kl k 2 I P ' l k3 k 4 )
l n addi t i on,t hee xpl i ci te xpr es s i on
( 3 7 . 1 2 )
( kI k2 I P ' I k3 k 4 )- ( k2 kl 1 Uj k4 k3 )= ( -k3 -k 4 1 UI -kl -k 2 ) ( 3 7 . 1 3 ) ( -kj -kz t # ' p -k3 -k 4 ) whe r et h er e l a t i o n F( x, y )= P ( -x, -y)ha sb e e na s s u me di na r r i v i n gatt h el a s t
e q u al i t y . Th ep o t e n t i a l e ne r gyop e r a t orc a nn ow b er e wr i t t e n wi t h Eq. ( 3 7 . 1 3 )
as
P= f ' .+ V i
wher e
( 3 7 . 1 4 )
( 3 7 . l 5 J ) ( 7 7 . 1 5 b q
Th et wo t e r mso fI hd i f l kro n l yi nt h es u b s c r i p t so nt h eo p e r a t or s ,a n d
c omp a r i s on o f Eq s .( 3 7 . 5 4 )a n d( 3 7 . 5 : )s h o ws t h a tt he s e c on dt e r mc a nb e
o bt a i n e df r om t h esr s twi t ht h es u bs t i t u t i onl a u+ . . +j ka n dt ' 4 +-r ) . Wet h e r e f or ec onc ent r at e on t he fr s tt er m ;t he c or r es pondi ng oper a t or pr oduc tc an be r e wr i t t en wi t hWi c k' st heor e m
d % k t f / k z ! J k z q ! N k h q != Xl t / k t t / k ' ! C k ' q ! C k / . q ! 1V q 0 D k 2 X( t / k ' r J k , t ) , 0 :: 2 k+q 1 1 2 : . . + 3q Xt l k f ! & k ! )- 3 k ' , , Xt J ) y J k r l d k 'k + n 1 1 : 2 X( J k Y ' , a u ' t )h3 0o P J ? 7 2 . , -8 u ,k + qr : 2 ! J k 2 , ( 3 7 . 1 6 )
--
Pu- #( P2 - ' ikk' Z( f k k' l # ' l k k' )- f kk' l Fl k ' k) ) x( ( r y l ? )+2 ? , . N' ( <T J k ! ) J +l a k* +j k , 1 7 + >-l C 1 1
329
( 3 7 . 1 8 )
kk'
% = NL %)-kk' j l( u k p k u k , p k , l k-kj P ' T k' -k? )+ p lYt k-k' J P ' J k- k ' ) ) Zf t = la k+#t k /k )( ( & 1-& l ) & i ' ( k-k' l l z ' l k-k/ ) kk'
-
#- &+41 +z h +x( l 2 )
wher e
( 3 7 . 2 0 )
kk'
330
t k k' l Pl k k' )> t k k' ! P ' g k k' )- ( k k' l P ' ! k' k )+ ( k- k' J FI k- k' ) ( 3 7 . 2 2 '
I ti sc onve ni entt o desne anew s i ngl epar t i c l ee ner gy
( 3 7 . 2 3 2
QHe k- r z
Fi nal l y,wei nt r oduc et hee ne r g y ga p byt her el a t i on
( 3 7 . 2 4 '
Ak e 12 k- kl Fl k' - k' )u k , p : , k :(
a n dt hev a r i o ust e r mso fk b e c o me
( 3 7 . 2 5 ' '
( 3 7 . 2 6 / )
( 3 7 . 2 6 : ) ( 3 7 . 2 6 t $
l tmus tb ee mp h a s i z e dt h a tEqs . ( 3 7 . 2 0 )a n d( 3 7 . 2 6 )t o g e t he rc o ns t i t u t ea ne x a c t
Un t i lt hi sp oi n t , t h eo n l yr e s t r i c t i o n on u ka n d! 7 ki st h a ti n Eq. ( 3 7 . 4 ) ,a n d
wes hal lnow i m pos et headdi t i onalcons t r ai nt
I ( k u k l l k= 1k t d -r i ) ( 3 7 . 2 7 ) t o ma k ePcv a n i s h. Th ec o n di t i o nu k+ t ? i= 1i smo s te a s i l yi n c o r p or a t e db y
wr i t i ng
u k= c os y :
! l := s i nz k
( 3 7 . 2 8 ) ( 3 7. 2 9 )
a n d Eq. ( 3 7 . 2 7 )t h e nb e c o me s ( k s i n2 z k= z kc o s 2 z k
331
t a n2 z k= : f k l
Si mpl et r i gonomet r y gi v es
( 3 7 . 3 0 )
s i n2 y: = +N Ek t= 2 u kt y ( 3 7 . 31 )
c os 2 yk = +& Ek -l =W -r j
whe r eei t he rt heupperorl owe rs i gnsmus tbet ake nt hr oughout ,and
E. -( i+ f i ) +
Thet e r m 41 ma yn o wb er e wr i t t e na s
( 3 7 . 3 2 )
( 3 7 . 33 )
I j l ( 1 + j k ) I ) ( l j k )
( 3 7 . 3 4 )
: .
( 3 7 . 3 5 )
Thi sl as tr e l at i oni st heBCS ga pe quat i on,whi c hi sa nonl i neari nt eg r ale quat i on f ort hegap f unc t i onAk . l
Thez e r ot e mq e r a t ur et h e r mod y n a mi cpo t e n t i a lk no wc o n s i s t so ft h r e e t e r ms& + 41 + N( F) , wh e r e& i s acnu mb e r , 41 i sdi a g on a l i nt h equ a s i pa r t i c l e nu mb e ro pe r a t o r sa f xa n dp% p, a n d #( P)i san o r ma l o r d e r e d pr od uc toff ou r
quas i par t i c l e cr ea t i on and de s t r uc t i on ope r at or s . Thi sl as tt e r m ma ke s no
c on t r i bu t i oni nt heg r ou n ds t a t eo fU + 41
( oI #( P) 1 O)- 0
weobt ai n
( 3 7 . 3 6 )
( 3 7 . 3 7 )
=2
Ez =( I+ f i ) 1r e p r e s e nt st h ea d di t i on a lc o n t r i b ut i o no fe a c he x c i t e dq ua s i pa r t i cl e. Not et hatEk> Ak ,whi c h ac c ount sf ort he namegap f unc t i on be caus e t hee xc i t e ds t at esar es e par at e df r om t hegr ound s t at ebyahni t ega p. Theme an
N=Z ( 0I J ZJ k A I O) kz
=
2) jp i= ) (( 1- ( k E: 1 ) k k
( 37 . 3 8 )
f : =U ) k z k z J k z= 7 ) kt f / k ,J k !- Z k l Jk t ) kz k
=
7 2 k( #( 4t c k l )-At l t k t J k J ) 1 k
7 2 k t a k l k+K / k ) k
( 3 7 . 3 9 )
( 3 7 . 4 0 )
( Xn , 1= 0
a
( 3 7 . 3 5 ) . Si nc ei ti saho mo g e n e ou se q u a t i o n, t he r ei sa l wa y st het r i v i a l s o l u t i o n := 0 f ora 1 1 k n o r ma l s o l u t i on ( 3 7 . 41 ) whi c hd e s c r i be st h en or ma lg r o un ds t a t e( f l l e d Fe r mis e a ) . Thi si d e n t i f c a t i o n f ol l owsi mme di a t e l yb e c a u s eEqs . ( 3 7 . 3 2 )a nd( 3 7 . 3 4 )t h e nb e c o me
Ek =1 f : 1
u kp := 0
u k j 1 ( j . j . t . # j ) . : ( e . s ) n o r m a l s o l u t i o n , ? 1 j 1 j j -l . ( j k j ) o c s 0 )
( 3 7 . 4 2 )
333
I n addi t i on t ot he f or egoi ng nor m al s t at es ol ut i on,t hegap e quat i on al s o hasnont r i vi als ol ut i onswi t ht x# 0, whi c h wes ha l lc al l s u pe r c ond uct i ngs ol ut i ons. Asa s pe c i hcmode l ,as s umet hatt hemat r i xe l e ment soft hepot ent i al ar econs t ant i nt he r egi on ne art heFer m is ur f a c ea nd v ani s h el s e wher ez
( k- kf U4 1 -1 )= gV1 # t o a o- l f : l ) e l h u ; n- I f l l )
( 3 7 . 4 3 )
wher eho l ni sacut o/ i nt r odue edt or e nde rt hei nt egr al sc onve r g ent . Thi sm odel i sa ppl i cabl et ome t al swher et he i nt e r ac t i on wi t ht hecr ys t all at t i c ec an l ea dt o
Ak= Zhh n- l l k 1 )
w he r e2 1i sacons t ant ,gi ven a st hes ol ut i on oft heequat i on
( 3 7 . 4 4 )
1= g ( 2F) 1X o l h u ) n- f k ( ) ( Z2+ f i ) 1 k
=
l . gJd? k( 2 7 83 o l h o ) n- l J : 1 ) ( A2+ ( : 2 ) 1
( 3 7. 45 ) ( 3 7 . 4 6 )
( 3 7 . 47 )
( 2 , / 83 #3 k= 4 r 42 93 :2 d k= S( 0 ) X
wher e
k v ( 0 ) 2 = 1 c j a d p k j k k v , v
1- g NI ? . I ' p
2
d l . ' p ' q J , s ( l 2 + J 2 ) . # X t 0 ) J o ( u s 2 + ; 2 ) +
lhn
a z o a s e x p ( : ( ( 1 j ) g )
Th ec or r e s po n di ngq ua n t i t i e su ia n d& , Ib e c ome W =. i ( 1+ ( k ( L2+ J I ) + ) s u p e r c o n du c t i n gs o l u t i on t ' l= . ! . ( 1- J : ( 2+ J 2 ) 1 )
1H.Fr hl i c h.l oc.ci t .
( 3 7 . 4 9 )
( 37 . 5 0 )
334
uk
1
l t ? 2 1 k
> a 8G
' k
s me a r e dt hr o ug h o utat hi c k n e s st i ne n e r g y . No t et h a tEq. ( 3 7 . 5 0 )i si n s ni t e l y
di Fe r e nt i abl e and t husc an neve rbe obt ai ne di n per t ur bat i on t he or yf r om t he
b yEq. ( 3 7 . 3 8 ) , a n d we; n d
Ns- Nn= 2) ( ( ? J j 1 , -r i I a ) k
=
0 ( 3 7 . 5 1 ) b e c a u s et hei n t e gr a n di so d di n( . He r ewen o t et h a tt h eo n l yc on t r i b ut i o nt o
=
Ek
Sum r c onduct i ng
I l I
I
y e k
335
t h e r e f or ep e r mi s s i bl et ou s e Eq .( 3 7 . 4 6 ) . As a r e s ul t ,t h et r a n s i t i o nf r o mt he
nor m alt os upe r conduct i ng s t a t edoe snotal t ert hem ean num berofpar t i c l e si n t hi sappr oxi ma t i on. A l t e r nat i ve l y,i ft he numberofpar t i c l e sN i scons i der ed
3.
& s ( m ) & n ( p . a ) + b l h( l V J . t ) g n + N+ 0 ( 3 2 )
k : &, ( p . n )- Un t J z n l ( 3 7 . 5 2 ) wh e r et hel i n e art e r mv a n i s h e sb e c a u s eofEq. ( 4 . 9 ) . Si n c e&i ss ma l l , we n e e d o nl yc omp ut et h ec h a n g ei nt h et h e r mo d y na mi cpo t e n t i a la tl i x e d/ . zg c omp a r e t hede r i v a t i on ofEq.( 3 0 . 7 2 ) ) . Th i se x p r e s s i on i se a s i l ye v a l u a t e d wi t h Eq s . ( 3 7 . 2 6 *, ( 3 7 . 3 4 ) , a n d( 3 7 . 4 2 ) . As s u mi n gt ha tt h ema t r i xe l e me n t sf ' x kk' 1 F1 k k' )E E gI Va r ec o n s t a n t si nt h ev i c i n i t yo ft h eFe r mis u r f a c e .weh a v e
. . ,
= -
jV N( % 12= f k - Da
( 3 7 . 5 3 )
:Th et h e r mod y na mi ci de n t i t y ofEq.( 4 . 3 )now a l l o wsa ne x pl i c i tc a l c u l a t i o n ofJ z a-y m . As s u mi ngas i n gl e p ar t i c l es p e c t r um e :Q :6 ,weNn d &= r-i . ( A/ e . ) 2 ( 1+ 6 ( P l nA/ l nN) ) , whi c h j us t i s e st h eo mi s s i o no ft he8 2c or r e c t i o ni n Eq.( 3 7 . 5 2 ) . No t e .h owe ve r ,t h atz V( J z ,- r t J/ ( Es- En )=! . I 1+ . 6 ( PI nA/ ' 1 nN) 1i sc o mpa r a bl ewi t h on es ot h a tt hes e p ar a t ec o nt r i bu t i on s
of or d e r. 3i n Eq.( 3 7 5 2 )a r e no tn e g l i g i b l e .I fo ) oa n dga r ei nd e p e nd e nt of Ns t h e n 6 ( ?l nA/ Pl nN)r e d uc e st o2l n( 2 t t ) p / A) .
3a6
& ' =h zj m a s s u mi n gt h ep s e u dop o t e n t i a lmo d e lo f Eq.( 3 5. 1 ) . Co mp ut et h e t o t a lmo me n t u m P,a n dc o mp a r ei twi t ht h ev a l u eNn h z( c o mpa r ePr o b.6 . 6 ) .
10. 2. C ons i dera dens ec har ge ds pi nl es sBos egasi n a uni f or mi nc om pr e s s i bl e backgr ound. U s i ng a c anoni c alt r ans f or m at i on,s how t hatt he depl et i on and
g r ou nd s t a t ee n e r g ya r eg i v e nb y( n- n ( ) / n= 0. 21 l r fa n d EO I N = -0 . 8 03 r s *e l ( 2 J ( ) .I nt h e s ee x p r e s s i on sr 3= ? , j n =n a ta n dt z l= h l j mpe l , wh e r emei st h eb os on
ma s s( c o mpa r ewi t hPr o b. 6 . 5 ) .
10. 3. Tr e at t he par t i cl e noneons er vat i on ar i s i ng f r om t he s ubs t i t ut i on
1 0. 4. ( ( 8S o l v e Eq.( 3 6. 2 6 )f o rP. c tl k y ,a n ds h o wt ha tt h eb i n di n ge n e r g y LI PI f or ap a i rwi t hc e n t e ro f ma s smo me n t um h pi s g i v e nb y( #); 4 sA( 0 )- h t ' y p, whe r et ' s= h kr / ma n d/ . X ( 0 ) i sg i v e ni nEq . ( 3 6. 3 0) . ( b )l f: ' ( 0 ) / k s; 4 J I O Q K, e s t i ma t et h ec r i t i c a l v a l u eo fP wh e r e( #)v a ni s h e s .
10. 5. Show t hatt he anom al ousei g enval ue cor r es ponds t oas ol ut i on oft he hom ogene ous Bet he G ol ds t one e quat i on.
( b )S ho wt ha tt h ef or mf a c t o r( Fo ur i e rt r a n s f o r mo ft h ed e n s i t y )f o rt hi ss t a t e i sF( q); k : 1- h v r q l l ha sq+ . 0. I n t e r pr e tt hi sr e s u l t . ( c )l fA/ k,; k ; l 0O K, e s t i ma t et h epa i rs i z ean dc o mp ar ewi t ht h ec r i t i c a l wa v e num be rde r i v ed i n Pr ob.1 0. 4.
337
10. 6. Com put et he expe c t at i on v al ue oft he ope r at orX 2i nt he gr ound s t at e ) 0)ofEq. ( 3 7 . 8 ) , a nds ho wt h a tt h eQu c t u a t i on sa r eg i v e nb y ' N Y u kl k ) 2 -2x - 2 . -( y; N ) = -. j w
( X/ 2
Zt . ' 22 k
k
Di s c us st he di f f er enc e be t we en t he nor m aland s uper condu ct i ng gr ound s t at es . 10. 7. Com put e t he pai r i ng am pl i t u de s Fk *- ' .O ' t / k t / - k: O ' and Fk>
( b )S ho wt h a tt h ee x p e c t a t i on v a l u eo fX g Eq .( 3 7 . 6 ) 1i nt h i ss t a t ei st . 'g Eq. ( 3 7 . 2 1 J ) J . ( c )Va r yi ng s ? ka nd l ; ks ub j e c tt ot h ec o n s t r a i n tu2. -@ ' 2= l .s h o wt h a tt h eg a p e q ua t i o n( 3 7 . 3 5 )i st h ec on di t i on f brmi n i mu mt h e r mo d y na mi cpo t e n t i a l . ( #) Apa r tf r o m n o r ma l i z a t i o n ,v e r i f yt ha tt / k ! ' , 7 ) .a n dJ k / ' bot hr epr e s e nt . (
t he s ame s t at e whi c hi sor t hog onalt o( f p) , . Ev al uat et heexpe ct at i on val ue of
Xi nt hi ss t at eand s how t ha tt hei ncr e as ei nt he t her m odynami cpot ent i ali sfk .
par t fi ve
The s t udy ofa t om i c nucl eir epr e s e nt san i m por t antappl i c at i on oft he t e chni que s dev el ope di nt he pr ec e di ng c ha pt er s . The de t ai l e d pr oper t i es of hni t e nuc l e i ar e di s cus s e di n Chap.l f. Thi sc hapt er ,howe ve r ,c onc ent r at e s on t he s i m pl er
pr obl em of under s t andi ng t he bul k pr ope r l i e s of nucl ei( nucl ear mat t er )i n
t e r m soft he i nt e r ac t i on be t we e nt wo f r e e nuc l e ons h' ' ei nt r oduc et hedi s c us s i on . by g i vi ng a ve r y br i ef r ev i e w of t he nuc l e onnucl e on f or c e and by pr e ci s el y de sni ng nucl earm at t er .
381N U CLEAB FORCES : A R EVI EW I nt hi ss e c t i on wes um m ar i z et hem ai nem pi r i ca lf e at ur esoft henucl eonnuc l e on i nt er ac t i on. l . At t r ac t i v e:The e xi s t e nc e oft he deut er on w i t h J = 1 and ev en par i t y i ndi ca t est ha tt hef or c e bet we en t he pr ot on and ne ut r on i s bas i ca l l y at t r ac t i ve,
341
a42
s h o ws t ha t t h en u c l e a rf or c ebe t we e nt wop r o t on si nt h e1 u Ls t a t ei sa l s oa t t r a c t i v e .
Fi nal l y,i ti scl earf r om t heexi s t enc eofs t abl es e l f bound at omi cnuc l e it hatt he i nt er act i on bet we e n any t wo nuc l e onsi ses s ent i al l yat t r ac t i ve. 2.Shor tr an gek Fori nci de ntnucl eonene r gi e supt o 1 0M e Vi nt hec ent e rof m om ent um f r a m e,t hedi Fe r e nt i alc r os ss e ct i on f orneut r onpr ot on s c at t er i ng i si s ot r opi c. W e t he r e f or e conc l ude t hats c at t e r i n g oc cur si nr e l at i ve J wave s t at es . Thi sr e s ul ta l l ows a r ough e s t i m at e oft he r ange oft he nuc l e onnuc l e on f or c ef r om t he c l as s i c all i mi ton t he m axi m um angul arm om e nt um / ma x= r p t hat can c ont r i but et ot he s c at t er i ng am pl i t ude . Subs t i t ut i ng t he r e l at i on be t we enener gyand m om ent um gi v es z r nr e uE + E +
1 . . , ry , =r t F e r m i )4 0 u e v l
,
( 3 8 . 1 )
( 3 8 . 2 )
1Fe r mi = 1F H 1 01 3c m
:2
=
2 0 . 8Me V F2
( 3 8. 3 )
rQ ; f e w Fe r mi s
( 3 8 . 4 )
cs p ( 0 )= 2 0. 4b a r n s= 2 0. 4x 1 0 2 4c m2
t o ar i s ef rom apot ent i alc hos e nt of i tt hepr oper t i e soft hede ut er on. Si nc et he me as ur e d ne ut r onpr ot on cr os ss e ct i on i st he s t at i s t i cala ver age oft he t r i pl e t and s i ngl e tcr os ss e c t i ons
a i p= i ( 3 t 7 ' )+ Xi c )
( 3 8. 6 )
i tf ol l owst hatt he s i ngl e tpot e nt i a lmus tbedi fe r e ntf r om t het r i pl e tpot e nt i alof t hede ut e r on. A l owener gys ca t t er i nge xper i m entm e as ur esonl yt wopar am e t e r s of t he pot ent i al . The s e can be t ake n ast he s c at t er i ng l e ngt h a and e fe ct i v e r ang er ade sne d by k 1 2
c o t 3 a= -+ r n k a
( 3 8 . 7 )
NUCLE AR M AU ER
343
wher e3:i st he ' wa vephas es hi f t . l A ne xt ens i veanal ys i sofl owene r gyne ut r onPr ot on s c at t e r i ng yi e l dst he f ol l ow i ng par am e t er s2:
' J=
( 3 8 . 8 )
Th es i n g l e ts t a t eh a sa v e r yl a r g ene g a t i v es c a t t e r i n gl e n g t ha n dt h e r e f o r ej u s t f a i l st oh a v e a bo u nd s t a t e .( A bo un ds t a t ea tz e r oe n e r g yi mp l i e sa = -c c. )
I n cont r a s t ,t het r i pl e ts ys t e m hasonebound s t a t e,t hedeut e r on,wi t h a bi ndi ng ene r gy of2. 2M e s ' . Al t hough t he r ei sa l ar g e di f l kr enc ei ns c at t e ri ng l engt hs and z e r oe ner g y cr os ss ec t i ons ,t he s i ngl e tand t r i pl etpot ent i al s ar ei nf a ctr at her s i mi l a r ,bot h es s ent i al l y havi ng a bound s t at e atze r o ener p' . 4. Nonc e nt r al :Si nce t he deut e r on has a qua dr upol e m oment at he or bi t al angul ar m om e nt um c annot be a cons t ant of t he m ot i on. l nf act t he g r ound s t at e oft he de ut e r on m us tcont ai n bot h l= 2 and l= 0 t o yi el d a nonva ni s hi ng
quadr upol emoment( t hee ve n par i t yf or bi dsl= 1) . Henc et henuc l e onnuc l eon
pot e nt i al c annot be i nvar i ant under r ot a t i on of t he s pat i alcoor di nat es al one.
Th e mo s tg e n e r a lv e l oc i t y i n d e p e n de nt p o t e n t i a lf or s pi n lp a r t i c l e st h a ti s
i nvar i antunde rt ot alr ot a t i ons g ener at ed by J = L - S and under s pat i alr eoe ct i onsi sgi v en by
xE B x j- x2
s ' j 2H 3 ( cj . . f ) ( nz . f )- cj . nz ( 3 8 . 1 0 ) Anyhi gherpower soft hes pi n ope r at or seanber e duc e dt ot hef or m ofEq.( 38. 9)
u
chang e oft he par t i cl e s 's pi ns ,w' hi c hme anst hatt hewave f unc t i on m us tbe e i t her
3*4
i tf ol l o wsf r o m Eq. ( 3 8 . 1 0 )t h a t S1 2l y= 0
st ate.
( 3 8 . 1 2 )
Thust he t e ns oroper at oranni hi l at est hes i ngl ets t at eand act sonl yi nt het r i pl e t 5. Char ge i n de pe n dent :The nu cl e onnucl eon f or c ei schar ge i ndependent , whi ch m e ans t hatany t wo nuc l e onsi n a gi ven t wobody s t at ea l waysex pe r i enc e t he s am e f or c e. The Paul ipr i nc i pl e ,howe ver .l i mi t st he neut r onneut r on and pr ot onpr ot ons ys t e m st o ove r al l ant i s ymm et r i cs t a t esbe c aus et he yar ecom pos e d oft wo i de nt i ca lf er mi ons . A com pl et es e tofs t at eve ct or sf ort wononi nt e r a ct i ng nucl eonsi sobt ai ne d by s pe ci f yi ngt hem om ent um ofe ach nucl eon and t he s pi n
pr o j e c t i on I p j 5 ' l p c l z ) .I nt h ei n t e r a c t i n gs y s t e m t h e r ea r es t i l le i g h tg oo d
quant um num be r s , whi ch c an be t ake nt o bet hee ner gy,t ot al angul armom ent um ,
( p a r t i c l ei n t e r c h a n g e ) . Th e s er e l a t i on sa r es ho wn i n Ta b l e3 8 . la l on g wi t ht h e
t ypesofpai r st hatc an exi s ti n any oft he s t at e s . C har ge i nde pendenc ei m pl i es t hatt he f or ce sar ee qua li nt hos es t at est ha tcan be oc cupi e d by a 1 lt hr e e ki ndsof pai r s:n n, pp,and n p. l ti si m por t antt or e al i z e,howe ve r ,t hatc har ge i nde pende nc e does not i m pl yt he equal i t y ofs c at t er i ng am pl i t ude s and s c at t er i ng c r os s
Tabl e 38. 1 Low /st ates ofthe nucl eonnucl eon system St at es
s e ct i ons f ort he v ar i ous pai r s .s i nc et he s t at esav ai l a bl e ar er e s t r i c t ed by t he Paul i pr i n ci pl e. Forex am pl e,atI ow ener gy we hav e
( 3 8 . 1 3 X
-
t /( : 5 ' c ) ? . 2
( 3 8 . 1 3 : )
NUCLE AR M ATTER
346
( 3 8 . 1 4 )
6. Exc han ge ch ar act er As t he e ne r g y i nc r e as e s , m or e par t i al wav es c ont r i but et ot he s c at t er i ng am pl i t ude and t he anal ys i s bec om e s ver y di cul t . A ts u c i e nt l y hi gh ene r gi es ,howe ver ,t he Bor n appr oxi m at i on s uppl i esa us e f ul gui de t ot he di ser ent i alcr os ss e e t i on
d c m =j x j z jc f k r * x z ( x ) / k j( . x )a ' j
df ' j ='I cf q ' xk ' (x J3 x1 4v 't ' ') Cm .
wher e t f c . z rm i 2
d a
Im ,
( + ) j g y y1 2
( 3 8 . l 5 J ) ( 3 8 . 1 5 : )
q 2u ( ky - ky . ) 2= 4 k 1 s i n2 ( . ? j
( 3 8 . 1 6 )
' j
1 7 8 . 6 9 $ 2 7
42
R #
Q
bl 0 N %
Fi q.38. 1 Exper i ment alnp di Fer ent i alcr os s s ect i on i nt he c ent er of moment um s ys t em at
1 3 7
3 0 0
4 0 0
1 7 2 2 1 j'
1 3 0 1 5 7 3
3 : 0 3 8 0 9 2
40 0 5 8 0
v a r i ou sl a b or at or ye n e r g i e s( i n Me V) .( Fr o m
M .A .Pr es t on,e ' Phys i csoft heN ucl eusy ' 'p.92, Addi s on* les l ey Publ i s hi ng Co. , Readi ng. Ma s s . .1 96 2 . Re pr i n t e d bype r mi s s i on. )
21 5
8 0 1 1 0 0c mde gr e es
1 6 0
346
( 3 8 . l 7 )
Pni b @( xf , x. )= +( x, , x )
W hen oper at i n g ona s t at eofor bi t alangul arm om ent um / ,wehave
( 3 8 . 1 8 )
( 3 8 . 1 9 )
PM 1 $m ( . Q )H F . , , ( -. Q )= ( -1 ) 1F , n ( . f )
( 3 8 . 2 0 )
Me k '
97
V 1
0 N 1 u 5
.
-- -
1 88 1 9. 8
2 9 . 4 1 1 : ! 5 j 9 4 2 F 5 . ?
3 1 . 83 0 . 1 * 1 .4 5 2
7 o
Fi g.38. 2 Ex pe r i me nt ahp p di f l kr e nt i a lc r os s s e ct i on i nt he ce nt er of np oment um s ys t em at j 7 o 4 j p j y 4 y I v a r i o us l a b or a t or ye n e r gi e s( i n Me V) . Th e f or war d peak i s due t o coul omb s cat t er i ng, r t 1' I 1 I i . 1 . . t . : j I ( Fr on nM . A. Pr e s t on, * * p hy s i c so ft h eNu c l e u s , * ' 0 3 0 60 9 p. 93,Addl sonW es l eyPubl i shi ngCo. .Re adi ng, #c m degr ees M as s. ,1 962. Repr i nt ed by per mi s s i on. )
33 0 7 : . ? 4 : , 4 : 9
* ) h . 5 . : 5 *1 4 7
( 3 8 . 21 )
and i s ev i dent l ys ym m e t r i c about900 . Phas es hi f tanal ys esconfr m t hatt he nucl ear f or c e ha sr oughl y a Ser ber ex change nat ur e and i s weakl yr e pul s i ve i n t heodd/s t at e s . k 7. Har d co r e:Thepp di Fer ent i alcr os ss ec t i on f orl a bor at or y ene r gi e sup
NUCLEAR M ATTER
347
dc( ' c - #)
Jc( ? )
k ij
c m
t i c m
( 3 8 . 2 2 )
Al t hough t hedi f l kr e nt i alc r os ss e c t i onsf ort henp andpp s y s t em sl ook com pl e t el y di f l kr ent ,i ti spos s i bl et om akeachar g ei ndependentanal ys i sof t he s epr oc es s es . l The i s ot r opy of t he nucl ear par tof t he pp cr os ss e ct i on m i ghts ugge s tt hatonl y s wav es cont r i but e ev en up t ot hes e hi gh ener gi e s . Thi s concl us i on c an be r ul ed out ,howe ver ,by t he uni t ar i t yl i mi t/ : ' 2 on t he u v wave di f l kr e nt i alc r os s
s c at t er i ng coul dt he n gi vea ne ar l y uni f br m di s t r i but i on. z ( Wi t h a Ser b erf or c e i npp s c at t e r i ng,t heonl ycont r i but i ng s t at e sofl ow /ar ei Sv ,1 . Dc ,a nd s of or t h. )
J as t r ow ' ss ugge s t i on wa ss ubs equent l yc onf i r me d by det ai l ed m ea s ur ement s . whi ch s how t hatt he y wave phas es hi f t be come s nega t i ve atabout 2 00 M eV and i ndi cat et hatt he s i ngl e t nucl eonnuc l e on pot ent i alha s a har d cor e wi t ha r ange
( 3 8 . 2 3 )
Fur t he r phas es hi f t anal ys es i m pl yt he e xi s t e nee of a s i mi l ar har d cor ei nt he t r i pl e ts t at e. 3
8.Spi nor bi tl hr c e:Lar gepol ar i z at i onsofs c at t er ed nucl e onsar eobs e r v ed per pen di cu l ar t ot he pl ane ofs c at t er i ng. The s ee Fe ct sar e di m cul tt o expl a i n
348
Nucl ears c at t er i ngofs hor t wave l engt he l e c t r onshasbe e ns t udi e d ex t ens i ve l yby H of s t adt er and hi sc ol l abor at or si ;t hes e expe r i me nt sf or m t he ba s i sf or t he cur r entpi c t ur eoft hes i z eand char gedi s t r i but i on ofnucl e i .
NUCLEAR RADI I AN D CHABGE DI STRI BUTI ONS
1 . 0 0 . 9 0. 5
0. 1 0. 0
R =r f t . , 1 1
1 2 6: 8 8 1( 1 9 6 2 ) .
wi t hr o; k J 1 . 0 7F
( 3 9. 1 )
'T. Ha ma d aa n d1 . D. J oh ns t o n,Nu c l . #/ 1 # . . . M: 3 8 2( 1 96 2 ) .
3 R . V. Rei d,Jr. .I oc.ci t .
2K.E.Lass i l a,M .H.Hul l .J r. ,H .M .Ruppe l ,F.A.M c Donal d,and G.Br ei t ,Phys .Rev, 4R.Hof s t adt er ,Re v.M od.#/ I y . ' J . , 2 $: , 21 4( 1 95 6 ); s e ea l s oR. Ho f s t a dt e r , ' * El e c t r o nSc a t t e r i ng
an dNu c l e ara ndNu c l e o nSt r u c t u r e y ' ' W .A. Be n j ami n ,I n c, Ne w Yor k,1 9 6 3.
NUCLE AR M ATTER
349
W es hal le s t i mat et hevol ume P ' oft htnuc l e usas4 *R3 / 3. Asan i mme di at e
cons eque nc e,t he par t i cl e de ns i t yi n nu cl e arm at t er
. '
= # ' 4 = 1 . 9 5x 1 03 8pa r t i c l e s / c m3 , r r r g
3.The r oot m eans quar er adi usoft he pr ot onli sr p; k r 0. 77 F,whi l et he m e an i nt er par t i cl edi s t anc ei n nuc l e im aybec har ac t er i ze d b) '
p= l -3 w' i t h /, tJ .73 F
i sacons t anti ndependentoft hes i z eoft henuc l e us .( Thi si snott r uei nat oms , f ore x a mp l e . )
f or nucl eir angi ng f r om : 2 5 4g2 4t og 2 Pb2 0 8 . W e m us tem phas i z et hatel ec t r on s c at t er i ng m eas ur e st h: pr ot on di s t r i but i on or char g e di s t r i but i on,and t he m at t er di s t r i but i en ne e d not be i dent i c al . The nucl ear f or ce e xt ends out s i de of t he char ge di s t r i but f on :t he r e f or e .pur e l ) nucl earm eas ur em e nt sgene r al l y yi el ds l i ght l yl ar ge rm e ans quar er adi i .
TH E SEM I EM PI RI CA L M ASS FO RM ULA
W e ne xt s t udy t he e ne r g y ofa nuc l euscont ai ni ng a l nucl eons .A'neut r ons .and Z pr ot ons . Af i r s tappr oxi mat i on.s ug ges t e d by B' e i z s xcke r , zi st oc ons i dert he nucl e usa l i qui d dr op. l fa dr op c ont ai ns t wi c e as m uch l i qui d.t he nt he r e wi l l be t wi c e asm uc h ene r gy ofc ondens at i on.orbi ndi ng e ne r gy. Thi sr e s ul tm e ans t hatt henu cl e arener gy m us thavea t e r m oft hef or m
Fj= -t z 1 , 4
( 3 9 . 5 )
3s0
and as ur f ac eener gyt hatde cr e as e st hebi ndi ng. l fc i st hes ur f acet e ns i on,t hi s s ur f ac eene r gycan bewr i t t e n as
( 3 9 . 6 )
whi ch var i esl i ne ar l y wi t ht he s ur f ac e ar e a or . x9 ' . Ther ei s al s ot he coul omb i nt e r ac t i on ofZ pr ot ons ,whi ch c an be cal cul at e da ppr oxi m at e l y by a s s um i ng t hechar gest o beuni f br ml ydi s t r i but ed overa s phe r eofr adi usRcM ? bcWl . An e l e ment ar yi nt e gr at i on f r om e l e ct r os t at i c st he n yi e l ds t he i nt er act i on e ner gy of
( 3 9 . 7 )
Som e nucl earef l kc t sm us tnow bei ncl uded i nt heene r gy. Fi r s t ,wenot e e m pi r i cal l yt hatnuc l e it e nd t o have e qualnum ber s ofne ut r ons and pr ot ons N = Z,and a cor r es pondi ng s ym m e t r y ener gy . 54 wi l lbe adde dt ot he m as s f or m ul a. The bul k pr oper t i e s of nucl ea r m at t er i mpl yt hat t wi c e as m any
Hc 4X1 ( A-2 Z) 2
( 3 9 . 8 )
Ne xtwenot eempi r i c al l yt hatnucl ei t end t o hav ce vennumber soft hes a meki nds of pa r t i cl e s. For exampl e ,t her t ar e onl yf our s t abl e oddodd nuc l e il H2 . 3 Li 6 ,j B1 0 ,and 7 N1 4 . For odd, l nuc l e i ,t he r ei s at mos t one s t abl ei s obar
od d, 4
Ev e n, 4
c dd ed
e C.
#-
#- ##
##
.
C C.
CVC nCVC n
.
l . .l
I. I
I L . t :
) . .
jd e c a y s( e . c . s t a ndsf o re l e c t r onc a pt u r e ) .
NUCLEAR M ATTER
x1
c a p t u r e . ( l ti sag e n e r a lr u l e ,f o l l o wi n gd i r e c t l yf r o m e n e r g yc on s e r v a t i on ,
b e c a u s et heo n l ya l l o we dt r a n s i t i o nb e t we e nt he m wo ul dl ) ea d ou b l e# de c a y ,
whi c hi sbel i ev ed t o beabs entoratl e as te xt r e me l yr ar e. Thes pl i t t i ng oft he s e e ner gy s ur f ac esc an now be i ncl ude di nt he mas sf or mul a by addi ng apai r i n g e ne r gy oft hef or m
E5= XB, 4
Thepar ame t e rA i sdefne d by Ae +1 0
-
( 3 9 . 9 )
oddodd oddev en
e ve ne ven
( 3 9 . 1 0 )
( 3 9 . 1 1 )
az= 1 7 . 8M e V
as= 0. 71 0 M eV
a s= 3 4Me V
( 3 9 . 1 2 )
Thi se xpr es s i on hasonl yt wo t e r msde pe ndi ng on Z:t he c oul omb ene r gy andt hes ym m et r ye ne r gy. Thes t a bl ec ha r geZ *c an bef ound bydi fe r ent i at i on,
O E/ D ZI A= 0 , wh i c hi mpl i e s
* ' 21 - Z *= W 2+ * * 30 1 * '
2 J 4
( 3 9 . 1 3 )
asa
i n Eq.( 39. 11 )and att he s ame t i me s etN = Z and t ur n of ft he e l e c t r i cc har ge, t h e nt h i snu c l e a rma t t e rh a sa c on s t a n te ne r g y / p a r t i c l eg i v e nb y
l i; 4 J -1 5 . 7Me V
( 3 9 . 1 4 )
Thf s val ue t he r e f or er epr e s ent st he e ne r gy/ par t i cl e ofan i nsni t e nuel eus wi t h
equa lnum ber sofneut r onsand pr ot onsbutwi t hnoc oul om b e f r e ct s . Equat i ons
. 3 . . . 1 r= 3 ) =i ' e F
.
( 3 9 . l 5 )
( 3 9 . l 6 )
The ex pe r i ment a lv al ue ofr vf r om Eq.( 3 9. 1 )y i e l dst he Fer m iwa venumbe r of
nucl earm at t er kF : k :1 . 42 F -1
( p k t x l= U1 ' d f k * x
( 4 0 . 1 )
s i n g l e pa r t i c l e wa v ef u nc t i on st h a tc a nb ef ou n d( s e eS e c .1 0 ) . Th i sr e s u l t
ac count sf ort he appealand s i m pl i c i t y ofnucl ea r m at t e r . The s t ar t i n gs i ngl e -
NUCLEAR M ATTER
3:3
nuc l ea ri nt e r ac t i ons , whi c hi st he s t at e m ent of char g ei ndependenc e. H e nce i ti sconv eni e ntt ot r e att hem ast wo di f l kr entchar ges t at esofa s i ngl epar t i c l e, t he nucl eon,and t oi nt r oduce t he c onc eptofi s ot opi cs pi n. I nt hi s way,t he nucl eon ac qui r esanaddi t i onaldegr e eoff r e edom t hatc ant aket woval ue s' ,t he s e val ues i ndi c at e w he t he rt he nuc l e on i sa pr ot on ora neut r on. I nt r oduc et he t woc om pone nti s ot opi c s pi n wave f unc t i ons
( l p= 0
( a= 0 1
( 4 0 . 2 )
j u s ta sf o ra ng u l armo me nt u m ! . . Th eo pe r a t o r si nt h es pa c eo ft h e s et wo c om ponentcol um n v e ct or swi l lb e 1andm whe r et heTde not et hePaul im at r i ce s . Thecompl e t es i ngl e pa r t i c l ewavef unct i onsc an t hen bewr i t t e n as
+k ( X) T ( p q= V 1+ T 3 )
( 4 0 . 3 ) ( 4 0 . 4 )
wher e' :A i st he or di nar ys pi n wav ef unc t i on. The c har ge oper a t or t ha t di s t i ngui s hesa ne ut r on f r om a pr ot on i sg i ve n by Se c ond quant i zat i oncanbei nt r oduc edexa c t l yasbef or e,andt hecanoni c al ant i c om m ut at i on r el at i onsbec om e
'
( 4 0. 5 )
Her et he ant i c om m ut at i on r el at i onshav e be en wr i t t e ni nt e r m sof ag ene r al i z ed Paul ipr i nc i pl e:The s t at eve ct or ,orw a ve f unc t i on,ofa c ol l e ct i on ofnucl eons m us tbeant i s ym m e t r i cunde rt hei nt e r changeofal lc oor di nat e si nc l udi ngi s ot opi c s pi n. l ft hei nt er act i on doe snotcaus et r ans i t i onsbe t we en neut r onsand pr ot ons ,
Eo+ EL- ( : F1 4I F)
E< t F! 41 F)
( 4 0 . 6 )
( 4 0 . 7 )
Thesr s t or de rc al c ul at i oni sal s o avar i a t i onal cal cul a t i onbec aus et hevar i at i onal pr i nc i pl es how st hat W e as s um e i ni t i a l l yt hatt he pot ent i ali s nons i ng ul ar ,and t he cor r e s pondi ng expe ct at i on val ue c an be com put e d as k r h2 2 .k
Ev+ E, -4
2 m +. i :
kl AIpj
k 4:4p4
( 4 08 )
3:4
whi c h gi ve s
k r h2k2 k r k z '
Eo+ Et- 4
k
Thi se xpr e s s i on f or t he gr ounds t at ee ner gy i sr e pr es ent e d by t he fr s tt wo G ol ds t onedi a gr am si n Fi g.9. 22. A san e xam pl e. cons i dera pot ent i alt hati san ar bi t r ar yc om bi nat i on ofan
d e n c eo ft h enu c l e on n u c l e o nf o r c ei squ i t ewe a k;t h e1 . S ' 0s t a t ei sj u s tu n bo u nd a n dt h e3 u $ ' j s t a t ei s j u s t bou n d, a s di s c u s s e di nS e c . 3 8 . Th ed i r e c t ma t r i xe l e me n t ( fr s tt e r mi nE1 )t he nb e c ome s Zo= Z 2$ * dj A ' j d( ) ye i k . x ( 7 L k ' . y TA j ' ( j j T t A ' ( g ) t 1 p ( j j( # p ' , j g )j z ( j . g ) xg j k . x y f k ' . y y y z t j l . q , j , ( g ) ( p t j l( p w ( g )
-
( 4 0 . 1 1 J )
a n d, s i mi l a r l y , t h ee x c h a n g ema t r i xe l e me n t( s e c o n dt e r mi n F: )i sg i v e nb y
( 4 0 . 1 1 : )
E z + E k j z m, 4 + y ( a . ) 6 Jd k jd k t s j o
s,
3kl j . /
p r1
k sz k s j,j yy
NUCUE AR M AR ER
z:B
wh e r eF( 0 )* Ft k= 0 ) . Th emome n t u mi nt e g r a l s c a nb ee v a l u a t e da sf o l l o ws : l
l k F d j k e k . x =4 n . j t k ' F y r z y a j k . x l g k .4 0 3 W ) ? j L k ( k F x ) rx
al l owsust or e wr i t et hee ner g y
t '
4 :j g )
Eo+ Fl 3h l k; #/
A s kr+ .c c, t he i nt egr a nd i nt he s ec ond i nt e gr al goes t oz er o al m os t ev er ywhe r e ,and t hef i r s tt er mt husc an be expe c t e dt o domi na t ea thi gh de ns i t i es . Foran at t r ac t i vepot e nt i a l ,i tf ol l owst hatt hea s s e m bl yc ol l aps es , t hati s , t heene r gybe comesm or eandm or enega t i veasksi ncr eas esunl e s st hecoe ci ent s oft hef or c es at i s f yt hei nequal i t y
a u >4 Js , t op r e v e nt c o l l a p s e ( 4 0. 1 5 ) Wi t ht h ep r e s e nt n on s i ng u l a rp ot e nt i a l , Eq.( 4 0 . 1 5 )r e pr e s e n t s a ne c e s s a r y
condi t i onf ort hee xchangef or cet opr ovi des umc i entr epul s i oni nt heoddangul ar -
i sr o u g hl yo faS e r be rc h a r a c t e r( s e eEq. ( 3 8 . 2 0 ) ) wi t h t z p , ; k ; as f e x p e r i me nt
( 4 0. 1 6 )
and i ti sc l e art hats at ur at i on c annotoc c urf ornons i ngul arSer be rf or ce s . As i ngl e par t i cl epot ent i alc an bede sned i nt hef ol l owi ng way:
UA p ( k )O X) ( k )
k F
=
J (t t k l p k' A ' p ' I Fl k l p k' A ' p ' )- ( kl p k' / . / p' j FI k' A' p' kA p ) )
( 4 0. 1 7 )
Gr e e n ' sf u n c t i o n gi v e nb yt h e fr s tt wo d i a g r a mss ho wn i n Fi g .1 1 . 3( s e et h e
!s e eL. 1 . S c hi f to p. c i t . , p. 8 6.
x6
U( k )= ( 2 a =)
k r
g t z s fJU( z ) #3 z+ J s , . fe i t k k ' l * z F( z ) J3 z j j( 4 0. 1 8 )
c ( k ) 6 k , l , a j ( 4 a . a s . 4 j p ' t z l l 3 z + t 4 u s , u w . )
> :) 7
-
0 ( / z )
Hj l k pz ) 3 ks z P ' ( z ) dz ( 4 0. 1 9 )
Fors m al lm oment a, t hes pher i c alBes s el f unct i onappe ar i ngi nt hee xc hang e i nt e gr alcanbee xpande d-/ o t kz )= l- :2 z 2 / 6+ .. ., whi c hl e a d st oap a r ab o l i c s i ng l epar t i c l epot e nt i alats m al lk
:2/ c 2
( 4 0. 2 0 )
Thi squadr at i c m om ent um depe nde nc ema y be us ed t o def i ne an ef l kc t i ve mas s t hr ough t her e l at i on hlkl hlkl
6 u= e 2+ U( k ); k l m( 1+ Uj )+ Uf j N Uo+ j ; j u
O
m
=
( 4 0 . 2 1 )
( 4 0. 2 2 )
whe r e
l+ 1 71
( ) a ? ) ( 4 .
NUCLEAR M ATTER
357
The f or ce bet we en t wo nucl eonsi ss i ngul ar . Thi s poi nti sc r uci al ,f or i tm e ans t ha tt henuc l e arpot ent i al ha saf undam e nt al ef l kc tont het wobody wav ef unct i on. lK.A.Br u e c k n e r ,C.A.Le vi n s on ,a n d H.M .Mah n l ou d.Ph y s .Ae z ' . .95: 21 7( 1 9 5 4 ) ;H . A. Be t he , Ph ys .Rc t . ,1 0 3: 1 3 5 3( 1 95 6 ) ;K.A.Br u e c k n e ra nd J .L.Ga mme l , Ph y s .Re t ' . ,1 0 9: 1 02 3 ( 1 95 8 ) ;K.A.Br u e c kn e r , Th e or y ofNuc l e arSt r u c t ur e ,i n C.De Wi t t( e d. ) aS s rh eM a n y Bo dy
Pr obl em q ' 'p.47.John W i l eyand Sons,l nc. ,New Y ork.1959. 2Thepr es entdi s cus si on ofBr ueckner ' st he or yi nt er msoft hei ndepe ndent pai rappr oxi mat i on
i sb a s e d on L. C. Gome s , J . D. Wa l e c ka . a nd V.F. We i s s ko p f , Ann . Ph y s . ( X' . F. ) , 3: 2 41( 1 9 5 8 ) a nd J . D. W al e ck aa nd l .C. Go me s ,An n. d a Ac a d. Br a s i l e i r ad eC' / p c f ' . 3 9: 3 61( 1 9 67 ) .
au
a sdi s c us s edi nde t ai li nSe c.1 1. l nt er m sofdi ag r am s ,wem us tr e t ai nt hel adde r c ont r i but i ons t ot he pr ope rs e l f ene r gy i ndi ca t e di n Fi g. 11 . 3,and t he cor r es pondi ngcont r i but i onst ot hegr ounds t at eener gy. Fors i mpl i c i t y,t he pr e s ent s ec t i on de s c r i best hei nt er a ct i ng pai rwi t ht he Be t he Gol ds t onee quat i on,whi c h cont ai nsal 1t hees s ent i a lphys i c alf e at ur e soft hepr obl em. I nSe c. 42wedi s c us s t her el a t i on t ot heGr e e n' sf unc t i onsand t heGal i t s ki ie quat i on ofSec .11.
sEl . FcoN sl sTENT BETH EGOLDSTON E EQ UATI ON I
The Be t he Gol ds t one equat i on f ort wo i nt er a ct i ng nuc l e ons i nt he Fe r mis ea wass t udi ed i n Se c.36. Thef undament alappr oxi mat i on wa st o conce nt r at e on t he t wo par t i cl esi n que s t i on,omi t t i ngent i r e l yt he i nt er act i on oft hes epa r t i c l es
Th er e gi o nr
I 1P : ! :kl> # s
/
z A/ '
1 . P
The r e g i o nF
f iP t kI< kr
wi t ht her e s toft heFer m is ea. Such api c t ur ei scl e ar l yi nc om pl e t e,and wenow m odi f yt heene r gyoft hei nt er a ct i ngpai rby i nc l udi ngan e f l kc t i ves i ngl e par t i c l e
wa y , t h ek i n e t i ce n e r g yE 2i sr e p l a c e db ye k= e 2+ U( k ) , an dt heBe t he Go l d s t on e
e qu a t i on s( 3 6 . 4 ) , ( 3 6 . 5 ) , ( 3 6. 1 5 ) , a n d( 3 6 . 1 6 )b e c o me
#3 t
-l ! P: l u kl <k s
=
r- I ! . P+t l >ke
( 4 1 . 1 )
F1J#3 xe k * xF( x ) 4p , k ( x )
( 41 . 2 )
NUCLEAR M AU ER
369
r e l a t i v e mome n t u m ka si n Eq.( 41 . l ) . Th ei n t e r a c t i o n be t we e nt h et wo
nucl e ons m i x es i nt w opar t i c l es t at es above t he Fe r m is e a,whi c h pr oduc es a
c o r r e s po n di n gs h i f ti nt h et wo p a r t i c l ee n e r g yg i v e ni n Eq.( 41 . 2 ) .I nt h e
i ndepe ndent pai rappr oxi ma t i on,t he t ot ale ner gy s hi f toft he whol es ys t e m i s obt ai ne d bys um m i ngove rt hee ne r gys hi f t sofa1 lpai r sofpa rt i cl esi nt heFer mi
s e a .( Fort wo i d e n t i e a lpa r t i c l e s , f o re x a mp l epa n dpt ,t h ewa v ef u n c t i o ni n Eq . ( 41 . 1 )mu s t , o fc o u r s e , b ea n t i s y mme t r i z e d. ) Th ei n d e mn d e n t pa i ra p pr o x i mat i on hast hei mpor t antf e at ur et hati taut oma t i ca l l y gi v est heene r gy s hi f tof an i nt er a ct i ng Fer m is ys t em e xa ct l yt os ec ond or der i nt he pot ent i al . Thi s r es ul ti se vi dentf r om Fi g.9. 22,s i nc et her ear eno ot hers e condor de rt er m si nt he
g r ou nd s t a t ee n e r g y( s e et h e di s e u s s i on i nS e c s .9 a nd 42 ) .I na dd i t i o n,t h e
Be t he G ol ds t oneequa t i on m ake si tpos s i bl et oi ncl udet hee f l kc toft hepot e nt i al
hlkl
/ 1 2kl
hlkl
hl kl
( 4 1 . 3 )
Al t hough t hi sappr oxi m at i on l e adst o a gr e ats i m pl i hc at i on,i ts t i l lcont a i nsan e l em e nt of s el f c ons i s t enc y, bec aus e m * af l kc t st he t wobody wave f unc t i on
! l ( x)= z r r l r * e u 2F( I xi - xz 1 )
whe r e mr * . n= m* I li st her e d u c e de f l kc t i v ema s s .
( 41 . 4 )
var i esas P' -1 . Si nc e K.2- t 2i nt hede no mi n a t oro fEq.( 3 6 . 1 5 )c a nn otv a ni s h ex ce ptc l os et ot he Fe r m is ur f ac e,wem ay m aket her e pl ace m entKl-+ . kli nt he equa t i on f or t he wave f unct i on. Thi s appr oxi m at i on i se s s e nt i al l y exa c tf or par t i cl e sde ep i nt hc Fe r m is ea;asw ehaves e en i nt hedi s cus s i on oft he Coom r pai r s ,howe ver ,i tm ay be i nc or r e ctcl os et ot he Fe r m is ur f ace . I nde e d,i twas
The e ne r g ys h i f tg i v e n by t h e Be t h e Go l d s t on ee q u a t i on i n Eq.( 41 . 2 )
36:
d3 t
( 41 . j )
4( x )= xi N ( x )
( 41 . 6 )
j+ k2 l z ( a ' ) =t ' ( x ) l f ( x ) -J ( ) Zx , . p ) r ( y ) 1 / , ( . p ) J y
.
f . x
( 4 1 . 7 )
Asa hr s ta ppr oxi m at i on,we s hal leons i dera nons i ngul a rs quar ewe l lpot e nt i al
NUCLEAR M AU ER
361
bede t e r mi ne df r om t he behav i oroft wo nuc l e onsi nt er a ct i ng i nf r e es pa c e. At z er oe ner g y,t her e l at i vewa vef unc t i on i ns i det hepot e nt i ali sgi ve n by
( z vr e uP k2 ) 1 #= J z , r Th ef r e e nu c l e on r e du c e d ma s smz z n= m/ lc a nb eu s e dt or e wr i t et h i sr e s u l ta s P k=
h2. n . 2 c 4m d
( 41 . 9 )
I n addi t i on,i fa s quar ewel lhasa bound s t at eatz er oe ner gy,t he nt heef l kc t i v e
( 41 . 1 0 ) ( 41 . 1 1 )
e ( 41 . 1 2 )
P ' o= 1 4M e V
N ot et hatourappr oxi m at enuc l e arpot ent i ali sact ual l y ve r y wec k:
( 41 . 1 3 )
c a l c u l a t et h ec h an g ei S . $i nt h ewa v el u n c t i o nd i r e c t l yf r om Eq . ( 4l . 1 ) r a t h e rt h a n
1M .A.Pr est on,o p.c i t . .p.33.
362
/( x) =x -l u ( x)khl k x ). + . 1
i sgi v en by
( 41 . 1 4 )
x / j . i z g xy o t k x l j l z t x l 1 =c 2 % j e k r d t j t pj 0 s l l y l y z g y
-
' z t x l
( 41 . 1 5 )
0 . 03 0 . 0 1 0 . 01 0 . g. ( j j 0. 02 - 0. 03
2 . k rd
5 t he J wavet wobody wave f unct i on c aus ed by kyx t he pot ent i ali n Fi g.41. 2. Thi scal cul at i on i s f or a pai r wi t h k=P = 0 i n nuc l e ar m at t er .
( Th e au t h or s wi s ht ot h a nk E. Moni zf o r p r e p ar i ngt hi sf i g u r e. )
d a f , t j . j j ( ? # ) hl t V ) yJ A -c d 0 t
.
( 41 . 1 6 )
Thust he m odi sc at i on oft he wav ef unc t i on duet ot henons i ngul ars quar ewel l pot ent i a li s
( 4 1 . 1 7 )
( 4j . j 8 )
wher e a di m ens i onl e s si nt e gr at i on var i abl e has bee ni nt r oduce d and kFd = 3. 8. Thedi mens i onl e s s pot ent i ali sg i ve n by
k
' '
! ' 0
=
/ h z k i F l ' l m. r e d mk t t ' s( ? )
. . -- -- . .--
P ' 0
=. - . -u = 0 . j 7 -.a : ( ) . j ( )
m*
=2
m*
NUCLEAR M AU ER
363
Th e Be t h e Go l d s t on ee qu a t i o n( 41 . 7 )c a na l s o be s o l v e df ora pu r eh a r d c o r e
pot e nt i al ,a sor i gi nal l y doneby Be t heand G ol ds t on e. z l ti sconv eni e ntEr s tt o
r= k rx
r ' =k s y
K =F s
u ( r )= ksu ( x )
( 4l . 2 0 )
r ( x) P ' ( x) v t r )= / a s v c / =h k s / z r n r e t j
( 41 . 21 )
( ls i n( r- r' ) s i n( r+ r ' ) ; t ' r. r' )= . r' - r+ r, = r. ( 41 . 2 2 )
A si ndi cat e di n Fi g.41. 4,t hehar dc or ei nt r oduc esa di s cont i nui t yi nt ot hes l ope
H er et he sr s tt er m gi ve sa ni t edi s cont i nui t yi nt he s l ope of -t he w ve f knc t i on att hecor eboundar y,asca n be s e e n by i nt e gr at i ng t he Be t he Gol ds t onee quat i on
( 41 . 5 )a c r o s st h ec o r eb ou n da r y . Th er e ma i ni n gt e r mu . t r )c a n no tc o nt r i b u t e
Out s i de t he c or e.whe r et he pot e nt i alvani s hes .buti t m ay be f i ni t ei ns i de t he c or er e gi on be caus e of t he l i mi t i ng pr oc eh sv ' -. vz csu -v0. Thi se xt r a' ' l e ak' ' t e r m m us t be chos en s ot hat
( 41 . 2 4)
'Sof aronl yt he1 s' oat t r ac t i vewe l lhasbee nc ons i de r ed. l nf ac t ,t hi su' i l l sumc ef ort hepr es ent
364
Wh e n Eq .( 4l . 2 3 )i sc omb i n e d wi t h Eq .( 4l . 2l ) ,t h ec on d i t i on o f Eq.( 4l . 2 4 )
bec om es
. * i -
( 4l . 2 5 )
The r em ai ni ng anal ys i sc an be s i m pl i se d by not i ng t hatt hedi m ens i onl e s s c ons t antc i ss m al l . Forexam pl e ,att he obs er ve d dens i t yi n nuc l e arm at t e r
c= l . 4 2F-lx0 4F= 0. 5 7
( 41 . 2 6 )
whe r ea har dc or eofr ange0. 4 F hasbe en as sum e d. I nt heI i mi twhe r ebot h of i t s ar gum e nt s ar es m al l ,t he ker nel i nt he J wa ve Bet heG ol ds t one e quat i on be c omes
y t r r ' )> . j * x
2 . r r'
r< c ,r ? <c
( 41 . 2 7 )
Equ a t i on( 41 . 2 5 )s h o wst h a tB ' ( r )i so for d e rc 2 , wh i l ean yi n t e g r a lo v e rw( r )w' i l l beofor derc3 . Cons e quent l y,t hel e ak i n Eq.( 41 . 23 )c an bene gl ec t ed f ors mal l c , a n d ac o mb i n a t i onofEqs . ( 41 . 21 )t o( 41 . 2 3 ) y i e l ds
- F( r )
( 4l . 2 8)
i st h e no r ma l i z a t i o nc o n s t a n t. W . Si . n c e1 40 )= 0 ,t h eg e n e r a ls o l ut i on o ft h i s
e quat i on i sgi v en by
? , ? ( r ) =k
1 r
0
s i n@ A ( r- . & ) ) F( s ) d s
( 4l . 2 9 )
f o ri ti se as i l yv e r i l i e d di r e c t l yf r om Eq . ( 41 . 2 9) t h a t &' ' ( r )+ Kl ? , / ( r )= F( r ) ( 41 . 3 0 ) I ft h es i n eont h er i g h ts i deo fEq. ( 41 . 2 9 )i se x p an d e dwi t ht r i g o n ome t r i ci d e n t i t i es .t hes ol ut i ont ot heJ wav e Be t he G ol ds t onee quat i on be com es
s i n Kr r
c osKr '
( h
s i nKsF( J ) d s
( 4l . 3 1 )
st lcuE An M ATTER
365
( *s i nK s F( s J d s =0 '0
( 4l. 32)
Thel as ti nt egr alvani s he si dent i c al l ybe c aus etl i e sout s i det heFer m is phe r ewhi l e K l i es i ns i de,as i l l us t r at e di n Fi g.41 . 1 . The f or e goi ng de r i v at i on s hows t he i m por t anc e oft he f s l l e d Fer m is e a.whi ch r em ov est he c om pone nt s t< lf r om t he i nt er m edi at es t at es . I ti scl e ar t hat t hi sr es ul tf ol l ows qui t eg ener al l yf r om t hef br m oft her i ghts i deofEq.( 4l . f) . Equat i on ( 4I . 32)ens ur e st hatt heex ac t
as r -> ' , t .s ot hatt he J wave pha s es hi f ti sz er o. I ft he wave f unct i on i st o be nor m al i z ed i n a box of v ol um e 1 , * .i t m us t appr oac h a pl ane wav e wi t h uni t am pl i t udeast her e l at i v ec oor di nat ege t sl ar ge:
b b l xj> . ci k * x
x. sx
( 41. 3 4)
# a wc o sKsF( s ) d s. . l
( 4l . 3 . 5 . )
. .
V=g c o s K c -9 a c o s K s : ( . s . 6 . ) J ' j
. . c c
. ) -j
( 4 1 . 3 6 )
Equa t i ons ( 4l . 28) ,( 4l . 31 1 .and ( 41 . 3 6)eompl e t e l y de t e r mi ne t he ' wave r e l a t i vewavef unc t i on f ora di l ut ecol l ec t i on ofhar ds phe p e s . Onet ypi ca lc as e
i s pl ot t e di n Fi g.41 . 4. Thi sr es ul texhi bi t ss e ver ali nt er es t i ng f eat ur e s . As
Fi g.41. 4 TheBe t h e Gol ds t o n eu' aN ' ef un c t i on ( Eq s . ( 41 , 31 ) ' .( 41 . 2 8) .an d( 41 . 3 6) Jf o ra n wa s ' e pa i rwi t h
k= P =0i nt er act l ngt hr ougha har dcor e rot ent i all n nucl ear nl at t er . The l our er l i mi t on t he i nt egr al si n Eq.( 41 . 31)u' ast akenascs ot hatl / t cn E E0. TheN N . av ' e f unct i on f or a noni nt er act i ng pai rl sS heu' n by t he das hedl i neandt hecr oss os ' erpol ntdet i nest heheal i ng di st anc e. Al s oi ndi cat ed ar et heav r er age i nt er par l i c l e
di s t a nc e kr l( Eq.( 41 . 3 8) 4a nd t h er an g e kr do ft h e
rot ent i ali n Fi g.41. 5.
ae6
expt c t e d,t he r el at i vew a ve f unc t i on vani s he satt he har dcor es ur f ac e . l tt he n ve r yr api dl y appr oac hest he unpe r t ur bed val ueofl ,cr os s i ngove rt hatval ue at a' s hea l i ng di s t anc e' 'ofabout
kyx ; r : 1 . 9
h e a l i n gd i s t a n c e
( 4l . 3 7 )
Bye x a mi ni n gt h emo r eg e n e r a l e x pr e s s i o na r i s i n gf r om Eq, ( 41 . 5 )g s c eEqs . ( 41 . 7 ) a nd( 41 . 6 2 ) ) , wec a ns ho wt h a tt hi sh e a l i n gdi s t a n c ei se s s e nt i a l l yi n d e p e n d e n to f ka nd#. 1Fur t h e r mor et h ec o r r e l a t i o nf u n c t i o n, d e sn e db y, z ' & ' J c= N ( r ) , / r-h( Kr ) ,
i sal s o ne ar l yi nde pendentofk and #. Be yond t h e hea l i ng di s t anc e,t heBet heG ol ds t onewavef unc t i on os ci l l a t e sar ound t heunpe r t ur be ds ol ut i on,appr oac hi ng i twi t h dam ped os ci l l at i ons a s ksx . +: x : . The ave r a ge i nt e r par t i c l e di s t anc e
c ha r a c t e r i z i n gt h ei n t e r pa r t i c l edi s t a n c ei nn u c l e a rma t t e rb e c o me s
kpl = 2
3 .2 1
= 2. 4 6
i n t e r pa r t i c l edi s t a ne e
( 4 1 . 3 B )
p l a n e wa v es t a t e s . Thi sr e s u l t j u s t i s e st h ei n de p e n d e n t p a i ra p pr o x i ma t i o n. Th e s eo b s e r v a t i o n sa l s opr o v i d eas i mpl eq u a l i t a t i v eb a s i s f o rt h ei n d e pe n d e nt par t i c l emodc lo fnucl c crmcl l cr . ThePaul ipr i nci pl es uppr t s s e st htcor r el a t i ons i nt r odu ce d by t he har d cor e and r es t r i ct si t s ef l kc t st os hor t di s t ance s . I n par t i cul ar ,t he har d cor e cannotgi v er i s et ol ongr ange s ca t t e r i ng be c aus e al l a vai l abl ee ne r g ycons e r v i ng s t at e sar eal r e ady occupi ed. Exc e ptf ort he s hor t r a ng ecor r el at i ons ,anucl eon m ayt her ef or ebeas s um e dt om ov et hr ough nucl ear ma t t e ri n a pl anewav es t at e. Thedom i na ntr ol e oft he e xc l us i on pr i nci pl ei n e xpl ai ni ng how an i nde pendent par t i cl e modelcan de s c r i be a di l ut es t r ongl y i nt e r ac t i ng Fe r m is ys t e m at or near i t s gr ound s t at ewa s hr s tem pha s i z e d by We i s s kopf . z
PROPERTI ES OF NUCLEAR M AU ER W I TH A ' ' REA LI STI C' ' POTENTI AL
W enow com bi net he pr e vi ousr e s ul t st os t udy am or er e al i s t i cm odelofnuc l e ar ma t t e r ,wher et het w onuc l e onpot ent i al cons i s t sofa har dc or epl usanat t r ac t i ve s quar e wel lpot ent i als hown i n Fi g.41. 5. Thi spot e nt i algr os s l y ove r s i m pl i es
'J. D .W al e ckaand L.C.Gome s,l oc.c i t .
CV. F. We i s s ko pf , He l v . Ph ys . Hc l t z , 2 3: 1 8 7( 1 95 0) ; Sc i e nc e ,1 1 3: 1 01( 1 95 1 ) .
NOCLEAR M ATTER
367
t he ac t ualnuc l e onnucl eon f or c e di s cus s e di n Se c.38;t husi tc an onl y pr ovi de a qual i t at i ve,or at be s ts em i quant i t at i v e,de s cr i pt i on oft he pr ope r t i e s of nuc l e ar m at t er . The m odelpot ent i ali sgi v en by +. x ' r< -b
P ' = -I z %! . ( lhPM)
0
b< cr. , : bc -b w
b +. bw < r
jt r j t r z 5 ' l zi sz e r oa n dt h e r ea r en ee x c h an g e ma t r i xe l e me n t s . Thu st h ee p k c t
oft he t e ns orf or ce i sm uch r educ e di n nuc l e ar mat t er .
I z ' l l =4 j mb w
hl,2
( 41 . 4 0 )
b w= 1 . 9F
b= 0. 4F
( 4l . 4 2 )
( 4l . 43)
kr l b + >w , )e / 1 ' s# = 3. 2 7
a68
and i si ndi c at e di n Fi g.41 . 4. Fr om t he pr e vi ous di s c us s i on,i ti sc l e ar t hatt he at t r a ct i ve par t of t hi s pot ent i alagai n has l i t t l ee Fe ct on t he w a ve f unc t i on, t e ndi ng t o enhance i t s va l ue s l i ght l y w' i t hi nt he pot ent i a l . As a r e s ul t he , t
c or r e l a t i o nf un c t i o nX /i se s s e n t i a l l yt h a to ft h eh a r dc o r ea l on ea n di so ft h e
t ype s hou n i n Fi g.41 . 4. To c om put et he i nt er ac t i on ener gy ofa pai r ofnucl e ons i n nuc l e arm a t t e r , we s ha l le va l ua t et he ener gy s hi f t Ae ' e t h t he Be t he G ol ds t one equat i on ,k wi
( 4l . 2)
cor e. l nt he i ndepe nde nt pai rappr oxi ma t i on.t he s i ngl epar t i cl e pot e nt i aland t ot al e ner g y 'of t he as s e m bl y ar et hen de t er mi ned t r om Ae e k by t he r e l at i ons
( 4l . 45)
( 4l . 46)
wher et hes um sr un overt hei nt e r i oroft he Fer m is pher e. The s el f c ons i s t enc y of t he t heor yi s now par t i cul ar l ye vi dent , be caus et he s i ngl e par t i c l ee ner gi e s
j p a ka p p e a r i n gi n Eq s .( 41 . 1 )a n d( 4l . 2 )a r ee v a l u a t e d wi t h Eqs .( 41 . 4 4 )a n d ( 41 . 45) .
e r .
( 41 . 4 7 ) ( 4 1 . 4 8 )
For t he pr e s e nt di s cus s i on w' es hal l .i n addi t i on.appr oxi mat et he har dcor e
NUCLEAR MATTER
369
( On et r a c t a bl ea p p r o a c ht ot hi sc omb i n e dp r o b l e mc a n bef ou n di nt h ew' or ko f M os zkows kiand Sc ot t . l ) W' i t h Eqs . ( 41 . 48 )and ( 41 . 49) .t hee ner gys hi f tofan i nt e r a ct i ngpai rr e duc e s
t ot he s um oft he e ne r g ys hi f tf ora pur e har ds phe r egasand an at t r a ct i vecont r i but i on c al cul at e d wi t ht he i nde pe nde nt par t i c l e m ode li n Bor n appr ox i m at i on
u
( 41 . 5 0)
Eq. ( 41 . 3 9)
l ' t l / f ) . 3 j ( y a l k ) =3 , 7 . . ( J-3)u t s j d l , v ( p g j y j j y s g j , z ( y g
. ..
t , '
s pe ct r um at ky( c om par eSe c. 29b , .l ft hes i ngl e par t i c l epot c : 1 t 1 u l l l sappr o' q i n q at e d
nea r a gene r alval ue kv as
U( k2 ) : k S U( k0 2 )+ L . ( kl- k ( 2 ) )& J . j J n
t hen t he c or r e s pondi ng ef l kc t i ve m as sbec om es
n) * 1
hl
r , ? l+P1
as
( 4l . 53 )
( 41 . 5 4)
a7o
Thi se x p r e s s i o nc a nb ee v a l ua t e dd i r e c t l yf r o mE q. ( 41 . 5l )a n dweE n di
L 1 -j k 2s i 0 , 4 -
) ' '
p;
' x
= n &s/ =>7 Z
. -.
k r J
k s &
( 4l . 5 5 )
Nu me r i c a lv a l u e sf ort h es i n l p l i f e d po t e n t i a lo fE q.( 4l . 3 9 )a r eg i v e ni n Ta b l e
41 . 1.
Tabl e 41. 1 Eff ecli ve mas s atk = kpand k = 0 fortwo nucl ear densi t i es
( m* j ml k k p
1. 25F-1 1. 48F-'
0. 65 *. 65
( 7 , ( 0) j
( 4l . 5 6 )
N um e r i ealval uescom put ed f r om t hi se xpr es s i on ar ea l s os hown i n Ta bl e 41 . 1. W e not ef r om Tabl e 41. 1t ha tt he ef l kc t i ve m a s si sr at he ri ns e ns i t i ve t oc ha nge s i nt he de ns i t y about t he equi l l br i um val ue , and t hat t he ef f e ct i ve m as s at t he bot t om oft he Fe r m is e ai ss l i ght l ys m al l ert han t heef l kc t i ve mas satt he Fe r mi s ur f ac e. So f ar ,t he har d cor e has bee n ne gl ec t e de nt i r el yi n ev al uat i ng m *. To
wel land ex ehangena t ur eoft hei nt e r ac t i on. l nf ac t .Eq. ( 1l. 68)s how' st hatt he
l e adi ng c ont r i but i on ofa har d cor e c= 0. 57t ot he Fer mi s ur f a ceef l kct i vem as s
o f a na s s e mb l yof i d e n t i c a l s p i n lp a r t i c l e si sob t a i n e df r o m. bU( ; k : -( . 8 c 2 / 1 5 =2 )x ( 7l n2-1 )= -0. 067. wher eas t he s ame har dc or e, i f pr e s e nt i nt he p s t at e. c o n t r i bu t e st h ef ol l owi n ga mo un tt of 71 ( Pr o b.4. 6 ) UL ; k : +c ? j l = = +0 . 05 9 .
1Thenece ss ar yi nt egr al soft he s pher i calBes s elfunct i onscan bef ound i n L, 1 . Sc h i f to p. c i / . , 1 7.86.
NUCLE AR M ATTER
371
The s e cont r i but i ons t end t o canc el ,and t he cor r e c t i on i si nde ed s m al l . l We s hal l hence f or t h ne gl ec tt he har dc or ei ne val uat i ng m *. Thi ss i m pl i ses our Pr e s e ntdi s cus s i on of nucl ear m at t er c ons i de r abl y,as t he s el f eons i s t enc yc ondi t i on i s no l onge r a pr obl em . The ef l kct i ve m as si s now dct er mi ned f r om
Eqs .( 41 . 51 )t o( 41 . 5 4) ,whi char ei nde pende ntoft he v al ueot m*. l ti snow'pos s i bl et o es t i mat et he nuc l e arbi ndi ngene r gyf r om Eq.( 4l . 46) . The c ont r i but i on Ei a oft he at t r ac t i ve wel li s gi v en i n Eq.( 4 0. l 4) ;i t may be
e v a l u a t e dj u s ta si nEq. ( 41 . 51 ) a ndg i v e s
*p ( a ) - --- = X .
-
J6 ? . Z( J3- b3 ). c . * 1 7 2 F
p z k3
a' y d
w. b
j2 ( kg: r ) Jz i
E( i) ?h2k2 F ' , 4 f lm
N ot et hatt hi se xpr es s i on cont ai nsm and not? ? l ' .bec aus e? ? ? ' . i s mer e i s ' an ov er s i mpl i f i e d way of t r ea t i ng t he s i ngl epar t i c l e pot e nt i al t . ' ( kj t ha ti s ne ede di 1 ) e val uat i ng t he i nt er act i o ne ner g y. The t i nalc ont r i but i on t ot he nucl ear bi ndi ng ener gy ar i s ezf r om t he har d
=p z ;$ . : , i k . xj a . g pk x) t / r l . v C( , (
.'
A sdi s cus s ed i n de t ai li n Se c. 1 l .onl y. 5 -wa ve s cont r i but et ot he t ot alhar dcor e i nt er act i on ene r gy E t f ' 't hr ough or der ( 2 . For wave s . tf ol l ow s f r om Eq.
( 41. 2. 3t hat
2 / ' ) 7 * . r e d . j y . j. a s . c . h . .k 2 2 -j t . j k P . ;j ( t . . cj. .y j , j t . j 'k
.
; k :v r . n( / $ ( r- c)
( 4l , 60)
lThef ours pi ndegr eesoff r e edom f ornucl earm at t erl ead t oanaddi t i onalf act orof3and 5 3,
a72
wher et he s ec ond i i ne i sobt ai ne d by not i ng t hatt heJ wa ve l eak c ont r i but est o t he t ot alene r gy onl yi n or de rc4 . The ov er al lnor mal i zat i on c ons t anti sgi ven
b yEq. ( 4l . 3 6 )
.
c / ( P , K ) -g c o s K c -q ' R 0 c o s K s y z , ( 5 ' , c ) J j l
( 41 . 6 1 )
mas smoment um P ( he r e and he nce f or t hi nt hi ss e ct i on i ti sa s s umed t hatP i s di mens i onl e s sand me as ur e di n uni t sof/ c s) .I ti se vi de ntf r om Eq.( 4l . 5)t hat
2r r'
dL j
( 4l . 6 2 )
whe r e1 %i st hecom pl ementof1 Ms hown i n Fi g 41.l. The angul ari nt egr at i on i n Eq. ( 41 . 62)gi ve s
wh i l et h ei n t e g r a li n Eq. ( 41 . 61 )c a nb ep e r f o r me d wi t ht her e l a t i on
.
( c o e O S K s S i n J J d s =. #. a j 0 t -t K
c . V( P, K)= c o sKc- 2 ; . p
?( ( a . g z 4 g . . t d t f i
.
j v l t c ) #f 1 ,a 1
( 41 . 6 4 )
Ac o mbi n a t i on o fEq s . ( 41 , 5 9 ) , ( 4l . 6 0 ) . a n d( 4l . 6 4 )y i e l ds ( 4l . 6 5 )
Thef ac t or 1- 3, : p :ar i s esf r om t heant i s ym m e t r i z at i on oft hewavef unc t i on $! , $ :3p f or par t i cl es of i dent i c al s pi ns and i s os pi ns and pr e vent ss uch par t i cl es f r om be i ng i nr el at i ve s s t a t e s . The har dcor ei nt er act i on e ner gy i st he r e f or e gi ve n
( 41 . 6 6 )
NUCLEAR MATTER
373
Co nv e r t i n gt h es umst oi n t e g r a l san du s i n g Eq s . ( 41 . 6 5 ) a n d( 3 9. l 5 ) , we t i n d
g. ( c ) l i 2/ k ; ( 2c * * J3 K d3 K
? , = 0; .. : r. --1
.
2 / 7 7 7' n '
. -.
( F)
Kc ) , y v x r ( p, j kj . . ,1 . .. 2 j ) ( ( 4=: / 3) ( 4=7 3 )(
.
. . -- . -- - .
c= kyb. l f Eq.( 41 . 67 )i s exp ande d as a power s er i e si nc .t he f i r s tf e w coe f l i c i e nt smaybee val uat e d anal yt i c al l y. Equa t i ons ( 41 . 6 4)an d( 41 . 63)yi el d
( . 41 . 68)
&( c)
l i 2! . 2 ' u
( 41 . 6 9 )
g . . yq y
yz =
. m V .% ( F )
j j j . j y ) y j j j g . j y j .= j y
,
g; p
( 41 . 7 0 J )
( li / 7 / 2) 2-K2 xl nj -
j p t j j g . . g j j
( 41 . 7 0 : )
-3 q j . ( 1 )- 21 n2 ) =
He ncet he power s er i e se xpans i onof Eq.( 41 . 67 )i n cgi v es
l 2
h a r ds p h e r e Fe r mi g a sa n dt h e Ga l i t s ki ie qu a t i o n( c omp a r e Eq. ( 1 1 . 7 2 ) ) ,
a74
ge ne r al i z ed t oi ncl ude t he pos s i bi l i t y of an ese c t i ve m as s com i ng f r om t he at t r ac t i vepar toft hei nt e r a ct i on. Thet hi r dt e r m ,whi c h hasnotbe e nc om put ed t he i rr e s ul t due t oJ wave i nt e r ac t i ons i nt he i ndepe nde nt pai r m odel . The
po we rs e r i e se x pa n s i o no fEq . ( 41 . 7 1 )i sa l s op l o t t e di nFi g . 4 1 . 6 .
Fi g.41. 6 Ha r dc or ee ne r g yEt lt o j Ac o mpu t e df r o m Eq. ( 41 . 6 7 )a ndt hepo we r s e r i e sa pp r ox i ma t i on s( Eq. ( 41 . 7 1 ) ) . Al s os hown i st h epwa v ec on t r i b ut i o n FJ * . ' ? ! 1 . ' Af r o m Eq. ( 41 . 7 2 ) .( Th ea ut hor s wi s ht ot ha nkE. M on i zf orp r e p a r i n g t hi ssg ur e . ) Thecont r i but i ont ot hee ner gyofa har d cor ei nt hep s t at ec an beobt ai ned f r om an e xa ct l y anal ogous t r e at ment of t he rs t at e Be t h eG ol ds t one equat i on
( s e ePr ob .1 1 . 7 )
sl ( c ) 1 2: . . 3 * F r != Ac ' = .' -
l i
) / nv -zr
( 4I . ' : 2 , )
A snot e di n Sec.3 8,t he nucl e arf or ce i sr el at i ve l y weak i np s t at e s butt her ei s s ome evi de nc ef oran over al l ps t at er e pul s i on.
b u t i on ofE q. ( 41 . 7 2 )a r i s i n gf r om aps t a t eh ar dc o r e , a n dt h ee f l kc t i v e ma s sa t
t he Fer m is ur f ac e hasbe en t aken f r om Tabl e 41 . 1
( 41 . 7 3 )
lC. De Do l ni ni c i sa nd P.C.M a r t i naP h ys .Rc L ' . &1 0 5: 1 4l 7( 1 95 7 )an d pr i v at ec ommuni c at i on.
NUCLEAR MAU ER
376
W e not es e ver ali nt er es t i ng f e at ur es oft he s er e s ul t s . The m e di um obvi ous l y s a t ur a t es ,whi ch i sevi de ntf r om t he var i ouscont r i but i onst ot he ener gy be caus e t he har dcor er e pul s i on wi l l al ways dom i nat ea t hi gh dens i t y. I nde ed, f or el os e pac ked har ds pher es ,t he unc e r t ai nt y pr i nci pl er e qui r est hatt he ha r dc or e
e ne r g yb e c ome i n t i ni t e . l l ti sc l e a rf r o m Eq.( 41 . 7 1 ) ,h owe v e r ,t h a tt h e ha r dc or e cont r i but i on t ot he e ne r g y be com esi m por t antatdens i t i e sm uc hl owert han
E1 A( MeV )
( )
-
Ha r dc o r eo f0 . 4F i npst at e
kF = 1 l .25FEl . 4 = - 6. 2 MeV
2
4
) - ' y L
I
+- i np st at e
x o j a a r d c o r e
6
l
8
l 1 . 0 : l. 25
j0
kl '= 1 . 45 F-1 EI A = - 9. 1M eV i t r l . 5 l . 75
k F( F-' )
f u nc t i o n of krc omp ut e df r o m Eq s . ( 4 1 . 5 7 ) , ( 41 . 5 8 ) . ( 4 1 . 67 ) , a nd ( 41 . 7 2 )f ort h et wobo dy p ot e nt i a lo fEq s .( 41 . 3 9 )t o ( 41 . 4 2 ) . Th er e s ul t sa r es ho wn b0t h wi t ha nd wi t h ou ta ha r dc or ei nt he p s t a t e. ( The a ut hor s wi s ht ot h a nk E.M on i zf orp r e p a r i n gt hi sf i g u r e. )
t hatf orcl os epac ki ng. Theha r dcor ef or c est heAbodywavef unct i ont ovani s h
f i t on l yt ot he 1 . % s c a t t e r i n g . Th et e n s o rf or c es t i l lm a ke sa s e c on d o r d e r
cont r i but i on t ot he e ner gy,howe ver ,and,l i ke a1 ls ec ondor de r ef l kc t s ,t he s e a l waysi ner eas et hebi ndi ng. z The bi ndi ng ene r gy i st hedi Se r enc e bet we en a l ar g e at t r ac t i veene r gy and al ar ger epul s i v eene r gyand,a ss uch, i sve r ys e ns i t i vet oany appr oxi m at i onst hat
!Fo radi s c u s s i on o ft hi spo i n ts e eR. K. Col e , J r . , Ph ys . Re v . , 1 5 5: 1 1 4( 1 9 6 7 ) .
2Not et hata val ueofm*/ ' m cl os ert o 1al so i ncr eas est he bi ndi ng.
376
have be en m a de. To dem ons t r at et hi s poi nt ,we l i s t bel ow t he var i ous cont r i but i onst ot he ene r gy a tkF = 1 . 5 0 F-1 Ef a ) a-1= -:6. 9 M ev s( y) 4-1= r . 2 . 8. ( )M ev
VT
( J)
Fi g.41. 8 Sonn et qpi calhi gher orderG ol ds t one di agr anl sf ornuc l earmat t er: ( t ? ) thr eebodycl ust er. ( / p)hol ehol es cat t e r i ng.
T' wo t ka t ur e soft he nuc l e arf or ce t e nd t o ke ep t he dens i t y ofnuc l earm at t e rl ow : t he har d cor e and t he Ser be r nat ur e of t he i nt er ac t i on. w hi ch de cr eas es t he at t r a ct i on and henc e al s o m oN b es t he m i ni m um i n Fi g.41 . 7t ol owe r dens i t i es . The r es ul t i ng i nt er par t i cl eS pac i ng al l ows e nough spa ce f or t he wound i nt he wa ve f unct i on t o heal . Thi sr es ul ta cc ount sf ort he s uc ce s s oft he i ndependent -
pa r t i c l e mo de lo ft h enu c l e u sa n dj u s t i e st h ei n de p e n d e n t p a i ra pp r o a c ht ot he
pr oper t i esofnucl earm a t t e r , The di s cus s i on i nt hi ss e ct i on m ay becons i de r e d an oN r e r s i m pl i t i e d ve r s i on oft he t heor y ofnuc l e ar m at t erdeve l oped by Br t l e ckner , 1Be t he , z and ot her s . Thuswe ha&e r e t ai ned onl yt he m os te s s e nt i alphys i c alf e at ur esand m ade m any appr ox i m at i onst hatm us tbe i m pr ove di n any m or er e al i s t i ct r e at m cntofnucl ear m at t e r . Forex am pl e .t he pr es ent f or m oft he i ndepe ndent pai r m ode lom i t sa
gr e a tN ' a r i e t y ofhi g he r or de rc on t r i bu t i o n s .s u c ha st h r e e b o dy c l u s t e r s( de hn e d
t o be Gol ds t one di agr amscont ai ni ng t hr ee hol el i nes ) ,or c ont r i but i ons f r om
hol e hot es ca t t e r i ng,whi ch r ea l l yi nvol v et hr ee or m or e par t i c l e s ,a ss e en i nt he di s cus s i on of t he G al i t s ki ie quat i on. 3 Some t ypi c al hi ghe r or der G ol ds t one di agr an n s ar ei ndi c at e di n Fi g.41 . 8. Al loft hes e pr oee s s e si nvol v et he s i m ul t ane ousc ol l i s i on ofm or et han t N so par t i c l es ,and t he s hor the al i ng l e ngt h ens ur e s t ha ts uc h pr oc es s es ar e ver yi m pr obabl e . Thes e m anypar t i c l e cl us t e rc ont r i but i onshavebeenanal yze di n gr e atdet ai lby Be t heand hi sc owor ke r s .w ho us e
lK A .Br ueckner .l oc.( ' 1 ' t . ? H . A .Bet he,/ t ) c.( ' i :.
3The pr ecl s er el at i on oft he pr es entcal eut at l on t ot he di agr ammat i c anal ysi sof) J , * and t he gr ounds t at e ener gy shi f ti sdi s cus se di n Se c.42.
NUCUEAR M ATTER
377
t heFa de eve quat i onst oev al uat et het hr e ebodyc l us t e rcont r i but i onscor r e ct l y. l The ne te f r e ct of t hes e hi gher c l us t e r cont r i but i ons i st o dec r e as et he bi ndi ng e ner gy of nucl earm at t e rby about 1 M eV. I n addi t i on t oi nc l udi ng hi gher c l us t er s ,i ti s ne ces s ar yt oi m pr ove t he ev al ua t i on oft he t w opa r t i c l econt r i but i ons . Forpur pos e s ofi l l us t r at i on and s i m pl i c i t y, an e f l kc t i ve ma s s appr ox i m at i on has be en us e d ; unf or t unat e l y, t he exa ctans we ri sver ys ens i t i ve t ot he pr e c i s e va l ue c hos en f orm *. l ti sal s ot r ue t hat t he e f l kct i v em as s appr ox i m at i on i s not v er y good. A be t t er appr oac hi s
MZU RELATI O N TO G REEN' S FU N CTI O NS A N D B ETH ESA LPET ER EQ UATI ON l nt he pr e c edi ng s ec t i ons , nuc l e ar m a t t e r has be en di s cus s ed i nt er m s of t he Bet heG ol ds t one equa t i ons ,an d we now'r e l a t et hi st r e at m ent t ot he G a l i t s ki i equat i onsand t he G r e en' sf unc t i ons . For s i m pl i c i t y,we s hal lf i r s tnegl e ctal 1 1S e eR.Ra j a r ama na ndH. A. Be t h e ,Re t ' .M o d. Phv s . . 39: 7 4 5( 1 9 67 ) . a ndR.Ra j a r ama na ndH. A. Be t h e ,I o c . c l ' r .
2H .A. Be t he , B. H.Br a nd ow, an d A. G. Pe t s c he k , Ph ys . Rc ? J . ,1 2 9: 2 2 5( 1 9 6 3 ) . 3Fo ra r e v i e wo fnu c l e a r t na t t e rc a l c u l at i o ns ,s e e B.Da ysRe v .u od .Ph ys . ,3 9: 71 9( 1 9 6 7)
a7:
s e l f cons i s t e ncy i nt he Bet heG ol ds t one equat i onsand a s s um e t hatt heener gy denom i na t or s cont ai n onl yf r ee par t i c l e ki ne t i ce ner gi es . I n t hi s way, t he Be t he G ol ds t oneequa t i onsr educ et ot hes i m pl e rf or ms t udi e di n Se c .3 6,whi c h i s mor ecl os e l y anal ogoust o Gal i t s ki i ' se quat i onsofSec.11 . Re cal lt hatt he Ga l i t s ki iapproa chca l cul a t e st heGr e en' sf unct i on bys ummi ngt hel addergr aphs asFe ynm an di a gr am s . W e fr s tobs er vet hati fwear ei nt e r e s t ed i nc al cul at i ng onl yt he gr ounds t a t e ene r gy s hi f t :t he G a l i t s ki iequat i ons c an be s i m pl i ied c ons i de r abl y. The G r e en' sf unc t i on i sr e l a t ed t o' t he gr ounds t at ee ner g ys hi f t
b yEq . ( 9 . 3 8 )
.-
E - f( ) -a . ( 2 .) 4.
i vh
w z t s ca t s; e i p o , t ( ( ) ; . ( ' J d J ' t r E
ld, j
( 4 2 . 1 )
Z- 0 j t z r r
- y . . -i vh
t rL ayg j sw z j sj e f p , , y j k J ( ) j J #P
1( / A
( 4 2 . 2 )
Thi se xpr e s s i on now al l ow sus t o dr aw a s e tof Fe ynman di a gr am sf or t he gr ounds t at e ene r gy s hi f t . Ag ene r alt er mi nt he l addera ppr oxi m at i on i sdr awn i n Fi g.42. 1 . N ot et ha tt hes e ar e Feynm an di ag r am s;cons e que nt l y,onl yt he t opol ogy of t he di agr am s i si m por t ant ,a nd we m a y dr aw any pai r of l i ne s as r et ur ni ng l i nes ,and any pa i rofl i ne sascr os s e dl i ne si nt he e xc hang e di agr a m. Si nc et heFe ynm a nGr e en' sf unc t i oncont ai nsbot h par t i el eand hol epr opagat i on, t hedi f l kr e ntr e l at i v et i m eor der i ngsi nt he s edi a gr am scandes cr i bev er yeom pl i c at edpr oce s s eswi t hm anypar t i c l e sand hol e spr es entatanyi ns t ant . l twass hown
f orano ns i ng ul a rpot e nt i a lE Eq.( 1 0. 21 ) 1a n df oraha r ds p he r eg a sE Eq. ( 1 1 . 5 7 ) 1 . 2Th i sob s e r v a t i on wa Sf i r s tma d eb yN . M .Hug e nho l t z , Ph y s i c a, 2 3: 5 3 3( 1 9 5 7 ) .
NUCLEAR M ATTER
a79
he c oupl i ngcons t ant i nt egr at i on f or t he nt hor de r W e can now car r y out t cont r i but i on
J , j y j . . j
y
1dj
VV
( 1)
wher et he coupl i ngc ons t anti nt egr a t i on has now be en per f or me d. The cor r e-
h L j * l pq = - ( 2 z r ) 4f d* kG0 ( V) g 4 rt p k; p # )- Ft k p. , p/ ( ) ) ' i k n n
( s e e Fi g.4 2 . 2 ) ,whe r e we h a v e us e dt h ef ou r f o l dd e g e n e r a c y ofn u c l e a r ma t t e r
as s oci at e d wi t hs pi n and i s os pi n. The s ca t t e r i ng ampl i t ude i nt he m e di um i sa
p k
k p
s* ( p) O k
#
z '
N x
Fi g. 42. 2 St r uct ur e of l 1 * i n Gal i t ski i appr oac h.
Z
=
e% o +
'
z ,
380
Z
93
N
# 4
x j( 2 . ) 3 D t t ) i t r a t q t , q , ; p )( 4 a . 6 )
I n ac c or danc ewi t h ourpr evi ousdi s c us s i on, t hemodi se d G al i t s ki iwavef unc t i on s at i s he san i nt egr ale quat i on w' i t h onl yt he par t i cl epar t i c l epar toft he G al i t s ki i ker ne l . The e ne r gy appea r i ng i nt he de nomi na t or si st he t ot a lene r gy i nt he
d' t
c e n t e r o f mome nt u mf r a me , de f i n e db y Eq. ( 1 l . 3 6 )
h2P2
hlk2 h2p2 h2 t l / 2
( 42 , . p
Se c .41 .l ft b e Be t h e Go l d s t o n ee q u a t i on s( 41 . l )a n d( 41 . 2 )f o r m*= m a r e
r ewr i t t e n wi t h a Four i ert r ans f or m,t heene r gys hi f tofa pai rbe com e s
le t q/ , q ' ; P)= h l l n l P ' ) lfe i * ' * A4 . ( x) t / z pq , ( x ) #3 x = h z l m) . ' ) : ( 2 . 7 $E $f J3 / ? ' ( t ) /( q' -t , q' ; P) ( 4 2, 8 ) wh e r eweno wu s ea n o t a t i on s i mi l a rt o Eq. ( 4 2. 5 ) ,wh i l et hewa v ef un c t i o ni n
m om ent um s pace s at i s sest heequat i on
q -q + n d5 t
t hev i r t u a ls t a t e s( c o mp a r eEq . ( 1 l . 1 1 ) q . Th es i n g l e p a r t i c l ee n e r g ys p e c t r u mi s
NUCLEAR M ATTER
381
( 4 2 . 1 0)
whe r et hevar i a bl esar ede sne d asi n Fi g.42. 3. Her et hes e c ondt e r mi n br ac ket s m akes e xpl i ci tt he e xc hange cont r i but i on t hat ar i s e sf r om t he us e of ant i s ym m e t r i c wav ef unc t i ons f orpai r si ni dent i c als pi n and i s ot opi cs pi ns t at es . Fi nal l yt he e ner gy ofi nt er ac t i on o ' ft he as s cm bl yi s obt a i ned asone hal t -t he s um
l ti sn o w po s s i b l et op r ov et h a tt h e Be t h e Go l ds t on ee qu a t i o ns( 4 2 . 8 )t o
( 42. l1 )and t he Gal i t s ki iequat i ons( 42. 3)t o( 42. 6 )ar ei de nt i c al . The pr oofi s asf ol l ows . Themodi se d Gal i t s ki iwa vef unc t i on ym i n Eq.( 42. 6)i san anal yt i c f unc t i on i nt he uppe r hal fko pl ane. ( N ot et ha tt hi si s nott r ue ofy i t s e l f . )
E-Ev=4 4L ' ( 2 r r ) 3j d? p Y* ( . p , ( z ? 0 p )
* k r
( 4 2 . l 2 j
pr e ci s e l y r epr oduci ng t he Be t heG ol ds t one r e s ul t s , Fr om t he pr e c edi ng di s c us s i on.i tf sev i dentt hatt he Bet he G ol ds t oneexpr e s s i on f ort hegr ounds t a t e e ne r g yi sobt ai ne d bys um m i ngt hel addercont r i but i onsi nt er pr et e d asGol ds t one cr a? ? ? 5( s e e al s o Pr eb, 11 . 11 b .N N her et he i nt er me di at e pai r al ways pr opag at es J2 ' J . aspar t i c l es . I ns um m a r y.N Neha Ne demons t r al e dt hatt hegr ounds t at ee ner gi e sobt ai ne d f r om t heG a l i t s ki ie quat i onsand f r om t he Be t he G ol ds t one equat i onscoi nci de at l os : de ns i t q. I ti si m por t antt o not e .howe ve r .t hatt hi scor r es pondenc e ne ed nothol df or ot her phys i calquant i t i es . l n par t i cul ar ,t he pr oper s el f e ne r gy
di fer sf r om t he s i ngl epar t i c l e pot ent i a l L' ( k) by t he i ncl us i on of hol ehol e s cat t e r i ng. l Si ncei ti sl 1 *( k, l ( ) )t hatgi v est he cor r ec ts i ngl e par t i c l ee ne r gi e s ,
a:2
TheBe t he G ol ds t onet heor y de s c r i bed a bov es t i l ldi f l kr si n pr i nci p l ef r om t he Br ue cknert he or y bec aus et he Br ue cknert he or yr e l i es on a s e l f cons i s t ent s i ngl epar t i c l e pot ent i al . I nt e r m s of G r e en' sf unct i ons .t hi sr es ul tc an b e
Se l f c on s i s t e ntG :
+ *. *
+Ex c ha n g e
S e l f c on s i s t e ntl a:
=-
sc
# ( I pI -k , ) hk r- I pI ) l p, po )-J y jj , t l - %/ . i x l +; o -s p j ) t -i x l
. .
( 4 2 . 1 4 )
Sec ond,t hi sGr e en' sf unct i on i s us ed t o eval uat e bot ht he pr opers e l f e ner gy
( Eq .( 4 2 . 4 ) )a n dt h es c a t t e r i n ga mp l i t u d e( Eq s .( 4 2 . 5 )a n d( 4 2 . 6 ) ) . W ea g a i n
obt ai n xm by om i t t i ng t he hol ehol es cat t e r i ng,whi ch i spr es um e ds m al li nt he l owde ns i t yl i mi t . The onl y ef l kc t on t he s e l f cons i s t e nt wav ef unct i on i st o
NL I CLEAR M ATTER
383
( 4 2 . 1 5 )
t ot he bi ndi ng ener gy of nucl ei . l na ddi t i on,Bohr , M ot t el s on, and Pi ne sl obs e r ve dt hatt heene r gy s pe ct r um ofe ve ne ve n nuc l eis howsan ene r gy gap of
f oran e xc ept i onal( ors uper c ondu ct i ng)s ol u t i on t ot he gap e quat i on i n nucl e ar
m att er.
Th eg a pi sd e t e r mi n e db yEq. ( 3 7 . 3 5 ) l
u k,
t i a l . W er e s t r i c tt he p a i r i n gt ol i k ep a r t i c l e s ,t h a ti s ,( pt p$ )or( r l 1 r ? $ ) ,an d
as s um et hat1 z ' i si ndependentofs pi nandi s os pi n. z Toobt ai nanex pl i ci ts ol ut i on oft hi snonl i ne ari nt e gr al e quat i on, i ti sconveni e ntt om aket hef ol l owi nga ppr oxi m at i ons:
lA.Boh r , B.R.M o t t e l s o n, an d D. Pi ne s , Ph y s .Re L ' . ,1 1 0: 9 3 6( 1 95 8 ) .
2Asdi s cuss ed i n det ai li n Chap,15.t he pai r i ng c ome sf r om t he l as tval ence part i cl es. I n al 1 butt hel i ght es tnucl ei ,t hel as thl l ed st at esar equi t edi f l kr entf orneut r onsand pr ot ons . Thus t heover l ap i nt hemat ri x el ement soft he i nt er act i on bet ween val enc e neut ronsand pr ot onsi s ge ner al l ysmal l ert han t hatbet ween l i kepar t i cl esi nt hesames t at es. Thi si st hear gumentf or consni ngourat t ent i on t o pai r i ng bet ween l i kenucl e ons .
ag4
1 .The s i n g l e pa r t i c l ee x c i t a t i on e n e r g i e sf k me as u r e dr e l a t i v et ot h e
che mi c alpot ent i alp. ar ewr i t t en i nt heef l kc t i ve mas sappr oxi ma t i on
( 4 3 . 3 )
( 4 3 . 4 )
1 d3 k
: k F * XZ( x) : i k * X d3 x
wher e ksi san ar bi t r ar y wa ve ve c t orl y i ng on t he Fe r m is ur f ac e. The angul ar i nt egr at i onsove rdkand lDxc an now be e val uat e dt o gi v e
( 43 . 6 )
2 !H h z k/ +- a
u :
K =g
l c ( 2 + ( K z 1 ) 2 ) + ; . ( , j j n ( , 8 j . j l o k r x J Q A ( j . c o s A l j s j n k s x * dl + ( j z g y y j s i n jc o s k s x( 4 3 . 8 )
c o l j 1 jg j 8
Th efn i t er a n g eoft h epo t e n t i a lF( x)e ns ur e st h a tt h equ a n t i t yk ex i sbo un d e d; h e n c et h ed omi n a n t be h a v i o rof Eq . ( 4 3 . 8 )a r i s e sf r om t h ef l r s t t e r m, a n dwes h a l l
Wr i t e
Forany s ma l lhni t e. i,t he val i di t y oft hi s appr oxi ma t i on c an be ve r i fe d wi t h Eq. ( 4 3 . 8 )( s e eP r ob .1 1 . 1 2 ) . w ec a n no wc ompl e t et h es o l ut i o no fEq .( 4 3 . 5 ) . Wi t ht h e de h ni t i on
k p j * 0 s i n k s x F ( x ) s i n k p x d . x -( k s ! I , ' I ( ? u s ) ,
( 4 3 . 1 0 )
NUCLEAF I MAU ER
38B
Eq s . ( 4 3 . 6 )a n d( 4 3 . 9 )b e c o me
-
2 m*
l n
( 4 3 . 1 1 )
2k / / 2 v* i; 4 ; 8exp - =h
L k t , I Fr n, )
( 4 3 . 1 2 )
k / =h 2 / c / / 2 r n * = 8hl z t y t ve xp - )g j y zpy y j y
,
( 4 3 . 1 3 )
po t e n t i a l l i tt o1 S( ) s c a t t e r i n g( Fi g . 41 . 2 ) :
( 43 . 1 4 )
W et ake t heval uem *t ' m = 0. 65 f r om t he di s cus s i on ofnuc l e arm at t erand End
e q ua t i on t o ob t a i n mu c h mor er e a l i s t i cv a l ue so f( / c s l Fl ns l . Ne v e r t he l e s s ,
t he i rval uesf oru ' X ar ever ys i mi l a rt ot hos ei n Tabl e43.1 .
Tabl e 43. 1 The ener qy gap i n nucl earm au er #ortw o nucl eardensi :i es
i,M eV
1 . 42 1 . ( X) 9. 3x 1 0-2 2. 5
386
PRO BLEM S
1 1. 3. Th es y mme t r ye n e r g yf4 / a 4( Eq s .( 3 9. 8 )a nd ( 3 9 . 1 2 ) )ma ybee s t i ma t e d a sf o l l o ws . As s umet heno ns i n g u l a rpo t e nt i a lo fEq. ( 4 0 . 1 0 )a n dc ompu t et h e e x p e c t a t i o nv a l ueofX i nt h e Fe r mig a smo d e lf or4= Z + N nu c l e on swi t h 3= ( N - Z4 l A #0 . ( J )Us eEq. ( 4 0. 9 )t op r o v et ha t
E ....
( : )W i t h m.Q $ 0. 6 5( Ta bl e 41 . 1 )a n dt h ep o t e n t i a lo f Fi g .41 . 2 ,s h ow t h a t
t h = 37M eV. 11. 4. Pr ove t hata t wobody t ens or f or c e wi t h Se r be rexc hange F = P ws' j zx
M1+PMjma k e sn oc on t r i b u t i ont ot h ee n e r g yofas p i n i s os pi n Fe r mig a s ( i . e . , nu c l e a rma t t e r )i nl o we s to r d e r . 11. 5. Gi v e n ar e p u l s i v es q ua r e we l lp o t e n t i a lo fh e i g h tFca n dr a n g eb, i fu I r i st h eI = 0wa v ef un c t i on,p r o v et h a tFN> . W3 ( r- b jf orFc> . c,wh e r eW i s
acons t antt hatc an depend onene r gy.
11. 6. Ca r r y outan e xac tpar t i al wavede c ompos i t i on oft he Bet he Gol ds t one
NucuEAR M AU ER
:87
Kv -l O k/ Wz t f/ Wl / t f / c / l e q u i l i b r i u m
( u )Ev a l ua t eKva p pr o x i ma t e l yf r o m Fi g . 41 . 7f ort h et woc a s e ss h o wn. Re l a t e
K vt ot he us ualt her m odynam i ccompr e s s i bi l i t y.
11. 9. TheA pa r t i c l ei sabar yon w i t hs t r ange nes s-1 ,and he nc ei sdi g t i ngui s ha bl ef r om t he nucl eon. Show t hatt heener gy s hi f tduet ot hei nt r oduct i on ofa har ds phe r eA pa r t i c l ei nt o a nucl ea rga sofhar ds pher esi sgi ven by
+ O t k s J ) 3 )
whe r ea i st h er a ng eoft heAnu c l e on ha r dc or e( c omp a r e Fi g.1 1 . 1 ) ,l / J z= l / vx+ l / va, a n d' ? 7= ( A n , x- ms l l l m; k+ ms ) .
11. 10. Cons i de rt hebi ndi ngene r gy ofaA par t i cl ei nt he nuc l eus .
t h ef r a me wo r ko ft hei nd e p e n d e n t p a i ra p pr o x i ma t i o n. t
11. 11. St ar t i ng w i t h G ol ds t one ' st he or em , s how t hat t he Bet heG ol ds t one
e qu a t i o ns( 4 2. 8 )t o( 4 2 . 1 1 )s u mt h a tp a r to ft h el a d de rc o n t r i bu t i o n st ot he
gr ounds t a t e ene r gy s hi f t wher et he i nt e r me di at e pai ra l ways pr opa gat es as par t i cl esabovet he Fe r m is e a.
: : Forar e v i e wo ft h i ss ub j e c ts e eA.R. Bo dme ran d D.M.Rot e ,t t pr oc e e di n g so ft h eI nt e r nat i onalConf er enc eon Hyper nucl earPhys i csy ' 'vol .I I ,p.521,Argonne Nat i onalL e abor at or y, Ar gonne,1 1 1 . ,1 969.
agg
11. 12. ( X Ve r i f yEq . ( 4 3 . 8 ) . ( b ) Re t a i n i n ga l lt het e r msi n Eq. ( 4 3. 8 )a ndus i n gt h en on s i ng u l a rs qu a r e we l l l 5 ' t ) po t e nt i a l ofFi g . 41 . 2 , s o l v et heg a pe q ua t i o n( 4 3 . 6 ) . Sh ow t ha tt h enu mb e r s
i n Tabl e43. 1ar er educ e d byappr oxi m at e l y af ac t orof4.
O ur pr e vi ous di s c us s i on of t he i nt e r a ct i ng e l e c t r on gas t r e at ed t he uni f or m pos i t i ve bac kgr ound a san i ner ts ys t e m whos es ol epur pos ei st o guar ant e e ov er al l e l e c t r i c al neut r a l i t y. I nt hi sc hap t e r we now i nves t i ga t et he dynam i c s of t hi s backgr ound and t he i nt e r ac t i on be t we en i t sex ci t at i on m odesand t heel e ct r on gas . The r e sal t i ng Deby e m ode l of t he backgr ound f or mst he s t ar t i ng poi nt f or a gene r aldi s cus s i on ofcr ys t al s .whi l et he m odele l e c t r onphonon s ys t em pr ovi de s an ex ce l l ent bas i sf or t he s t udy of met al s . I nr e als ol i ds .of cour s e.t he i oni c ba ckgr ound f or m sa l at t i ce. 'f or t unat e l yt hi s di s cr e t es t r uc t ur ei s uni m por t ant f or acous t i c nor m al m ode ex ci t a t i ons w i t h a uave l engt hI ong com par ed t ot he
i nt e r i oni cs pac i ng( whi chwi l lbet r ueofa l mos ta1 l oft heex ci t at i onsofi mpor t an ce
her e) .
389
390
4K THE NONI NTERACTI NG PHONON SYSTEM W eappr oxi mat et he ba ckgr ound bya hom ogene ous ,i s ot r opi c ,el as t i cm edi um . I ti sknow nf r om t hegene r alt he or y oft hem e chani c sofdef or m abl es ol i dslt hat
B * F P # P r j s
( 4 4 . j ;
t i on a l t ot h ec u r v a t ur eo fE( r s )a t ( r , ) mi .= 4 . 8 3 , a n dwe5 n d
e2
( #) mi .= 4. 5x 1 0 5 2 =0 . 6 6x 1 01 ody n e / c m2
/ 1
The di s cus s i on ofSe c .1 6s howst hatt he v ar i a t i onsi n ma s s dens i t y3 pm obeyt hee quat i on ofm ot i on
?D t 2p m= V2 & p m
1 :23
( 4 4 . 2 )
'G.Joos,t * rheor et i calPhys i cs , ' '2d ed. ,chap.VII I ,Haf nerPubl i shi ngCompany, New York, 1950. 2 Thi si st heBor n opp e nh e i me ra pp r ox i ma t i on E M. Bor na ndJ .R. Op p e nh e i me r .An n. '/ l y ' . f , .
PH O NO N S A N D ELECTRO NS
391
whe r e
2 B B
( yz z cP . . . u n :l k i . n . v ? n( )c
i st hel ongi t udi nals pe ed ofs ound and
/ 7 m oK M / 7 0
( 4 4. 4 )
i st he m as sdens i t y oft he backgr ound. The s ol ut i ons t ot hi s wave e quat i on de s c r i be t he l ongi t udi nals ound wave s . W e m ay agai n us e ours i m pl e m odelof a de gene r at e el ec t r on gas a tt he e qui l i br i um de ns i t yt o 5n d t he t he or e t i ca l e xpr es s i on 2 c2 2 ( 0. 91 6) 2
c =j t z o 9 , : kt j f )
.
l. Ix 1 05cm/ s ec.i nr e as onabl ea gr e eme nt wi t hc e x p= 2. 3x l 05 c m/ s e c,w' hi ch wa se v a l u a t e d wi t ht h eob s e r v e dv a l u e sf ors o d i um 1# = 5 . 2x l 0l 0d yn e / c mz a nd p m o= 0. 9 7g , . ' c m3 . Si n e et h et h e or e t i c a lc ur v e El r x j( t hel i r s tt wo t e r mso fE q. ( 3 . 3 7 ) Ji sav a r i a t i on a le s t i ma t et ha tr e pr e s e n t sa nu p p e rb ou n do nt h et r u e
gr ounds t a t e ene r gy,ourcal cul at i on pr es um abl y gi v e st oo s m al la cur v at ur e at t he m i ni m um and t hust oo s m al la val ue f orB and c .
LAG RANG I AN A N D HA M I LTONI AN
Ac om pl e t e des cr i pt i on ofs ound wave si sr e adi l y obt ai ne df r om t hel agr angi an f ort hes ys t e m . Fore achpoi nti nt hem e di um wef i r s ti nt r oduc et hedi s pl ac ement
b L, n= 3 , V. -- = -d
-
9mQ
S0
( 4 4 . 5 )
V. g z j j . y -V 2 d j =( )
l 02d
'
( 4 4 . 6 )
'e s Amer i can Ins t i t ut e ofPhysi c sHandbook, ' '2d ed. ,pp.2-21and 3-89,M c Gr awl di l lBook Com pany,New Yor k.I 963.
z:z
I n an el as t i cme di um w' i t houts hears t r e ngt hand vor t i ci t l ' . ds at i s f i est he gene r al condi t i on
l a n y p a I t :
whi c h m eans
V x d= =0
ThusN s ec oncl ude
VX ( ( . 2 o / c V ' d ) -0
1t i ' 2d
'
1 . t ,-r . - l'
( 44.l1 a)
'
( 4 4 . l l b s
e quat i ( 7 . 1 7 s) , i e l d Eq.( 44. 9) .5 $hi i e Lq.( 44. 1 0)pl alst he r o1 e ofa s ubs i di ar yc ondi t i on guar ant ee i ng l ongi t t l di nalU a:e s . The us u alc anoni calpr oce dL l r e al I ow s us t o der i ve : 1 ham i l t oni an.and N N ef i nd
l d
Ht )-!(t l 3 x( p , u ) =2- #( V. d) 2 )
whe r eEq.( 44. l 0)hasbe en s ubs t i t t l t ed i l l t ot hes e cond t er mi n Eq.( 4 4. 1I bban d
t he r es ul ti nt e gr at e dt wi c e by par t s . I nt r oduc et he l l or m al m ode e xpans i on s
= ( x . ? ) = p a , t l j j E ! E . ( . % I t l q j ) ( h g c o s v j l k g ( c k 6 4 i k . x i . , j . t . ( , t k . j . , f k . x i c t ? k , )
.
P d
. k
( 44, l 4)
lForadi s cus si on ofcont i nuun nl uechani c s. s eeH. Gol ds t ei n.' ' Cl as si calMechani cs 'chap.l1 , ,Ac l di sonWe sl ey Publ i s hl ng Col l l pan.l nc. ,Readi ng,M as s.. l 953.
PHONONS AND
393
( 4 4 . 1 5 )
c o y= c k ( 4 4. 1 6 )
whi ch now e xpl i c i t l yi ncor por at et he s ubs i di ar y con di t i on V x d= 0. Af t e ra l i t t l e al gebr a,t he ham i l t oni an bec omes
( 4 4 . 1 7 )
wh ch r e pr e s ent sa s ys t e m of unc ou pl e dl mr m oni co s c i l l al o r s . ' Al t hou gh we can i m pos ecom m ut at i on r el at i onson = and d,t he s ubs i di ar y condi t i on mak es t hi s pr oc edur e qui t ei nt r i cat e' ,i ns t ea d,i ti s m uc h m or ec onve ni ent t oc ons i de r
c ka n dt r la sOu r i nd e p e n de n t c a n on i c a l v a r i ab l e sb e c au s et h es u b s i di a r yc on di t i o n
C f k , c l ' 1 =J k k '
DEBYE THEO RY OF TH E SPECI FI C HEAT
i st hen expl i ci t l yi ncl ude d. Thus we s hal l quant i ze by us i n gt he canoni c al com m ut at i on r e l at i ons
( G. l 8 )
( 4 4 . l 9 )
whi ch m a y be s ee ni nt he f ol l owi ng wa y. C ons i de rt he H e l m hol t zf r e e ener gy
c o mpu t e df o ral i x e d nu mb e ro fph o no nsF( F , V, Np s ) . S i n c et he r ei sn or e s t r i c t i on ont he num be rofphonons ,t heequi l i br i um s t at eoft he a s s e m bl ya tfx ed F and I z ' i s obt ai ne d by m i ni mi zi ng t he H e l m hol t zf r ee e ner gy
P N / j .( ; ph , !rp r
( 4 4 . x)
o = k B T l n T r e x p j y j . s w k ' j t a o k . v J /t l n g 1 e x p ( k j o ; ) 1 + z k h ' : w k )
( 4 4 . 2 1 *
( 4 4. 21 : )
l o= J ( h u l k ( c l c k+ I . J k
lThi si st h er e a s onf or c ho os i ngt h ep a r t i c ul a rc o e mc i e nt sap pe a r i ngi nEq s . ( 4 4, 1 4 ) a nd( 4 4. 1 5 ) .
( 4 4 . 2 2 )
( 4 4 . 2 3 )
Z *J# a ' #( t , a ) k
# ( t D l =( 2 R2 ) 1ZC 3 2
( 4 4 . 2 4 4 )
( 4 4. 2 4 : ) ( 4 4 . 2 4 c )
l n a uni f or m medi um st he f r e qut nc y u)has no uppe rl i mi t . l n ar e alc r ys t al , howe ve r ,i ti sc l e ar t hat t he wavenum ber of pr opa gat i on cannotex ce e dt he r e c i pr ocal of t he i nt er par t i c l es pa ci ng. W e c an det e r mi ne t he m a xi m um f r equenc yu ) o byobs e r vi ngt ha tt het ot a lnum be rofde gr e e soff r e e dom i n ar e al c r ys t a li s?N ,whe r eN i st henumbt rofi ons . Thus
( 4 4 . 2 5 )
( 4 4 . 2 6 )
g( f x ? ) d =
# hu l n
9N o ) llf x )
De f i n i n gt h e di me n s i on l e s sv a r i a bl e u= t z a / k sF a n dt h e De b y et e mp e r a t u r e
= ks
( 4 4 . 2 7 )
y 3 # / r x3du gxksp
wef i ndl
.
( 4 4 . 2 8 )
( 4 4 . 2 9 )
whi c hi st heD e by et heor yoft hes peci iche at . 2 Equ a t i on( 4 4 . 2 9 ) ha st h ef o l l o wi ngl i mi t i ngval ue s
( 4 4 . 3 0 / )
lNot et hatt heonl yquant i t ydependi ngon t hevol umei nt he see xpr es s i onsi so.
:P. De b y e ,Ann . Ph y s i k, 3 9: 7 8 9( 1 9 1 2 ) .
395
Cz= 9 Nk s#
12 =4
=
p 3 . x4e ut / x F 3
( )( c '- 1 )
5 Nka . j .
( 4 4. 3 0 : )
Pb e= 90. 3 Ag #= 2l 3
AI
2 l ogj oT Fi g.44. 1 Theheatc apaci t y ' i n cal or i esperdegr e eperm ol ef or s ever als ol i d el ement s. Thecur vesar et heDebyef unct i on wi t h
2 0 1
p=3 8 9
C( di a mon d) e= 1 , 8 9 0 3
t he # v al u e s g i v e n. ( Fr om N, Da v i d s on. ' * s t a t i s t i c a l
Me chani cs. ' 'p.359,M cGr awi li l lBook Company,New Yor k, 1 962,af t erG .N .Lewi sand M .Randal l ,A t Ther m odynami cs, ' ' 2de d. , r evi s ed byK. S.Pi t z erand L. Br ewer, p,5 6.McGr awHi l l
I n Tabl e 44. lwe c om par es om eval ue sof$ de t e r mi ne d by f i t t i ng s pe ci f l c hea t s wi t ht he val uesca l cu l at e df r om t he e l as t i c cons t ant soft he m at e r i a l . z
Tabl e 44. 1 Val ues of Debye tem per atur e $i n 2K obt ai ned fr om t her m al and el asti c m easurem ents
r
jF e
Th e r ma lv a l ue 1 El as t i cv a l u e( r oom t e mp. ) I El as t i cv a l u e( ab s ol ut ez er o) 1 1
i (
3 98 40 2 48 8
31 5 3 3 2 3 4 4
2 1 5 2 l 4 2 3 5
Sour ce:G.H. W anni er , * st at i st i calPhys i cs , ' 'p.277,JohnW i l eyand Sons, I nc. , New Y or k.1 96 6.
396
( 45 . 1 )
whe r ep,= z e ni st heba ckgr oundchar g ede ns i t ya nd zi st heval enc eoft hei ons.
( 4 5 . 2 ) ( 45.3 )
Thesr s tt er m hasal r ea dybe eni ncl ude di nt hehami l t oni anN e l g a sOft he e l e c t r on
Wx)= 1) P ' +e d k * x yn c k z kA
1 ( x)-
( 4 5 . 5 / )
( %r u) 1k 2 f c k e i k * x-c l c i k @ x ) p t f x ) s- ( . o y l , p kP ' I(
.
/ i lk
( 4 5 . 5 : )
( 45 . 6 / )
/ . ) . . 2 e l p h= c . M
z el n 1
kA q
+J 1z J k y q . AC f q 1( 45 . 6 : )
The e l e ct r onphonon c oupl i ng i spr opor t i onalt ot hechar ac t er i s t i ccoul om b i nt er act i on
&J ( q )= 4 r +2 q2
( 4 5 . 7 )
Ouri nv es t i g at i onsi n Se cs .1 2 and 1 4s howe d, howev er ,t hatt hee f l kct i vei nt er ac t i on be t wee nt wo char g esi nt he m e di um gove r ne d by A el i s m odi se d by t he ga s
397
( 4 5 . 8 )
vs
( . y 1, . , s j ' k , -
' 9r r1 7 7 . 2
( 4 5 . 9 )
( 4 5 . 1 0 )
I ti sc l e a rf r om t h i sr e l a t i o nt h a t qv li so ft h eor d e ro ft h el a t t i c es pa c i n g;s i n c e
t h ec u t o f To l n l ci n Eq. ( 45 . 6 : )i sof t h i ss a meo r d e r , wema yt a k e
t h ee l e c t r on ph on o ni n t e r a e t i on i n Eq. ( 4 5 . 6 )ma yb er e wr i t t e na s
( 4 5 . 1 l ' )
( 45. 1 2 )
( 45 . 1 3 )
N ot et hat t he c oupl i ng c ons t ant y i si nde pende nt of t he i on m a s sJ . / and has
f / ' ( x ) = j . j y Z . j( ( k F i k * x -( 7 ) p l k e x j # t ( z ) s -( s k j
k %
/ hc o '1
( 4 5 . 1 4 )
( 4 5 . 1 5 4 )
The de ns i t y var i a t i ons oft he ba ekgr ound al s o m odi f yi t s own coul om b ene r gy ac cor di ng t o
I X- X ! 1Al t hough t hi sequat i oni sst r i ct l yval i donl l 'athi gh densi t i e sf r ,m 1) .anq or egener alt r eat me nt
s i de r e di nS e c . 3( D.Pl n e sa n d P.Noz i r e s .' ' Th eTh e o r l ' ofQu a nt u m Li q ui d s . ' ': 7 0) .I . -s e c s . 3 . la nd3 . 4. N V.A. Be n j a mi n, l n c. , Nc w Yor k.l 9 6 6) .
398
.
-
3 a ( x ) b n l x' )
( 45 . 1 6 )
wh e r eXe l z a swa Sd i s c u s s e di nS e c .3 a n d Xp ,i nS e c . 4 4. S i n c el p hd e s c r i b e s
phys i c alphononswi t ht heexper i me nt all ongwavel e ngt hdi s pe r s i on r el at i on,t he i nt e r ac t i on t er mc l e ar l yr e pr es ent st hecoupl i ng bet we en el e ct r onsand phys i c al phonons . z I tm us t be r e m em be r e d,howe ve r ,t hat t he bar e el e ct r onphonon
G --- +
- ..
+. -- +..
t l
&0 t ( q)
k+ q
=
-% - --
k+q
c
--+ - -
t l
&t q) r(
Nx& r t ( 0 )
p ar t i c l e s . Th el ow d e ns i t yoft h ei ons( h 2 ) ' Me 2< . : ai l jt h e nl e a dst ot h ef or mat i o no faW i g n e r l a t t i c e , whos eba r el on g i t udi n a l pho no nso s c i l l a t ea tt h ei o ni cp l a s maf r e qu e n c yl 4 vn o z 2 e l t ' Ml k . Thei ncl usi on ofr i ng di agr amss cr ee nst he s i ngul arcot l l omb i nt er act i ons,however ,and yi el ds t heobs er ved phononspec t r um. Thi smodelal s o al l owsan i mpr ove d cal cul at i on oft heel ast i c cons t ant s,whi ch agr ee qui t e wtl lwi t h experi ment alval ue s. See,f or exampl e,J.Bar deen a nd D.Pi n e s .Ph y s .Ae r l . .9 9: 1 1 4 0( 1 9 5 5 ) ;T.D,Sc h ul t z ,K e ou an t um Fi e l d The or ya n dt he ManyBody Pr obl em, ' 'chap.I V,Gor don and Br each,Sci ence Publ i shcr s ,New Yor k,1 964;
J .R.S c hr i e fe r ,t ' Th e o r yo fSu p e r c on du c t i v i t y , ' 's e c .6. 2,W .A.Be n j a mi n,I nc . ,Ne w Yo r k ,
1964.
399
i st hen appr ox i mat ed by t he c ons t ant UC r ( 0) ,t hus yi e l di ng t he r enor mal i ze d e l e c t r o np ho no nh a mi l t o n i a n( 45 . 1 1 ) . Wh e nc o mpu t i n g wi t h Eq.( 45 . 1 6 ) ,w' e
m us t ,ofcour s e,om i tt hos e di a gr am s al r e ady i nc l ude di nt hi sr e nor m al i za t i on pr oc e dur e. 46E 7 TH E CO U PLED FI ELD TH EO RY To s i m pl i f yt heens ui ngdi s c us s i on, t hecoul om b i nt e r ac t i onsbe t wee nt heel ec t r ons wi l lbe t r eat e di nt he H ar t r ee Fock appr oxi m at i on,and wes hal le xam i ne
i n Eq.( 46. 1 ) . The mot i vat i on i st hes ameasbe f or e;t heGr e ene sf unc t i onsgi ve
t hee xpec t at i onv al ueofanyone bodyoper at or , t hepol esoft heG r e en' sf unct i ons gi v et heexac texc i t at i onene r gi esoft hes ys t e m,and t hegr ounds t at eene r gys hi f t oft he i nt er ac t i ng s ys t em c an be com put ed f r om t he el e ct r on G r e en' sf unct i on
a c c o r d i n gt o Eq. ( 7 . 3 0 )
' / r. . . Evs . =-j
vd ,i -X I m
400
1.Cons t r uc t a1 lt opol ogi cal l y di s t i nc t Fe ynman di agr am s ,t he bas i c ver t i c es be i ng t hee mi s s i onand abs or pt i on ofaphonon byanel ec t r onasi l l us t r at edi n Fi g.46. 1 .
p- q
p
l nc l u deaf act ori ( 2=) ' 4G0 a / $ ( q)f ore ac h el ec t r onl i newher e
G0 ( p ( . q f - ks ) q. ( / o)= 3.o .. . . ..
x b
.
, , , t : / 0- 6 . h.j y y qv-sq , J j. -i y q
. . -
0 ( / , s- q. )
.
( 4 6. 4 )
( 46. 5 )
( 4 6 . 6 )
401
p
p
q=0
D0 ( 0 ) =0
Fi g. 46. 2 Gener alt adpol edi agr am, whi chvani s hes .
THE EGU I VALENT ELECTRON-ELECTRO N I NTERACTI ON
Thes er ul e sf or phonon e xc hange al l ow us t o put a1 lt he phononex change Feynm an di a gr am s f or t he e l e c t r on G r e en' sf un ct i on i n one t oone c or r es pondenc e wi t ht he Feynm an di a gr am s ofan e qui val ents pi ni ndependent pot e nt i al
L ) ' ( q . ( / n )E E E i h1 y2 i D0 ( q) =, , 2 hl Do L q)
( 4 6 . 7 5 ) ( 4 6. 7 : )
a1 lc as e sofi nt e r e s t . l fweas s ume &o ( q, 0)= -y2f oral lq,t he nt hee qui val ent
i n t e r e l e c t r on p ot e n t i a lb e c o me sa na t t r a c t i t ' ed e l t af u n c t i o n .
l f e q t x)= -y2 8 ( x) ( 4 6 . 9 )
'The phonone xchange pot e nt i albet wee n el e ct r onsw' assr s tdi s cus s ed by H .Fr hl i c h,Phv s. Ret . . ,l oc.c i : .
4c2
The cons equenc es of an at t r a ct i ve i nt er ac t i on be t we en par t i cl es c l os et ot he Fe r m is ur f ace have be en c ons i de r e di n Sec s .36 and 37.and t hey ar e expl or e d
o r ( ) t q s t y o lu 0
i f1 t ? ( ,o . u ) o
( 4 6 . 1 0 )
The gr aphi cals t r uc t ur e oft he coupl edhe l dt he or y can be el e gant l ys um m ar i ze d i n as etofe quat i onshr s tde r i v e d by D ys onli n connec t i on wi t h quant um el e ct r odynam i cs . z Thes e nonl i ne ar i nt e gr ale quat i ons i nvol ve t he e xac t pr opaga t or s and v er t i ce s . W' hen i t er at ed cons i s t e nt l yt o any gi ve n or der i nt he coupl i ng cons t ant ,t he yr e pr oduc et he Fe ynm anDys on per t ur bat i on t heor y. N ev er t hel es s , Dys on' se quat i ons ar e m or et han a c onv eni e nt s um m ar y of per t ur bat i on t heor y,and t hei rge ner al i t yi s of t en us e dt os e ek nonper t ur bat i v es ol ut i ons . The pr ope re l e c t r on s el f e ner gy hasal r e ady be en di s cus s e di n Se c.9. The pr operphonon s el f ener gy Il *i si nt r oduc ed i n an exa ct l y anal ogousf as hi on.and l ea dst oe quat i onst hatar ef or m al l yi dent i c al w' i t ht hos e oft hee f l kct i v ei nt e r ac t i on pr opaga t or ofSe c.9
G = G0+ G0 l : *G D = D0+ . : , , 2 h1 DQ 1 1 *D
( 4 6 . 1 1 ) ( 4 6 . 1 2 )
403
Pr oper
( a)
Fi g.46. 4
1 n 3pr oper ( b3
ver t ex par tde pends on t wo i nde pendent m om ent a.and al ls pi ni ndi c e s nl al be s uppr e s s e d be c aus et he i nt e r ac t i on i ss pi ni ndependent . A pr o pe rl ' t a r / c x par : i s de sned t o ha ve no s el f ene r gi eson t he e xt er na ll e gs oft he N ' er t e x. Thus t he s e cond di agr am i n Fi g, 46. 4i si m pr ope r ,f ori thass e l f ener gy i ns er t i ons on bot h t hef er mi on and phononl e gs . To obt ai n Dys on' se quat i ons . wenow at t em ptt o wr i t et he i nt e gr al e quat i ons f or t he G r e en' sf unc t i ons i nt er m s of t h e pr oper ve r t ex and pr oper s e l f ene r gy Take an ar bi t r ar y Fe ynm an di agr am wi t h an) . num ber of e xt er nall egs
The r em ai nderi s known asan i r r e duc i bl e or5 ' / & ' c / t ' / ( p ? ?( l i a gr at t . The i r r e duc i bl e di a gr am s f or t he pr oper s el f e ne r gi es and v er t e x par t s' l l t , l ' l s L ' i l ' e s ar e de f i ned t o be t hos e di agr am sr emai ni ng af t ert hi spr oce s s has be en c ar r i ed outl ? pt ot he poi ntwher ea f ur t herr educt i on woul dl ead t oa s i m pl el i neorpoi nt .r es pe ct i v el y ' . Some ex am pl es ar es hown i n Fi g.46. 5. The l owe s t or der f e r n n i on s el f ene r gy. phonon pol ar i za t i on par t ,and ver t ex cor r ec t i on ar et husde t i ne dt o be t he i rou 1 7 s kel et on di a gr am s . W' e now cl a i m t he f o1 I owi ng: l . Foreve r y gr aph t he r ei s a ul l i quc s kel et on. 2. AI lgr aphs c an be bui l tup by i ns er t i ng t he ek ac tG r e en' sf unc t i on G.phonon pr opagat or D.and pr operve r t e x par tF i n aI lt he s ke l e t on di agr am s .
404
Di a gr am s:
Skel et ons:
hh
) . S * ( t ? )- x x
1 1 * ( t ? )- x
X
x
X
I a ux .
= z
+
X
4.
X
X X X
xx
405
i l orexam pl e.bot h) : * ( q )and I l * ( ( 1)ha s ' e on1 3 . , one s kel e t on.t hats hou 1 )i 1 ) Fi g.46. l q a and b.and aI Icont r i but i ons t o Y* ( f /)and I i *( t y)ar e obt ai ne d b) , ' i ns er t i ng t heexa ctG.D.and 1 -i nt he s es ke l e t onsasi ndi c at e di 1 1Fi g. 46, 6. N ot e ' t ha tt he e xac t pr oper ve r t ex m us t bc i ns er t e d aton1 ) he s es ' kel et on , on e end of t di agr am s. 'ot her wi s es ome di a gr am s u i 1 1be count e dt wi ce. Forexam pl e .t her e i s onl y one gr aph of t he t ype s hou 1 l n Fi g.46. 5 / ? . u her ea st hi s gr aph B ou1 d appe ar t wi ce i fue wer et oi ns e r tt he ex actN ' er t ex i 1 1bot h ends i n Fi g.46. 6. T he r en n ai ni ng pr obl em i st o ur i t e an equat i on f or t he ex actpr ope rN er t e x. U nf or t unat el ) . ' .t hi s ai m c a1 1 notbe achi e:e di n cl os ed f or n1 bc caus e: her ei s an i nt i ni t e1 1 um ber of i r r educi b1 es k ' el et on :er t ex di agr am i . N ve m us tt her ef or e r e s or tt oas er i e se xpans i on and haN es hou n l he f i r s tf e ut er m si n Fi g.46. 6. 1 The
h .
NW >
46
The com ponent s of D ys on' se quat i ons ar et he exa ct G r ee n' sf unct i ons G and D and t hee xactpr operv er t e x r. l ti st her e f or epos s i bl et oat t e m ptadi r e ct s ol ut i on of t he s ee quat i ons wi t hout r es or t i ng t o per t ur bat i on t heor y. For e l e c t r ons i n a nor m alm et ali nt e r a ct i ng t hr ough phonon ex change,s uch an a ppr oac h can be gr e at l ys i m pl i f i e d by t he r e m ar kabl et he or e m der i ve d by Mi gdal t
r =yl +OV mj l
( 4 6 . j 4 j
p + q- l
I
q, p4 = . . y
k 7 c ( 2 =) I k- ( ( , &1 T )
2See,f orexampl e, J . R. S c h r i e f l k r . I o c . c i t . : G. M .El i a s hb e r g , Sot ' . Ph ys . J ET P, 1 6: 7 8 0( 1 96 3 ) . 3A .B.M i gdal .I oc.ci t. 4ln f a ct ,M i gdali scont entt o as s er t' * I tcan bes hown t hatt hi sest i mat ei snotchanged w' hen di a g r a msofa h i gh e ror d e ra r et a k e ni nt oa c c oun t . ' '( A. B. Mi g da l ,I o c . c l ' J . )
407
Her et he i nt egr ali snow di m ens i onl e s s ,al lwave num ber sbe i ng m ea sur ed i n uni t s ofksand a l 1f r eque nci esi n uni t sofe o/ F ' h= hky l f l km ,and
5 ( q ) E E E f ' ' l
I qJ >l
t -l ( q 1 <1
I nt he s eu n i t st h ep ho no nf r e qu e n c i e sa r e pr o po r t i o na lt ot h ef a c t or( ml a k l j k
a, .. . . .
( k $ j )( , , a l? l p
g l p y 7 .i B i
'
Pr o v i de dt h a tt hei n t e g r a l c o n t a i n i n g/t o )c on v e r g e s , t h eI i mi t i nge x p r e s s i onf o r s mal l( r r l / #/ . ' ) 1c an be obt ai ned by ne gl ect i n gt he s e cond t er m c ont ai ni ng
408
.
.
( 0 ) . Th ep r o of i st h e r e f o r er e du c e dt os h owi n gt ha tt he l i mi t i n g / ' ( ( s ) )- /
expr e s s i on k . 3j ay ? y '. i . / s ! -j ' v d3 / l ' ( 2 ' ( p+ . q. p); 4 rV2/ v a c Fj j j y
.
j j j . y . j( ' j z / j . 3 / 8 ( I n a x -/ ) ( ;s
i swe l ldef i ne d,f ort hee xpl i c i tf ac t or( , 7 7 . 31) 1 ' i nf r ontoft hedi mens i onl es si nt e gr al
t he n gi vest he de s i r e dr e s ul t . The expr e s s i on of Eq.( 47. 7) .howe Ne r .i s as u' e l lde t i ne da s any i nt eg r al over f er mi on G r ee nsf unct i ons t hatappe ar si nt he r = 0 t h eor y. The D e by e c ut of ' fl i mi t st he m om ent um i nt e gr alt oaf i ni t er e gi on.t husr em ovi ng any di v er ge nce s at l ar ge / . I n addi t i on.r ea lcr y s t al s ha N ' eas m oot hc t l t ol ' l at t he uppe r e nd oft he phonon s pe ct r un s ot hatal l yl ogar i t hm i cs i ngul ar i t i escaus e d by t he s har p Debye c ut oi l -ar es pur i ous . Ft l r t he r m or e. t he i nf r ar e d di ve r genc e of
Eq,( 47. 7)atq v= q = pv= p = 0 g whi c h mal 'gi v er i s et ot er m spr opor t i onalt o ( / ? ? , ' . $ J ' ) 1 l n( / 3 ? , . 51 ) 1 ji si r r e l e N ' a n t be c a us et hc we a kp h on on i n t e r a c t i o ni s on l y
i mpor t antf orel e ct r onsne art he Fer m is ur f ac e wher e; p : 4 ;l . The onl yr em ai ni ng s our c e of di pi cul t l ' ar i s es f r om t he s i ngul ar i t i esi nt he
wh e r et h er e a l p a r tN ' a n i s h e s . Th usu ' ema yr e pl a c e5 ' ( p. -1 )a n d5 ( p = q- 1 ) w' i t h. p ( pv)and . v (/ ? ( ). , -q ) sw' he r e. , ( p( ) )i sdet i ned by
o
( i l l r j qE E E ' t 1
. -
Her e6 , . < ep- ,and b ' ? e v . ' . p:i sas sum e d pos i t i ve.
2. Ther adi alpar tot ' t hei nt egr andi n( 47. 7) cont ai nst hef ac t orl 3#/ , whi chwei ght s
t h er e gi ol l/ ; 4 7 Qu xm o s th e a N . i l y . Asa s i mp l ea p pr ox i ma t i on wer e p l a c eo n e
f ac t oroflbyi t sNal ueat/ ; ? : u xandt hent r ans f or mt ot henew' i nt e gr at i onvar i abl e tH Ep - 1 . Si nc et he r em ai ni n gi nt e gr alove rtc onve r ge si fe :o :t1at l ar ge t , we e xt end t he ti nt e gr a t i on ove r al ls pac e, 3. The ene r gy 6 t . . qi nt he s e cond denom i nat or i s expande d abot 1 tt he vaI ue 6,
409
2k)
' x
t 2d;
ds -i
: , - q) c ; / J / + . l yu l pv. . .)
4. To s t udy t he r e gi on wher et he s i ngul ar i t e sc oa l es c e,w' ee val uat et he s l owl y va r yi ng f unc t i ons t z and Pe f / ? olatt he pos i t i on oft he t i r s ts i ngul ar i t y,e ?= pf j .
Wi t ht h en e wv a r i a bl e (E E E E ' f- p0 , Eq. ( 4 7 . 8 )r e du c e st o
1 3 2 ) (
p -q , p ) : 4 ; j t m y C s y( j p ' ) ,
c k3 . t . ? ( Fj 2 a , . r g P .
.,
r .s,
j ,
d( t . ys . ( . ) . ( j ) ,. po
-.
l f. ; ( p 0 )a n dJ l p v. t y 0 )h a v et h es a mes i g n. t h ei n t e g r a l c a ne l e a r l ybec l o s e di n
t hatha l fpl anecont ai ni ngno s i ngul a r i t i e sand vani s he s .
h q n =z k q ( a o s t y j y
, , .sp ,
4:0
( / ? )I ft hee l e c t r onsar eont hee ner gys he l land e l os et ot heFe r mis ur f ac e,t hen
h pl j ; 4 ; e sa n d1 * k 2 1i son l ys i n g u l a rw ' h e ni c / t l i ; 4 ; q t ' p .S i n c ec. c t& . s , t hi ss i n g u I ar i t yi sal s o uni m por t antbot hf orr e alphononsw' i t h1 % , = qcand f orvi r t ual phononsw' i t hI o < qc < t ro.
PRO BLEM S
12. 1. Pr ok et hatyp y= 0 i nt he i nt er act l hg e l e ct r onphonon s ys t em .
i Dq x- . x ' )= . , x O1 Fg ( / s( x ) ( / s ( x ' ) ) i O)
whe r ek O) i st hc exa ct nor mal i z e d He i s e nbe r g gr ound s t at e of t he c oupl e d
l t / ' f J ( X ) , t f ' f f ( A ' ' ) 1 ? : ' =0 (u( P t / ' ( ' r ' ) c 2 x 4 , - V . / .r = . Vx 2 3 ( x- x ' ) t i , .,
i nt he l i mi tc o o. . > .z ' z. Thus der i ve t he f ol l owi ng equa t i on ofm ot i on
V2
- p g j ;s ( x)- -yVx 2 z f l s a l x ) #, , a t x l l
1 92
411
( V 2 x -( y . j j y j . 1 i D ( a x ) . h , . V x a ( 5 ( x . x , ) ( 5 ( ? t , )
,
--
l ? 2
N ot et hatt he l a s te xpr es s i on i sone l i ml tott h e ge ne r alv er t e xf unct i on. W' hatf s t he c or r es pondi ng r es ul tf or sni t eu ; o' ?
( b ) Co mpu t et h ec o r r e s po nd i n g G( q)a n d di s c u s st h er e z u l t i n ge x pr e s s i on :f o r
t he s i ngl e pa r t i cl e ener gy ' and l i f e t i m e.
12. 6. ( t 7 ) Eval uat et hel oues t or dercont r l but i on t o 11 * ( 6 1)s hown i n Fi g,46. 6. ( ? ? ) Comp u t et h ec o r r e s p on d i ng p ho no n pr o p a g a t or a n dd e r i & et h ef o l 1 o N N i n g
e xpr es s i ons f or t he r e nor ma l i z e d phono1 )f r equent z yf z j q and i n%e r s el l f e ! i n n e q
( 1 : 2 = ( s j g l 2 x & ( 0 ) : 2 g j t F 1 1
c n ? f . t ) z a Y2 A' ( 0 )pt J q= ' u h . a y r s- q ) qkr
- ..
*y s //*
.
* y
' u 0
whe r et he m at r i x el em e nt m us t be c al c ul at e df or aI l0 < y'< y. A nal yz et he r i ghts i de oft hi se xpr es s i on i nt e r m s of Fe ynm an di a gr am sand us eMi gdal ' s
412
12. 9-
J . J e x= ( ' c l3 4 - ' e x ( x: ) jg i t x)
=
(( / 3 & ) ' c x ( xt ) ( j . ( x)
l l 1t I R i s( 2 hap . t er .U e s t ud) .t he r e m ar kab1 e ph c1 1 on l e non ( 7 . f -s upe r c onduc t i A . 1 t ) . . l 3s t at ed.t he c o1 1 s ! r uct i c ) l l of a Al t hou gh t he bas i c ex per i nl ent al f at ? > ar e eas i 1 . s at i s f ac t or y mi c r os t z opi c de s cr 1 pt i o1 1 pr o' . e d e ' & c ee di ngI l k d1 Pi cul t . a1 1 d e ar l ) , t he or i e >y N er e es s ent i al 1 ) , 'phenom e nol ogi c al . Ne ver t he l t s s .t he s et heor i es 5 . $ er e s ur pr i > i 1 1 gl ) - ac cur at ea nd pr of ound1 )1 nt l t l t ' nce dt he pr es e 1 1 tr n: 1 n) , bodq t he or ) ot 's uper c o1 1 duc t or $ . Fo1 -t h1 sr eas on. $ , 5e k ) o1 ' 1 s i der 1 te > $ ent 1 d1 t o di s k z ' us st 1 ) e Phenom enol og1 ca!t he 0r 1 ' e> i n de t a1 l .bot ht or t he 1 ri nt r 1 l : > 1 cI ! 1 t er es tand a> an i 1 , 1 t r oduct 1 on t ot hk lm i ' cr t 3 . s c op1 capp1 ' o' t cI R. T hu -1 at t er( B C S)t he or ( h7 r epr e s ent s
hGood i nt r oduct or yr ef cr encesar e F.Londt an.' ' Surert l u1 ds . ' ' Nv A l .l.L 7oNer Publ i ca tl ens . I nc. .Ne% N' or k.1 96l.D .Shoenber g.' ' Surer conduc: l Nk : 2 .. ' '7d ed .Can )br i dge Ln1 Ner sl l ' . Pr e ss .Canl br 1 dge. 1 9( a j' .N1.1 ' ! nkhan :.' ' Suy a cr ck nndt . t c: 2 Nl : . s. ' ' ' G o: k tu an and Br each.Sc1 ence Pt l bl i s her s.N e y ' bJ: ' k.i 9( a f. 2J.Bar dee n.L.N .Coope! ' .andJ.R.SJhrl el l e1 * .Pt ' : : ' k .Stl ' . .1 08: 11-f(l 9f-) .
414
t oi t sn e w pr e d i c t i on s ,i ta l s oj u s t i t i e st he e a r l i e rd e s c r i p t i o nsa n da l l o wsa n
eval uat i on oft he phe nom e nol ogi c alcons t ant s .
( 4 8 . 2 )
t heni m pl i e st hatt hef l uxdens i t yB r em ai nscons t antf oranym e di um wi t hi nhni t e c onduc t i vi t y be c aus e E vani s he si ns i de t he m a t e r i al . I n par t i c ul ar ,c ons i de ra s uper conduct ort hati scool e d bel ow rci nz er o m agnet i cf i e l d. The above r e s ul t
char ac t e r i s t i c.t he t r ue nat ur e oft he s uper c onduct i ng s t at e appear s m or ec l e ar l y i ni t s magne t i c ef l kct s . Cons i de r a nor m alm et ali n a uni f or m m agnet i cf i el d
( Fi g. 4 8 . 1 ) . Wh e nt hes a mpl ei sc o o l e da n db e c o me ss u pe r c on d uc t i n g. e x pe r i m ent shr s tper f or me d by M ei s s nerand Ochs e nf e l dz de m ons t r a t et hatal 1m agne t i c f l ux i sexpe l l e df r om t he i nt er i or . N ot et hatt hi sr es ul t does notcont r adi ctt he pr evi ousc onc l us i on ofcons t antB i nt hes upe r c onduc t i ng s t at e; r at heri ti ndi c at e s t hatt he c ons t antv al ue m us tal ways be t aken aszer o.
3 . Cr i t i c a l hkl d Th eM e i s s n e r e f l k c t o c c u r s on l yf o r s u mc i e nt l yl ow ma g ne t i c
fe l ds . For s i m pl i ci t y,we cons i dera l ong cyl i nde r ofpur es upe r c onduc t ori na par al l e lappl i ed f i e l d H ,wher et her ear e no dem a gne t i z i ng e f l kc t s . I ft hes am pl e i ss upe r c onduc t i ng at t e m pe r at ur eFi n ze r o he l d,t her ei s a uni que cr i t i c alt i el d
Hc ( T)a b ov ewh i c ht h es a mp l eb e c o me sn or ma l . Th i st r a n s i t i o ni sr e v e r s i b l e ,
lH . K. Onn e s ,Co mt n u n. #/ ? y ' . 3 ' . La b .L%I k . . Le i d e n .Su p pl . . M b( 1 91 3 ) . 2W . Me i s s n e ra nd R. Oc h s e nf e l daNa t l t r x ' i s s . . 2 1: 7 8 7( 1 9 3 3 ) .
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
416
Sa mp l rc xl e di n z e r of l e l d
t h e ns u b j ctt oa n
appl i e f i el d
t h e n l e db el ow V( Sc )
, c ( r ) , c ( o ) g 1 ( j ) 2 qe m p i r i c a l
H
( 4 8 . 3 )
Hc ( r)
Nor ma l
Fi g.48. 2 Phas e di agr am i n SF pl ane.showi ng s uper c onduct i ngandnor malr egi ons, andt hecr i t i cal
Super c onduct i ng
)
c ur v e Hc ( T4o rFc ( S )b e t we e nt h e m.
4.Pe r s i st ent cu r r e nt sa nd .,#? . z x qu ant i z at i on: As a di f l kr ent ex ampl e of magne t i c be ha vi or ,cons i dera nor malmet al l i cr i ng pl ace di n a ma gnet i c hel d
416
No r ma l I i ngi n ma g ne t i cf l e l d
Co ol e db e l o wF r, ' ma g n e t i cf i e l di h e n r e mo ve
i st he nr e m ov e d;no f l ux c an pas st hr ough t he s uper conduct i ng m e t al ,and t he t ot a lt r appe df l uxm us tr em ai n cons t ant ,be i ng m ai nt ai ne d by ci r c ul at i ng s uper c ur r e nt si nt her i ngi t s e l f . Suchper s i s t e ntc ur r e nt shav ebe enobs e r ve dov erl ong per i ods . l Fur t he r m or e,t he f l ux t r a ppe di ns um c i ent l yt hi c kr i ngsi squant i z ed i n uni t sof 2
9 7 0= hc j i= 2 . 0 7x1 0 7g a u s sc mc
-
( 4 8 . 4 )
5 .S pe c @ch e at :l na dd i t i o nt oi t s ma g ne t i cb e ha v i o r ,a t y p i c a ls up e r c onduc t oral s o hasdi s t i nct i v et he r malpr ope r t i e s . For z e r o appl i e d he l d,t he t r ans i t i on i sot s e cond or de r ,whi ch i m pl i esa di s c ont i nuouss pe c i t i che atbutno
c onduc t i ng s t at e,howe ve r ,t he s pe ci f i c hea t Csi ni t i al l ye xce e ds Cnf or TL Fr , bu tt h e ndr o psb e l o w Cna n dv a ni s h e se x p on e n t i a l l ya sF . > . 0. 1
- o Csr c expk aT
lTypi c alr e centmeasur eme nt sar et hos e ofJ.Fi l e and R.G.M i l l s ,Ph ys .Ael ' ' .Let t er s,1 0: 93
( 1 9 63 ) , wh o 5n dl i f e t i me so for d er1 0 5y e a r s . 2B. S. De a v e r , J r . a ndW . M. Fa i r ba nk , Ph ys . Re v . Le t t e r s . 7: 43( 1 9 61 ) ; R. Dol l a n dM . N b a u e r , Ph y s . Re v. Le t t e r s , 7: 51( 1 9 61 ) . Ke e s om a nd J . A. Kok, Co mmu n . Ph y s . La b.Uni v . Le i de n, 2 2 1 e: ( 1 9 3 2 ) . 3W . H. 1W . S .Cor ak ,B.B. Goo dman . C. B. S a t t e r t hwa i t ean dA. We xl e r . Ph ys . Re t ' s , 9 6: 1 4 4 2( 1 95 4 ) .
sgpEncoNoucTl vl TY
417
Thi sde pende ncei ndi c at est heex i s t enc eofa g ap i nt hee ner gy s pe ct r um , s epar a t i ng
6 .I s o t o pec fc c / :A f i n a ldi s t i n c t i v e pr op e r t yo fs u pe r c on du c t or si st h e
i s ot opee f l kct . W enot e dt hatt hecr ys t al l ogr a phi cpr oper t i e soft henor m aland s upe r conduct i ng phas es ar ei dent i c al . Ne ver t he l e s s ,c ar e f ul s t udi es of i s ot opi c al l y pur es am pl es s how t hatt he i oni cl at t i ce pl ays an i m por t antr ol ei n s upe r c onduc t i vi t y,f ort het r ans i t i on t e m per at ur et ypi c al l y va r i e swi t ht hei oni c
I T I aSSl
F Ca :M *
( 4 8 . 6 )
Thi sr e s ul ti ndi c at est hei m por t anceoft heat t r ac t i veel e ct r onphononi nt er ac t i on,
mi c r o s c o pi c( a t o mi c )s c a l e , t h e r ea r eon l yt wo f u n da me n t a l se l d sea n db , d e hn e d
by t he e quat i ons
di ve = 4 =p d i vb= 0 c ur l e= -c 1 &
o b
( 4 8 . 7 / ) ( 4 8 . 7 : ) ( 4 8 . 7 / ) ( 4 8 . 7 :)
c u r l b= c -1 ' ) J+ p v c
p e 4=
He r ep i st he t ot alc ha r gedens i t ya nd v i st he m i c r os copi cv el oc i t y Ee l d. The mac r os c o pi cse l dsa r ede sne d ass pa t i alave r age s
E= ( e l v o l
B= ( b l v o l
( 4 8 . 8 )
overa vol um e a ppr opr i at et ot hepar t i cul arpr obl e mi n que s t i on;t he y obey t he c onve nt i onalM axwe l le quat i ons
d i vE = 4 rt p l v o l di vB = 0
PB CUI ' I E = -C -1
ass hown by t heexi s t enceof' ' gapl es s ' 's uper conduct or swi t h ze r o dcr e si s t i vi t y.
( 4 8 . 9 4 ) ( 4 8 . 9 : ) ( 48 . 9 c )
'
4!g
c u r l B=c l W +- ' l p # l v o l
( c
OE
4=
( 4 8 . 9 J)
whe r e P and D ar e known ast he pol a r i z at i on and di s pl ace me nt ,r e s pec t i ve l y. I n as i mi l ar wa y,t he t ot alcur r e nt i ss epar at ed i nt o a magne t i z at i on cur r ent
( 48 . l l )
Thel as tt er m i sgener al l y ne gl i gi bl ei nl owf r equenc y phenom ena,and w' ema y i nt er pr et c ur l H as ar i s i ng s ol e l yf r om t he f r e e cur r ent s . W hen t he v ar i ous m agne t i cquant i t i e sa r ec hange d by s m al lam ount s ,t hew or kdoneont hes ys t e m
d F=. s dT+ ( 4. *1 H. #B
wi t ht hecor r es pondi ng di se r e nt i a lr el at i ons
,- -
( 4 8 . 1 2 )
t J d w j s u.( d a F s ) v
( 4 8 . 1 3 )
He r eweas s umet hevol umei shel d cons t ant ,and si st heent r opyde ns i t y. Thef l uxexpul s i on as s oc i a t e d wi t ht he M e i s s ne ref l kc ti ndi c at est ha ta bul k s uper conduct ori n an ext e r nalm a gne t i chel dH i suni quel yc har ac t e r i ze d byt he
c on d i t i onB = 0 ,i n de p e n d e n to ft h ewa yt h es t a t ei sr e a c h e d( Fi g . 48 . 1 ) . We
t her ef or ei nf e rt hatt he s uper conduct or i si nt r ue t he r m odynam i ce qui l i br i um and a cc or di ngl y appl yt he t ec hni que s of ma cr os c opi ct he r modynami cs . For m os texpe r i me nt s ,howev er ,i ti si m pos s i bl et o m ani pul at et he ;ux de ns i t yB
( 4 8 . 1 4 )
1Thi sr e s u l tc a nb ede r i v e dv e r ys i mp l yb ys u r r o un di n gt h es y s t e m wi t ha s ur f a c e. / 1i nf r e e
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
419
( 48 . l 5 )
( 4 8 . 1 6 )
t j a z G j Hs 4 = ( b j t ' j n j / T
I f t h eh e l d H = Hi si n c r e a s e da t c o ns t a n tt e mp e r a t u r e , Eq. ( 48 . 1 6 )g i v e s
G ( F , S) -G ( F , 0 ) =( 4 r 8 1 j H 0 B ( H' ) d H'
no n ma g n e t i c( B = H) , a n d wehn d Gn ( T, H)- Ga ( F, 0 )- -( 8 , n . ) 1 H2
I nc ont r as t ,B vani s he si nt hes uper c onduc t or ,whi c h yi e l ds
( 4 8 . 1 7 )
( 4 8 . l 8 )
( 4 8 . 1 9 )
To agood appr oxi m at i on,t henor m als t at eofm os ts upe r c onduc t i ngel em e nt si s
G, ( F, S)= Gs ( F , 0)
Thet wo phas e sar ei nt he r m odynam i ce qui l f br i um att hecr i t i ca lf i el dHc . Thi s c ondi t i on m aybee xpr es s e d by t hee quat i on
( 48 . 2 0 )
Gs ( F, 0 )= G k ( F, 0) -( 8 =) -l Hj
F, ( r, 0 )= Fa ( F, 0 )- ( 8 z 81 Hl c
( 4 8 . 21 )
( 4 8 . 2 2 )
The s ee qu a t i on ss ho wt h a ta ne g a t i v ec o n d e n s a t i o ne n e r g y -Hk ( b =p e ru n i t
vol umeac compani est he f or mat i on oft hes upe r c ondu ct i ng s t at e . I n addi t i on, as i m pl er e ar r angementl eadst ot hegener alr es ul t
( 48 . 2 3 )
J y sc o F, S )- s n ( T, H) -( 4 *, ' Sc ( F) # F ,(
( 4 8 . 2 4 )
ph a s e ha sl o we re n t r op yt h a nt h e no r ma lp h a s e . No t et ha t Eq.( 48 . 2 4 )i s
i nde pendentoft he appl i e df i el d,whi ch al s of ol l owsf r om t he t her m odynam i c
420
c s v ( p q ) H
gi vest hedi t l kr enc ei nt hte l e ct r oni cs pe ci t i chea t satc ons t antEel d F JS 2 dl H
( 4 8 . 2 5 )
( 4 8 . 2 6 )
c ' H- c n n= y c + Sc( F . , ; ; dp v2
( 4 8 . 2 7 )
OE J LO NDO NPI PPARD PHENOM ENOLOGI CAL THEORY TheLondonequat i ons lpr ovi de dt hesr s tt he or et i ca lde s c r i pt i onoft heM ei s s ne r eFe ct . Al t hough t he s ee quat i onsar e a pai r ofphenome nol ogi calcons t i t ut i ve
wi t hv e l o c i t ys e l dv ( x? ) , t h e nt h es u p e r c u r r e n ti sg i v e nb y j ( x/ )= -n a t w( x/ )
( 4 9 . 1 )
wher ensi st hes upe r e l e ct r on num be rde ns i t yand. -ei st hechar g eonan e l e ct r on. Thecont i nui t yequat i onand Ne wt on' ss e cond l aw gi ve
d i v j= d i Nv= 0
Jv
= 7/ - -
( 4 9. 2 )
m E+cYxh
( 4 9 . 3 )
d i s c u s s i o n we s h a l lr e f e rt oh ( x )a st h e mi c r o s c o pi ch e l d. 3 Th el e f ts i d e ofEq.
lF. Lo nd on a n d H.Lon do r a , Pr o c . Ro y. S oc . ( Lon d o n ) ,A1 4 7: 7 1( 1 9 3 5 ) . 2F.London,o p.cl ' t . ,s ec. 8. 3W eher ef ol l ow F.London,o p.cl ?. ss e c. 3, a l t hou g ht hes e l di n qu e s t i on i sr e a l l y B.d e h n e d
SUPERCO NDUCTI VI TY
421
( 4 9 . 3 )m a yb er e wr i t t e nwi t hs t a n d a r dv e c t ori d e nt i t i e s
A
1 = yt +( v. V) v= g j + V( ! . ? p) - vx c u r l > '
and we5nd Pv
E + :-
? v
( 4 9 . 4 )
' j im + v ( ! . ? 2 ) v x ( c u r l v m e h c )
gi v e
( 4 9 . 5 )
( 4 9 . 6 ) ( 4 9 . 7 )
QHc u r l v- mc -
e l k
Q -e u r l v e h= 0 mc
-
( 4 9 . 8 )
Eq . ( 4 9. 8 )i n t oEq. ( 49 , 5 )g i v e s
W + V( ' l + )= -m
e E
( 4 9 . 9 )
Equ a t i on s( 4 9. 8 ) an d( 4 9 . 9 )t og e t h e rc o ns t i t u t et h eLon d o ne q u a t i o n s .
so LuTl o N F0 q HALFSPACE AND SLAB
The i mpl i c at i ons oft hes e phenomenol ogi ca le quat i ons a r e m os te as i l y unde r -
s t o o dbyr e wr i t i n gEq. ( 4 9 . 8 )a s
h=
-
mc n z c u r l j se
( 4 9 . 1 0 )
h= -a 2 c u r l j= -4=nseg c ur l c u r l h= 4=nsecV2 h ,e
( 4 9 . 1 1 )
'
r 2'
. .
., . . -
'
%f .
X
.
5 1
'
g x
'
A s= n = ns' 7
( 4 9 . 1 3 )
i sknow n ast heLo ndonpe net r at i on de pt h. Thust hem agne t i cse l di sc onsn ed t o as ur f a ce l a yeroft hi c kne s s; k ; Asand vani s he se xponent i al l yf or z> As . I f
'Az , ( 0 ) , l
I
&, A
A1 1 1 * Sn ' 340
Pb 370
1 6 . ( X * 2
,
3* 83 0
0 . 0 1 0
0. 16 0. 45
5 3 0
51 0 440
4 9 0 . 5 1 5
5l 0 390
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
423
&( F 4+ e = A F) 1- w m pi r i cal ( 4 9. 1 4 ) z X 0 ) 1c pr ov i de sag oo d:t l t ot hed a t af br F/ Fc k; ! . . Si ncensi st heonl yvar i abl equant i t y i nEq. ( 4 9 . 1 3 ) , wei n f e r N XF)= 1 - F 4
G ( 0 ) ( y 1 e m p i r i c a l
( 4 9 . 1 5 )
-s
J . , d z h l z ) - dt a n h j j
( 4 9 . 1 7 )
S oAs
f l ux de ns i t yi ses s ent i al l yH u.
CONSERVATI ON AND QUANTI ZATI O N O F FLUXOI D
The London e qua t i ons i m pl yas t r i ki ng c ons er vat i on l aw. Fors i m pl i ci t y,we s t udy onl yt he l i near i z e de qua t i ons
e E= 0 Y= m J i
J#S h
g=c J J s c u r l E=c j c # l . E
( 4 9. 2 0 )
1Fora compar i s on oft he e xper i ment swi t h Eq. ( 4 9. 1 4)a nd t h et h e or e t i c alp r e di c t i on oft he BCS t heor y.s ee,f orexampl e,A.L. S c h awl o wa nd G.E. De v l i n,Ph y s .At , t ) . ,1 1 3: 1 2 0( 1 95 9) .
424
6-
( .. y
u $ .
t . )
Hol ei ns u r c onduc t or
( J )
( A )
qu x oi d: ( J )s i mp l yc on n e c t e d;( b 4mul t i pl yc on n e c t e d.
i nt hes up e r c o n du c t o r , Eq . ( 4 9. 1 9 )a pp l i e sa te v e r yp o i nt . g i v i n g
& 0 (d s . h + n m s c , j c ( 8 1 . j O
wes e et h a tt h e /u xo f f f l de hn e da s
( 4 9 . 21 )
( I )s :j#sh+M a c #l . j se
mc
( 4 9 . 2 2 )
r e m ai nsc ons t antf oral lt i me . I ti sc l e art ha t( 1 )di f l kr sf r om t he m agnet i cf l ux by an a ddi t i onalcont r i but i onar i s i n gf r om t hei nduce ds uper cur r e nt . Wi t h added as sum pt i ons ,i ti spos s i bl et o der i v e m or es pe c i f i cr es ul t s .
( 4 9 . 2 3 )
wher e h = cur l A
( 49 . 2 4 ) ( 4 9 . 2 5 )
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
42:
a n d Eq . ( 4 9. 2 3 )t hu sb e c o me s
c ur l p= 0
( 4 9 . 2 6 )
whi c h m ay be c ons i de r ed a ge ner al i z e d condi t i on of i r r ot at i onal f l ow. I n addi t i on,t heCuxoi d m aybewr i t t en as
( I l= -e -
#l . p
( 4 9. 2 7 )
Thi sequat i on i sr e mi ni s ce ntoft heBohr som mer f e l d quant i zat i on r el at i on,a nd,
i n d e e d,Lo n do ns ug g e s t e dt ha tt h eCu x oi di sq ua nt i z e di nu n i t so fh c l e . As
not ed i n Sec.48,t hi spr e di ct i on wass ubs e que nt l yc onsr me d,butt he obs e r ve d
qu a n t u m un i t i sh c l l eg Eq . ( 4 8 . 4 ) J .
PI PPA RD' S GENERA LI ZED EQ UATI ON
( 4 9. 2 8 4 ) ( 4 9. 2 8 : ) ( 4 9 . 2 9 )
Pi pp a r dp r op o s e d a no n l o c a lg e n e r a l i z a t i on o fEq.( 4 9 . 2 9 ) ,i n wh i c hj ( x)i s
de t er mi ne d as a s pat i alaver age ofA t hr oughout s om e ne i ghbor i ng r e gi on of di me ns i on r o . For hea vi l y doped al l oys ,r zi scom par abl e wi t ht he e l e c t r oni c mean f r e epat h Ii nt he nor m alm e t al ;f orpur em e t al s ,howe ve r ,r ci snoti nfni t e,
IF.London,o p.cf ? . ,p.152.
426
r z= J ' :+ j
and as s umed
( 4 9. 3 g )
;,
n, e2 3
( y s. ?j )
J h v r l l ; z0. 1 5k . Fc
s
( 4 9 . 3 2 )
r e l a t i o na ndi de n t i se s( za s f l l s =h v m n= 0. 1 80k
a Tc
r ' r 2 :n
( 4 9. 3 3 )
l e n g t hA ,w hi c hn e e dn o tb et h es a mea st h eLo n d o npe n e t r a t i o nl e n g t hA s( de f i n e d i nEq. ( 4 9. 1 3 ) ) ,wh i l et h ei nt e g r a l k e r n e lh a sat e mpe r a t u r e i n d e pe n d e n tr a n g er a , whi c hi sa p pr o xi ma t e l yt hes ma l l e r of %a n d/ .I f r z< A , t h e nt hev e c t or po t e n t i a l
var i e ss l owl y and c an bee val uat e d atx' = x. I nt hi sway,we obt ai n
n, 2
db X X. m x4
el/ r e
=r q c f :4 ! ( x ) b . t j = 0 J y e x / r e
j ( x)-
n e 2 l A( ' x) mc l l + &)
r o. xA
( 4 9. 3 4 )
su PERCONDUCTI VI TY
427
Any s ampl et hats at i s ses t hi sl oc alcon di t i on ( r o< b LA)i s known as a Londo n l ' r / / p cr c ' o / i pl / c/ t p r ,be caus eL q.( 49. 31)t hen r epr odu ce st hc f or m oft he London equat i on ( 49. 2 9)butwi t ht hecoe f l i ci entr e duc e d byaf ac t or(I : ( t vI) . Compar i s on wi t h Eqs .( 49. l 0) and ( 49. 1l) i m medi at c l y gi N es t he cor r e s pondi ng
penet r a t i on dept h atze r ot em pe r at ur e
z
l ' ( 0 ) = . z l s ( 0 ) ( j) l O C a l l i m i t : r ( ) , Z J
J- Jo 1
l npr ac t i ce( s e eTabl e49. 1 ) ,mos ts uper con duct i nge l e ment satl ow t emper at ur e vi ol a t et he condi t i on f or a pur e London s t l per condu ct or .u hi ch r e qui r e s
r o; : k : J t l< z . t A. He n c e Lon do ns u p e r c on du c t o r sa r eu s u a l 1 . ) .h e a : i 1 )d op c da l l o ) s , wher et hel engt hr vi sde t er mi ned by /i ns t ea d ofJ ' t ) .and t het ' ol l ou i l l gi ne qual i t y
hol ds:r v; 4 ;/s .A. l nt hi sc as e ,Eq.( 49. 35)expl ai nst heobs er :e di n cr e as ei 1t he penet r a t i on de pt hf ordi r t y al l oys& $ her e/. < -( ! ( ) . l fa s am pl ei sa Londol )s uper conduet orat l ow t empe r at ur e.Eq,( 49. I 4)s hov :s t hati (r emai ns onc f oral l
F. . c rc . Si l l ce t he penet r at i on dept h ofans s upe r c ondu ct i ng m at er i ali n ur e as e s r api dl y as r -. ' Fc ,how e ve r -aI I. l ? p&r ( ' t ? ? ? t / s ? c ' J ( ? r . 5 'be l ol l l l ,1 . o/ p t i/ / ?s l t pL ' r c ol t t hl c t or s
s ' l k / / i ' c t a . nt I ' c / ( ? A ' t ? oT c . -
I ti si m por t antt o em phas i z et hatLq> .( 49. 3 4)and ( 49. 35)ar eol l l yeor r e c t f orr vk tz ' t -a1 1 d we ! 1 o Neons i dert he nl or et )pi calno1 ) l oc al1 1 mi t( ? ' ( ). , .z ' ) ,N N . . hen t he m at er i ali skno% i )asa Pi ppar t l. y ' l / 1 t ' / ' t ' t ) / ? t / I f t ' / ? . Al t hough a g ene r als o1 ut i on
a n ot h e rr e l a t i o n be t we e nja n d A.
Thet r ans i at i onal i nv ar i anc em ake si tus ef uI t oi nt r odu cet hr e e di me ns i onal Four i ert r ans f or ms
( 4 9 . 3 7 / )
q' A( q )= 0
( 49. 38)
42g
I t i ss t r a i g h t f or wa r dt ov e r i f yt h a tt h eFo ur i e rt r a n s f o r m ofEq. ( 4 9 . 3 1 )t a k e st ht
f or m
J ( q )- -s c A( ) A( q )
whe r e 3 ase 2 *dx o
.
( 493 9 )
.
X( V)= -mc z t4 *
=
X F ' O - t 1C q ( ?q x
1P s i nq x
1
c a k ( 1+ ( q r v ) j -q mc f n q ( r o ) %
6r -, e2 ar ct anqr a
( 4 9. 4 0 )
4 =c 3 E ( 2 = ) 2 .  ( # x ) 3 ( x )+j ( q ) )
( 4 9 . 41 )
e qua t i on i sr e udi l ys ol ve dt o yi el d
A( 4 , p . ( 2 , r ) 2 j o # 3 ( x ) 3 ( ( n) q )= c qz+ Kg)
Thecor r e s pondi ng s pat i alquant i t i e sbe com e
( 4 9 . 4 2 )
( 4 9 . 4 3 t 8
( 4 9 . 4 3 5 )
qn+ K( q4# 0
f o rqr e a l :Me i s s n e re f l k c t
( 4 9. 4 4 )
k e r n e l( Eq .( 4 9 . 4 0 ) )i sp l o t t e di n Fi g .4 9. 3 .I th a st wo c ha r a c t e r i s t i cf e a t u r e s :
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
429
1 . 0
K( < ) A( 0)O.j
0 0 1 . 0
2, 0
3. 0
q% :
K( q4i sp o s i t i v ef ora l lq a n d K( q)d e c r e a s e smo n ot o ni c a l l y . Fo ra n yk e r ne l wi t ht h ef i r s tp r op e r t y , wema ys i mp l i f y Eq. ( 4 9 . 4 4 )t ot hef or m &( 0 )# 0 Me i s s n e re f l kc t ( 4 9 . 45 ) &( 0 )= 0 noM e i s s n e re f l kc t
.
A=
j v d z / y z =o=y q z ( )
x$
h l z )
, d t z= 0 )
h ( z= 0 )= 2 =c 1 h
and we5nd A= -2 * t y
x
j vq ( y z . j . g ( ( y )
( 4 9 . 4 6 )
Th er a t he rc o mp l i c a t e df o r m oft h ePi p p a r dk e r n e l2 Eq. ( 4 9 . 4 0 ) ) pr e c l u d e s a na na l y t i ce v a l ua t i onof Af o ra l l va l u e so fI a ndS. Weno t e , ho we v e r , t h a t t h e i mp o r t an tv a l u e so fq a r eofo r de rA ! .l nt hel o c all i mi t( A> r o j ,Fi g .4 9 . 3 s h o wst h a twema ya pp r o x i ma t eK( q)b y. &( 0 ) , a n das i mp l ei n t e g r a t i o ny i e l ds t hep r e v i o us e x pr e s s i o nEq. ( 4 9. 3 5 ) . l nt heop p os i t e( n o nl oc a l ) l i mi t , wea pp r o x i ma t eK( q)b yi t sa s y mp t ot i cf o r ma s q> . c s Kq q)x
3=2n e2
j -?mc # J I I
q. . xw
( 4 9 . 4 7 )
lM . R. Sc ha f r ot h, He l v . Ph y s . Ac t a , 2 4: 64 5( 1 9 5 1 ) .
2A.B.Pi ppar d,I oc.c i t .
4ac
A ( 0 ) s V' J1 =;
( z . y )( A z , ( 0 ) 2 J o ) 1n o n l o c a l l i m i t : < : t r f t
( 4 9 . 4 8 )
Thi sex pr es s i on i si nde pe nde ntoft hemeanf r eepat h /be caus et hes pat i al i nt egr a -
A s ( 0 )l 2 = A , ( 0 ) 1
( 4 9 . 4 9 )
d e pe n de n c eo f A ( F) , t h ee mp i r i c a l 1 a w( Eq . ( 4 9 . 1 4 ) ) i sg e n e r a l l ya s s ume df o rbo t h
l oc aland nonl oc all i mi t s .
SX GI NZBURGLANDAU PHENOM ENOLO GI CAL THEORY Theor i gi nalf or m oft he London t heor y hasones e r i ousf l a wsf ori tappar ent l y pr e di ct st ha tt he M ei s s ners t at ei n a sel d H < H cwi l lbr eak up i nt o al t er na t i ng nor ma land s uper c onduct i ng l a yer soft hi c kne s sd n. : 4ds . l Thi sr es ul ti sr ea di l y ve r i he d: I f #a< K# s ,t he nt he c onde ns at i one ner g y de ns i t yr e mai ns es s ent i a l l y
The phas et r a ns i t i on atFcs i gnal st he appea r anc e ofan or de r e ds t at ei n whi ch t he e l e ct r ons ar e par t i al l yc ondens ed i nt o af r i c t i onl es ss uper qui d. Gi n zbur g lAne qui v a l e n tpr o c e du r ei st or e wr i t e Eq. ( 4 9 . 4 6 )i ndi me n s i o nl e s sf or m
1 = 2 = 1 J O 0 d t ( / 2 + ( A 3 / A ) J : ) I 1 F ( l r ( j / ) j l
wh e r eF( x ) =1 . I ( x 2+1 ) a r c t a nx-. x l j .T h el i mi t i n gv a l u e so fFl t r o l h )f o rr o / . . +0a n d
ul h. y . *r e p r o du c eEq s . ( 4 9. 3 5 )a n d( 4 9. 48 ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
:F. Lond on, o p. c I ' ? . , pp.l 2 5 -1 3 0.
3V.L.Gi n zb u r ga nd L. D. l nnda u: Zh. Ek s p.T e o r . Fi z ,2 0: 1 0 6 4( 1 95 0 ) . An Eng l i s ht r a n s l a t i o n ma yi xf o undi n4 ' Me no fPby s i c s : L. D. La nda us ' ' v o l . 1 , p. 1 3 8, Pe r g a monPr e s s , Ox f o r d , 1 965.
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
431
a n d La n da ud e s c r i be t h ec on d e n s a t e wi t hac o mp l e xo r d e rp a r a me t e r1 F( x ) .
The obs er v e ds ec ondor de rt r ans i t i on i m pl i e st hat V l ' 'v ani s hesf orF > rc, and t ha ti ti nc r e as e si n m agni t udewi t hi nc r e as i ngrc - r > 0. Nea rFc ,t hequant i t y
r ' Fr i ss ma l l , a n dt h emi c r o s c o pi cf r e e e n e r g yd e ns i t yF s oo ft h es u p e r c on du c t i n g
s t at ei nz er o Eel di sas s ume dt o have a ne xpa ns i on oft hef or m
a n d La n da ua dd e d at e r mp r o po r t i o n a lt o1 V' F( 2 5t e n d i n gt os u p pr e s ss p a t i a l
var i at i onsi nYP . l n anal ogywi t ht heSchr di ngere quat i on, t hi st e r m i swr i t t e n
as
( 2 -* ) -' r f V: l ' ( 2
whe r em*i san eg kc t i ve m as s. W hen m a gne t i cf i e l ds ar e pr es ent hi st er m i s ,t as s um ed t ot ake t he gauge i nvar i antf or m
( 2
: 2 , , + ) 1 1 ( i h T. , . cj ' 1 , (
.
e sA
c u r l A( x) =h ( x)
( 5 0. 1 )
de t er mi ne st he m i cr os copi c m agnet i cl i e l d. I nt hi s way,t he t ot a lf r e e e ner gy de ns i t y oft he s uper conduc t i ngs t at ei n am a gne t i cf i e l d be com es Fs -
F n v+ aI Y 1 5 I 2+ j b1 Y F1 4+ ( 2 r n* ) 1 I-l 1 ' h T+
c*A
c
4' j !+ @ #
2 h2
( f 0. 2 )
wher et he l as tt er m r e pr es ent st he e ne r g y de ns i t y oft he m agnet i c :el d. c onve nt i onalt ochoos eapar t i cul arnor mal i z at i on f orV 1 S:
1 ' t F1 2> n s *
( t 7 / : ) 2 . Ex p e r i me n t s :i n di c a t et h a t
( 5 03 )
.
r a*= 2 1 q
( 5 0. 4 )
i nagr e ementwi t ht hepa i r i n g hypot he s i sofSe c s .3 6and 3 7;wet her ef or ei dent i f y ns *wi t ht hedens i t yofpa i r e de l e ct r onsand de t i nen heequa t i on s by t
' n *- l s ws
( 5 0 .5 )
!B. S. De av e r . J r . a ndW . M. Fa i r b a nk. I o c ' t . cl .; R. Dol landM .Nbaue r, I oc. ci t . ;J. E.Zi mmer ma na ndJ. E. Me r c e r e a u, Ph y s . Re v . Le t t e r s , 1 4: 8 87( 1 9 6 5 ) .
4a2
Th ef r e ee n e r g yo ft h es a mp l ei so bt a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g Eq.( 5 0 . 2 )o v e r
t he t ot a lvol um e P r . I n a uni f or me xt er nal f i e l d H ,howeve r , t her e l e vantt her m o-
f #3 xg F ,- ( 4 , 7 $-1 h. H) =f . J3 xGs
( 5 0 . 6 )
+A' .2
( 5 0. 7 J ) ( 5 0 . 7 : )
l i * ( ! / XV c 1 a = ( ;
z ix ( h - H)= 0
t he m agnet i c he l di qde t er mi ned by t he s upe r c ur r ent
ov b x y,
( 5 0 . 8 J )
( 5 0. 9 )
Theboundar ycondi t i ononV 1 i sve r ydi f l kr entf r om t hatoft heus ual Schr di nge r
t h e o r y ,h owe v e r ,an d ma yb e un d e r s t oo da sg u ar a n t e e i n gt h a tj e Hv a n i s h e sa t t h es ur f a c e oft h es a mp l e . Equ a t i o n( 5 0 . 8 : )i mp l i e st h a tt h et a n g e n t i a lc o mpone ntoft he m agnet i c sel di scont i nuousacr os st hi ss ur f a ce .
so burl oN I N SI M PLE CASES
Al t hough a c om pl e t es ol ut i on of t he s ec oupl ed equa t i ons cannot be obt ai ne d, wecan di s cove rqual i t a t i ve f ea t ur e sby exam i ni ng l i mi t i ng cas es . l nt he a bs e nc e
o f a ma gn e t i cl i e l d( A =0 ) .Eq. ( 5 0. 7 J )h a st h es p a t i a l l yu n i f or ms ol u t i o n s
. y .a
.
1l = -J
Fn v . Th es e c o nd s ol u t i o ni s ph y s i c a l l ya c c e p t a b l e on l yi fa ( bi sn e g a t i v e ;i t
SUPERCON DUCTI VI TY
433
Fs o= F n o- jy
lal
z e r ol i e l d
( 5 0 . 1 1 )
an dc o mp a r i s o n wi t h Eq. ( 4 8 . 2 2 )y i e l d s a l= H( F) 2
E i . . =
( 5 0. 1 2 )
a ( T)= ( F - Fc l J '
( 5 0 . 1 3 )
-L s+ . t z V l , + bj ' Fj 2 A . 1 , * =0 m %t ? z
/( ' F( z ) z )- 1 Y 1 . x r
whe r e
hl d21 1 . , %
( 5 0. 1 4 )
( f 0 . 1 5 ) ( 5 0. 1 6 )
1 ' 1 . . 1 E s ( 1 & b ! j l
( 5 0 . 1 5 )g i v e s
-
( 5 0 . 1 7 )
whi chdefnesanat ur al s c al eofl e ngt hf ors pat i al var i at i onsoft heor derpar am et e r
f t ' '
434
Nor ma l
( 5 0. l 9 )
I f /i n c r e a s e s
whi ch i seas i l yi nt e gr at e dt o yi e l d
A ( r ) j y x p , N , w l ( p k j j l
A ( F)= 4 = ( / V( r c ' l v
m *clb 1
m * c2
( 5 0. 2 2 )
SL I PCRCONDUCTI VI TY
435
1 : i si mp or t a n tt oe mph a s i z et ha tt h ec oh e r e n c el e n gt h( ( T) a ndpe ne t r a t i o n l engt hA( F)ar ebot h phenomenol ogi cal quant i t i esdehnedi nt er msoft hecons t ant s
aan d b. l ti sconvent i onalt oi nt r odu cet he Gi nz bur gl andaupar am e t er
( F) KE EA ( / ' )
( 5 0. 2 3 )
p; 4 r pc
( f 0 . 2 4 ( z ) ( 5 0 . 2 4 : )
&= We b i , r
t ot hem e as ur abl equant i t i esH cand A;i tm ay al s o ber e wr i t t en as
H - -. 11 -C 2 r r N. 2J A
wher e( ass hown i nt hef ol l owi ngdi s cus s i on)
( j o. a 5 )
( 5 0. 2 6 )
i st he f l ux quant um .
FLUX QUA NTI ZATI ON
( 5 0. 2 8 )
h c e *Vv
( 5 0 . 2 9 )
1Thi sr epr es e nt at i on ofV l *i spar t i cul ar l y us ef uli n des cr i bi ng t he Jos ephson ef l kct .w' her et he
436
( Fi g . 4 9. 2 )
.
JI . A. z -? ( 7 7 * c # 1 . j h c cJI , y j j t y , k j k , I a= -g v . V( p c ( t a
( 5 0 . 3 0 )
Thet i r s tt er m ont hel ef tm ayber e wr i t t enw' i t h St okes 't heor em ;i fV l 'i sas s um e d t o bes l ngl eval ue d,t hei nt egr alon t her i ghtm us tbean i nt e gr alm ul t i pl en ofl. z: , 7 1 2 1 c J1. i hc $ * JS . h+ . . j y ' ( g ' ) j . . * a= L z z nx ( 5 0 . 3 1 )
c, : e
The s i gni f i canc e oft he par am e t erK i sm os teas i l y under s t ood by s t udyi ng t he e ner g y as s oc i at e d wi t has ur f aces epa r a t i ng nor ma land s uper eonduc t i ng m at e r i al
( 5 0. 3 2 )
; 4 ;( . . ( l z V, ; r E ' = -( z, c jJ p , v
.
By dehni t i on.t he s ur f a ce e ner gy an si st he di f l kr en ce bet we en t he ac t ualGi bbs f r e ee ner gy per uni t ar e a and t he val ue t hat w oul d oc cur i ft he s am pl e we r e uni f or ml y nor m alor s uper conduc t i ng H 2 .A c . c .
c , , ; 4 : j g c ( ( . . d z 4 j gd z-j . . J z )
( 5 0 . 3 4 )
st lpEncosDucr l vi ' r y
437
S k j a . v. j u' j ) . j % . yj / j q 3. j . ( j y + j 2 . . . . . ) mJ l r ? 2 J c 2. (
- .h 4 '=
( j : . j t . y j u j
( 5 0 . 3 5 5 )
f ' .
n.
( 8 * ) 2 1 1 ' 0 2 W -. l n c
( 5 0 . 35 c )
w he r et he pr i mes de not e di f l kr e nt i at i on w i t hr es pec tt o z. The c or r es pondi ng boundar yc ondi t i ons
Y F z >.- :c h -0 j
- -
Hc j
h= 0 J
( 5 0 . 3 6 )
g ua r a n t e et ha tEqs . ( 5 0 . 3 2 )a n d( 5 0. 3 3 )a r es a t i s f i e d. z Wi t ht h es a mede sn i t i o n
oft he s ur f a ce e ne r gy,we l i nd
j x t f z j h v k z + d ? 1 . l . k 4 + ( 2 p 7 + ) 1 l ; t m v+ t ' * c A ) , . I , i r ( 2 j ( )
!V.L. Gi nz b ur gan dL.D. La nda u, l oc . c i t .I fI Y* I 2de p e n dso nl yo nz ,t heor de rp ar a me t e r t a ke st h ef o r m c i W ; r . F ' F( z ) .l n ad di t i on sMa x we l l ' se qu a t i o ni mp l i e st h a tj ( z )=. / ( z ) #.
Eq ua t i o n( 5 0 . 9) t h e ns ho wst h a tV F( z ) mus tb er e a l whi l eP ( p / ' P . xv a ni s h e s . Ther e ma i ni ngp ha s e f a c t or+( y)mus tb eal i ne a rf u n c t i on ofy an d maybe a b s or be d wi t ht het r i v i a lg a ug et r a ns f or ma t i o nz 4> . z 4- ( h c l e * j P g ) / P y ' . 2Th e s ebo un da r yc on di t i on sv i ol a t eEq. ( 5 0. 8 :)a tz= +*,owi n gt o ou ri d e a l i z e d on e d i me n s i onalgeomet r y. A mor ephysi c alconigur at i on i saI ongcyl i nderpl aced i nas ol enoi d.wi t h am acr os copi csupe r conduct i ng c or ts ur r ounded by anor m als he at h.
438
j c o d z' Wl k l ' l+ g .
( 5 0 . 3 8 )
Bo t hEq s .( 5 0 . 3 7 )a nd( 5 0. 3 8 )a r ee x a c t , t h ef o r me ri sa l s ov a r i a t i o na l l yc or r e c t
whi l et he l at t er ,whi ch m ake s us e oft he exa cthel d equat i ons s cons i der abl y ,i s i mpl er , I ti sc onve nt i onalt oc har ac t er i zet hes ur f ac eene r gy wi t ha l e ngt h 3: cp &= - cb 8= whe r e
M2
( 5 9 . 3 9 ) ( 5 0 . 4 0 )
s s . j e J z r g , j l o X T w o . 1 ! 4 + ( l p j ) 2 j
4v' jJ 3 ; k ; 1 . 8 9/
b= 0
. -
ha sb e e nr e wr i t t e nwi t ht hea i dof Eqs . ( 5 0 . 1 2 )a n d( f 0 . 1 6 ) . Al t ho u g hac o mpu t e r s o l u t i ono fEqs . ( 5 0. 3 5 ) a nd( 5 0. 3 6 )i s ne e de dt oe v a l ua t e3f o ra r bi t r a r y< , s p e c i a l
l i mi t i ng cas eshavebeen s t udi e d anal yt i cal l y. The num er i c aldet ai l sar er at her t e di ous ,howe ver ,and we onl ys t at et he r e s ul t s '
( 5 0 . 4l J )
a . =x ,
1
( 5 0 . 41 : )
K >1
( 5 0. 41 c )
Eq . ( 5 0. 41 )y i e l dst hef o l l o wi n gc r i t e r i o n
y p eI : K< O l Ty p e1 1 : K>O
J ( F)> V1 ' A ( F)
a n s> 0 ( 5 0. 4 2 )
( ( T4< vYA ( r)
Thepos i t i ves ur f ac ee ne r g y oft ype lm at e r i al skee pst hes am pl es pat i al l y hom ogeneous ,and i texhi bi t sacompl e t e M ei s s nere f l kc tf oral lH < Hc . I n cont r as t , t ypel l m at e r i a l st e nd t o br e ak up i nt o mi c r os copi c domai ns as s oon as t he
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
439
t h emi x e ds t a t ei nd e t a i l . W' er e gr e tt h a tt h i sv a s ts ub j e c tc a n no tb ei n c l u d e d
he r e,and we m us tr e f e rt he r e a dert o ot he rs our c es . z
by Bar dee n, Coope r , and Schr i ef f e r( BCS) i n1 957. 3 Thi s model has ha d
as t oni s hi ng s uc c es si n cor r el at i ng and e xpl ai ni ng t he pr ope r t i e s ofs i m pl es uper conduct or si nt er m sofa f e w expe r i me nt alpar am e t er s . The gr ound s t at e oft he m ode lhasal r ea dy be en det er mi ned i n Se c .37 wi t hac anoni c alt r ans f or m at i on. Suc h an approa ch ca n beex t e nde dt o hni t et em pe r at ur es , butG or kov 4hass hown t hati ti s pr e t kr abl et or e f or m ul at et he t he or yi nt er m soft em pe r at ur eGr e en' s f unct i ons . A sdi s c us s e di nt he f ol l owi ng par a gr aphs ,t hi s appr oxi m at e des cr i pt i on r e pr es ent s a nat ur algene r al i z at i on oft he Har t r e eFoc kt heor y ofSe c.27 .
GENERAL FO RM ULATI ON
The t heor ys t ar t sf r om t he f ol l owi n g m ode lgr a nd c a noni c al/ 7 ( 7 ? ? 7 ? ' / r ( ) r 2 ( 7 ? 7f or an el e ct r on gas i n a m agne t i cf i el d
' )
.. , # .
. .' F
, .
whe r eA( x)i st heve c t orpot e nt i aland-ei st hechar geonane l e ct r on. Ass houn
i n Chap.l2.t he e xchange of phonons l e ads t o an e f f ec t i ve at t r a ct i on be t we en el e ct r onscl os et ot he Fe r m is ur f ac e. Thi si nt er par t i cl epot ent i a lhashe r e be en
a pp r o x i mat e db ya na t t r a c t i v ed e l t af u n c t i o n wi t hs t r e n g t hg n w0 ( c o mp a r e Eq.
'A. A. Ab r i ko s o v, So c . Ph y s . JETP% 5: 1 1 7 4( 1 95 7 ) . 1Se e.f orexampl e,P.G .deGenne s.* w super c onduct i vi t y ofM et al sand A1 l o) ' s . ' 'chaps.3.6. W. A. Be n j a mi n. l nc . ,Ne w ' Yo r k.1 96 6' .A. L.Ee t t e ra nd P. C. Ho he nb e r g , Th e o r yo fT/ ' pe l l Su p e r c on du c t or s .a nd B.S e r i n.T3 ' p e 1 1S up e r c ondu ct or s :Exp e r i me nt s .i n R.D.Pa r ks( e d. ) , . K super conduct i vi t yy ' 'vol .ll ,chaps.1 4,l5.Mar c elDekker ,l nc. .New' Yor k,1969, 3W ehavef oundt hef ol l owi ngbookspar t i cul ar l yus et ul: P. G. deGennes. / t l c .cI ' J . ; G. Ri ckal b z en, S k fheor y ofSupe rc onduct i vi t ys ' 'John W' i l eyand Sons.l nc. .Neu'Yor k,1 965.J.R.Schri e fer ,
S r he or yo fS up e r c on du c t i v i t y v ' 'W .A.Be n j a mi n,l n c . ,Ne w Yo r k,1 9 6 4. S e eal s o.A.A. Abr i k os ov ,L.P.Gor k ov .a nd 1 .E.Dz l ' a l o s h i ns ki i ,* * Me t h od so fQu a nt um Fi e l d Th e o r yi n
St at i st i c alPhys i cs, ' qchap.7.Pr ent i ceHal l .l nc. eEngl e wood Cl i f l s .N. J. .1963. 4L.P. Go r k ov ,S ot ' .Ph ys . J ET P, 7: 5 05( 1 95 8 ) .
l4 . t l
q f ' ' f a ( x ) fj l x l l z ? s # ) ( x ) f a t x l l
( 5 1 . 3 J )
Her et heangul arbr a cke t sdenot eanens e m bl eave r ag ewi t ht hedens i t y ope r at or
.e j xss
) z f s=Tr -e j k s ' ,
and
Xss= ko+ Pz f s ( 5 1 .3 : ) I nt hi sappr oac h,Xf f si sus e dt o def i ne at i ni t e t emper at ur e He i s enber gope r at or
. y 2 ( = -yt ( j J j vh y . jsf x y t x r )
mi ne sa ndi sd e t e r mi n e db yEq. ( 51 . 3 ) .
ma t i on t ot h ee x a c te qu a t i on sofmot i on . S i n c et h ec o mmu t a t or ( P , f k( x ) J
cont ai ns t hr e et i el d oper a t or s ,i t m us t be appr oxi m at e d by a l i ne ar f or m
SUPEnCONDUCTC VI TY
441
W ema y al s or e c al lt he al t e r nat i ve de r i va t i on oft he H ar t r e eFock t he or y s t udi ed i n Pr obs .4. 4 and 8. 3. l n anal ogy w i t hW i ck' st heor em ,t he ens e m bl e av er a ge off ourf kr mi on he l d ope r at or si sf ac t or i z ed asf ol l ows:
? .
' Fr g 1 / ' ) a ( 1 ) 1 J l j ( 2 ) ? ' J x y ( 3 ) ? f x ( 4 ) ) ) z f s= ' : ( Fz ( ' ( 4a ( 1 ) 1 J x ( 4 ) ) ) z f s x( Fz E 1 J 1 : ( 2 ) fx y ( 3 ) 1 ) ps. -' Fz ( ? ' / ' l a ( l ) ? J s y ( 3 ) 1 z ' HF( rz ( 1 ; l . j ( 2 ) ' ( , x t 4 l l l z f s
( 5 1 . 4 )
Thi s pr oc e dur ei m medi at e l y yi e l ds t he H ar t r ee Fock e quat i onsf or F ' .i t al s o pr ovi de s a ge ner a lm e t hod f orde al i ng wi t ht he t ypi ca lexpr es s i ons oc cur r i ng i n
o fo pp os i t es p i n sc a nf or m as e l f bo un d Co op e rp a i r( S e c s .3 6a n d3 7 ) . As a
m ode lf or t hi s phe nom e non,we add t w' oe xt r at e rms r e pr es ent i ng t he pai r i ng
f , . z : f H F-l . g. 6 * # 3 xg k t f a t t x ) ? J ; ( x ) k . ? J j ( x ) t ' / a t x )
-
coupl e d,t he t he or y no l onge rc ons er vest h e num be r ofpar t i c l e s . I nde e d,t h e co nde ns e d Co o perpai r smay beco ns i d er e d a par t i c l e bat h,i nc l os e G? 1 ( 7 l O #> 'Wi t h t he Bos ec o nden s at i on st u di e di n Cha p.6 and Sec.35. FOr cons i s t e nc y,t he
f a c t or i z a t i on pr oc e du r e of Eq .( 51 . 4)mu s ta l s ob eg e n e r a l i z e dt oi n c l u d et h e
pai r i ng am pl i t ude sz
Al t ho u g ha l lt het e r msi nEq. ( 51 . 5 )c a nb er e t a i n e d, i ti smu c hs i mp l e rt o omi tt he us ual Har t r ee Foc k cont r i but i on f ' ss ent i r el y,t he r eby t r eat i ng t he
nor m als t a t easa f r eeel ec t r on gas . Thi sa ppr oxi m at i on i sbas e d on t heas s um p-
442
whi chf or m st hebas i sf ort heBCS t heor y. Thet heor yi ss el f lc ons i s t ent ,be c aus e
re
dono tv an i s h, b e c a us eg xe f f , x' l+ 0 .
W enow i nt r oduceH e i s enber gope r at or s
& hJ r
. .
( 51 . 1 0)
whe r e a par t i c ul archoi ceofs pi ni ndi ce s hasbeen m ade t os i m pl i f yt he not at i on, Di f l kr ent i at e$ wi t hr e s pe ctt o r. Thede r i v at i vea ct sbot h ont het i e l d ope r at or and on t he s t e pf unc t i onsi m pl i c i ti nt he ' i t i me ' 'or de r i ng,whi eh yi el ds i l :, ? , 4 q zz' .
( 5l . ll )
( 5 l . l 2 a ) ( 51 . 1 2 b )
SUPERCON DUCTI VI TY
443
I nt he us ualcas e ofa t i me i nde pende nthami l t oni an,t he f unct i onsF,. W ,and + %depend onl y on t he di f f e r en ce ' r- r' -and i ti sconveni entt oi nt r oduce t he abbr e vi a t i on
t l p .
xt xz )-
vx : ( xr ) ? t / ' xt ( XT)
'
( 51 . 1 8 )
, .
( 5l . 1 9 )
1W e her ef ol l ow t heconvent i on ofA.A .Abri kos ov,L.P.Gor kov,and I .E.Dzyal os hi ns ki i , o p.cI ' / . ys ec.3 4,buts ever alaut hor s( f orexan A pl eaP.G.de Gennes ,op.( ' f /. ' .p.I 43)i nt r oduce an addi t i onalmi nuss i gn. 2Y.Nambu,Phvs .RE ' t ' . s117: 648(l 960) .
444
( 5 1 . 2 0 )
l & ( x )
* ( x)
-
:j z
t ? ' .
+ y , , ( o v+yj ,
( 5 l . 21 )
CA 2
Thi sma t r i xf or m ul at i on has be en us e de xt ens i v el yi ns t udi e s of t he e l e c t r onphonon i nt e r ac t i on i ns up er c ondu ct or s . l l t al s o pr ov i des a conv eni ent bas i s f ora gauge i nvar i antt r ea t mentofel e ct r om agnet i cf l e l ds. 2 U nf or t unat el y,i ti s notpos s i bl et oc ons i de rt he s equ es t i onsher e ,and wegen er al l yr e l yon t heor i gi na l
Gor ko ve qu a t i on s( 51 . l 5 )a n d( 5 l . 1 7 ) .
soturl oN Fo R UNI FO RM M EDI UM
l n al m os t al l cas c s of i nt e r e s tt he hami l t oni an i st i me i ndependent , and t he cor r e s pondi ng G r e en' sf unc t i ons de pe nd onl y on . r- r ' . l ti st he n us e f ul t o i nt r oduc e a Four i e rr epr e s ent at i on
( 5 1 . 2 2 J )
( 5 1 . 2 2 : )
wh e r et h ec h oi c et . , ) ? , =( 1 1 14 -l j =, ' lh g u a r a n t e e st h ep r o p e r Fe r mis t a t i s t i c s .
Th ecor r es pondi ng e quat i onsofm ot i on ar e
i h u ) n- 2 . -i h T +- +y . zt #( x, x' . t s , , )+ , ( x ) . X1 ( x . x ' , ( s . ) m c
=
t 4 A 2
h b l x- x' )( 5 1 . 2 3 / )
e x 2
( 5 l . 2 3 : )
whi chm us tbes ol v ed al ong wi t ht hes e l f cons i s t e ne yc ondi t i on
( 51 . 2 4 )
lJ.R.Schr i ef l kr ,o p.c i t . .chap.7. 2J.R .Schr i eo kr.o p.ci t . ,s ecs.85 and 86.
s UPEaCONDUCTI VI TY
446
I nt he m os t gener al s i t ua t i on,t he s e coupl ed e qua t i ons m us t be augm ent e d by M axwe l l ' se quat i on r e l at i ng t he m i c r os copi c ma gne t i ct i el d h = cur l A t ot he
s u p e r c u r r e n tja n da n ye x t e r n a lc ur r e n t su s e dt og e n e r a t et h ea pp l i e d he l d .
I ti sc l e ar t ha t a com pl e t e anal yt i cs ol ut i on i si m pos s i bl e,s ot hatwe m us tt ur n t oI i mi t i ng c as e s . Ther e m ai nderoft hi ss ec t i oni sde vot ed t ot het her m odynam i cs ofani nhni t ebul ks uper conduct ori nz e r o sel d. W et he ne xam i net woexam pl e s whe r et he e xi s t enc e of a s m al lpar am et e r per n n i t sa r at her com pl e t es ol ut on:
t he l i ne arr es pons et o a weak magnet i cf l el d( Sec.5 2)and t he be ha vi orne arFc , wher :t he gap f t l n ct i on A( x)i ss mal l( Sec.5 3) . Thes ec as e s ar e par t i cul ar l y i n t e r e s t i n g .f o rt h e yp r o v i dea ml c r os c op i ej u s t i t i c a t i on o ft h eLon d on p i p pa r d
and G i nzbur gl andau t heor i es .r es pe ct i v el y. I nt h e abs ence ofa m agnet i c sel d,t he ve ct or pot e nt i alc an be s etequalt o
z e r o. a n dE qs . ( 51 . 2 3) a n d( 5 1 . 2 4 )a s s umeas i mp l et r a n s l a t i on a l l yi nv a r i a n t f o r m
( 51 . 25 J)
( 51 . 2 5 : ) & &. -. . l h
? 1
g . c o n n,xt t x- 0, ( , ? u )
l k l x . ( u n l= ( 2 : 7 1 3(d? ke i k * x@l k, c o n j
( 5l . 27 )
we obt ai n a pai rofal ge br ai ce quat i ons
( -i h o , n- ( k j = Wf l k s ( wl -z X*Ft k, f z l n l=0
wh e r eE c o mpa r eEq. ( 3 7 . 2 4 ) )
h2k2
( 51 . 2 8 J ) ( 5l . 2 8 : )
f kE El -- p . m
Thes e equat i onsar er e adi l ys ol v ed t o gi ve
( 51 . 2 9 )
F( k
h l i l t a ) n+ J 7 k ) a ? a )= j cu . s+ j 2 -j j n k .j j r i
. -
( 5 1 . 3 0 J )
Yt t k, h A* ( sn l= hac 2 a -s ' i o ut J ki !
( 5 l . 3 0 : )
446
I nt heabs enc eofan appl i edf i e l d,t hepar am e t er, . A m aybet ake n asr ealwi t h no l os sofgene r al i t y,t her eby ens ur i ng t hat
( 5 l . 3 2 J )
( 5 1 . 3 2 :) ( 51 . 3 3 )
and
.
N k ! h k= j yk
,, -j lI ! 7 k l- uv k b ' , j
2, . . .
( 5 1 . 3 4 )
Fort h ep r e s e n tun i f o r m me d i u m ,t h es e l f c o n s i s t e n te qu a t i o n( 5 l . 2 6 )f or
.
J bec omes
# A .=b b
-
t i > 7j ( # J k a-yj -) + k
-
#3 / t -
h. . s
( 5 j . 3 5 )
s umme dd i r e c t l yw' i t hac on t ou ri n t e g r a l ( c o mpa r ePr o b. 7 . 6 )o rwi t ht hepa r t i a l f r a c t i o n de c omp o s i t i o n ofEq. ( 51 . 3 2 : ) ; c a n c e l i n gt h e' c ommo nf a c t o r. l, we5n d
l=g( 2 =) 3( d? k( 2 Fk ) 1 t a n h( JjFk )
W e now i nt r oduce t he appr oxi ma t i on
( 5l . 3 6 )
whi c h wi l lbe us ed c ons i s t e nt l yt o eva l uat ei nt e gr al st ha t ar e pe aked neart he Fer mi s ur f ac e. The r es ul t i ng gap equat i on i saf l ni t et e m pe r at ur e ge ne r al i z at i on
xj ) y t a nhgz -j t. l =g X ( 0 )( & c o o ( t j s d t : 2 ) 1 y . -
.f0
( 5 1 . 3 7 )
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
M7
wh i c hd e t e r mi n e st h et e mp e r a t ur e d e pe n de n tf u n c t i onA( r) . S i n c e ( h2 k2
= lm - p
#( 0 )= mkF
2. =zha
( 5 1 . 3 8 )
whe r eJ . th a sb e e ne x pr e s s e di nt e r mso ft heFe r miwa v ev e c t orks( c omp a r eEq. ( 3 7 . 4 7 ) ) , a n dwen e g l e c tt h es ma l l di se r e n c ei nt h ef r e ee n e r g ybe t we e nt h eno r ma l
and supe r conduc t i ng s t at e s .
DE TERM I NATI ON OF THE GAP FUNCTI ON Z ( F)
1 l c o pd ( ( = g#( 0 ) o a n hl ft k BTc
( 51 . 3 9 )
Tos ol v et hi si m pl i ci te quat i onf orFc . i ti sconv eni e ntt oi nt r oduc eadi me ns i onl es s i nt egr at i on var i abl e
X( 0 ) #=
zd z 4 )z
t a n hz
( 5l . 4 0 )
A ( 0 ) g( 1 n z t a n h z ) I -j o d z l n z s e c h z z
=
( 5 1 . 41 )
. N ( 0 ) #l n ( 1 k * s B r c ) j 0 ' * d z l n z s e c h z z
-
( 5 1 . 4 2 )
( 5 1 . 43 )
t hei rr at i o At l k =' n . e- yQJj . ys s Fc whi chi sauni ve r s alc ons t anti ndepe ndentoft hepar t i cul arm at er i al .
Tabl e 61. 1 Ther m odynam i c pr oper ti es of typi calsuper conductor s
( 5 1 . 4 4 )
r c .o K e-hol kz ,o K N( 0 ) g:
'
. 1
l
1
. : H l o j , o e i z s ' c ( ; ) t r i l, c a c . j . ,k 1 . z i' ic t . c. ,
j
i , 7 6 1 4
.
cd
B cs
. --
A l 3 1 . 2 s n . 7 5
P b 7 . 2 2
0. 5 6
1 6 4
3 7 5 !0 . 1 8I . 4 5 1 95 0. 25 ' . l6 I3 0 5 i ! 0 . 1 6 1 . 0 . 1 6 4l !l l . 6 0
9 6 t0 . 3 9 2 . 2 j8 0 5 t l0 . 1 3 4 1 ;2 5 . 7 1
; 0 . 1 6 8 1 1 . 4 3 i1
.
3 2 -1 . 4 o
1N( 0) #i sc a l c ul a t e df r om Eq. ( 51 . 43 ) .
Sourc e:R.Mes er veyand B.B. Schwar t z.Equi l i br i um Pr ope rt i es: Compar i s onofExper i ment al
g i v e ne l e me n t . Eq. ( 51 . 4 3 ) s ho wst ha tFci sp r o po r t i on a l t ot hec u t o so x M % , wh i c ht h e r e f o r ey i e l dst hei s o t o p ee f l k c t ,di s c us s e di n Eqs .( 3 6 . 2 )a n d( 4 8 . 6 ) . Th er a t i o# / Fc= h o l k aFca l s od e t e r mi n e st h ee Fe c t i v ei nt e r a c t i on #( 0 ) g> N( 0 ) y2 ,wh e r eyi st h ee l e c t r o n p h on onc ou p l i n gc on s t a n ti nEq. ( 4 5 . 1 2 ) . Fo r i on swi t hc h a r g ez e , ac omb i n a t i onwi t hEq. ( 51 . 3 8 )l e a d st o
#( 0 ) l h l n j =2 y2= z 2 ( 3 =2 ) 1 m Mc I
( 5 l . 45 )
SL I PERCONDUCTI VI TY
449
a t w l a , k . r , r g , / ( 3 ) j ' ( l j ) *
c s3. 06 :sFc 1- p
z' 1
Tc- F< Fc
' C
( 5 1 . 4 6 : )
1 . 5
oT I N3 3 . 5 Mc
* TI N5 4Mc
- BCS THEORY
%
%
1 . 0
Fi g. 61. 1 Var i a t i on o f A( F) / ks F ci nS n,
meas ur edf r om t her el at i veul t r as oni cat t e nuat i on i n supe rc onduct i ng and nor mals t at es
0. 5
0 . 2
0. 4
0. 6
0. 3
1 . 0
t h eAme r i c a nI n s t i t ut eofPhy s i c s . )
TH ERM O DYNA M I C FUN CTI ONS
F/Fc
Th et he r mo dy n a mi cp o t e n t i a l ma yb ede t e r mi ne df r om t heb a s i ce qu a t i o n( 23 . 2 1 ) .
Si nceourmode lne gl e ct st he us ualHar t r ee Foc kt e r msi n bot ht henor maland s upe r conduc t i ng s t at e,t he t he r modynami c pot ent i alDai nt he nor ma ls t at ei s
( 5 1 . 4 7 )
wh e r eEq s . ( 51 . 1 ) , ( 5 1 6 ) , a n d( 5 1 . 1 4 )h a v eb e e nu s e di nt h es e c o nda n dt h i r dl i n e s . Not et ha t( A XI )di f e r sf r o mt h ee n s e mbl ea v e r a g eo ft hel as tt e r mi nEq. ( 5 1 . 7 ) b y af a c t or! . . Thi sf a c t o ra l wa y so c c u r si na n y Ha r t r e e Fo c kt h e o r ya n dma y b es e e ne x pl i c i t l yi n Eq . ( 2 7 . 2 0 ) .
4B0
I nt he pr es e ntuni f or ms ys t em ,t he s pat i ali nt egr at i on m e r e l yi nt r oduc esa f ac t or P ' ,a s ' i m pl ec hange ofvar i abl est he n gi v es ( 1 g l2
,-
-a , ,a -v) vf s , 1 o )# ( l / g ) v n ,
( 5l . 4 8 )
' z '
J og y ( j . j s c o . s k h ( t j ) j E t j )
+#j ,d ( l n ( 1 +e i f )( 5 l . 5 )
Si n ceho> >ksF,t hel as ti nt e gr alont her i ghtm a y bee xt ended t oi nsni t y. A n e as y cal cul at i on t he ns hows t hat i te qual st he sr s tt e m per at ur edependent
4 N( 0 )* h * l 1
j , ( d l ' l n t l + e b t ) . j x ( 0 ) p ' x z t 1 . s r ) 2 ; k : ( ( k ( r ) ( 1 a ( 0 ) j ( . 5 l . 5 l )
' -D
I n addi t i on,i ti sr ea di l y ve r i se dt ha t
2 x ( o ) j o# f ( e f ) a . x ( 0 ) ( / . 1 . a 2 + a 2 I n z / i . , t j o o j
( 5l . 5 2 )
SUPERCON DUCTI VI TY
451
4 A r ( 0 ) k a TJ( l l n ( 1 +e b E ) +. j , r r 2 . N( 0 ) t / ( ' s F) 2( 5 1 . 5 3 ) 0 d
* hf . t p o
Thi se x p r e s s i o nc or r e c t l yr e du c e st oE q.( 3 7 . 5 3 )a tF = 0. l ta l s oa l l o ws
us t o eval uat et he l ea di ng I owt em per a t ur e cor r ec t i on, whi c h ar i s e ss ol e l yf r om t he nor m al s t at econt r i but i on be caus eA - AoN ' ani s he sex ponent i al l yf orF + . 0
r ei nt er pr e tEq.( 51 . 53 )as
( 51 . 5 4 )
Ac o mb i n a t i on wi t h Eqs .( 4 8 . 2 2 )a n d( 51 . 4 4 )g i v e st h el owt e mp e r a t u r ec r i t i c a l
t i e l d
s ( w ) l 4 x , v t e l . s p l x g l j ( . y ; ) j . u ( . ) g , -I . e 6 ( y r f ' j . 2 j wher e
Hc ( Q )= ( 4 =2 V( 0 ) . X ) i
h e a t( c omp a r eEqs .( 5 . 5 9 )a n d( 51 . 3 8 ) q
C, , 2 x2 .. .
( , 2 ?' T '2
( 5 l . 5 5 )
X '
j x( ( ) j kjv
( 5l . 58)
whi ch i si nde pende ntoft he m at er i ali n que s t i on. Each oft he s e par amet e r si s
f k z , Dy j F= 0 )
z Ag y . ( ( jg s=-. j y . . j N ( ( j ) . y ( j m 2 j n j j 4 , p j h a o , s y . j r j u ( j s . g , s )
g
( 51 . 5 9 )
4s2
I nt htpr es entl owt e m per at ur el i mi t ,i ti sper mi s s i bl et o eval uat et hei nt egr alby s et t i ngho . > . ( x ,and / QJt . l ;an appr oxi mat ec al cul at i onyi e l ds
l cd t l n ( 1 +e x p E j ( f 2 +u & ) 1 ) ) a ; . I . d / . l n ( 2 = 1 ( j # 1 ) 1
whi c hc a nb ec o mb i ne dwi t hEqs . ( 5 l . 4 6 J )a n d( 51 . 5 9 )t ogi v e
f l -. -. ,.
p 'P , ( F p 0 ) l x t ( ) a g 2 x ( ( ) ( 2 z p r A q o ) 1 e b h o
( 51 . 6 0 )
Theel e ct r oni cs pec i scheati nt hes upe r c onduc t i ng s t at ecan t hen beobt ai ne d by di /e r ent i a t i on c k xo t -- J; k ; 2 A( 0 ) ( ' X ( ) / c s ( 2 z r ) 1 ksr e L * / k B T T> . 0 ( 5l . 61 ) p '
Thi se x pr e s s i on c l e a r l ye x h i b i t st h ee n e r g yg a p me n t i o n e di n Eqs .( 3 6. 1 )a n d ( 4 8 . 5 ) .
The pr ec edi ng cal cul at i ons hav e cons i de r ed onl yt he l owt e m pe r at ur e b ehavi or ,whe r e. -t t li sexpone nt i al l ysmal l . Al t hou gh a g ener ale val uat i on
. g ' j ,, J y n t j . so ( , y s
-
1- 2 J f ( 0 ) h * n g 2 x( O )i h ' . o .v f
=-p J( )d tz z L yt z p n ) i +y z -( ( : f . s a ) 2 +J 2 ) 2 +'
z V( 0 ) . 54 h c o o# f 1 a a u
. :2
( 51 . 4 8 )g i v e s f 1 , -f ' ) a=
p '
( )
( 51 . 6 2 )
f 1 , - Da
s =- y j j j m s . j
X( 0 ) Z4 = 1
4
! . x ( 0 ) . ( 1 . ) 2 X( z n + l . j ) 3 . 7 . . 4 . : / 1 x t o 1 4 2 # . 2 c 8 N( 7 ( ( 3 )0)(r k s r c l z l j ( I v . T , c ) 2 ( 5 1 . 6 3 )
a=0
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
4B3
e xpl i ci tf or m of( F)i n Eq.( 5l . 46b)hasbe en us e di nt hel as tI i ne. 1 Equa t i on ( 48. 2 2)agai nde t er mi n est hec r i t i ca lhel d,and wehnd
H c ( T ) =z J c ( 0 ) e7 ( ( j ) ' j l -y r c j c s 1 . 7 4 . s ( 0 )I z r C jr . s v ,
y -8 - -
( 5 1 . 6 4 )
t h ee x c e l l e n ta g r e e me n tb e t we e nt h e o r ya n de x p e r i me n t j u s t i h e so ura s s u mp t i on
t hatt he Har t r e eFoc k ene r gy i st he s am e i n bot hs t at es . Thi sas s um pt i on i s
' pt c ' x -C n ) i w c -y t t j j Y( 0 ) n . 2 / f j F c
0. 0 2
( 5 l , 6 5 )
S( ( F) ,( ( ) )-
g l ( z ) ) j
0 02 0.4 0. 6
-
I7
Pb
0. 8
( F /7 ) ) 2
0. 02
A1
-
Sn
Bcs
0. 0 4
/ f( F) / Sc ( 0)a n dt hee mp i r i c al c u r v e1-( F/ rc ) 2 .( Fr om I . B. M. J o u r n a lo fRe s e a r c ha n dDe v e l o pme n t , v ol . 6 , n o.1 , J a n.l 9 6 2 ,f r on tc ov e r , Rep r i nt e db yp e r mi s s i o n. ) 'An a r g ume nts i mi i a rt ot ha ti n Eq. ( 3 7 . 5 2 )s howst ha tFs ( N)- Fn ( N )= D, ( J z . )- Dn t J z a l , a p a r t f r om c or r e c t i on s of o r de rt p . x- p . a l z / / z a z . Wec a nt h e r e f or e us e Eq,( 5 1 . 6 3 )t od et e r mi n e y . s- p , nn e arTc .As i mp l eca l c ul a t i on wi t h Eq s . ( 5 1 . 38 ) a nd ( 5 1 . 4 4 )g i v e s N( p . s- H . n b / ( Fs - Fa )=' f2 ( Pl nz & u , ' . l nN ) Fc / ' ( Fc- F) .
464
7 ( ( 3 ) i nr e a s on a b l ea g r e e me n twi t he x pe r i me n t( Ta b l e5 1 . 1 ) .
n rc
C,- Cn C
1 2
a;1. 43
( 51 . 6 6 )
SZDLI NEAR RESPONSE TO A W EA K M AGN ETI C FI ELD Asa f ur t hera ppl i eat i on oft hemi c r os c opi ct heor y,we now t ur nt ot heel ec t r odynami c behavi or of a s uper conduc t or ,whi ch i s pr obabl yi t s mos ts t r i ki ng f e at ur e . I n pr i nci pl e,al ls uc he Fe c t sar e cont ai ned i nt he Gor kov e quat i ons
( 51 . 1 5 )a n d( 5l . 1 7 ) ,b u tt h e ya r eq u i t ei n t r a c t a b l ei nt h e i rmo s tg e n e r a lf o r m.
Fort hi sr e as on,i ti ss i mpl ert oe val uat et he e l ec t r odynami csofa bul ks upe r c onduct orwi t ht heg ent r al t he or yofl i ne arr e s pons ef r om Se c.3 2. 1 l npar t i c ul ar ,
di vA( x / )= 0
qA( q. t z ) )= 0
( 5 2 . 1 )
A' ( q . o a )= t i E #. A( q. t , a ) 1
wher e,by de hni t i on
z 4 ' ( q . t , a )= A( q , o J )- t j E #. A( q, f a ) ) q
.
( 5 2 . 2 4 ) ( 5 2 . 2 : )
qx Al ( q , )= 0
q. A' ( q . ( s )=0
A ge ner algauget r ans f or mat i on oft hev ec t orpot ent i alA and s ca l arpot ent i alg) t akest hef or m
( 5 2 . 3 )
wher eA i san ar bi t r ar ys c al arf unc t i on. l ti sev i de ntt hatt hegauget r ans f or ma-
( 1 95 8 )an d1 1 2: 1 9 X ( 1 9 5 8 ) ;D.Pi n e sa nd P.No z i r e s .e ' Th e The o r yo fQua nt um Li q ui ds . ' ' v ol . 1 ,s e c .4. 7 , W .A.Be n j a mi n,l n c . , Ne w Yo r k.1 9 6 6;G.Ri c k ay z e n,o p.c i t . , ch a p.6;J . R.
S c hr i e Fe r , o p. c i t . . c h a p. 8 .
4BB
g i v e ni n Eq. ( 5l . 1 ) : 4,= X + Xx
( 5 2 . 4 )
whe r eW i st h eha mi l t on i a ni nz e r os e l d
.
:. -.
f f c 3 x , i l t x l ( l 2 m : 7 2 ) 4 ( x ) ! . g j ( F 3 x f ) ( x ) o , , ( x ) , ; , ( x ) 4 . ( x )( 5 2 . 5 )
2 t ' -- c
a n d 4x i st hep e r t u r b a t i o n
e.
wher et heunl abe l e d br a cke t sdenot ea naver a gei nt heunpe r t ur be dbuti nt e r a ct i ng e ns em bl e. Si nc e we s ha l l de al w i t h oper at or st ha t cons e r ve t he num ber of
( 5 29)
.
s i mpl e ca l c ul at i on
j=
( 5 2 . 1 0 )
a n di tc a nb ev r i s e df r om t h eh e l de qu a t i on sf o rb ?a n d( ' %t h a tt hes e c o n dt e r m
an d( 5 2 . 1 0 )y i e l d s
i se s s ent i alt o guar ant e econs er v at i on ofc ur r e nt . A combi na t i on ofEqs .( 5 2. 7 )
( 5 2 . l l )
4se
( 5 2 . 1 2 )
whe r e
j l ( x ? ) - -j s , , . l # l a ( x? ) V#x x ( x ? )- ( Vf : a ( x ? ) ) #x a ( x ? ) )
eh
( 5 2 . 1 3 )
i st he cur r e nt oper a t or f or A = 0. l ti s conv eni e nt t or ewr i t et hi se qua t i on as ani nt e gr alr el at i on be t we en t heve ct orpot e nt i alA and t hei nduc ed s uper cur r e nt
j( c o mp a r eEq. ( 4 9 . 3l ) 1
j k l xt )= -j . j #. 4 x, #/ , Kk t l xt , x' / ' ) z l l ( x, t , )
. .
( 5 2 . 1 4 )
whe r et he r e peat e dl owe r ca s el at i ns ubs c r i pt sr ef e rt o vec t orc om pone nt sand ar es um m e d ove rt he t hr ee s pat i alcoor di na t e s . Tbe s pe ci fcpr oper l i esoft he me di um ar e cont ai ne di nt he ker ne l
an dt hepr obl e mi st husr e duc ed t ot heeva l u at i on ofar et ar de d cur r entc om m ut at ori nt he e xa ctunpe r t ur be ds ys t e m
( 5 2 . 1 6 )
Asdi s cus s e di n Chaps .5 and 9.t he r et ar de df unc t i on i si nc onve ni entf or per t ur bat i onanal ys i s ,and wei ns t e ad i nt r oduc e at em pe r at ur ef unc t i on
OX ( x, r )= e k r l h 0( x ) e k r l h
Lehm ann r epr es e nt at i on,whi c h gi v es
( 5 2 . 1 8 )
Th er e l a t i on b e t we e n Eq s .( 5 2 . 1 6 )a n d( 5 2 . 1 7 )i sr e a di l ye s t a bl i s h e d wi t ht h e
( 5 2 . 1 9 ) ( 5 2 .2 0 )
wh e r et h e Fo ur i e rt r an s f o r msa r ed e sn e da si n Eqs .( 3 2. 1 2 )a n d( 3 2 . 1 3 ) ,a n d
v n= l n =l ph .
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
467
Thef unc t i on@k tmayber e wr i t t enasas pat i aldi f l kr ent i alope r a t orappl i e d t o ai t t i m e' ' or de r e d pr oduc tofse l d oper a t or s
( 5 2 . 2 1 )
whe r e@ and. W' ar et heG or kovf unc t i ons , and t hes pi ns um shavebe ene val uat e d
( 5 2 2 4) Th ec or r e s po n di n g Fo u r i e rc o e c i e n ti se a s i l ye v a l ua t e d wi t h Eqs . ( 5 1 . 2 2 )a n d
e h2
#3 p l
xl f #t p+ q, f . , ? ,+ L) f # ' l p . t . u , l l+ , *( p+ q , t , ' a l + u) . *( p , r . z a l ) ) ( 5 2. 2 5 )
lM .R.Schar r ot h,I oc.c i t .
468
# ' k l l q. wl -J / k l t q , -%)
( 5 2 . 2 6 )
The e val uat i on oft he f r e que ncy sum i sl e ngt hy butnotdi m cul t aus e , bec
p- ! . q. He r et h es u bs c r i pt s + de n o t et h ea r g u me n t s p: i :l . q( t h a ti s .Ex=
fp l q ,et c . ) ,and
f( E)> ( p 9 E+ 1 ) -1 = Jg 1- t an h( J jF) )
( 5 2. 2 8 )
X k t q , ( z ) l -m c z. 1 o 4 . a . j ' . m c . c 4 2 )t # a , 3 r g l j / N p l ( j ) ( j s . ( + s J . . s + , 1 . 2 ) E . , . ( s ) . , . ( s ) ! g . , . , 1 ( s e . ,
4 =ne lj
( 5 2 . 2 9 )
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
459
whi c h des cr i best he gene r alr es pons e ofa uni f or m supe r c onduct oratt e m per at ur e
( 5 2 . 3 0 )
Unf or t unat el ),t hi sexpr e s s i on i scom pl i cat e d and unwi e l dy,and we he nce f or t h c ons i deronl ya s t at i ct ie l d( r . , ?. . 0) . A ss e el lbel ow,e ven t hi ss i m pl e rcas el eads t or at he rl ong cal cul at i ol l s san dt he gene r al l z at i on t of i ni t ef r equ enc y doe snot i nvol ve any ne w qu cs t i onsofpr i nci pl e.
M El ss N ER E FFECT
TheM ei s sne re f l kc tcannow bedem ons t r at ed bye xam i ni ngt hel i mi t i ngbe havi or
j ( q ) -? ? c A t q ) -t ( . jj / 3 p g p . A ( q ) j nt ( 2=)
.
)c h2 . * J3?
.
..
F .-.E-
: z :2
/ ( Ev)
?J . p
and ue f i nd
j t n e l q)$ 4 ; -s
= -
2e hl' *( 1 ' p
j ' q k -)
? ? c 2 hl * a D A( q)t; ; c . 1, ? . , sa j j j j
.
! ( ; d ; ) p 4 y y p '
( 52. 3 2)
fq Ej
= -
, . 7 ( r) t , 2 A( q) . f n2 c
hz x a z n s ( T)H / 7- j 4c j t , .
) ( j p 4 d pj y P C
4 ; q s)
( 5 2 , 3 3 )
4en
de hnest he s uper el e c t r on dens i t yi nt he BCS t heor y. t l t sl i mi t i ng behavi or i s eas i l yde t er mi ned wi t ht het e chni que sde vel ope di n Sec.51:
n , ( F )I ( a , r . r k y r , . j l e a , / . s r a a ( j y v C j .
( 5 2 . 3 4 4 )
( 5 2 . 3 4 : )
and t hecompl et ef uact i oni ss howni nFi g. 52. 1, al ongwi t ht heem pi r i cal f unct i on
g . . J . q . 1 . q 2 1 , o ( r)
0. 8 O. 6
s mp i r j c a j k . t -( y , , y l 4)
.
BCS( n onl o c a l )
0. 4
0. 2 O
BcS( l o c a l l -
O . 2 0. j 0. 6 0. 8 1 . 0 Tl T
( 5 2 . 3 5 )
qu a s i pa r t i c l e mod t lt h e ny i e l d sb ot h Eq.( 5 2. 3 3 )a nd a c r i t i c a lv e l o c i t yl ? c$ k S / k sf o rt b t de s t r u c t i on ofs up e r c ur r e nt s . Thi se x pl a na t i o n off r i c t i o nl e s sf l ow mu s tb e ps e d wi t hc a r e , howe v e r ,f or t he r ea r eg ap l e s ss up e r c o ndu c t or s ,wh i c h ha v ea f i ni t e or d e r pa r a me t e r A( x) b utn og a pi nt h ee x c i t a t i ons pe c t r um ( A.A. Ab r i k os ovan dL.P.Go r kov , Sov . Ph y s . J EF #, 1 2: 1 2 4 3( 1 9 6l ) ;M .A.W o ol fa nd F.Re i f ,Ph y s .Rt r l , ' . ,1 3 7 A: 5 5 7( 1 9 6 5 ) ) ,whe r e asi ns u l a t i n g
cr ys t al s al s o hav e a gap i nt heexci t at i on spt ct r um. The c or r ectpr ocedur e, ofcour s e.i st o aska phys i calque st i on.suchast he I i nearr es pons et o at r ans ver s eve ct orpot ent i al .
SUPERCON DUCTI VI TY
461
d e p t hA ( F) ,s ot h a tt hep r e v i o u sl i mi tq ( oE aql h t , s / v r k v )< :1ma yb ei nt e r p r e t e d asde s c r i bi ng t he be hav i orofa London( l ocal )s uper c onduct or. W enow e val ua t et h ek e r n e l i nt h eop p os i t el i mi t q %y .1 , wh i c hwi l l t h e na l l ow u st ode t e r mi n e
t he penet r at i on de pt h ofa pur e Pi ppar ds uper conduc t or . I n addi t i on t ot he abover e s t r i c t i on, qm us tal s os at i s f yt hecondi t i onq< : tkF, be c aus et hepenet r at i on de pt hi sal way ' sm uc hl ar ge rt han t he i nt er at om i cs pa ci ng.
I ti sconv eni entt oe val uat e Eq.( 52. 29)i ns pher i c alpol arcoor di na t eswi t h (a st h ep ol a ra x i s . Th eLon do nga u g e( Eq. ( 4 9. 3 8 ) 1r e s t r i c t spt ot h ee qu a t or i a l p l a n e , a n dt h eaz i mu t ha l i n t e gr a t i ons ho wst ha tjt a k e st h ef o r mo fEq. ( 4 9 . 3 9 ) . ,
wher e
7 . / 7 t : . 2 4 A ' t i q, 0 ) H Kl qt 4. =6 2 h J 7 4* rsi r n 3 #t z p w2 *= J x/ x 1 1 l C2 ? z ? V 2 c( 2 z r ) z2 e
.
J +( -+ . . : 2t an h( J jfy j . -t a n h( Jj f. s)
'
j-
whe r e
( 5 2. 3 8 )
b ys e t t i ng. ( X= 0a n d Et- f f z( i nEq. ( 5 2 . 3 7 ) . Ane x a mi n a t i ono ft h edi f l kr e n t po s s i b l es i g n so f# +a n d(-y i e l dst hes i mp l ef or m 4nnelg a r x a ,j l a ,! . c%t a nh( . jJ + )- t a nh( j J )
Kn l qb-
m c,
Th e(i n t e g r a t i onc a nb ee v a l u a t e de x a c t l ya n dg i v e s
Kn l q)= t n
4=ne l
yg , l -t . ( . j J z ( 1 -z 2 ) 1 =0
( 5 2 . 3 9 )
*ea
Thi sr es ul thol ds f oral lq< : .ks,t husconhr mi ng t hatt he nor mals t at ei s nonma gne t i c ,apa r tf r om t hewe ak Paul ipar a ma gnet i s m and Landaudi am agnet i s m,
J . # f J ! d Z ( 1 z ) ( # , 4 2 # t g t a n h s ( J . j f + ) t a n h s ( ! . # f ) 1 + ( + 2 1 j y o j t a n h f ( ! + . j F + ) . t a n h f ( ! + . # J + ) j yj t a n h S ( ! # f ) . t a n h 1 ( j f l j j j ( j r . 4 o
j
S i n c e f+- ( -= h q v y z ,t h tl a s tt t r m( i ns qu a r eb r a c k e t s )c o n t a i n st h ef a c t o r . f + j a( jj y . .
J x d fE + t a n h q ? E + ) -t a n
c on v e r g e sa b s o l u t e l yf orl a r g el f! ; i t i st he np e r mi s s i b l et oc h a ng ev a r i a b l e sf r o m (t of+ , an dt h eo dds y mme t r yoft hei n t e g r a n ds h owst h a tt h ei n t e g r a lv a ni s he s . l nt h i swa y .Eq. ( 5 2 . 4 0 )r e d u c e st o Kl q)= - l mc c l ? s
?n mel12 1
-1
d z
l- z 2
z
J * j f . t g L t a n h E ( ! + . # f + ) t a n h E ( J # F ) j ( 5 2 . 41 )
Ea c ht e r mo ft h ei n t e g r a n ds e pa r a t e l yd i v e r g e sn e a r( 0, z= 0 , a n dt h i sr e g i on
dom i nat es t he i nt egr al . W e may t her e f or ea ppr oxi m at et he s l owl yv ar yi ng
Kl
3 n me k12 t a n h( J #Z) 1 J z *X 1 1 q , a r z m c z x p s J . , z J . y ( z t r ( )
=-L q z r n e l 82 t a n h( J # A)g *# (g *d l
mc z h q v p J.T jaY
'
x 1 : ( f + . 1 . 0+ a
-
'
. .- : ( ;- ! . ( ) c+ a! .
)( 5 2 . 4 2 )
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
463
w ' h e r e(= h q t ' pza n dt h ec on d i t i o nq( o=q h v p t l v r v> >la l l o w' su st oe x t e n dt he l i mi t s t o(= + . a a . Th e r e ma i n i n gi n t e g r a l s c a nbe r e du c e dt o( -4' A) . f ;( s i n hv l l xf f x wh i c hi s e a s i l ye v a l ua t e d( s e eAp pe n di xA)t og i v e-=l , I h, a n d Eq. ( 5 2 . 4 2 ) be c ome s KL 3 =2n e l A( F) gj= mC . . .g # y s t a n hg j / j zt Fj j ( 5 2 . 4 3 ) o k . . a :
,
A ( w ) z ( 0 ) g ' l u 9 : r o ' t a n h y t t s r / ) j 1 40 ) 8( v/ j 1( w h e r e j . ) # o A / . ( ( ) ) 1 -j
( 5 2 . 4 5 )
mi c r os c o pi cc a l c u l a t i o n pr e di c t sa d e f i n i t et e mpe r a t ur e de p e n de n c ef o rA ( F)
i nt he nonl oc all i mi t ;t hi sf un ct i on i ss hown i n Fi g. 52. lal ong wi t ht he em pi r i c al
f o r m Eq.( 4 9 . 1 4 )a n dt h et h e o r e t i c a lc u r v e pr e di c t e df o rt h el o c a ll i mi tg Eq ( 5 2 . 3 3 ) 4 .
NoN LOCA L I NTEGRAL RELATI ON
A s a 5na 1 conhr m at i on of t he Pi ppar d phe nom e nol ogi cal t heor y, w' es hal l
c h a n g e ofv a r i a bl e s p+ l . q. +k.p - J q. . -1 ,t h ei n v e r s e Fo u r i e rt r a ns f o r ma t
F = 0 may be N N r i t t en as
wher e
( 5 2 . 46 )
.
F( J ' V . t X ! -E EE ' f ' , ' )- ) L ' ' E , ( # + , ) b e c a u s e/t f ' )v a n i s he sa sF > . 0 . To p u tEq. ( 5 2 . 4 6 )i nt h ep r op e rf o r m, wec on c e n t r a t eont h es e c on dt e r m,
w hi c hc ont ai nst hei nt egr alke r nel
464
wher e./ . ( , ( z )= ( s i 1 ) z) ' z . Th ef u n c t i on F( ( v . ( t 4i ss ha r pl yp e a k e dn e a r k; 4 : / ; 4 $ ks , whi l et hc r el ev ants pat i aldi s t ance sar c m uc hl ar gert han t he i nt er par t i cl es pac i ng $ k J kkl . Cons equent l y. t he t r i gononn e t r i cf unct i ons os c i l l at er api dl y,and t he
var i at i on oft hedenomi nat orof ' h maybene gl e ct e di ne val uat i ng t hede r i va t i v es .
As t r ai ght f or N v ar d ca l ct l l at i on gi ve s
'
i J %, . ( x )-$ ' , ( x , 0 ) -8 . 2 , . . s .4
-
j( j . a ) y y ( ( g . ( t ) c o s ( ( k-/ ) x q
, ,
. ,
( ka n d( t .w ' h i c hy ' i e l d s
.
( i ( # F ( # . : . t ) c o st . c -( ) hL ' y
Y -
(' = t l s i n h( r- m' )
2: X( ) xcos hT
r r e x p
t ' p
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
466
and t he r e m ai ni ng ex pr es s i on m ay be r ewr i t t en as
mk 2x xl
( 52. 49)
( 5 2. 5 0)
and Kv i st he Be s s e lf unc t i on of i m agi nar y ar gum ent desne di n A ppe ndi xA.
S u bs t i t u t i on o f Eq.( 5 2 . 4 9 )i nt o Eq .( 5 2. 4 6 )s ho w' st h a tt he on e di me n s i o n a l del t af unc t i on e xac t l ycanc el st hef i r s tt er m ofEq. ( 5 2. 46) , 1andw' ehnal l yobt ai n
( 4 9 . 31 )f orapu r es up e r c on du c t or( r ( ) = o )a tF= 0, a pa r tf r om t h ea p p e a r a n c e o f J( X)i npl a c eo fe X / ' f ' .I t i se a s i l ys e e nt h a t t h ef un c t i onJI X)i sv e r ys i mi l a r t ot hePi p pa r dk e r n e lf ora l lX ( Fi g. 5 2 . 2 ) , a n d, i np a r t i c u l a r( s e eAp p e n di x A) ,
.
/ ( 0 )= l
.
j v # . j , ' . / ( . y ' ) =w h . v F , j ,
1.0 l
c o
0 . 8 j O . 6j
O. 4
e x p ( A ' / f ( j )
1 . 0 2. 0 3. 0 4. 0
#/ f ( )
f h t s o=
z r t t l
( 5 2 . 5 2 )
!No t et h a tJ r ( x )# x- ! . .
466
i nt er m s of t he par am e t er s of t he m i cr os c opi ct he or y. The above m i cr os copi c c al c ul at i ons hav e be en ext ended t o sni t et em per at ur es and f r e quenc i e s and t o al l oys w i t hf i ni t eme an f r e e pa t h. l n al lc as e s ,t he r es ul t i ng supe r cur r ent m ay
b ec a s ti nt h ef or mo fPi pp ar d' so r i g i n a l e x p r e s s i on , t h e r e b yj us t i f y i n gt h ee a r l i e r
phenom e nol ogi c alt he or yi n det ai l . l
S3L M I C RO SCO PI C D ERI VA TI ON O F GI NZBU RG LA N DA U EQ U ATI ONS The com pl i cat e d and del i c at es el f cons i s t enc y condi t i on of t he m i cr os c opi c t he or y m akes di r ec ts t udy of s pat i al l yi nhom ogene ous s ys t em s ve r y di m cul t . l n m ar ke d cont r as t ,t he G i nz bur gl andau t he or yi sr e adi l y appl i ed t o nonuni f or m s uper con duct or s .whi ch i s pr obabl yi t ss i ngl e m os ti m por t ant f e at ur e . The s i m pl i ci t y ar i s e sf r om t he di f l kr ent i als t r uct ur et hat al l ows f ul l us e of t he anal ogy wi t ht he onebody Schr di nge re quat i on. A sdi s cus s ed i n Se c.50,t he or i gi nal G i nzbur gl andau equat i ons wer e pur el y phenomenol ogi ca l wi t ht he var i ous c ons t ant sf i x ed by e xper i ment . For our f i nalt opi ci nt hi sc hapt er ,we now pr e s ent G or kovsm i cr os c opi cder i vat i on oft he Gi nzbur gl andau equat i ons . z Thi sc al cul at i on de t er mi nes t he phenom e nol ogi calcons t ant s di r e ct l yi nt e r ms oft hem i c r os copi cpar am e t er s; i tal s o cl ar i sest her angeofval i di t yoft hee quat i ons and al l owsdi r e c tex t e ns i onst o m or e com pl i c at ed s ys t em ss uch as s uper conduct i ng al l oys . I ndee d, m any m i cr os copi cc al c ul at i ons now pr oc e ed by der i vi ng
appr ox i mat e Gi nz bur gl andau e quat i ons ,.whos e s 3l u t i on i s cons i der abl y s i mpl ert han t hatc ; ft heor i gi nalequat i dns .
W es t a r tf r om t h ep a i ro fc o u pl e de qu a t i on s( 5 1 . 2 3 )f or ' f fa n d. Wf . He r e we a r ei n t e r e s t e di nt h ee f l k c tofa r bi t r a r y ma gn e t i cf i e l d s( un l i k eS e c .5 2 ) ,s o
t hatA cannotbe c ons i de r e ds m al l . l ns t ead,t he c al c ul at i on i sr es t r i c t ed t ot he
i mme d i a t ev i c i n i t yo l F c . wh e r et heg a pf u n c t i o n. l( x ) i t s e l f pr ov i de st h en e c e s s a r y s ma l lp a r a me t e rI . l ( x ) / / yr c ! . ' . v1 .l ti sc o n v e n i e n tt oi n t r o du c ean e wt e mp e r a t u r e Gr e e n' sf u n c t i on r #0 ( x, x ' . ( s n )t ha td e s c r i b e st h en or ma ls t a t ei n/ / ? &s a me l n a g n e t i c he l d .l ts a t i s he st h ee qu a t i o ns i hu hl V ? ' t p A( x) ) n+ l + - 24 -p , #0 ( x , x' , f w )= h b l x - x' )
m m hc
supEncoNDucT1 vI TY
467
Ft x , f . z . l = #0 ( x. x' , ( z p )- hl ( J3 ) . r #0 ( xqj ' , u ) . : ( ) , ) , . k . z ' 1 ( y . x' , ( wl ( 5 3 . 2 5 ) 5x' n) : 1 . . n) . ' oFf t x5 x' s ( . t ? , l =h -l1 ' ( / 3 ) . , t : 4 0 ( y'x. -( , . ) u ) . :* . ( y ) F( y, x' . r . s , , ) ( 5 3 , 2 : )
. . .
e quat i ons . N ot ec ar e f ul l yt he r a t her c ompl i c at ed ar gument si n Eq.( 53. 2:); t heyar ene c es s ar yt or e pr oduc et hes t r u ct ur eofEq.( 5l . 23 :) . As mpl emani pul at i on ofEqs .( 5 3. 2)y i el ds ' V( xx' , t . u) = V0 ( xx ' , ( . t ?)-h2(d3 ) ' d3 zV0 ( xy q ( s n l A( ) r ) ; <C # 0 ( z , y , . t , a , ) . l* ( z ) F( z , x ' , ( z ? u ) ( xNX' s ( . t ) = h1. fJ3 J ' f 4 0 ( y. x, . f x p ) Z* ( y) ' 1 VQ ( y ' s ( . wl- / i 2. fJ3 yd3 , 2 . wvf n) . t r l 'x . x' #0 ( y . x, -c , . , n ) . & d ' ( y )% .0 ( y , z A ( , ? , ) A( z ) . /. t ( z , x' . ( s u ) ( j 3 . 3 J , )
' '
.
whi ch ar eexac ti nt e gr alequat i onsf orf T andu ' /fs epar at el y. Fur t he r pr ogr e s s depen ds on t he as s um pt i on of s l nal lX,and B' ef i r s t
J . J3 z : / f ( x5x' ( , ? )-h 1. fd3 $ ' 4 J0 ( yx, -t . , ? n ) . . . * ( y ) : #0 ( y . x ' . u , , ) . -l i 3. 1 J3 5 n. . gr 3 w/ . 40 ( y x. -( z ? , ) . . . d c ( ) . ) ' . V t 0 ( ) . , z . L un ) . l( z) ' <' u L W0 ( wqz:-( , ) ). i ' ( w)' , 4D ( w!x' . ( . ur - .. . r l !)
.
. . .
'
W he n Eq. ( 5 3 . 4 )i sc o mb i n e d w' i t ht h es e l f c o ns i s t e n tg a pc on d i t i o n( 5l . 2 4 ) , we
obt ai n an i nt e gr ale qua t i on f ort hegap f unc t i on i t s el f
( 5 3. f )
t i on . Th es i mp l e rd #e r e n t i a ls t r u c t ur e oft h e Gi n z bu r g l an d a ue qu a t i on s
r equi r e st he addi t i onaland s epar at e as s um pt i on rc- r < x rc ,s i nce . X* and A
t h e nv a r ys l owl y wi t hr e s p e c tt ot h er a n g eo ft h ek e r n e l sQ a nd R. The s et wo
c ondi t i ons ar e phy s i c al l y qui t e di s t i nc t ,f or a s um c i e nt l ys t r ong m agne t i cl i e l d can r ender. X* s mal l ,ev en a tr = 0.
46s
V0 ( x , a ) n )= / i ( 2 =) 3f J3 i e k w x l t ho y- y ( ) 1
( j 3 . 8 )
l e ng t h si n Eq s . ( 5 3 . 5 )t o( 5 3 . 7 )a r ea 1 1 mu c hl on g e rt h a ni n t e r a t o mi cd i me n s i o n s ,
and i ti st he r e f or e pe r mi s s i bl et o as s um e kpx ) . >l . I n addi t i on,i ft he di s cr e t e f r equ enc ys at i s f i e st he r e s t r i ct i on I / i t z ? a; < : :/ . t ,t hen t he dom i nant cont r i but i on ar i s esf r om t he vi c i ni t y oft he Fer m is ur f ac e ,and we f l nd
F0 (
x , ( s n ) ; 4 : / j A r ( 0 ) jj j o s wi y ' o q k k . l
.
- d l
j / ' v t .
.
t s % Y . j j j . d n q yj f e x p g , . j z y . + j ) ) x j e x p g / ( / c s + . ( v ; ) x j )
z -Y rs
( 5 3 . 9 ) Thi sl a s tr e s t r i c t i on ( E / i t . z . ; p , ' . t k p t )i sf u l l yj u s t i f l e di npr a c t i c e ,b e c a u s et h et e r ms omi t t e d makeane gl i gi bl ec ont r i but i ont ot hesum ove rni nEqs . ( 53. 6)and( 53. 7) . Themagne t i ct i el di n Eq.( f3. l )i st hati nt he s uper conduc t i ng s t at e,whi c h
var i es wi t ht he nat ur a ll e ngt h A( F) . I nc ont r as t ,$Q os ci l l a t e s wi t h a muc h
s hor t er l engt h k;l ,s ot hat A can be c ons i de r e dl ocal l y cons t ant ov er m any
wave l e ngt hs . Gor kov t husmak esan ei konal( phas ei nt egr al )appr oxi mat i on,
as s um i ng t ha tt he dom i nantef r e ctoft he m agne t i cf i e l d can be i nc l ude di na s l owl y var yi ng e ns ' e l ope f unct i on f p
.( t ) i ( J ) ( x. x' )t : z . a 0( . # t x, x' n t , z ? , l )= t ? . J ' .
x - x,s t o n l
( 5 3 . 1 0 )
( F( X, X)= 0
Di r e c tc a l c u l a t i on wi t h Eq. ( 5 3 . 1 0) g i v e s
i vzv + i -
i % $ c . ' A ) ( v v . j , j A c ) 2 g o j( 5 3 . l 2 )
He r et het e r msar egr oupe di nappr oxi mat eas c endi ngpower sofeAj hc kybec aus e
F 0v ar i e swi t ht hzchar a ct e r i s t i cl engt h/ s -l s . Si nce, ' fi sofor derhH ,t hi spar ame t e rma y be r ewr i t t en as he b l i l hc ks 'whi c hi ss ma l lf br a1 lm a gne t i c se l dsof
W e no wr e t ur nt ot h ek e r n e l ) ( x. y) , Ac o m bi n a t i on o f Eq s .( 5 3 . 6 )a nd ( 5 3. 1 0)gi ve s
( 53. l 4 )
Q 0 ( x ) . j c j t v F / x o l j z . 1 / j ' n e x p g 2 . : J . ? i . c s o n ' . j
=h' ( 0)2 1
c o h e r e n c el e n g t h. S i n c e( vi smu c hs h or t e rt h a nt h es c a l eo fv a r i a t i o nso fe i t h e r
t he v ec t or pot ent i alor t he gap f unc t i on,i ti s pe r mi s s i bl et ot r e at A and . X* as
s l owl y var yi ng f unc t i ons .l n par t i cul ar .Eq.( 53. 1 3)c an bei nt e gr at e de xpl i c i t l y
+( x, x' ) --j j C( A( x )+ A( . x) ) . ( x- x )
'
( 5 3 . 1 6 )
Eq.( 5 3 . l ) . Fu r t h e r mo r e ,A i sofo r d e rSc ( F) A ( F)c c( F c- F) 1;t h er e s t r i c t e d r a n g eof:0t h e n me a n st h a t+( x , x ' )i t s e l fb e c ome ss ma l l a sF . . > . F c , pe r mi t t i n g
an e xpans i on ofei Ti n powe r sof%. The above condi t i ons al l ow us t o ev al ua t et he f i r s tt er m on t he r i ghts i de
( 5 3 . 1 7 )
470
3 c( y ) a. ( y )a . a+ ( x ) . f , , x, f v l s z v n ( z ) + ) g v 2 ' t ' , A ( x ) j z a t x )
.
x J#3 zz 2;0 ( z )( 5 3 . 1 8 )
wher e V de not e st he gr a di e nt wi t hr es pe ctt o x and a ct s onl y on t he ve c t or
e mc i e n t so f Eq .( 5 3 . 1 8 ) ,a n d we f l r s tc on s i de r j#3 z:0 ( z ) , wh i c h di v e r g e s
l ogar i t hm i c al l y att he or i gi n. Thi ss i ngul ar be havi or r e f l e c t st he unphys i cal
a p p r ox i ma t i o no fa s h or t r a n g ep ot e n t i a li n Eq .( 5 1 . 1 ) .l t mu s tt h e r e f o r e be c u tof l i nmome n t u ms p a c ea tI t tp =h a l o:
j1 ( 2 r r ) 3f d3 kI g ( h l c t ) j+ . 4 2 ) 1 D
- .
v ( 0 ) j 0# t : # 1 t a n h l l j # )
* l j wo
Th i si n t e g r a li sj u s tt ha tc on s i d e r e di n Eq .( 5l . 3 9 ) ,a n dc o mp a r i s on wi t hEqs . ( 51 . 4 2 )a n d( 5 1 . 4 3 )g i v e s
x t e l l n ( F w ) + g t . x ( 0 ) ( 1 z ( ) + g 1
.--
( 5 3 . 1 9 )
Th eo t h e ri n t e g r a li n Eq. ( 5 3 . l 8 )c a nb ee v a l u a t e dd i r e c t l yi nc oo r d i n a t es p a c e u s i ngEq. ( 5 3 . l 5 ) . S i n c et hi st e r mi s a l r e a d yt h ec o e c i e n to f as ma l l c or r e c t i o n,
we s e tF = Fcand obt ai n
( 5 3 . 2 0 )
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
471
T J J 3 ) - -x ( 0 ) 8 ( =k sw z c)
w' her eF hasaga i n bee ns e te qualt o rc .
( 5 3 . 2 1 )
h l
( 5 3 . 2 2 )
Ther e l a t i onwi t ht heGi nz bur gl andauequa t i onc anbemadeexpl i ci tbyde hni ng
av b ' a v e fu n c : i o n
( 3 ) n ( ( 3 )1, l ( x ) . k l . ( x)e j74 . . -1. l( x)= 7 v , u n1
l =ksTc ) < y r r z #sI' c
( 5 3 . 2 3 )
t h a ts a t i s he st h ef o l l owi n ge qu a t i o n( n ot et hee o mp l e xc o n j ug a t i on )
( 5 3 . 2 4 )
He r en i st he t ot ale l e c t r on de ns i t y.and c ompar i s on gi t h Eq.( 5 0. 7 J)i de nt i se s
t he phenom enol ogi c alpar amet e r s
a -. . ) , ) ( ? , , y( l -w j b -. j t ( j ) r . y n -
6=2 ( ksrc ) 2
r'
c p= 2 : 6 =2 ( / N ' rc ) 2
( 5 3 25 )
.
472
X ( r ) = 1 s 1 0 ) ( 1 y X j i
'
( 5 3 . 2 6 / )
T j1
( 5 3 . 2 6 : )
ne a rr cl c o mp a r e Eqs .( 5 2 . 3 4 : )a n d( 5 2 . 3 5 ) 1 ,bu tt h ec oh e r e n c el e n g t hc a n on l y
be det er mi ne d by i nel udi ng s pa t i alvar i at i on of t he gap f une t i on. l na ddi t i on,
E S
c
3 =3 ( / c sF ) 2 t l e l Y ( 0 ) 1 2= . -- --& -- -
6 /
o bt a i n e db yc omb i n i n g Eqs . ( 5l . 3 8 ) , ( 51 . 4 4 ) . a nd ( 51 . 5 6 ) .
The pr e c edi ng de r i va t i on s hows how t he sr s tG i nzbur gl andau equat i on em e r g es as an expans i on of t he s el f c ons i s t ent gap e quat i on ne ar Fc . W e now cons i der t he s uper cur r ent , whi c hc an be r el at ed t os pat i al der i vat i v es of t he
e h
:2
( 5 3 . 2 8 )
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
473
2e 2
s t i t u t i o no fEq. ( 5 3 . 2 9 )g i v e s
2, 2 e j ( x )+ A( x ) 3 g( x, x. ( w)- i l , mc ph n m
x
J3 yda zA( y ) s qv ( z )
2 e l A( j ( x ) + m c b hx ) j a ) 3 g ( x , x , f w ) j . e $ pXj ( s 3 y t / 3 z a t y l a . . t z )
x
x ( g 0 ( z x , ( s n l v x F 0 ( x y , f , . a n l -f # o t x y , o a n l v x @ o ( z x , ( s n ) ! ) '
TheEr s tt e r m on t her i ghts i denow c ance l st he s e cond t er m on t he l ef t . Wi t h
j ( x)- e
mi s hc
-
F0 ( x- y, u l n l TxF0 ( z- x, f x l n l l ( 1 A( x ) k 2- I ( x ) 1 2h c
li e
x A( x ) . ( z- y )+ A* ( x ) ( y- x ) . VA( x)+ ( x ) ( z- x ) . V* ( x ) ) ( 5 3 . 31 )
Se ve r alt er msvani s hi de nt i ca l l yowi ngt ot hes phe r i c als ymme t r y:
g0 ( x: -y , f wl vx@n l z- x, ( s a ) )
( . 2 ; I u x l x l i z A ( x ) . ( z y ) + l t x l v x u q + t x l z + l * ( x ) v x . l ( x ) . y 1 ( 5 3 . 3 2 )
474
( 5 3 . 3 4 )
i n compl e t ea gr e eme ntwi t h Eq.( 50. 9) . I ns um mar y,we hav e der i ve dt heGi nzbur gl andau e quat i ons( 5 0. 7 J)and ( 5 0. 9)f r om t heGor kovequat i onsundert hef ol l owi ng s e tof as s umpt i ons:
l .Th eo r d e rp a r a me t e rA( x) a n dt h ev e c t o rp o t e n t i a l A( x)a r es ma l l . 2 .Ther a n g eo ft h ek e r n e l si nE qs . ( 5 3 . 5 )an d( 5 3 . 3 0 )i ss ma l lc omp a r e dt ot h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i cl e n g t hf o rs pa t i a lv a r i a t i on so f. l( x )( i . e . , t h ec o he r e n c el e n g t h # ) a ndA( x) ( i . e . ,t h ep e n e t r a t i onI e n g t hA ) . 3 .The e i k on a la p pr o x i ma t i on a l s or e qu i r e sh kFy . 1( whi c hi sg e n e r a l l yv a l i d) .
Forany s upe r c ondt l c t or ,t hes ecr i t er i a ar ea l wayss a t i s f i e ds um ci ent l y cl os et o t he t r ans i t i on t em per at ur e Fc . PRO BLEM S
1 3. 1. S h ow t h a t Eq. ( 4 9. 6 )c a nb er e wr i t t e n: Q/ /+ ( #. V) Q =( Q. VI V .
f r e ee n e r g yU Fs ( r, 0 )+ J#3 x( ( 8 r r ) 1 h 2+ j r q p y v z jf o ra r bi t r a r yv a r i a t i on sOfh
s ub j e c tt oc u r l h= 4 =j j c . How d oe st hi sde r i v a t i o nf a i lf o ra no r ma lme t a l ? 13. 3, ( t z ) Ev a l u a t et h e me an He l mho l t zf r e e e n e r g yd c n s i t yg s e e Pr ob .1 3 . 2 an dEq. ( 4 9 . 1 6 ) J f o ras l a bi nap a r a l l e l a p pl i e df i e l dHv k. Us eEqs . ( 4 8 . 1 3 )a n d ( 4 9 . 1 7 ) t ov e r i f yt h a t H = Hv kt h r ou g h ou t t hes a mpl e , a ndf i n dt h ema g n e t i z a t i o n ( . :- S ) / 4 =. ( : ) Fr om t h ec or r e s p o nd i n g Gi b b sf r e ee n e r g y ,s h o wt ha tt h es a mp l er e ma i n s s u p e r c o n du c t i n gu pt o ac r i t i c a l f i e l d/ / c *d e t e r mi n e db yt h ee qu a t i o n( Hc */ f c ) 2= ( 1- t A s / #l t a n h( # / A s ) 1 1 , wh e r eSc i st h eb u l kc r i t i c a l se l d. Di s c u s st h el i mi t i n g
c as e s#< . :htand # >As .
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
475
and >( z)f or > cy >1 . Show t hatt he j i e l dde pendent pe ne t r at i on de pt h A( / . f)i s gi v e nb y( A ( S) / A ( 0 ) ) 2= 1 Hc , l ' L Hc+( Hc l- S2 ) 1 j . Sk e t c ht he s p a t i a lv a r i a t i on
of/ 7and V l -f orvar i ous va l u es ofH . W' ha t happens f orH > Hc? W hy i si t per mi s s i bl et o vi ol at et heboundar ycondi t i onJ' l ' ' l / # z - 0?
1 3. 5. ( J ) Asa mo de l f o ra ne x t r e met yp e l ls u p e r c o n du c t o r( 2t >( ) .s o l v et h e L on done q u a t i on( 4 9. l l )i nt h ee x t e r i o rofac y l i n d r i c a l ho l eo fr a di u s(( s e eFi g . 50. 1 b)cont ai ni ng on e qu ant um ofPu xoi d( ; ) ( j= / ? c / 2c. Di s cu s st he s pat i alf or m of ha n dj . ( :) Eval uat et he Gi bbs f r e e ener gy as i n Pr ob.1 3. 3 and s how.t hat t he l owe r c r i t i e a lt i e l df o rt l uxp e n e t r a t i on i sg i v e nb y Sc l =( ( r o / ' 4 ' m A 2 ) l n( A / # ) .
13. 6. Cons i de ran i nt i ni t em e t ali n a uni f or m appl i e dt i e l dH t hati ss uf l i ci ent l y s t r ong t o m ake t h es am pl e nor mal . Sol v et he l i near i z ed G i nzbur g-l andau equ at i ons .and s how t hata super c onduc t i n gs ol ut i on be com e s pos s i bl e be l ow'
an upp ercr i t i ealel d Hc z ( T)= ' $ 2&Sc ( r) . 13. 7. Us et hepr oce dur eout l i ne d be l ow Eq.( 51 . 3)t oder i vet he Har t r ee Fock t he or yatf i ni t et empe r at ur ef ora pot en t i a l-g3( x - x' ) .
13. 8. Ret ai nt heHar t r e eFoc kt er msi n Eq. ( 5l . 5)andder i veas e tofgene r al i z ed equat i ons f or C # 'and . ' . F* . Sol k et hes e equat i ons f or a uni f or m s ys t em and
a nd henc e pr oveEq.( 51 . 46 :) .
13. 10.
476
He n c e de r i v e l= N( Q 4 g. f f l nt z ( , a o / z ' Xl l whe r e g e f f =, : 1-g2 ( 1+ N( Q ) g 2x l nt Dp r / t z ) s l l -l ( i n s t e a dof gl - g2a son emi g htn a i v e l ye x p e c t ) . ( b)l f ks r c= l . k ? h n e -l / N t o l g e r r a n dt s sL < L M% , s h o wt h a t-#l nF c / #l nM < . i . , whi c h ma ya c c ou nt f o rt h er e du c e di s o t op ee f l kc ti nt r an s i t i onme t a l s a l 13. 11. Us e Eqs .( 5 1 . 5 0 )a n d( 5 1 . 51 )t os ho wt ha tt hee n t r o pyi nt h es up e r c onduct i ng s t at ec an be wr i t t en
Ac z f q e xwi t h. : br e a l( s e eEq s . ( 5 3 . 2 3 )a nd( 5 3 . 3 4 ) 1a n dq< : . : kr . ( t z ) Sol v et heGor kove quat i onst o :nd F and . F %and s how t hatt hes upe r cur r ent i sg i v e nb yj$ k ; -t wn , ( F) , whe r ev= q / mg s e eEq. ( 5 2 . 3 3 ) 4 . ( y ) Fi nd t h es e l f c o ns i s t e n c yc on d i t i o nf or z X. At F = 0 s ' h ow t h a t. i si n .
dependentofq f orq < qc; 4 ;k ohv r. N e arFce xpand t he gap e quat i on t o hnd
g Z V k . V F c j 2 x 7 8 ( ' J ( r 3 2 1 j j . X F j , . 2 i j m h k 2 B k s T c j 2 g a
a n dd e t e r mi n et h ec r i t i c a lv a l u eof qt h a tma k e s2 Xv a ni s h.
13. 13. Car r youtt heana l yt i cc ont i nuat i ont oobt ai nar e al t i m et her m odynam i c Gr e en' sf unc t i oncor r es pondi ngt ot hephys i ca ls i t uat i oni nPr ob.1 3. 1 2. D i s cus s t heex ci t at i on s pe ct r um f ors m al lq.
( b 4 Ap pr ox i ma t et h ee l e c t r o ns e l f e n e r gi e sb yt h el owe s t or d e rc on t r i b u t i on s
expr e s s edi nt e r msofF,. X, . F% , and 9 ,andwr i t eoutt hec oupl e ds el f c ons i s t e nt equa t i onsf orF and+ %i n m om e nt um s pac e.! t
tN.N.Bog o l i ub o v,V.V. Tol ma c h e van dD . V.S hi r k ov .$ 1 A Ne w Me t hod i nt heThe or yof
Super conduct i vi t y, ' 'chap.6.Cons ul t ant sBur eau,New Yor k,1 959.
j I nf a c t ,t he s ys t e m ma ke sah r s t or d e rt r a ns i t i on t ot he n or ma ls t a t ea ta c r i t i c alv a l ue
qc ; 4 r 1 . 2 3 ( Ac . / t , . s ) I 1- ( r / F c ) ) # ,whi c hi ss mal l e rbya f a c t or1 / V3. Se e ,f ore x a mpl e ,P.G. d e Ge n ne s .i ' Su p er c on du c t i v i t yo fMe t a l sa n d Al l oy s , ' 'p p,1 8 2 -1 8 4 ,W .A.Be n j ami n ,I n c. .
N ew Yor k,1 966.
I ) ' G.M . El i a s hb e r g ,S ov . Ph . v s . J ET P, 1 1: 6 9 6( 1 96 0 ) ;1 2: 1 0 0 0( 1 96 0) .
SUPERCONDUCTI VI TY
477
t ( 2 -) l f -i h T +c 1 e A( x ) ) 2- p t ) l g t xl- ( x ) r ( x )= Eu l x ) ( -( 2 -) i( / / i V +c i t , A( x ) 1 2+ p , ) ! , ( x )- z * ( x) l ? ( x )= Fp ( x )
k no wn a st h eBo g o l i u b ove q ua t i on s . lI f? . ( + 1 ( x )a n d? ' y t ' ( x )i sas ol u t i o nwi t h pos i t i veene r gy E i , s ho wt h a t t h e r ei sa l wa y s as e c o nds ol u t i o nI , ( ' ( x )= -! , ( J . + ' ( x) * ,
.
o ( ' ( x )- l z t y + ' ( x ) + wi t he n e r g y. EJ . Le tU b ea t wo c o mp on e n tv e c t or wi t h
13. 17. ( J )l fK( q)i n Eq .( 4 9 . 3 9 )v a ni s h e sl i k e K( q); k ; x qla sq > . 0 ,u s e Eq . ( 4 9 . 4 3 :) t os h ow t h a tt h ed i a ma gn e t i cs us c e p t i b i l i t yi sg i v e nbyy ;= -a/ 4z r ( 1. c -a ) ; 4 r -x ( 4 ni fa< tl ' . ( & ) De r i v ea g e n e r a le x p r e s s i onf o rKn l q)b ye v a l ua t i n gTk I ( q, u)( Eq .( 5 2 . 2 5 ) )
i n a nor m al m et al . Hen ce s how t hat t he Landau di am a gne t i cs us c e pt i bi l i t y
; t. - 2 y p 3 = 2 e n 7 j ' ( O ) p z oj P / 3 t E G p l j
-
13. 1 9. ( J ) Re p e a t Pr o b .1 2 . 6f o ra s up e r c o n du c t o ra tf ni t et e mp e r a t ur e .
Show t hatt heappr oxi mat ephonon pr opagat orm aybewr i t t en
gl q , v n )=- t 1 ) l t p +( z ) 2+( : t j, y 2 Wt g y p a l j l o l c o p- u yj
1Th e s ee qu at i on sa r edi s c u s s e di nd e t ai l i nP. G. d eGe nne s , S e su pe r c o nd uc t i vi t yofM e t a l sa n d Al l o y s y ' 'c ha p. 5 ,W . A. Be n j a mi n. l nc . ,Ne w Yor k,1 9 6 6.
478
W he r e
@ ( q , v . ) = jj s y j ( u + u t ? . . , ) 2 E y . ( s + ) y ( s ) !
X -
d3 k (
- .-
i h v n- ( f 7+ E) i h v n+ ( E++ F)
14 Super fl ui d H el i um
Th ee l e me ntHeha st wo s t a bl ei s o t o p e s , He 3( f e r mi on )a n d He 4( bo s o n ) , wh i c h
di f l kr onl y by t he a ddi t i on ofone ne ut r on i nt h e nuc l e us . l A tl ow pr e s s ur e , bot hi s ot opesr e m ai nl i qui ddownt oabs ol ut ez er o, wher et he ys ol i di f yonl yunde r
a na p p l i e dp r e s s u r eo f; >3 0a t m( He 3 )o rQ J 2 5a t m( He 4 )( Fi g .5 4 . 1 ) .S i n c ea
cl as s i cal s ys t e m wi l la l ways cr ys t al l i z e at s u c i e nt l y1 ow t em per at ur e hes e , t s ubs t anc esar e known asquant u ml i qui ds . Thei runi que be hav i orar i s esf r om a
48c
A sa c or ol l ar y,bot hl i qui dshave l ow de ns i t y:p): 4 :0. 081g,/ ' cm 3 and p4: k : 0.l 45
g/ Cm3 .
De s pi t et he i r super f i c i als i mi l ar i t i e s,t he t wo i s ot opes di Pkr pr of oundl y bec aus eoft he i rquant um s t at i s t i cs . ThePaul ipr i nci pl et e ndst o ke ep l e rmi ons apar t . and t he i nt er par t i c l e pot ent i al m i xe si n onl y unper t ur bed s t at es wi t h
E G
Q
( a ) Fi g. 541 ( a 4Compa r i s o no fp ha s edi a g r amsofHe 3an d He 4i n 'F pl a n e. ( Fr ol l ) J .DeB oe r . Exci t at i on Modelf or Li qui d Hel i um I I ,Cour s e XXI ,Li qui d Hel i umsPr oc eedi ngs of' ' The I nt er nat i onal Schoolof Physi cs * Enr i co f . er mi ' . * * p. 3.Academ i c Pr es s , New,York. l 963. Re pr i n t e db yp e r mi s s i on. ) ( b4Enl a r g e dp or t i on o fme l t i ngc u r v eofHe 3 .( Fr om D. P. Ke l l y and W .J.H aubachs' k com par at i vePr oper t i esofHel i um 3and Hel i unl 4-A EC Res ear ch and Dev el opmentRepor tM LM I161 .p.1 8. Repr i nt edby per mi s s i on. )
and e xci t at i on s pe ct r um of nor m al Fe r m is ys t ems s uch as nuc l e ar m a t t e r and l i qui d He3 . Thes i t uat i on i sve r y di f l kr e ntf orbos onsbec aus et he par t i cl est end t o oc cupy t hes am es i ngl e par t i cl es t at e. I n addi t i on,t hei nt er par t i c l epot ent i al pr e f e r ent i al l y mi xe si nt he unper t ur be ds t at e st hatar e al r e ady oc cupi ed,t hus enha nc i ngt hem anybodyef l kct s . Fore xam pl e, t hes uc c es soft hei ndependent par t i cl e m odel s hows t hat t he l owl yi ng s t at es of a nor m al Fer mi s ys t e m ar e gene r al l ys i mi l ar t ot hos e of a f r e e Fe r m igas . Thi sc or r e s ponde nce c l e ar l y f a i l sf or i nt er a ct i ng bos ons wi t h sni t e m as s ,wher et he l owl yi ng e xc i t at i ons us ual l y havea col l e c t i vephonon c ha r ac t e r . l Thedi f l kr enc ebe t wee n bos onsand f er mi onsal s o appe ar si nt he e xpans i onsf ort he di l ut e har dcor e gas . Al t hough t hi ss ys t em s e r ve s as a us ef ulm ode lf br nucl ear m a t t e r and H e3 ,t he cor r e c t i on
481
l , hpoi nt : W hen l i qui d H e4 i n cont ac t wi t hi t s vapor i s cool e d be l ow FA= 2. 1 7C K ,i t ent er s a ne w pha s e know' n as He I I . The t r ans i t i on i s m ar ked
t r ans i t i on. l Thi ss i ngul ar i t yi sg ener al l yt houghtt or epr e s e ntt he ons e tofBos e c onde ns at i on,butno t heor y hasye tpr ovi de d as at i s f ac t or y de s c r i pt i on oft he phas et r ans i t i on.
c ur l v , =0
( 5 4. 1 )
The nor m al f l ui d behave sl i ke a cl as s i c al vi s c ous Pui d, whi c h pr ovi des t he meas ur e d vi s cos i t yofHel 1 . Thi st woiui d pi c t ur ewass t r i ki ngl yconf i r med by Andr oni kas hvi l i 4wi t hat or s i on pendul um ofc l os e l ys pac e d di s kss us pended i n He l I . Theos ci l l a t i ngdi s ksdr agge dt henor ma lCui d andt husal l owed a di r ed
( a tc ons t antt e mp er at ur eand ent r opy)and i sknown asr s toror di nar ys ound.
tW e f o l l o w N.M .Hug e nho i t za nd D.Pi n e s ,Ph ys .Re L ? . .11 6: 4 8 9( 1 95 9 ) ,p.5 05 i nt a ki ng a= 2. 2X. S e eal s oF.Lon do n, o p. c i t . 22. , p.
$M ,J.Bucki ngham andW .M .Fai r bank. TheNat ur e of: heATra nsi ti on i n Li qui d He l i um , i n C.J ,Gor t e r( e d. ) ,' ' Pr o gr e s si n LowTemp e r a t u r eP hy s i c s y ' 'v ol ,1 1 1 ,p. 80,Nort hi lol l and Publ i s hi ng CompanysAms t er dam,1 961. CL. Ti s z a, Na t u r e ,1 4l: 91 3( 1 93 8) . 3L.D .Landau, 7 . Ph y s . ( USSRq ,5: 71( 1 9 41 ) )1 1: 91( 1 9 4 7 ) . ' 'E. .L.Androni kas hvi l i .J. Ph ys .( US WR) ,1 0: 2 01( 1 9 4 6 ) .
*82
p , / p aa n dh e n c er e p r e s e nt sat e mp e r a t u r ea n de nt r op y wa v e( a tc o n s t a ntd e n s i t y an dp r e s s u r e )k no wn ass e c on ds ou n d. Th ec a l c u l a t i o ni sa s t r a i g h t f o r wa r d g e n e r a l i z a t i o no ft h a tl e a d i n gt o Eq. ( 1 6 . 1 9 ) , a n d weme r e l yno t et ha tt hev e l o c i t y ofs e cond s ound i spr opor t i ona lt o( p, / ' s) 1 ,whi ch s howst he i mpor t anceoft he
t wo com ponent s . l Se c ond s ound was sr s t Obs e r ve d by Pes hkov; 2t he cor r es pondi ngval uesofpsandpnagr eeve r ywe l lwi t ht hos eobt ai ne d wi t ht heos c i l l at -
i n gd i s k( Fi g . 5 4 . 2 ) .
l . 0
0. 8 0. 6 0. 4 0. 2 0
' Fi g.54. 2 Tem per at ur e dependenceof p. ' , . p. The dot s ar e obt ai ned f r om t he v el oci t y of se cond s ound;t he cr os s es ar e obt ai ned f r om
1 . J
l . 4 l . 6 l , 3 2 . 0 7 . 2
F( O K)
4.Cr i t i c alv e l oc i t i e s:Super iui df l ow c annotper s i s tup t o ar bi t r ar i l y hi gh ve l oci t i es' ,i ns t e ad,i tbe com e sdi s s i pat i veatac r i t i c alve l oci t yt , ct hatde pendson t he wi dt h d oft he c hannelbut i si ndependent of t e m per a t ur e exc e ptver y ne ar
FA . Al t h o ug ht hep r e c i s ef u n c t i o n a lf br mo fv c l d)i sun c e r t a i n ,ma nye x p e r i ment sar ea ppr oxi mat el y des cr i bed by a r el a t i on w = h/ md,whe r em i st he ma s s
ofahe l i um at om . 3 5. Rot at i ng H e1 1and t p or f c e 4:I fv si sm uch l es st hant hes pe ed ofs ound,
i ti sp e r mi s s i b l et ot r e a tt h es u p e r iu i da si n c ompr e s s i b l e( di v v , =0 ) . Asa
r e s ul t .v si sde r i vabl ef r om a v e l oc i t y pot e nt i a lt hats at i s se s Lapi ac e' se quat i on h
( 5 4 . 2 ) ( 5 4 . 3 )
*Thi ss ub j e c th a sl xe nr e v i e we db yE. L. Andr o ni ka s hv i l ia n d Yu. G.M a ma l a dz e .Re v .Mo d. u ' . ,3 #: 5 67( 1 96 6 )a nd b y A.L.Fe t t e r .Th e or y ofVor t i c e sa nd Rot a t i n g He l i u m.i n K. T. J%.) Mah a nt ha pp aa nd W .E.Br i t t i n( e ds . ) ,' s l e c t u r e si n The o r e t i c a lPh ys i c s , ' 'v ol .Xl B,p.3 2 1 ,
Gor don andBr each,Sci encePubl i s her s,Ne w Yor k.1 969.
SUPERFLUI D HELI UM
483
z- k t j - y
# P
( 5 4.4 j
a bl eb e c au s ep n / pb e c o me sv e r ys ma l lb e l ow I . S O K. Equ a t i o n( 5 4. 4 )wa sf i r s t
t e s t e d by Os bor ne, lwho f ound i ns t e adt hatt hef r e es ur f ac ewast hatofac l as s i ca l Pui d
2r 2
z c , = -j #
( 5 4 . 5 )
( 5 4. 6 )
K= j( / 1 . v
and t hecor r e s pondi ng s ym m e t r i cs ol ut i on be com e s
( 5 4 . 7 )
( 5 48)
.
KJ ' Y s t r )= 2 =r
whi ch i s pr e ci s e l yt he ve l oci t y ofa c l as s i c alr ec t i l i ne arvor t ex par al l elt ot he z axi s . Feynm an f ur t he r pos t ul a t ed t ha tr ot a t i ng H e 1 1c ont ai ns a uni f or m ar r ay
ofp a r a l l e lv or t i c e sd i s t r i bu t e d wi t had e n s i t y2 f . , : / vp e run i tar e a. On am a c r o s c opi cs cal e, t he r e s ul t i ng s upe r f l ui d ve l oci t yf i el dl si ndi s t i ngui s habl ef r om a uni f or mr ot at i on v = t o x rbe caus ebot hf l ow pa t t e r nsi m pl yt he s am e c i r cul at i on
4' g*
meni s c us ,t her eby r e conci l i ng O s bor ne' s ex pe r i ment wi t h t he g ener al i z e d condi t i on t ha tcur l v x= 0 al m os te ve r ywhe r e.
c 0 . 9 9 7x 1 0 3c n n y s e c
-
( 5 4. 1 0 )
Thi s pr edi ct i on has bee n confr m ed 1 7 0t hf or i r r ot at i onal f l ow i n m ul t i pl y conne c t e dr e gi ons3and f or vor t ex r i ngs . 4 I ti s now pos s i bl et of l nd t he ene r gy pe runi tl engt h ofvor t e xl i ne
Ev= f# rj ps r s= 4 . n. r
Ps,2 R
2 P sK2 dr
Q J4 n=I J
t j 4 . ) 1 )
He r eR i san upperc ut oF t hatm aybei nt e r pr e t ed ast her adi usoft hec yl i ndr i c al
p h on on s
( 5 4 . 1 2 )
e k= +
h l l k- k z ) 2 2
r o t o n s
( 5 4. 1 3 )
su l PERFLU I D H ELI UM
485
Ex ci t at i ons wi t ht hi sl at t er di s pe r s i on r e l a t i on ar e known as r ot ons . Landau or i gi nal l y de t er mi ne dt he r ot on par amet e r s by t i t t i ng t he sp ec i hc hea t above ; 4 : 0. 6 K . M or er ec ent l y.howr ev er ,t he t he or e t i calc ur ve i n Fi g.5 4. 3 ha s be en
oK. ) Fi g.54. 3 Di s per s i on cur ve f or l i qui d kB ( hel i um . The expe ri me nt al poi nt s ar e t he neut r ons cat t er i ng mcasur ement s.
e k
( Fr om D. G . He ns h av v an d A . D. B.
W oods, Phr . $ . Sel ' . .1 21:l 266 (I 961 ) . 5g.4. Repr i nt ed by per mi s si on oft he aut hor s and t he A merl can I nst i t ut e of
Lan d a t l ( l 9 4 7) )
9. 6K
1 . 9f, 4l
0. 77vl se
1 . 91. i-'
0. 1 6h h l j l r
tSo t l r c e :L. D.La nd au , J .P l l . v b ' . ( US SR) ,1 1 : 91f l 9 4 7) . jS ou r c e . ' D. G. He n s ha w an dA. D .B. W' o ods . Ph ys .Re t ' . ,
l 21: 1 266(1 961) .
I n Landau' s m ode lofH e I 1 .t he t ot alf r ee e ner gy ar i s e sf r om t he t her mal l y e xc i t ed quas i par t i c l e s .U hi c h ar et r e at ed asan i de alBos e ga s. 2 Si nc et he num ber ofquas i par t i cl es a Tq ' vi snotcons er ve d,i tm us tbe det e r mi ne d by m i ni mi zi ng t he f r e e ene r gy
l ' J F , ; . -0 j ' q vl
-
( 5 4 . l 4 )
ED .G .Henshav Nand A .D .B.l ' oods .#/ ? y ' .Rek ' . ,l21: 1 266(1 96l) . 7An equi vat entappr oach i st o de s cri be He I lb/ t he appr oxl nl at e quasl part i cl e ham i l t oni an P4 ' e k ; ' . > w k :- N . 5 : . . her e 6 k I S t he e xci t at l on spe ct r ur l : l n Fi g. 54. 3. K
k
486
an dc omp a r i s onwi t hEq. ( 4 . 6 )s ho wst h a tt hec or r e s po n di n gc h e mi c a l po t e n t i a l i sz e r o( s e et h edi s c u s s i o n ofEqs .( 4 4. 1 9 )a n d( 4 4 . 2 0 ) ) . Thet he r mo dy n a mi c po t e n t i a l ( 1t h e nr e d uc e st ot h eHe l mho l t zf r e ee n e r g yF, a n dEqs . ( 5 . 8 )a n d( 5 . 9 )
gi v e
( 5 4 . 1 5 ) ( 5 4 . 1 6 )
wh e r ee ki st h ee x a c t di s pe r s i onr e l a t i o nf r om Fi g . 5 4. 3a n dj = ( / f s F) 1 . At l ow
t em pe r at ur e,howeve r ,onl yt he phonon and r ot on por t i ons cont r i but es i gni ic ant l y,and we m a ys e par at et he i nt e gr alov erk i nt ot wo i nde pendentpar t s
F = Fp ,+ Fp
( 5 4. 1 9 4 )
( 5 4. 1 9 : ) ( 5 4 . 2 0 / ) ( 5 4 . 2 0 : )
Nr = 2 P T3G r h j g . v ( 2 k aF) *e r r ) 1
Fr= -ksTNr
Thecor r e s pondi ng ent r opy and he atc apaci t y ar et hen obt ai n ed wi t ht he us ual r e l at i ons
s ( a ' z . ) .c v r t a p w s ) .
( 5 4 . 2 1 )
I ti scl ea rt hatCv p svar i e sasF3 ,whi l eCvrvani s he se xpone nt i al l y;bot h oft he s e pr e di c t i ons a r e ve r i fe d by expe r i me nt s . I na ddi t i on t ot he f or e goi ng t he r m odynam i cf unct i ons ,Landau' s qua s i -
p a r t i c l ed e s c r i pt i o nj us t i s e st h et wo iu i d mo d e la n da l l o wsac a l c u l a t i o no ft h e
nor mal iui d de ns i t y. Cons i de ra s i t uat i on wher et he quas i par t i c l e s ha ve a me an dr i f tve l oci t y v wi t hr es pe c tt ot he r es tf r am e of t he s uper qui d. Thei r
e qu i l i br i um di s t r i bu t i o na ss e e ni nt h a tr e s tf r a me li sfl e k- k. v ) ,wh e r e
1Thi sr e sul ti smos teasi l yder i ved i nt hem i cr oc anoni c alens embl e,wher et hes ys t em ofquas i -
pa r t i c l e sh a sasx e de n e r g yE a n d mome nt u m P. Th ead di t i on al c o ns t r a i nt( t i xe d P)ne c e s s i t at e s an addi t i onalLa grange mul t i pl i erv.and t he maxi mi z at i on oft he ent ropy i mmedi at el y ver i hest ht aboveas s ert i on. See,f orexampl e,F.London,o p.cl ' J . ,pp.95-96,and Prob.1 4. 4.
SUPERFLUI D HELI UM
.
487
/ ( : )= t t , / e- 1 ) 1i st h eu s u a lBos ed i s t r i bu t i o nf u n c t i o n. I nt he s an n ef r an n e
t he t ot alm om ent um ca r r i ed by t he quas i par t i cl esi sgi v en by
P= 1 z ' ( 2 z r ) 3f d? k k / t e k- k. v )
( 5 4 . 2 2 )
p a ( F ) H 6 h . v l c j J * * o a u ' s x s a 4 g j . 8 . / a ' ( 6 s k ) j
whi l et he s uper iui d m as sdens i t y be c om e s
( 5 4 . 2 3 )
p s ( F)= p- p 2F)
( 5 4 . 2 4 )
Wh e n Eq.( 5 4 . 23 )i ss e p a r a t e di n t op ho no na n dr o t on c on t r i b u t i on s ,a n
e l e m ent ar y cal cul at i on gf ves 2=2h #, r 4 p , , p , - 4jc ..... p n r= 3ks F U
( # c )
( 5 4. 2 5 / )
( 5 4 . 2 5 : )
h zk . jN,
v e l o c i t yi n He I I . Co ns i d e ra ma c r o s c op i co b j e c to f ma s s M mo v i n g wi t h
ve l oci t y> 't hr ough s t at i onar y He 1 1 at ze r ot em per at ur e . ln t hi sc as c, t he m oment um and ene r gy ar e
P = My E =! . A , / :2 ( 5 4. 2 6 ) I ft heo b j e c te x c i t e sa qu a s i pa r t i c l ewi t h mo me n t u m pa nd e n e r g ye ,t h en e w
vel oc i t yv'i sde t er mi ne d bym om e nt um cons er v at i on
V'
= V- M
( 5 4 . 2 7 )
48:
( 5 4. 28)
w he r et he r e c oi le ner gy pl ) ' l&l has be en ne gl e c t e d bec aus eu k /i sl ar ge . s u ci ent l yl ow ve l oei t y,t hepr oce s svi ol at esene r gyc ons er v at i on
E - E' =e
( 5 4. 2 9)
As 1 , i ncr eas e s .howe ver ,we ev ent ual l yr e ach a cr i t i c alv e l oci t yl ' c ,wher e e - p. v c f i r s tvani s he s . l ti se vi dentt ha tp wi l lbe par al l e lt ov c ,and a s i m pl er ear r ange m entyi el dst he Landau cr i t i ca lv cl oc i t y
( 5 4 . 3 0 )
wher et ' i st ake nf r om Fi g.5 4. 3. l f6wer ea pur ephonon s pe ct r um st he m i ni m um v al ue of E / ' p woul d be t he s pe e d ofs ound ck 238 m ' s e c. W he nr ot ons ar e i ncl ude d, howe ver ,t . c dr ops t o ; kh ' l i kt= 60 m z ' s e c,and s uc hr ot onl i mi t ed l cr i t i ca lv el oc i t i e shav e be en obs er ve d wi t hi onsi n He1 1unde rpr e s s ur e . As i mi l art he or et i calde s c r i pt i on appl i est of l ow i nc hannel s ,f oragal i l e an t r ans f or m at i on t ot he r e s tf r am e of t he s uper :ui dr e pr oduce st he pr e vi ous
cr i t i ca lxe l oci t y of ; 4 : 60 n n e ci s m uc ht oo l ar ge t oe xpl ai nt he obs er ved br ea k,s down of s upe r iui df l ow i n channel s .w he r el ' ci si ns t ea dt hought t os i gnalt he cr e at i on ofquant i z e d vor t i c es . z
SSQ W EA K LY I NTERA CTI N G BO SE G A S The m i cr os copi c des c r i pt i on ofChap.6 and Se c .3. 5wasr e s t r i ct e dt o as t at i ona r y Bos es ys t em at F = 0.and we now gener al i ze t he t he or yt oi ncl ude s pat i al l y nonuni f or m s ys t em s a tl i ni t et e m per a t ur e . Al t houg hs uc h a pr obl e m c an be t r e at e d ve r yge ner al l ys 3t hepr es entdi s cus s i oni sr es t r i ct e dt oa weakl yi nt e r ac t i ng Bos egas .wher et hes mal ldepl e t i onoft heconde ns at eal l ow sust ocar r yt hr ough t he cal cul at i ons i n de t ai l . As not ed pr evi ous l y.t hi s m ode li s qui t e unr eal i s t i c
b e c au s et h ed e p l e t i on i nt heg r ou n ds t a t e ofHe 1 1i sb e l i e v e dt ob el a r g e( , . ' 4 r 9 0 pe r c ent l . 4 Fur t her mor e ,t he mode lhasa compl i c at e d be ha vi orneart he phas e
t r ans i t i onss ot ha t%' zs ha l ls t udyonl yt hel owt em per at ur epr oper t i es . Ne ve r !G.W .Rayf i el d.Pl l . t ' s.Ret ' .l( , l / ' r A ' ,16: 934(1 966) . 2See,f orexanl pl e,R.P.Feynman,i pr ogre ssi n Lowf kmper at ur e Phys i css' 'I oc.cJ ? . 3See,f orexal rpl e,P.C.Hohenber gand P.C.M art i n,An n.Phys. ( N. F. ) , 3 4: 2 91( 1 9 6 5 ) . 40. Pe nr os ean d L. On s a ge r , Ph ys .Re ' ! ' . ,1 0 4: 5 7 6( 1 9 5 6 ) ; N V. L. Mc Mi l l a n, Pl l 5 ' s . Ret ' . ,1 38:442 ( 1 9 65 ) . 5K.Hua n g, C.N, Ya ng , an dJ .M . Lut t i n g e r . Ph ys .St 7 l ' . p1 0 5: 7 7 6 1 95 7 ) .
SUPERFLUI D HELI UM
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t he l es s .an i m per f e c t Bos e gas cont ai ns m any f eat ur e s of t he Landau quas i par t i cl em odelandcl e ar l yi l l us t r at est hes pe ci aldi mcul t i e si nher enti nconde ns ed Bos es ys t e ms .
G ENERA L FORM ULATI ON
r e c a l lt h e Bo g ol i u bo va p p r o x i ma t i on , 3 , ( x )> . ( 0+ /( x) u s e dt oa n al y z et he
gr ou n ds t a t e1 O)o f au ni f or ms t a t i o na r yBos es y s t e m( Se c s . 1 8a n d1 9 ) . Mo me n -
) O$ f ' ( x ) l O. . , -f o
un i f or ms y s t e m
W e now g ener al i z et heconc e ptofBos ec ondens at i on t of k ni t et e m pe r at ur e and nonuni f or ms ys t e ms ,a s s um i ngt ha tan a s s e m bl yofbos onsi sc ondens e dwhenev er
t h ee ns e mb l ea v e r a g et #l xl )r e ma i n sl i n i t ei nt h et h e r mod y n a mi cl i mi t .I ti s
c onve ni entt oi nt r oduc et henot a t i on
' F( x )H t #( x) )
and t he de vi at i on oper at or
/ ( x ) /#( x) -# f ' ( x ) )- , ; ( x) -' l . ( x ) ( 5 5 . 4 ) Th ec nu mb e rf u n c t i o nk F( x )i sf r e qu e n t l yk no wna st hec o n d e n s a t ewa v e f u n c t i o n; i ti sc l os e l ya na l o g ou st ot heg a pf u nc t i onA( x)( Eq. ( 5 1 . 1 4 ) ) i nas u p e r c o n du c t o r ,
and,i nde ed,t hepr e s e neeofs uc hf l ni t eanom a l ousam pl i t ude ss er vesasag ener al
c r i t e r i o nf o ra c o n de ns e dq ua nt um qu i d. l No t et h a tEq s .( 5 5 . 3 )a n d( 5 1 . 1 4 )
ar er ner e l y ge ner al de fni t i ons. I n any pr a ct i c al c al c ul at i on, t hey m us t be e val uat e d wi t hs om ea ppr oxi m at i on s c he m et hatde pe ndsont hepr ec i s eas s em bl y c ons i de r e d. I nt he pr es entweakl yi nt er a ct i ng s y s t em ,al m os tal lt he par t i cl esar ei nt he
c o n d e n s a t e . Co n s e qu e n t l y , t heo pe r a t o rt / ) ma yb ec o ns i d e r e das ma l l c or r e c t i o n
!Thi sconce pt ,whi c hf i r s tappear edi n V.L.Gi nz bur g andL. D.La nd a u, Zh . Ek s p.T e o r . Fi z . .
2 0: 1 0 64( 1 95 0 )a n di n 0.P e nr o s ea nd L.On s a ge r ,I o c .c i t . ,i sa mor ep r e c i s ef o r mu l at i o no f Lo nd on' s: s l o ng r a n g eor d e r ' ' I F.Lo ndo n, o p. c i t . , v ol , 1 , s e c s . 2 4 2 6a ndv o l . I l , s e c. 2 2 1 .S e e a l s o .C. N. Ya ng .Re v . Mo d. #/ l ) z J ' . , 3 4: 69 4( 1 9 6 2 ) .
49c
k = A' ( ) + X + X'
whe r e
kt =J#3 x<# ( x ) ( F( x )-p , +jd3 x'Ft x- x ' ) 1 T( x' ) I 2 ) T( x ) +JJ3 x( ( F( x )-p , + JJ3 x' F( x-x' ) I N ' ( x ' ) I 2 J 1 1 ' * ( x) ) ( / ( x ) ( 5 5 . 7 ) #' = J#3 xt / # ( x ) ( F( x) -J Z J ( / ( x) + J#3 x#3 x 'U( x- x ' )
xE ( ' 1 ' ( x' ) t 2 t / 3 ( x ) t / ( x )+ k l ' e * ( x) Y* ( x ' ) t / # ( x ' ) #( x) + k l ' * ( x ) ' I ' ' * ( x' ) 4( x' ) :( x )+ ;1 ( x ) : 1 ( x' ) ' F( x' )k I ' ( x) l ( 5 5 . 8 )
Ther e s ul t i nghami l t oni anca n bes i mpl i he dbychoos i ngT t os at i s f yt hef ol l owi ng nonl i ne arsel de qua t i on
( 5 5 . 9 )
# = Kz+ X'
e- j x . , ,
( 5 5 . 1 0 )
f ) . f f = Trej x ./
and acor r e s pondi ng ens em bl eav er age
( 5 5 . 1 1 )
; .'' )= Tr ( ) . f f'
( 5 5 . 1 2 ) ( 5 5 . 1 3 )
41 x ( x , r )= e A e f f v ' / 4# ( x ) e * . n' 1 %
hE. P. Gr os s . An n . Ph ys .( N. y. ) , 4: 5 7( 1 95 8 )an dJ. Ma t h . Ph y s . , 4: 1 9 5( 1 9 6 3 ) .
SUPERFLUI D HELI UM
491
hy ( / x t xm l = -( F( x )- p . + J#3 x, U( x- x, ) 1 Y. ( x , ) 1 z ) fx l x r j
'
t ' : ?
0 -
( 5 5 . 1 5 : )
Thes ef i el d oper a t or sc an be us e dt o Ue sne a s i ngl epar t i cl e Gr ee n' sf unct i on
( c omp a r eEq. ( 1 9 . 4 ) )
( 5 5 . 1 6 )
w he r e
( 5 5 . 1 7 )
n ( x)= n ( ) ( x )+ n ' ( x )
w he r e
( 5 5 . 1 8 )
? 1 a ( x )= j Tt x l 1 2 n ' ( x )= -F' ( x m , x r + )
Th ee qu a t i onf o r@' c a nb ec o n s t r u c t e df r o m Eq . ( 5 5. 1 5 ) : h 0 @, (
( 5 5 . 1 9 ) ( 5 5 . 2 0 )
o ' r
j v . jo * K o v x r b 4 ( x z l j k( 5 5 . 2 1 )
fds x'Ft x- x e l 1 ' e t xl ( T* ( x' ' ) F' ( x, r , x' m ' )+%P ( x& ) FJ l ( x> ' r , x' . r ' ) )
=
492
( 5 5 . 2 3 )
hy ;- r( x )+ p . - Jd? x Ft x- x ) l k F( x) I Fz j t x ' r , x r)
-
Jd? x'Ft x- x' ' ) T' * ( x) ( t l P ( x' ' )Fc ' 1 ( x' ' m , x ' ' r ' )
+t 1 P * ( x* ) g' ( x' ' r 1 x' v ' ) )= 0 ( 5 5 . 2 4 )
whi chcom pl e t e l yde t er mi nest hepr obl e m . N ot et hatH' 'appe ar sasacoe / ci ent
k f t t ? , r +( 2 , ' n ) 1 h lV2+ y - f#3 x' ' Ft x- x' ' ) ) V F( x' ' ) l 2 j F' ( x, x' , ( z ) a ) fd3 x/ / I . ' t x. x' ) 1 1 . * ( x ) g 1 1 * * ( x' ) ( # ' ' ( x' 5x ' , f . t l n)
-
( 5 5 . 2 6 / )
-
f#3 x ' ' l z ' t x- x ' ) Y F* ( x) ( ' t 1 ( x' ' )M2 ' l ( x' ' , x ' . f . o n ) +' t I . * ( x' ' )F' ( x' ' , x' . ( s , , ) J- 0 ( 5 5 . 2 6 : )
.
Al t hough t hes ec oupl e d equat i onscan,i n pr i nci pl e.be s ol ve df or any par t i cul ar
A sa sr s tex am pl e.wecons i dera s t a t i onar y as s em bl y ofbos onsa tf i ni t et em per at ur e,when t he condens at e wav ef unct i on i sa t e m per at ur edependentcons t ant
k F( x ) H /o ( F) ) 1
( 5 5 . 2 7 )
493
t hat de ne sno ( F) . Di r e cts ubs t i t ut i oni nt o Eq. ( 5 5. 9) gi v est hef ol l owi ngr el at i on
bet we en t hechemi ca lpot ent i aland t hec on dens at edens i t y
J . t= nv l r)1 , ( 0)
( 5 5 . 2 8 )
wher eI z , 4 0)E E EP ' ( k =' 0) . Fur t her mor e.a Four i ert r ans f br ms ol ve st hecoupl ed i nt e gr odi f l kr e nt i al equa t i ons( 55. 26)bec aus et hecoe ci ent sar es pat i al cons t ant s ,
W' i t ht he us ualde hni t i ons
' V' ( X - X' . ( t e ) n l =( 2 7 7 . ) 3.fd/ k( 2 k * ( X ' X ' ' F' ( k*( . t ) n) ' V2 ' l ( X - X' , u ? r l )= ( 2*) -3fd' b kf p i k * t xx ' )/ , F2 ' ( k,( snj . 1
.
( 5 5. 2 9)
( 5 5 . 3 0)
w' her ee k= hl o L . z2p7and Eq.( 55. 28)hasbe en us e d. The s eal g ebr ai ce quat i ons
ar ee as i l ys ol v ed:
( 5 5. 3 2)
whe r eg s e eEq s . ( 2 1 . 7 ) t o( 21 . 1 0 ) )
( 5 5. 3. 3 )
( 55. 34/)
( 5 5 . 3 4 : )
The pr e s e ntt heor yi sve r ys i mi l art ot hatt r eat e di n Se c s.21 and 35 ,and m os toft he s ame r em ar ksappl y. l n par t i c ul ar st he us ualana l yt i c cont i nuat i on t or e alf r e quenc yi dent i se s Ekas t he s i ngl e par t i c l e exc i t at i on e ner gy,and i t s l ong wav e l engt h behavi or
k -. ( )
c= g / 7 e ( F)I ' ( 0 ) ? 7 7 1 ) + s hows t hat 1 , ' ( 0)mus tbe pos i t i v e. l f .i n addi t i on.Eki s pos i t i v ef oral lk # 0,
t hent heLandaucr i t i c alve l oc i t yi st i ni t e; t husani m per f ec tBos egasi ss uper sui d, wher e as an i de alBos ega si snotbe caus e c and ! ' eva ni s hi de nt i c al l y. Thi si s
( 55. 35 ) ( 5 5 . 3 6 )
4:4
one oft he m os ti m por t antconc l us i ons of Bogol i ubov' s or i gi nalc al c ul at i ons' f ori tdem ons t r at eshow t hepr es enc eofr e pul s i vei nt er ac t i onsqual i t at i ve l yal t e r s t he s pec t r um,l eadi ng t oaI i neardi s per s i on r el at i on ask . > . 0. I ti si nt e r e s t i ng t os t udy t he t emper at ur e var i at i on oft he par ame t er snn
n' ( F)=
J3 k Q - t ? j e ( 2 j ) 1 i w n ' r t )( =) n- . E k / j i c o n+ Ek j h i a
( 5 5 . 3 7 )
j( # 2 = 3 : ) 3 j e b E Q k l . j . l r e ? I b E . k j
r e ar r ange mentyi el ds
, n ( r) n,( k ( I z 2 + ! ? j l ! v o 0 ); : z d3 j k ; , j k . v
-
( 2 =) e
. .
; k ;1 2 a k sF) 2 c(
F. > . 0
? u( O =a 0 ( 0 )- 1 2 a ( k.r) c
( 5 5 . 3 8 )
( 5 5 . 3 9 )
s howi ng t ha tt he t empt r at ur e depe nde ntpa r tofk l pvar i e sa s r2. I n addi t i on,
weh a v es e e nt h a t1 1 F1 2i sa l wa y sl e s st h a n ab e c a us et h ei n t e r pa r t i c l epo t e nt i a l
i nt r oduc eshi gherFour i e rc om ponent se ve n atF= 0.
1N.N.Bogol i ubov,J. Ph y s . ( &SfR) ,1 1: 2 3( 1 9 4 7 ) . 2I ft h es e c o ndt er m ont h er i gh ti smu l t i p l i e db yaf a c t orz u( 0 ) / a,whi c hi s; < $1i nt h epr e s e nt mod e lI s e eEqs . ( 21 . 1 5 )a nd( 2 2. 1 4 ) ) ,t h er e s ul t i n ge q ua t i o nc o r r e c t l yd e s c r i i xsaBos es y s t e m wi t h an arbi t r ar ys hort r anger e pul s i vepot ent i al . asl ong asci si nt er pr et edast he a ct uals r wx e d
SUPERFLUI D F I ELS UM
495
( u c )
( 5 5 . 4 0 )
s ot hat p, ( F = 0)= p,wi t ht emper at ur edependent cor r e c t i ons : z :7 4 . 1 I ti s c l e art hatt her ei sno di r e ctc onne ct i on bet we en p , ( F)and ' X l ' ( F) I 2be caus et he s e
phys i calquant i t i e s have di P kr ent t em per at ur e dependenc e and di f I kr ent val u es
W eno wt u r nt os p a t i a l l y no nu n i f or ms y s t e ms ,wh e r eV l ' ( x )mu s tbed e t e r mi n e d f r om t he nonl i ne ar i nt e gr odi f l kr ent i ale qua t i on ( 55. 9) . l ti sof t en c onv eni ent
t o wr i t e
t 1 ' ( x )= F( x) e i * i x b
wher e F and ; ,ar er e al . r e l at i on
( 5 5 . 4l )
i ( h. x) =2 ( V - V, ) Ft x m , x' r * ) ) x , x mlE
-
( 5 5 . 4 2 )
t h ec o n t r i b ut i o nj c t x )oft h ec o n d e n s a t eb e c ome s
a v
( F( x ) j V+( x )= r l o ( x) -V( p ( x ) m
v e l o c i t ya s( c o mp a r eEq . ( 5 4 . 2 ) )
v o t x)= . V+( x) m
h
( 5 5 . 4 4)
!Equ a t i on ( 55 . 4 0)a n dt h e ph ono ns p e c i l i ch e at( a :F3 )ob t a i ne df r om Eq. ( 5 4. 1 9 )h a v e al s o been der i ved f r om t he mi cr os c opi ct heor yt o a1 1or der si n pert ur bat i on t heor y by K . Ke hr .
Ph ys i c a , 3 3: 6 2 0( 1 96 7 )a nd b y W .Gt z ea nd H. Wa gn e r , Ph ys i c a, 31 : 47 5( 1 9 6 5) ,r e s p e c t i v e l y ' .
2I nt he spt ci alcas e ofan i dea!Bose gas hes et wo quant i t i escoi nci de;se e Pr obs.1 4. 6 and ,t 1 4. l1. 3P.C.i ' l ohenber gandP. Nl . .Pl at zn k an,Ph ys .Rer . . ,15 2: 1 .9 8( 1 9 6 6) .
4g6
bes i ngl e5 , al ued.t hen t he 1 i ne i nt e gr alofEq.( 55. 44)ar ound acl os ed pat hl yi ng
5 5hol l ) , 'i 1 1t he conde ns at ei n l n l edi at e l l gi Ne st he quant i za t i on of c i r cul at i on i n
t l ni t so f1 1 ? ? ?g Eq. ( 5 4 . l 0) 1 . j u s ta si 1 1Eq. ( 5 0 . . 3 1 ) .
For s i 1 7 1 pl i ci t y ' . ut t appr ' ox i nl at et h ei nt e r par t i c l e pot e nt i al by a r epul s i ve de l t af t l lc t i o! 1
l ' ( x)-v t r i s ( x)
( 55. 46)
i lt o( f 5. 461 .t he i ma gi na r / and r ea l par t sc an be
( 55. 47)
j c z $ r.-- . ; 1 2 z ' . c . u r/ -.y 7 a .T a& ( ) l J l -2 2 1 -/ T1 l e t , ee qt l a t i o1 ) s ar er k l ad1 l yr e t l ogl ' l 1 ze d: t st he cont i 1 : ui t y 'e quat i on f or t he c ondel l s at e al p d tqt l al l t t l 1 1 ' tC t l l al og ot -Ber loul l i sequat i on f or s t ea dl ' f l ou . . .s aI h 1e Nt t l ' t l pl u to1 : 11 1 t 3 ! l t l 1 ) 1 f or n ls )s t en i .c ons i dera s t at i onar q ' conde ns at e co1l i l l e t lt oa t s eI l l i i 1 1 t i 1 ) l t t l dk 4 n l a1 1 )( . 2 '' 0) . The boundar y col l d1 t i on N vi 1 1 be
t akeI A: ) . > 1 ' .0 at- 0 > 1 1 1 c e Eq.( : 5 5 . 46)1 ss 1 n ) i 1 art o a o1 : e par t 1 cl e Sc hr di nge r eqt l c t t i o1 1 . I 1 )t h1 soned1 I l l e1 1 s ' 1 onalgeon l e t r y,1 1 ' t ak est he f br m
( 55. 50)
=l l v g
( 5 5 . 5 1 )
SU F ' ERFLU l D H EL . I UM
497
( 7 c z j ( . j r t j q j t y , g . j
( 55 . 52)
by Eq.( 55. 1 9) 1
u $ ' ( ) =? 7 0j z t a n h 2 = 0d . $ , 7J
.
O L
: zn o L-? 7 o$L(
( f 5 . 5 4 )
E 0 =j zX 1 R * . . . 1 1 ' t i w gk l . 4 0J lnl
.
.
h2V 2
'
1 r ? 2 0 gI ,J z 1- s e c h4 -' g . yj
( 5 5 . 5 5 )
* L
'
: 4 : J , 7 2 0 g l -J 3 / 7 2 0 g l 42
M os toft hi se ner gy ar i s esf r om t he i nt e r par t i cl er epul s i on and al s o oc cur sf or a uni f or m s y s t em . B ' et her e f or e desne t he s ur f a c e ener gy o 'as t he di f l kr e nc e be t ween t he t ot alener gy E j and t he e ner gj 'of t he s am e num ber of par t i c l es
'Thel engt hL i sher econs i der ed am at hemal i ca!cul of l -ui t h no phq r si c als i gni t i cance.butt he
s amec al c u l a t i ona l s ode s c r i b e sap hy r s i c a lc h a nne lofui dt h2 1 . > >fs i nc et her e s u l t i ngH( x)i s
s ym m et r i c.
498
uni f or ml y di s t r i but e d
a . = E0- ! . N: 2 g l 1 x . ' / 1 2 n 9 p v c ; k :V n , l . -; 4 r3 . ,
( 5 5 . 5 6 )
whe r e we hav e us e d Eq.( 55. 5 4)f or Nvand s etl ' r l r l o= mn= p i nt he l a s tl i ne. Thi ss u r f a c ee n e r g yc o nt a i ns1 7 0t ht h e( p o s i t i v e )k i n e t i ce n e r g ya s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h ec u r v a t u r eo ft h e wa v ef u n c t i on a n dt h e( p os i t i v e )c o mpr e s s i o na l wo r k
i nv ol ve di n m ovi ng par t i c l esf r om t he s ur f ac et ot he bul k oft he iui d,whe r e t he de ns i t yi ss l i g ht l yi ncr eas ed. A l t hough t he pr e s e nt m ode l appl i es onl yi f
t h es u r f a c el a y e ri smuc ht h i c k e rt h a nt h ei n t e r p a r t i c l es pa c i n g( n f 3y p . l ) ,t he l a s tf or mo f Eq.( 5 5 . 5 6 )r e ma i n s we l ld e n e de v e nf o ra s t r o ng l yi n t e r a c t i n g s y s t e m wh e r er , /3 $ 4 :l . Wi t ht h en ume r i c a lv a l u e sa p pr o p r i a t ef o rHe I I ,we 5nd c; k J 0. 36 e r g/ cmz,i ng ood a gr e ement wi t ht he obs e r v ed l owt e mper a t ur e s ur f a c et e n s i o n; k ; 0 . 3 4dy n e / c mE a0. 3 4e r g / c mz .
As a s e cond ex am pl e of a nonuni f or m s ys t em ,cons i der an unbounde d conde ns at eoft hef or ml
( 5 5 . 5 8 )
%( , j ; r y ? . pf + p f n o : , / 3 = 0
y
:2 ' 1# #
( 5 5 . 5 9 )
sUPERFLtl i D HELl UM
499
2 , r x jy
' -
s h owi n gt ha t t h ec or er a d i u sJma yb ei n t e r pr e t e da st h ep oi n twh e r et h ec i r c u l a t i n gs up e r :ui dv e l o c i t yb e c o me sc omp a r a b l e wi t ht h es p e e do fs ou n d( s e e Eq . ( 5 4. 8 ) ) . Thi sc r i t e r i oni si n de p e n d e n t of t h es t r e n g t hof t hep o t e n t i a l : f orHe1 I , Eq.( 5 5 . 6 2)g i v e sJ; k ; ! . A.i nr ou g ha g r e e me n tN N i t ht h eob s e r v e dv a l u e; k ; lX. 1 Fo rl a r g e( ,a ne x p a n s i on i np o we r so f( 2y i e l d s f ( ( ) - 1- ( 2 ( 2 ) -1 ( 5 5 . 6 3 )
.
N ot et hat t he de ns i t y pe r t ur ba t i on he r ev ani s hes al gebr ai cal l y r at he rt han e xpone nt i a l l y as was t he c as ef or a s e mi i nt i ni t e dom ai n; t hi s di t l kr ence a r i s e s f r om t he l ongr ange c i r cul a t i ng ve l oci t y hel d ar ound t he vor t ex. The e xac t
Fi g. 65. 1 Ra d i a l wa v ef un c t i o nf or a si ngl y quant i zed vor t ex. Tbe cur ve was pl ot t ed f r om t he numer i cals ol ut i on t o Eq. ( 5 5 . 6 0 ) of M . P. Kawat r aa nd R. K . Pat hri a.Ph.b ' . .Re ( ' . .151:132( 1966) .
num e ri c alcal cul at i on oft hee ner gyEvperuni tl e ngt h as s oci at ed wi t ht hevor t ex g i ve s z
- - - --
4 .
. y.
H er eR i sacut of l atl ar gedi s t anc est hatm aybei nt e rpr et e d ast he r adi usoft he cont a i ner , and weagai nt aken o= ? ?i nt hel as tf or m . Thi se xpr es s i on i sana l ogous
PRO BLEM S 14. 1- Us et he Cl aus i us cl ape yr on e quat i on t o di s cus st he mel t i ng cur ve sf or H e3and H e4i n Fi g. 5 4. 1 . De vi s ea t heor y oft hem i ni m um i nt he mel t i ng cur ve
'G.W .Rayf i el d andF. Rei f ,I oc.c i t . 2V . L. Gi nzbur gand L.P.Pi t aevski i oc.c i t . ;L. P.Pi .I t aevs ki i aI oc.ci l . 3G . B.H es sand W' .M . Fai r bank,Phys.Ae ' .Le t t e r s ,1 9: 2 1 6( 1 96 7) .
scc
of He3 bas e d on t he obs er vat i on t hatCur i e ' s1 aw de s c r i be st he m agne t i cs us c ept i bi l i t y ofs ol i d He3down t oaf e w mi l l i de gr e es . W hathappenst ot hem el t i ng cur ve as F > . . 0?
14. 2. ( t z )I f# ( r )= o ) . ' fx r ,p r o v et ha tc u r l v= 2 f . , ) J . He n c ed e d u c e t h a t
j ct d 1 . Y= 2 a ) . d . wh e r e, 4= j #S. Ji st h ea r e ae n c l o s e dbyt h ec o nt o urC. ( b )l fv t r )= ( x / 2 r r r ) J ,pr ov et h a tc u r l v= s J 3 ( r )wh e r e ri sa t wo d i me n s i o na l v e c t o ri nt h ex yp l a ne . He n c ep r o v et h a tj c#l . v= K Ncwh e r eNci st h en umb e r o fv o r t i c e se n c l os e di nC, a n dv e r i f yt hed i s c u s s i onb e l o w Eq. ( 5 4 . 8 ) .
14. 3. Cons k de ra s ys t em r ot a t i ng atangul arve l oc i t ya t .
( J )Pr ov et ha tt h ee q ui l i b r i u ms t a t e sa r ed e t e r mi n e d by mi n i mi z i n gt h e ' t s f r e e
e ner gy' 'F - ( , 0L,whe r eL i st heangul a r m om ent um and F i st he H e l m hol t zf r e e e ne r gy.
P a =P ( F/ F0 ?.
14. 7. Cons i de r a dens e char ge d Bos e gas i n a uni f or m bac kgr ound whe r et he
e x c i t a t i on s p e c t r um i se k= ( ( / i ( 1 p I ) 2i ( h 2 k22 p 7 s ) 2 j ' #( Pr o bs .6 . 5a n d 1 0. 2 ) .
Us et he Landau quas i par t i c l e m ode lt os how t hat t he cr i t i c alvel oc i t y and t he nor m al iui d dens i t y atl ow t em pe r at ur e ar e gi ve n by
l , c= 1. 32r -Q
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sUPERFLU I D HELI UM
501
14. 8. ( t z ) Show t hatt hes i ngl e par t i c l eGr ee n' sf unc t i on f oraper f e c tBos egas
14. 1 0. ( t z ) De r i v et h er e ma i ni n ge qu a t i on so fmo t i on ( c o mp a r e Eq s . ( 2 0. l 8) , ( 5 5 . 2 2 ) . an d( 5 5 . 2 4 ) 1 f or t h ema t r i xGr e e nst u n c t i o n' i 9 ' ' t xr . x' r ' ) E E-. Fr l l bs t x ' r )x 4 ) 1 K ( x ' r ' ) 1 N ' i n awe a k 1 ) , . i n t e r a c t i n gB os eg a s . ( ? ? ) Repe at t he cal cul at i ons of Pr ob. 1 3. 1 5f or t hi ss ys t el n and c ' ompar e) , eur
r e s ul t swi t ht hos ef ora s upcr c onduc t or . The nor m al i za t i on c ondi t i on m t l $ t1 ) ow be wr i t t e n1 -J! v(l ? / 4 . . L 12- / ' t z 12 )= s 1N Nher . ez or ef e r st ot he s i gnot t heel l er gy e i g enval ue . 14 . 11. U s et he m et hods de :e l ope di 1 1Se c.. 5 2t os t t i d) 't he 1 i nearr e> po1 : s e ot a c ondens ed noni nt cr acl l b l g char ged Bos e gas t oa t r ans ser s ev ' e ct or pot e1 1 t i al A( x/ ) . l nt hel ongwa: el e ngt hs t at i t r 1 i nl i t .s hou' t ha tt hei ndt l c edcur r entobeys
t he London e quat i on ( 49. 29)u' i t h at em pe r at ur e de pende ntc oe f i c i ent/ ? s ( F) ' l l= = l- ( F' Fo ) 1( c om par e Pr ob.1 4. 6) .and henc ee xhi bi tt heNl ei s s ne re f : f e c t1
.
14. 12. ( t 7 )Gene r al i zePr ob.l 4. 1 1t o ade ns ei l l t c r ac t i n g char ge d Bos eg asi na uni f or m back gr ound. Us et heana1 og ofEq. ( 51 . . 6)t o de r i veam odi t i ed London equa t i on B i t h at em per at ur c de pendentc oef hci ent
? 7 s ( F) ( T4 , , ( F) z - = qs -. . -= 1- # -. .
1 1
wher epn ( T4 , . ' pi sgi v en i n Pr ob.1 4. 7. ( b4 Athi ghdens i t y ' and ze r ot e m per at ur es how t hatt hee l e c t r odl ' nami csi sl ocal ,
apar tf r om c or r e ct i onsofor der? s . tN . ' .L.G i nz b u r g.C' s p.Fi z ., % ' a l I k.4 8: 2 5( l 9 5 2)( Ge r n l a nt r a ns l a t i on:Fo r t s ( ' / ; ,Phy ' . $ ' . .1: 1 01 ( 1 9 5 3) J :5 1. R. S c ha f r ot h. Ph ys . Re L , .1 0 0: 4 6 3( 1 9 5. 6 ) .
Kz
c o nd e ns a t e wa v ef un c t i on t a k e st he f or m1 F( x )= n t fl r j wi t hf( R)= 0 a n d
/( ( x ) )= 1 . Us et h et r i a l f un c t i on/t r )= 1- e t r R l / t a n dde t e r mi net h ee le c t i v e s u r f a c et h i c kn e s s/ . l nt h el i mi tR > . o as ho wt h a tl= ( 6 2 / l L mn v gj ka n dt ha t t h ec o r r e s p on d i n gs u r f a c ee n e r g yb e c o me s g= 0 . 4 7 9 / 1 2 , 1 ( ) / m4 ( c ompa r t Eq. ( 5 5 . 5 6 ) 1 .
14. 16. Us et hevar i at i onalpr i nci pl ef r om Pr ob.1 4. 1 5t os t udy a vor t e xi nt he
so4
f r om t he s i ngt l l ar nat ur e of t he nucl eonnu cl eon f or ce t l nt i lt he l as ts e ct i o1 .i 1 ' 1 t hi schapt er . For a f i ni t e as s e m bl y,t he anguI ar m oment um pI ays a t ? r t l ci aIr ol e .an da
S6CG EN ERA L CA N O N I CA L TRA NS FO R M A TI ON TO PA RTI C LES A N D H O LES W es t ar tbyper t br n l i ngagener alc anoni c alt r ans f or m at i ont k lpar ' t i cl esand hol e s . I nt hef i r s tappr oxi n l at i on.t hegr ound $ t at eort hec or e( s e e Fi g,. 5 6, l )i sas s um e d t o be a s e tofk z onp pl et e i t i l l e ds i ngl e par t i ct el e ve l s .% hos ee xat ! t nat t t r eN Si 1 1b e s pe ci f i ed b hor t l y. For a s ph er i cal l ys jm m e t r i cs ys t en l .t he s e s i n gl e par t i cl e s t at e scan al waj ' s bechar ac t er i z ed bs t he qt l ant t l n l nun l ber s 3a o . n E1 1 1 5 ) j . 1 1 : yy Ni t h
-.
a j z a .. / ) ) y
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Fi g.56, 1 'W e f ol l ow t he angul ar l l l ol l l ent ul l l not at i on ofA .R.Edl p t onds .' ' Angul ar N1ol l l el l t t l l l li n
B06
S *( -l l j l ' n x
Thi si scl e ar l y a canoni c alt r ans f or m at i on, f ori tl ea vest heant i com m ut a t i on r ul e s unal t e r ed
t ux , u a f ) -( ) a , d ? ) ' , ) -3 z a .
A1 1ot herant i com m ut a t or s= 0
( 5 6 . 5 )
( ml Jl i m)= J= Y m =0
m
Fur t her mor e,t he W i gner Ec kar tt heor em s howst hatt he m at r i x el ementofJ3 q
s06
Th epr o o f t h a t b ji sat e ns o ro p e r a t orn o wf o l l o w' s i mme di a t e l yf r o mt her e l a t i o ns ( J? ? ) , , a )- 2) ' C / l l zt y)( > / f ? b , , , > 1 J
py
( 56. 8/) ( 5 6. 8 :)
f ' ?-W k -c & t . v . ' ri )' s c j+ . ' Vc ' z l c ' t x . )' i I z ' . y3 >c . , c y a V j
.
( 5 6 . 9 )
i n nor m al or der ed f or m wi t hr es p ec tt ot he ne w par t i cl e and hol e ope r at or s . Jt t s t as i n Sec . 37. W i ck* st he or em can s i m pl i f yt h ec al cul at i on. W e w r i t e
( 56. l 0)
Take mat r i xel ement sofEq.( 56. 1 0)w' i t hr es pe c tt ot he ne w va cuum 1 0' ' . de hne d
by I tf ol l ow' st ha t
( 5 6. l 2)
Cj .' ' # ' .= Q .C .= ( ) = C j )
( 5 6 . l 3 )
( 56. l 4)
t ' 1c 1c ; : c y, -( C a yt s j a- ( 5 z t s j y ) # ( . F- a) 0 ( F- ' ) +2 3 a y0 ( F- a) z V( c ' Ac j : ) 2 3 J t ? ( F- a )Nt c j f c )a A' t c Jt ' j ' t c st ' s )( 5 6 . 1 5 ) 7s ) ? wh e r et h es y mme t r yk a jp P ' i y3 .= u ' $1 x . 1 z ' ' 3 y) 'h a sb e e nu s e dt oc omb i n et e r ms
.
B07
s t at es , we s ha l l now c hoos et he par t i cul ar s e tt hat di a gonal i z es t he qua dr at i c par toft he t r ans f or med ham i l t oni an. A s i m pl ec al cul at i on yi el dst he e ondi t i on
whi c hi sj u s tt h ee n e r g y e i g e n v a l u ee qu a t i on d e r i v e df r o m t h e Ha r t r e e Foc k
s i ngl epar t i c l ee quat f ons of Sec .1 0. Cons e que nt l y, i ft he s i ngl e par t i cl e wave f unct i ons ( J ) s at i s f yl
X = Ho+ X 1 t Xa
H0= N J( ra s -) 4 ' .-. -. a)
x<F
( 56. 20)
( 5 6. 21 )
( 56. 22)
( 56. 24)
Thi sge ne r alr es ul ti snotr e s t r i c t ed t os pher i e als ys t em s. 'i tappl i esw he nev er
t a )de n ot e sas e to fs i n g l e p a r t i c l equ a n t u mn umbe r ss p e c i f y i n gt hes o l u t i o n st o t heHar t r e e Focke quat i ons( 5 6. l 7)and( 5 6. 22) .l nal 1 t hec as e sc ons i de r e dhe r e ,
.
howev er ,t he r ot at i onali nvar i anc e of t he Har t r ee Fock cor ei m pl i e st ha tt he cor r e s pondi ng s i ngl e par t i cl ee ne r gi es ar ei nde pe nde ntof? ' z z ,nam e l y 'Fz= L, J z ' 7= 1 z ' a band 6 X= e a .
.
Eq u a t i on s( 5 6 . 1 8 )t o( 5 6 . 21 )a r ea ne x a c tt r a n s f o r ma t i on o ft h eo r i g i na l hami l t oni an.Eq.( 5 6. 94 . For al m os t a1 Ipur pos e s .Ho- X :pr ovi desa bet t e r
s t a r t i ng poi ntf orm anybody c al c ul at i onsbe caus ei tal r eady i ncl udest he a ve r age i nt e r a ct i on of a par t i cl e w' i t ht he par t i cl es i nt h ec or e. The new ham i l t oni a n
50:
Thepr e s e ntdi s cus s i on a ppl i esdi r e c t l yt o at om s ,wher et hec oul om b i nt er ac t i onwi t ht henu cl e usc anbei nc or por at e di nt heone bodyope r at orF. Fort he nuc l e arpr obl em ,howeve r ,t hepr e c edi ng t r e at mentm us tbe g ener al i ze ds l i ght l y bec aus et he nucl eus c ons i s t s of 1 7 0t h pro t ons and ne ut r ons . l nt hi sc as e,t he
be ge ner al i z e dt o
s ya ( -j ) J a m a ( -j ) y m t .
( j 6 . 2 6 )
E qs . ( 5 6 . 1 8) t o( 5 6. 2 4 ) a pp l ye qu a l l ywe l l t ot i n i t en u c l e i .
57/THE SI N G LEPA RTI C LE SH ELL M O D EL The s ol ut i on of t he Har t r e el l ock e quat i ons f or a sni t es ys t e m i se xt r e m el y di cul t . For t una t el y,m os tpr ope r t i e sofsni t e nuc l e ic an be un de r s t ood wi t h appr oxi m at e, s ol vabl es s i ngl e par t i c l epot ent i al s .and wenow di s cus st w' os p eci f i c e xam pl es .
A PPROXI M ATE HARTREE-FOCK W AVE FUNCTI O NS AN D LEVEL O RDERI NGS I N A CENTRAL POTENTI AL
h2k2
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j ( kR4 ,=, 0 gi vi ng t heei genv al ue The uave f unc t i on m us tN ' ani s h att he boun dar ).l s pe c t r um k, 1 l R. u uj ' l 1 I u her e Xn ;i s: he ? ? l hz er o oft he / t hs phe r i calBe s s e lf t l nc t i on.e xc l udi ng t he or i gi n and i nc l u di ng t he z er o att he bounda r y. The or de r i ng of t he b ez er os i ss how 1 ) oI )t h er i ght s i de of Fi g. 57. 2. Thd nor np al i z at i on i nt e gr al c an be e val u at ed expl i ci t l yt o gi v el
N k ' r e ur i t e
) l f u l t r) j . j. j t j a r l l p lw c-. j . . 1 ? r l (r
.
t *
( 57. 6)
f l ( J + p +.l )e z#J ' c > ( J )S E-. t ' ( --( z J J ' t 7 z ) p. -1 ) z o-. Jzp
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l Thi sr e s ul tf o l l o wsf r om t h er e l a t i on si n L.I .S e h i f f ' .' ' Qu a nt u m sl e c ha ni c s . ' '3 de d. .r. 8 t 7 . M cGr awi l i l lBook Companl ' ,New s' ork.1 968. 2P.M .M ors e and H .Fes hba ch.' M et hodsofTheor et i calPhl r si c s. ' 'rr.-34.1 667.sl cG r auHi l lBook Company.New' Yor k.1 953. 3A i itt ome ans quar enucl earr adi iyl el dst her oughes i m al eht s '; k :41Nl eN'A1.
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n= 1 , 2 , .. .,x
f- 6 0 f- fp
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Fi g.57. 2 Levels ys t em oft he t hr ee di mens i onali s ot r opi c har moni cos ci l l a t o r( on I e f t ) a nd t h es qu ar ewe l l w' i t hi nt i ni t e l yhi g h wa l l s( o nr i gh t ) . Th e dtg ener a cyofea ch s t at ei ss hown i n par ent h ese s,and t he t ot alnumberof l e v e l su pt hr ou g hag i v t ns t a t ei si n br a ck e t s .( I l r om M . G. Ma y c ran d J.H.D .Je ns en,e ' El ement ar y Theor y ofNucl e arShel lSt r uct ur eq ' 'p.53s Jghn W i l eyand Sons al nc. .New Yorks1 955. Repr i nt ed by per nn i s si on. )
N 2=
n 'J t t % ( l , + . l . 4 ! . ) j 3
2( n- . l ) ! . -- -.
:11
e . t =h o A ( N +! )- P ' o
N=2 ( a- 1 )+ l= 0 ,1 , 2 ,.
( 5 7 . 1 3 J )
( 5 7 . 1 3 5 )
and i spl ot t td on t hel ef t hand s i deofFi g.5 7. 2. Thes edeg ene r at el e ve l sc ont ai n s t at esofdi f l kr e ntland a r es pace d a di s t anc eh apar t . W es hal lr ef e rt ot he s e
a st h eo s c i l l a t o rs h e l l s . I nc o mp a r i n gt h et wo mo d e lp o t e n t i a l s( Fi g .5 7 . 1 ) , t h e
val ueof l ' chasbe en c hos en s ot hatt he 1 . :l ev el shavet hes amee ner gy. Thet r ue nuc l ears i ngl e par t i cl e wel lhasa sni t e de pt h. Nev ehhel es s ,t he l owl yi ngl e ve l swi t hl ar g ebi ndi ngen er gi e sar ee s s e nt i a l l yunc hang edbye xt endi ng t he wal l soft hepot ent i alt oi nfni t y. Fort he s es t a t e s ,atl eas t ,t her ea lH ar t r ee Fock pot ent i a l pr es umabl y has a s hape i nt er medi a t e be t we en t he s quar e wel l and t he os ci l l a t or ,and we c an eas i l yi nt er pol a t e be t we en t he t wo c as e s . 80t h n and Ir e mai n good quant um number sast hebot t om edgeoft hes qua r e wel li s r oundedort hebot t om oft heos ci l l at ori sia t t e ne d out . Thehi ghes t Js t at e sha ve t he l ar ges tpr obabi l i t y ofbe i ngneart hee dgeoft hepot ent i a l ,and asi ndi c at e di n Fi g.57. 2.t he i ren er g y wi l lbe I ower e di n goi ng f r om t heos ci l l at ort ot he s quar e
wel l .
SPI NOBBI T SPLI U I NG
I ti s know n e xpe r i me nt al l yt hat ce r t ai n gr oups of pucl eons pos s es ss mc i a l s t abi l i t yc or r e s pondi ng t ot he c l 4s e ds he l l s ofa Y mi c phys i c s . The s eS f mlgi c number s ' 'ar e2. 8, 2 0, 28s5 0,82,1 26,. .. . Cl ear l yFi g. 57. 2cor r ec t l ypr e dj c t s
H' = -l ( r ) l . s
( 5 7 . 1 4 )
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512
( j= / -! . )l e a d st oI . s= -( I +1 ) / 2 . Thu st h es r s t o r d e rs p l i t t i n gi sg i v e nb y 6 1 1- e l . 1 . =x n l 1 ( 2 / +1 ) ( 5 7 . 1 6 )
x n t MJ& 1( r ) Vr ) d r
( 5 7 . 1 7 )
a si l l u s t r a t e di n Fi g .5 7 . 2 .I ti st h e r e f o r ep os s i b l et ha tt h es t a t e ofhi g h e s tj
and lf r om oneos ci l l at ors he l lm a y ac t ua l l y bepus he d down i nt ot henextl ower os c i l l at or s he l las i ndi ca t ed i n Fi g.57. 3,t hus e xpl ai ni ng t he obs e r ve d m agi c
A s our sr s t de s cr i pt i on ofnuc l e ar s t r uc t ur e ,we cons i dert he ext r e me s i ngl e par t i c l es he l lm ode l ,whi ch a ppl i est o nuc l e iwi t h an odd num berofnucl eons . I nt hi spi ct ur e,t hel e ve l si n Fi g.57. 3a r efl l e di ns e quenc e, and al lt hepr ope r t i e s oft he nucl eus a r e as s um e dt o ar i s ef r om t he l as todd nuc l eon. Thi sm ode li s ext r em e l ys uc c es s f uli n pr e di ct i ng t he angul ar m om e nt um a nd par i t y ofs uch nucl ei . l t al s o al l ow s a ca l cul a t i on of ot he r nuc l e ar pr oper t i es s uch as t he el ec t r om a gne t i c m om ent s . Them agne t i cdi pol eope r at or sf ora pr ot on and neut r on ar e
1 * =J l , ( 1 +2 l e# l A n= I x s l l h n s )
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e h
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j- ! . +A A j p . , . . /+j+ j ( ! ' -A )
( 5 7 . 2 2 / ) . 1- l -' 1 ' ( 5 7 . 2 2 : )
whi ch ar et hes i ngl e pa r t i c l e Sc hm i dtl i nesf ort he magnet i cm oment s . l Thes e r e s ul t s ar ei ndepe nde ntofany r adi alwave f unct i ons and de pe nd onl y on t he angul ar m om e nt um coupl i ng. Outof 13 7 odd, d nucl e ar m oment s ,onl yf i ve l i e out s i de t he Schm i dtl i ne s . I ti san i nt e r es t i ng f a ctt hatal lbut 1 0 oft he s e
Qz f t =3 z 2- r 2= 2 r 2 c c ;
i sde hne d by
( 5 7 . 2 3 )
wh e r ec x oH ( 4 =/ ( 2 #+ 1 ) ) 1F x o ,a n dt h e qu a d r u po l e mo me n to ft h e nu c l e u s
'j 2 j ! cr g yy Q -( j , m. / 1 Q z z l j , m. / ) ( y .( )j ) I j r 2 ( j , y
.
c 4 )
Q = -( r 2 ) , a j 2 7+ u
2 J . -1
( 5 7 . 2 5 )
O ddpr ot on nuc l e iwi t hl es st han hal f f i l l e ds hel l st e nd t o hav ene g at i vequadr upol e mom e nt s .as pr e di ct e d by t hi s m odel . I ft he s hel l s ar e mor et han hal f f i l l e d, howev er ,t he ex per i ment al qu adr upol e m om ent st e nd t o be pos i t i ve. 3 Thi ss howst he ne e df ora c ons i s t entm anybody t r e at ment ,whi ch i sgi v en i n Se c.58. I nt he s i ngl e par t i cl es he l l mode l ,t he quadr upol e m om e nt s at i s ses t he r e l a t i on
l Up <. R2
( 5 7 . 2 6 )
B15
Q( 7 l Lul 7 5 ) ? , ( 1 . 2. 1' . iF) 2= +1 3. Oddneut r on nuc l eis houl d hav e no quadr upol e
m om ent si nt he s i ngl e par t i cl es he l lm odel . Exper i me nt al l y,t hey t e nd t o behave as i ft he l as tneut r on we r er e al l y a pr ot on.and t he quadr upol e m om enti sagai n m uc hI ar g er t han t he m ode lwoul d pr e di ctev en f or a pr ot on. Forexam pl e, z
;( Er t t 7 ) / , ( 1 . 2 , d1F) 2; 4 r 4 2 3 . Th ee x p l a n a t i o nf or t h e s el a r g ev a l ue si st ha t
t hec or ei sn ot i n e r t , bu tc a na c t u a l l yb ed e fo r me db yt hep r e s e n c eo ft h ev a l e n c e
nuc l e ons . Si nc et he c or e hasa c har ge Z,a s ma l lde f or ma t i on hasa l ar g e ef l kc t
js h e l l .wec an u s et h es ho r t h a n dn ot a t i on f n l j mj> . m. Th es t a t e so fd e s ni t e
t ot al Jf ort wo i de nt i calpar t i c l est her e f or e can be wr i t t e n
i j2 J M A= 1 j mj j mz ! J j JM )t / mj f ca r 0 ) q . , jmlM : ( .
( 5 8 . 1 )
f e r mi on op e r a t o r sa n t i c ommu t e , t h es ymme t r yp r o p e r t y( B. l 9b )o ft h eCl e b s c hG or dan coe ci entundert he i nt e r c hang e m k= m 1 ,t oget he r wi t hac hang e of
Jr= 0 + 9 2+ 5 4* 5*'@! ( 2 . 1 -l ) +
'M .G .M ayerand J.H.D.J ens en,op.cl ' / . ,pp.79-80. 2l bi d. 3Forat hor oughdi s cus si on oft hi st opi cs eeA. BohrandB. R.M ot t e l s on, s e Nuc l e arSt r uct ure , ' '
1J , Rai n wa t e r , Ph y s .Re v . , 7 9: 4 3 2( l 9 5 0) ,
s1e
I nt hes i ngl epar t i c l es he l lm odel ,t hes es t at e sar ede ge ner at e be c aus et he c or ei s s phe r i cal l ys ym m e t r i cand t heval enc epar t i cl esdo noti nt er ac t . Forr e alnucl ei ,t hi sde ge ner a cyi sl i f t e d,and i ti san e xper i ment alf a ctt hat a l lev enev en nucl eihavegr ound s t at eswi t hJn= 0+. Fur t he r m or e,t hepr oper t i e s of oddW nuc l eic an be unde r s t ood by as s um i ng t hat t he e ve n gr oup of nuc l e onsi sc oupl ed t of or m Jn= 0+i nt he gr ound s t at e. Theques t i on ar i s es , can t he s ef ac t s be unde r s t ood wi t hi nt he f r am e wor k oft he manypar t i c l es he l l m ode l? The de gene r a cy oft he s t at esf or me df r om t he va l enc e nucl eons c an be r e m ov ed onl y by a ddi ng an i nt e r a ct i on be t wee nt he s e nuc l e ons . A s an i nt r oduct i on,we s hal lus eil s t or de rper t ur bat i on t heor yand c om put et hel eve l
pot e nt i ali si nvar i antunde rr ot a t i ons . The ys t i l lde pend on Z howe ve r ,owi ng
t ot hedi f l kr e ntt w opa r t i cl e de ns i t i e s.
a c t i on Ft r l , n, c o s #j z )
U ' ( r l , r 2 , C 0 s# l z )= Z/x l r l , r c l #x t c o s# 1 2 )
Thi sr el at i on i sme r e l y an e xpans i on i nac ompl e t es e toff unc t i onsofcos#I c , and i tcan bei nver t ed wi t ht he or t hogonal i t yoft he Le ge ndr e pol ynom i al s
T x-
IK + 1 1
#x @)P ' ( r ! . r z . x ) # . Y
.
( 5 8 . 4 )
4, r
F x-t f 1 l lFx -( f 1 c )- c td
M
whi ch gi v es
P ' ( r l , n, x )- Z/ x ( r l , r 2 ) t ' t1
Th i sma t r i xe l e me n tf o l l o wsf r o mt h er e l a t i on( B. 3 3 ) ofAp p e n d i xB
( 5 8 . 6 )
FxH Jl dI l j ( r l ) dz l , ( r 2 ) . / k ( r 1 , r 2 ) d r j # r 2
( 5 8 . 8 )
517
s t r e ngt hsFK. Si nc el
0 K, 4 j j x u v e n
K odd
( 5 8 . 9 )
L , . . J i u: p . . . s f I . Jj y, ;. e s ( -j ) y -1J / 1 . / 2 . I ) j . / 2 v , e . n , Ksx x j J . 2
.
ade t a i l e de x ami n a t i on o fEq . ( 5 8 . l 1 )s h o wst h a tt h es p e c t r u m wi l lb ea si n Fi g . 58. 1 a. Thi sf bl l ows' s i nc et he l ar ge s t 6js ymbol s ar e gene r al l yt hos e wi t h
J = 0. 1
Equat i on ( 58. 1 0)der i ve d aboveal s oc an beappl i e dt o anoddodd nuc l e us wi t h an e xt r a pr ot on and ne ut r on i nt hes hel l sylandh. I nt hi sc as et hel owes t s t a t ef oran at t r ac t i vei nt e r ac t i onw' i l lhav eJ = jbv -g ' a andt hef i r s te xci t e ds t at e t ur ns out t o haveJ = / y-j z( Fi g .5 8 . 1 : ) .l ti se a s yt os e et h er e a s o nf o rt h e s e r es ul t s . The m at r i xe l e m ent . : .jj . j z J, V P 'jL/ 2 7, % / e s s e nt i al l y meas ur es t he
.
@ @ @
@ @ *
-. . . . .
4*
( ) j M '
Jl
-. . 0* j . j )- j : j Two i dent i calpar t i cl es Two p a r t i c l e si n di f l k r e nt i ns ame shel l s he l l s j ba ndh ( J) ( * ) Fi g.58. 1 Twopar t i cl es pect r um w' i t h an at t r act i ve i nt er act i on.
!M ,Rot enber g.R.Bi vens .N . Me t r o pol i s .a n dJ .K. W oo t e n .J r . .Th e? ja nd 6 jSy mbo l s . * ' p.6.TheTe chnol ogyPr es s,M as s achus e t t sl nst i t ut e ofTechnol ogy.Cambr i dge.Mas s. ,1 95 9.
tM . Ro t e n be r ge t al . . o p. c , ' J .
m:
ovel ap oft het wo s i ngl e par t i cl ewavef unc t i ons . The be s tove r l ap al wayswi l l % obt ai ne d by oppos i ng t heangul armoment a and t hene xtbes tby l i ni ngt he m up. Forex ampl e,i fwewr i t eL = 1 1+ l zand t ake 1 1 . I aasame as ur eofover l ap
( -Fi g .5 8 . 2 ) , t he n 1
1 . l a = i l f , ( Z + 1 ) J j t / j + 1 ) l z ( / z + 1 ) ) = t u j j . j . j ) t gg . j j . j a v ( )
( 5 8 . 1 2 )
l j l z
/ 1 h
L=1 1+ h
and t hi sove r l ap i sl a r ge ri ft he angul armoment a ar eoppos e d. Two i dent i c al par t i cl e sc annotbe l i ne d up be caus eoft hePaul ipr i nci pl e .
Fi g.* *. 2 Qua l i t a t i v ep i c t u r eo ft h eo v e r l apo fo r b i t s . The s er es ul t sc an a s e e n m or ecl ear l ywi t h as i m pl emode loft heat t r a ct i v e i nt er ac t i on pot e nt i al . As s umet hat
' z r
rjrz
( 5 8 . 1 3 )
r l , n)= -4 xt =
A( 2 x+1 ) 3 ( r I-r z 4 v v l g
( 5 8 . 1 4 )
Fx= -2 1 g f l K+1 )
whe r e
( 5 8 . 1 5 )
dr
1- j # l 4l , , ( r ) l z t , , ( r ) p
( 5 8 . 1 6 )
b ye x pl i c i t l ye v a l u a t i n gt h es u mo nK i n Eq.( 5 8 . l 1 ) . 1 Fo re v e nJ ,we 5 nd
. v . . x
( 5 8 . 1 7 )
619
0
-
( 3 / 2 ) 2
( 5 / 2 ) 2
( 7 / 2 ) 2
2 +
4 + 2 +
6 4)
a+
< j JI F1 p .J >
#1
-4
-
0+
6 s
l 0
0+ ( ) 9
( j 2 J Mj P ' I j l J M ) = 1 g ( 2 j + 1 ) 2 ( j 1 J 0 ) l
( . / 2( X ) t Fl . / 2 ( K) )=-( 2 . j +1 ) I g
( 5 8 . 1 8 )
( 5 8 . 1 9 )
The r es ul t i ng s pe c t r um i si ndi cat ed f ors omes i mpl ec as e si n Fi g.58.3. W es ee t hatt he0+s t at ei nde ed l i esl owe s tand i ss pl i tos f r om t hee xci t ed s t at e s ,whi ch ar enear l y de gen er at e wi t ht hi sdel t a f unct i on pot ent i al ,byapai r i n ge ner gy
Not et hatt hi sene r gy s hi f ti spr opor t i onalt ol j + 1s ot hati tmay s ome t i mesbe
ener ge t i cal l yf avor a bl et o pr omot ea pai rofi dent i calpar t i cl esf r om t heor i gi nal
Fora s hor t r angeat t r a ct i vei nt er act i on, wehaves hown e xpl i c i t l yt hatt hel owes t ene r gys t at eofa pai rofi dent i c alpar t i cl esi nt hes am e.j s hel lwi l lbe
I J ' 2 )=V1 0 )
whe r ewehavede hne d a ne wt wopar t i c l eo> r a t orby
( 5 8 . 2 0 )
.
1 1 s t- l
Mj -a
( 5 8 . 2 1 )
52Q
et c.
( 58. 22)
( 58. 2 34)
( 5 8 . 2 3 : )
ma g n e t i cdi p ol e ,o n e hn dsj us tt h es i n g l e pa r t i c l ev a l u e . Fore v e n mome n t s . s u c ha st h ee l e c t r i cqu a dr up o l e , t h e r ei sar e d u c t i o nf a c t o r( 2 j+ l- l N) ( ( l j- 1 ) . Th i sr e du c t i o nf a c t o rv a n i s h e sa th a l f l i l l e ds h e l l s ,N = J ( 2 / +1 ) ,an dc h a n g e s s i gnupongoi ngf r om N par t i cl e si nas hel l t oN hol e si n as he l l ,N +l j+ 1- N. Thes i g nc ha n g ea g r e e swi t ht h ee x p e r i me nt a lob s e r v a t i on s( s e et h edi s c us s i o n f ol l o wi n gEq . ( 5 7 . 2 5 ) 1 . Th ed e r i v a t i o nofEq s . ( 5 8 . 2 3 )i l l u s t r a t e st h ep o we ro fs e c o ndqu a n t i z a t i on , s ot h a twes h a l ln ow p r ov et h e s ei mp or t a n tr e s ul t s . Th e Q =0 c omp on e ntof an ar bi t r ar yt e ns oroper at ori nt he s ubs pac eoft he m ul t i pl y oc cupi e d js hel lc an
. . .
bewr i t t e n
L t kz- 7 ) c mt ' -l rx o l r n )a m
m
-
( 5 8 . 2 4 )
'M .G.M a y e ra nd J .H.D. J e ns e n,o p.c i t ,p.2 4 1 . 2A.deshal i tand 1 .Tal mi .op.ci t . ,p.53l.
521
ma t r i xe l e me nt . Th e ma n y b o d y mat r i xe l e me n t sof?x oa l s oc a nb er e wr i t t e n
wi t ht hi st he or e m
/' N/ ( /' V JJ I t ) ) h . . . . . . c-. . .& u .= y ( -j ) . f mq z y r g. -m g p ' KQ )( . y Ny m; tg v ( y N . / v) ( 5 8 . 2 5 ) ( L X+ 1 ) , n Thu sac omb i na t i ono fEq s . ( 5 8 . 2 2 ) , ( 5 8 . 2 4 ) ,a nd( 5 8 . 2 5 )g i v e s
--
. .
' '
J1 . 1 FxI j)
, , , p
wh e r et h ef a c t o r s( ha n dl o a p p e a r( N-1 ) / 2t i me s a n dt h en o r ma l i z a t i o nf a c t o r
i nt he denom i nat ori si nde pendent ofq by r ot at i ona li nvar i anc e. Us i ng t he pai r ofi dent i t i e s
( H p , & )1 =b p mYp
( 5 8 . 2 7 )
, . .
Z ( -l ) J #( j p . j-p! , J J / A 0 )( H p . J1 ) -( . -j k J ' l c 2 J + ) p
. .
( 5 8 . 2 8 )
l 2 j+7
a & = l-
j . q<
L k ' + 2l. N ( j s . 3 0 )
2/+ l
s22
Wi t ht her e l at i ons
( l j+ l -2 4 :. l ) -l z j
.
j .j
( 5 8 . 3 1 )
( 5 8 . 3 2 )
E l o , ? 1 n J I 0 )-O
K+0
. -
i ti sn o ws t r a i g h t f or wa r dt os h ow t h a t( s e ePr o b.1 5 . 4 )
( 0 I l x o l o...( * ' 0 J ' * ' o 1..'l 0 # l 1 x o I 0 ) 2 2 j+ l -( N- 1 ) ( 0 l f , . . ( ) l c''' -x J ' ( ) f . ( 1'''f x ( . t ) Q j ! 0 ) x -j ) j + j-j . Thi si mme d i a t e l yy i e l d sEq . ( 5 8 . 2 3 *.
( 5 8 . 3 3 )
Thenor m al c oupl i ngm ode lc anbee xt ende dt oex ci t eds t at es; lf orex am pl e, i ti sas s umed t ha tt hel owl yi ng s t at e sar eobt ai ne d by br eaki ng one oft heJ = 0
p a i r s . t h u sr e p l a c i n g1 ( % ) i nE q . ( 5 8 . 2 2 )b yI J s f . Th i sa s s u mp t i o na l l o wsu st o
:nd t he ener gy s pe c t r um of t he manypar t i cl es ys t em. W e obs e r ve t hat t he om r at or de s cr i bi ng a ge ner alt wopar t i c l e pot e nt i alc an be wr i t t e n wi t hi nt he
l l s he l ls ubs paceas
( 5 8 . 3 4 )
whe r et he t wopa r t i c l e mat r i xe l ementhas be en di s cus s ed pr e vi ous l y and onl y t hem depe nde nc ei se xhi bi t ed. Thet wopar t i cl ewavef unct i onsc an al waysbe e xpande di n a bas i s wi t h gi ve nt ot a lJ and M by t her e l at i on
( 5 8 . 3 j )
( 5 8 . 3 6 )
l na ddi t i on, t hepot ent i alF i sas cal ar . s ot ha ti t sge ner alm a t ri xel em e nt sbec om e
wi t ht he r e mai ni ng f act or i ndependent of M . Thus we obt ai nt he gene r al e xpr e s s i on,val i d wi t hi n a.js hel l ,
( j2 01 P ' ) j 2 0 )J XI X -1 )
( 5 8 . 3 8 )
523
W he nt he m anypa r t i cl ei nt er ae t i on e ner gy i sc al cul a t e d ast he e xpec t at i on val ue oft hi s ope r at or ,t he l as tt er m gi ve sa c ons t antde pendi ng onl y on t he num berof
s ugge s t st hatt hepot ent i ali n Eq. ( 58 . 37)c an bewr i t t ent o agood appr oxi mat i on
as
( 5 8 . 4 0 )
X =6 0 X+ f '
auxi l i ar yope r at or s
( 5 8 . 4 1 )
wher ee oi st hes i ngl e par t i cl e Ha r t r e eFoc k ene r gy oft hepar t i cul ars he l land f ' i sg i v e ni n Eq.( 5 8 . 4 0 ) . Th ec a l c u l a t i o ni s mo s te a s i l y pe r f or me d wi t ht he
( 5 8 . 4 0)
( 5 8 . 4 2 : )
% -t( 2 X' -( 2 . j+ 1 ) J
( 5 8 . 4 2 / )
( 5 8 . 43 )
( 5 8 . 4 4 / )
Eq u a t i on( 5 8 . 3 1 )a n dt h er e l a t i on
( X, 1 1 -2 * f 1
s h ow t h a tv Lta n d. 9 3o b e yt hef a mi l i a rc ommu t a t i onr e l a t i on s E f+ , , 9 )- 2 X3
s24
( 5 8 . 4 4 : ) ( 5 8 . 4 4 c )
whi c ha r ej us tt ho s eo ft h ea n gu l a r mome n t u mo p e r a t or s . Th e qu an t i t y :2
( 5 8 . 4 5 )
( 5 8 . 4 6 )
f +. L --92- &( . 9 z- 1 )
G , G ( g3- j ; j ( j g4y b 7- -l2 f ., j -- - 2 gc- g3 ( ) j+ 1 2 j+ 1 s ot h a tP i se x pr e s s e de n t i r e l yi nt e r mso f:2a n d Sb .S i n c . et h es p e c t r u m of t hea n gu l ar mome n t um o p e r a t o r s , 1 2a n d7 ,f ol l o wss o l e l yf r om t h ec ommu t a t i on
.
:2a n d Sj , whi c ht hu ss ol v e st h epr ob l e m. Thee i g e n v a l u e so f:z ' ar eo ft hef or m N4 5 * +1 ) . whe r eSi si n t e g r a lo rh a l f i nt egr al . I tal s of ol l owsf r om t he t he or y ofangul armoment um t hatS > 5 3 1 ,.
a n d% i shx e df r o m Eq .( 5 8 . 4 2 c )i ft h en u mb e ro fp a r t i c l e sN < 2 . / + 1i sg i v e n. Th ea b s o l u t ema xi mu m po s s i bl ev a l u eof. Si sc l e a r l y1 , SI m a x= ( 2 . /+ 1 ) / 4 ,a n d t hegene r alt heor y ofangul arm oment um al s or e qui r est hat. S ' <1 , 5 ' 9 g m a x . Thu s
f orfxe d N ,t hee i ge nval uesS l i ei nt her ange
( 5 8 . 4 8 )
S-. j ( 2 . / + 1- 2 c) ( 5 8 . 4 9 ) wh e r eci sa ni n t e g e rk no wn a st h es e n i o r i t y. ,I tf ol l owsf r om Eq s .( 5 8 . 4 8 )a n d ( 5 8 . 4 9 )t h a tt hep e r mi s s i b l ev a l u e so ft zf o rsx e dN a r e 0 , 2, 4,..., N ( Xe v e n )I N <( 2 . j +1 ) a= 1 j c j e s ( 5 8 . 5 0 4 ) ,3 , 5 , .. ., N ( . N ' o d d) p a r t 2 , 4 ,..., 2 j+ 1- N ( Ae v e n )2 N> ( l j +1 ) c= 0, 1 j j : s ( f 8 . 5 0 : ) ,3 , 5 ...., l j+ 1- N ( No dd ) 0j
Thehr s tc as ecor r es pondst oas he l ll e s st han ha l ff i l l e d,orpar t i cl esi nt hes hel l , wher e ast he s e cond r e f e r st o as he l lm or et han hal ff i l l e d,orhol e si nt he s hel l .
'G.Raca h,l oc.cI ' / .
B25
Th ee x a e ts p e c t r u mo fX i so b t a i n e dbyc omb i n i n gE qs . ( 5 8 . 41 ) , ( 5 8 . 4 2 *, ( 5 8 . 47 ) ,
and ( 58. 49)
N - a 2/+ 1 +. 2- N - a
o,
( 5 8 . 5 1 )
o . =0 . We s h a l ls ho wt h a tt hi ss t a t ei sj us tt h en o r ma l c ou p l i n gs h e l l mod e l
gr ound s t at e
P % ( A . ( A )'..
/+ 1 , . . # . #x . +2 u ( ).'.' f ( ) 1 0. , / +lf
.
.- . -.
Gj .2 / . + . . l . . . .( v ...( ok ( / . ) ,
N 2j+ 1- N + 2 , . . j .
xt
whi c hi st h er e qu i r e dr e s u l t .I ti se v i de n tf r o m E) . ( 5 8 . 51 )t h a tt h ef i r s te x c i t e d
s t at e shave( z= 2. Thes es t at esar eobt ai n ed by br eaki ngoneoft heJ = 0 pai r s .
G l j ( 2 . / + L 1 . j + . N l + 2 ) I j c N . 2 2 2 . 1 + 2 . / 1 + . l N
ascl ai m ed. The s eni or i t yci scl e ar l yt he numbe rofunpai r e d par t i cl esi nt hes e
st at es.
tW edonotd i s c us st hed e g e n e r a c yo ft heei ge ns t a t e s . Thee nu me r a t i ono ft hea n t i s ymme t r i c s t at e sGft ot al Ji nt h ej s h e l li sas t r a i g ht f or wa r dp r obl e m,an dt hea ns we rc a nt h ef ou nd .f or
exampl e,i n M .G .M ayerandJ.H.D.Jens en.op.cl ' / . ,p.64.
qa:
( 5 8 . 5 5 )
p o t e n t i a l o ft h e f o r m F=-G 1 1 1 c .T ot h ee x t e n t t h a t a n ys h o r t r a n g ea t t r a c t i v e
pot ent i a lc an al s ol x wr i t t e ni nt hi sf or m,we hav e a mor e ge ner alt heor et i c al
The mode li s qui t e good atpr e di ct i ng t he gr ound s t a t e ofnucl eiand t he ener gy g ap t ot her s tex ci t ed s t at e s ,butt he pr edi c t ed de gene r ac y oft heexc i t e d s t at e si sl es sr eal i s t i c .
THE BO%ON APPROXI M ATI ON
j us t i E c a t i ono ft hema n y pa r t i c l ts h e l l mo de l .
( l 2 4 :, l J 1 = 1-2
.
/+ l
( 5 8 . 5 6 )
s ugg es t sa v er ys i m pl e appr oxi mat i on i nt hec as et hatt hegi ve n.js he l lha sonl ya
( 5 8 . 5 7 )
( 5 8 . 5 %
527
P- ( Al P ' I A ). , # *z s
AM
.
( 5 8 . 5 9 )
A h.>t 1 . L.
( 5 8 . 6 0 )
2 +4 #+ 9 * * ' * ( 2 g-1 ) + 0+ 2 +4 + ( 2 / -1 ) + .
0 + 2 +4+ ( 2 g- 1 ) +
0+
G 2G 3G
ma t i o nf ort h ec o nf i g ur a t i on/ f .
saa
'
X) 2n e g l i g i b l ys ma l l . l Th e s ec on d i t i on sa r eb e s ts a t i s s e di nh e a v yn u c l e i ,
and we her ec ons i de r onl ys phe r i c als ys t em s . Wes hal lg ener al i ze our pr ev i ous di s cus s i on of s pe ct r os c opy i na s i ngl e
js he l lbywor ki ngwi t h as etpfs t at est hatar ecompl e t e l ys pe ci se d byt hequant um numbe r sb l j m) , ,t he r adi alquant um numbern t he n be i ng f ul l y det e r mi ned by
t he or i gi nalc hoi ce of s he l l s . Thi ss e t can be as l ar ge as t wo nei ghbor i ng har -
mon i c os c i l l a t o rs he l l s( s e et h el e f ts i d eofFi g . 5 7 . 2 ) . No t et h a tt h ep a r i t yo fa g i v e ns t a t ei s( -1 ) 1 . W ea g a i nu s et h en o t a t i on
j t x ).l j mj ) . E Hl J , z ? t a l l -, . x )- h a, -r n a ) .
( 5 8 . 6 2 J ) ( 5 8 . 6 2 : )
whe r et hequ a n t u mn u mb e r s( ( z )de n ot e( n ( j ; ,wi t hn r e du n da n ta sa l r e a d ydi s cus s ed. Fort her em ai nde roft hi ss e ct i on,we as s um e t hatt he s he l l sar e l l e d and par t i al l yil l e d neu t r on s he l l s . Theki ne t i ce ne r gyi sas c al aroper a t orand he nc edi agonali n =, l a , i Fl a . ' )= 3a z. Ta . Cons e que nt l yt he t her l nodynam i c pot e nt i alat z e r ot e m per at ur ec an be wr i t t en
( 5 8 . 6 3 )
d E s uac u- v aSuc' - .
( 5 8 . 6 4 )
( 5 8. 6 5 )
529
( 5 8. 66)
: :
The
enabl e s us t o r ewr i t e t he
' 'a / 3i P ' ! y ' t i'= N' ' ' ? 7 a. y ' j? ? 2 j.j ay ' jJ. f, 7 x - .g z? : z l 1 l y . j s? ? 7 y/ / ' ,. I . b 1 y.
JM
( 58. 70)
.
abJ : l . '; c dJ
Q / . 9 ! p ' . y3. : v( c 1 a ( )c sc . , )
5: *
a n dt h eo t h e rt e r ms a r et h os er e ma i ni n gi n Eqs .( j 8 . 6 3 ) . Wi t ht h ei d e n t i t i e s ( s e eE q. ( B. 2 0 > ) )
( 5 8 . 7 6 )
Th et e r msp r o po r t i o n a lt o Nl c t c ) ,wh i c h gi v ebi l i n e a rt e r msi n. da n d, 4 1 ,
can be s i m pl i f i e d wi t ht he i de nt i t y
V = V Y tj u? Na/ j m1 A. j i ? J i V )(. l umx. / : ms 1 A AJM L /
.
? , 1 a
2 J+ 1 2 3, j sj p sms
.
%+ 1 #
Fur t he r mor e,P ' ( 1 , 2)i si nvar i antunders pat i alr eie ct i ons ,and cons e r vat i on of
lI n or d e rt oe mp ha s i z et h a tL a nd . .a r ei nd e p e nd e nt o f mx . we us et h ea bb r e vi at i o n J ' aE j x . e t c .
B31
ch1 )
a+
l nt hi sway,we obt ai n
X l= J gl t u t 2 , -l ? j ) ( e u- y , )+ 2 u a v a k a j j . t z dt ' l z l a+ . a d l aa da )
-
6 u> Ta+ L
( 5 8 . 7 8 )
Theanal ys i soft he s eequat i onsnow pr oc ee dsexac t l yasi n Se c.3 7. Def i ni ng t he ene r gy w i t hr es p ectt ot he c hem i ca lpot ent i al
f sO a- p , an dc ho o s i n g ua nd t ) t oe l i mi na t eXcl e a d st o
( 5 8 . 7 9 ) ( 5 8 . 8 0 )
kne U + j g ( J j+ u / X j l l. d J, 1 a
and
z
( 5 8 . 8 1 )
Ac
o- j
l j c+ 1 1
f 7
i+ f l )
( 5 8 . 8 2 )
( 5 8 . 8 3 )
u c= # ( c- F)
l ' c= f ( F- c )
r epr oduc est he r e s ul t sofSec .56. W i t hi n ours ubs pac e ,howev er swene ed not
a s s u t n et h a tJ / 7 es i n gl e p a r t i c l ew wr t p f u n c t i o n ss a t i s fvt h e Ha r t r e e Fo c ke q u a t i o n s .
I ti sonl y ne c es s ar yt ha tt he s t at e sbe c om pl e t e l yc har ac t e r i ze d by t hequant um
n u mb e r sf l j mj i . z
lThe pr es entdi s cus si on cons i de rsonl yt he i nt er ac t i on bet ween par t i cl esi n ar es t r i ct ed s etof basi sst at es ,buti ti seas i l ygener al i z ed t oi ncl udean addi t i onali ner tcor e. Ones t ar t swi t ht he
Ha r t r e e Fo c kw' a v ef u n c t i onsde t e r mi n e db yt h ei nt e r a c t i o n wi t ht h ec or e( s e eEq s .( 5 6. 1 6 )t o ( 5 6. 2 4 ) )a ndt h e nc ar r i e spu tt h eBog ol i ub ovt r a n s f or ma t i o no nt h ea dd i t i on al v a l e nc ep ar t i c l e s . l fT.i sau g me n t e db yt h eHa r t r e e Foc ke n e r g yo fi nt e r a c t i o n wi t ht hec or eT.. > . . F .+ P ' l ' r e 5
t hen t here sul t soft hi ss ect i on corr ect l ydes cr i bet hepr oper t i esoft he s eval encepar t i cl e s.
sa2
s at i s ses
z
Th eo pe r a t o rXoi n Eq. ( 5 8 . 8l )i sn o w di a g on a l ,a n di t sg r ou n ds t a t e1 0)
( 5 8.85)
.
( 5 8 . 8 7 )
s ot hatt he oc cupa t i on numbe ri saga i n cont i nuousat6 u= t a . . Thi se qua t i on can be us e dt oe l i mi na t e/ . ti nt er m s ofN. Thequant i t y ofdi r e cti nt er es ti n nuc l e arphys i c si st he e ner gy athxe d N.
Zf* ( X) =) (( C +, j ( l la a
wh e r e( j . ( N4i sde t e r mi n e db yEq. ( 5 8 . 8 7 ) .
( 5 8 . 9 0 )
533
ofk( )i si dent i hedwi t ht hegr ound s t a t eofanev ene venJ== 0-nu cl e us . t Si nce
an dt h es p e c t r u mf o rt h e s ee x c i t a t i on s( Eq.( 5 8 . 9 0 ) 1s t a r t sa ta ne n e r g yg r e a t e r
t han zlmi n( t hemi ni mum val u eof2 . Xa ,2XN ,e t c . )abovet hegr ound s t at e . Tht l s t hepr es e ntmode lI e ad. %t oanene r gl ' ga pt k / ' zmi ni nt a L ' e / ?nuc l e i .
For an odd nuc l e us,we can r e peatal lt he pr e vi ous ar gum ent s .t aki ng t he
s t a t e1 1' , ', . -z 4 1! 0. . a st h eg r ou n ds t a t e .l nt h i sc a s e
( 58. 9l)
To ge tt he e xc i t e ds t a t esofan odd nuc l eus ,w' ec an agai na dd pai r sofquas i par t i cl esi nt he-j ss hel l . The r ei s ,howe ve r ,anot herc l as sofex ci t e d' s t at e s ,w' hi c h
ar e obt ai ne d by s i mpl y pr omot i ng t he s i ngl e quas i par t i cl ef r om t he or i gi nalj a s he l lt o an ew' hs hel l . Thee xc i t at i on ene r gyoft he s es t at esi sgi ve n by ( 58. 92)
and we concl ude t ha to t l d/ ? l / c . J cI 'h at ' eA ? ( )e n er gl 'ga p? ' ? ?l hi s/7 t ? t #/ . 2 Ther ei s s ome e vi denc et hat t hi s m ode li nde ed de s c r i be s he a:) , 'nuc l e i , 3f orex am pl e. t he s e t of Sn or Pb i s ot ope s . 4 The m at r i xe l e m ent s of an ar bi t r ar y ' m ul t i pol e ope r at or be t we e nt he s e
l owl yi ng ( s i ngl equas i pa r t i c l e )s t at es ofan odd nucl euscan be e val uat e di mme d i a t e l y. TheQ = 0c o mp on e ntofag e n e r a lt e n s o rop e r at o rc a nb ewr r i t t e n
N a 7f ' )j FA a ' , . g N( c j h ( a ). y t . v l 3 j : 0l I . a j a
-.
a j
( 5 8. 93 )
lOnecan s how ( s e e Pr ob.15. 1 4)t hatt hest at e O doesi ndeed haveJ== 0-. 2Typi calexci t at i on e ner gi esf orspheri c alnucl eiar e aboutan M e%'f oreNen . 4 and a f eu hundr e d ke Vf brodd , 4. 3A.Bohr .B.R .M ot t el s onsand D ,Pi nes .Phys .Ret x . ,11 0: 936(1 958) .
4L. S.Ki s s l i n g e ra nd R.A.S or e n s on.Kgl .Dt ? l 7 x / k ' ek ' ' i d e n s ku b. Se l s ka b ., V / t ? r . / #5 ' .A ve d d '3 2, No. 9( 1 9 6 0) .
wa
sz4
( ll l ko 1 * =( l rx c l )1 : 1- r -l Fx ol - )r l =r : l rx c I a )E & 2- ( a -I ) &p j )
and we t he r e f or e 5nd
K #0
t l T k nl *-
f t rx o l ) L
( l +Al ) + ' C t z l r x n l l
Ko d d Ae v e n
( 5 8 . 9 0) ( 5 8 . 9 4 : )
K#0
The odd m u l t i pol esar eu nc han ge d by pai r i ng,wher ea st he e ven m u l t i pol esar e
a g a i nr e d u c e dbyp a i r i n ga n db e c o men e g a t i v ef o re< p , ( i . e . , f o rh ol e s ) . Th e s e r e s u l t ss ho ul db ec o mpa r e dwi t hEq s . ( 5 8 . 2 3 ) . As i mi l a rr e s ul tho l dsf o rt r a ns i t i on mul t i pol e sbe t we e n di f l kr entjs he l l s:
.
( . I l JI U3 jl J)= G' J :
( 5 8 . 9 6 )
Thi si spr e ci s e l yt hepr obl e ms ol v ed i nt hepr evi ouss e ct i on,wi t ht hee xac ts pe c-
x ( v + 1 ) s z ( 2 y + 1 ) j l g l ( y z + 3 a z ) . j
whi c h hxest hecoeci ent suand &:
v-
( 5 8 . 9 7 )
t a y tj l *u ( 1 z j )j ) '
( 5 8. 9 8 )
wi t ht h es i g n sc h os e na si nS e c .3 7 . S i mi l a r l y .t h eg a pe qu a t i on( 5 8 . 8 2 )r e d u c e s
t ot hes i mpl econdi t i on
( 2+ J 2 ) += I . G
637
g ( 2 /+ 1- 2 N) / ( 2 J * +1 ) J 2a : r 1 . Th i sa pp r o x i ma t i onyi e l d s
. X E ' ( N) : k ; 2q ( l -2/ n + 1
n
.
( 5 8 . 1 0 7 )
i ' -( 1 X k j ? + 2 l 1 ,
( 58. 1 08)
nX O
2Y I ll . 2 . l f a af x'1 . 2 2
a
( 5 8. 1 091
he l lwi t ha pur epai r i ngf or ce .Eq.( f 8. 1 09)c an bes i mpl i l nt he c as e ofa s i ngl e.js he dt o gi v e
fk2 x ' .- , . 4z , 2 a
.
.
t C k q ) 2 '' : , l l j +1 1
t 5 8 . 1 I 0 )
( 5 8 . 1 l l )
The t he or y m ake ss ens e onl yi ft hi sexpr e s s i on i ss m al l swhi ch i st r ue pr ovi de dt % . I i sl ar ge' enough. l ns um m ar y,wec onc l ude t hatt hedi agon alJ / ? t p r / z z t / t i / b ' at z z ps ' rpot e nl i a l
U + l> . o z
( 5 8 . l l 2 )
538
S9LEXCI TED STATES : LI N EA RI ZATI ON OF TH E EQ UATI O N S O F M O TI ONI Af t e rt hi se xcur s i on i nt ot he t heor e t i ca lf oundat i onsoft he m anypar t i c l es he l l m ode l .we r e t ur nt ot he m or eg ene r alpr obl em ofc ol l e c t i ve e x ci t at i ons bui l ton t he Har t r e eFock gr ound s t a t e ofa Gni t ei nt e r ac t i ng as s e m bl y. I nt he pr es e nt s e ct i on.t he gr ound s t a t ei sa s s um e dt oc ont ai n onl yc l os e ds hel l s . I ft he s ys t em i se xc i t ed t hr ot l gh t he s i ngl e a ppl i cat i on of a pn ebody num ber c ons er vi ng ope r at or .t hen t he r e s ul t i ng s t at es m us t have a s i n gl e par t i cl e pr om ot e df r om t hegr ound s t at et o a hi ghe rs hel l .orequi val e nt l y,m us tcont ai n a par t i cl e hol e pai r . He ncewe m ay hopet o de s c r i be t he s t r ongl ye xe i t e dc ol l e ct i veos c i l l at i ons ass om ege ner all i ne arc om bi nat i on ofpar t i c l e /ol es t at e s . Thi spr oce dur e wi l l now bec ar r i ed outi nt wos t agesofappr oxi m at i on.
TAM M DANCOFF APPROXI M ATI ON ( TDA)
t ) E / / ) , ( x j l= (
59. ( 3 t z )
,
( 59. 3 :) ( 59. 3 c)
u' he r et he nor m alor de r i ng i nt he l as tl i n e agai nr e f er st ot he par t i cl e and hol e oper at or s
( 5 9 . 4)
The f i r s tt wo c om m ut at or s ar es i m pl e.but t he l as t one i s gene r al l yv er y com pl i c at e d.
1Mor e del ai l e d di s cus s i ons of t he appl i c ati on of t hes el l p anl ' -body t echni ques t o nucl ear s pect r os copy c an be f ound i n A .M .Lane,I oc.ci t . ,M ,Bar anger,l oc.ci t . ,and G .E.Br own, ' Uni hed The or yofNucl earModel s. ' qNor t hHol l and Publ i s hi ng Company.Ams t er dam.1 964.
B39
W es t ar tby e val uat i ng Eq.( 59. 3 c)i nt he TammDancof r appr oxi mat i on ( TDA) , 1wher et he al l owe ds t at esi n Eq.( 5 9. 2)ar er e s t r i ct e dt ot he c l os e ds hel l
Har t r e eFock gr ound s t a t e i l I 0. 0 ,= 1 .
!
ax 0' '.bar0s.a .O . z
s t at e sappr oxi mat ed asi n Eqs .( 59, 5)and ( 59. 6) . Thes et e r msbe c ome
. .
A . j * n ! t ' a t j ' t j * ( ) . . aV l ( z , 1 p )
t ot h ep a r t i c l e p a r t i c l ei n t e r a c t i onb y Eq.( 5 9 . 1 0 ) . Th eq u a nt i t ye u- c ji s j u s t
t he unpe r t ur bed Har t r e e Fock e xc i t at i on ene r gy f ora par t i cl e hol e pai r . Si nce
540
. : t 01 L, : t 1 j 1 0 )- 3 , , b b .
t o ev al uat et he i ri nnerpr oduc t
( 5 9 . 1 1 )
( j 9. j a )
T h eo r t h o g o n a l i t yf o l l o w sb e c a u s e( i x n )i st h en t he i g e n v e c t o ro fa h e r mi t i a n
4t x n j ' , a n d Eq. ( 5 9. 1 2 )p r o v i d e st hep r o p e rpr e s c r i pt i o n.
Cons i dernex tt he pr obl em ofcomput i ng t he t r ans i t i on m at r i xe l e m entof s ome m ul t i pol e ope r at or
ma t r i x . Fu r t h e r mo r e , Eq. ( 5 9 . 9 ) do e sn o t de t e r mi n et h en or ma l i z a t i on of
t- p (c 1 . t I F1 / . ? )c b
x b
.
.
( 5 9. 1 3 )
( 5 9. l 4)
( 5 9 . l 5 )
Thus t he t r ans i t i on m at r i xe l ement i sa s um of s i ngl epar t i c l e m at r i x el em e nt s
we i g h t e dwi t ht h ec o e c i e n t sp / z a t / /d e t e r mi n e da b o v e .
butt i r s twe gene r al i ze t he s am e appr oa ch.
RANDOM PHASE APPROXI MATI ON ( RPA) An i m pr ove d appr oxi m at i on can be obt ai ne d by wor ki ng w i t h a m or eg ener al s ys t e m of s t at e st han t ha tc ons i de r e di nt he TD A. I n par t i cul ar .we t r ea tt he gr ound s t at e and t he exc i t e ds t at es m or es ym m e t r i cal l y,al l ow i ng bot ht o have par t i cl ehol e pai r s . Wi t hi nt hi se xpande d bas i s ,t he e quat i ons ofm ot i on ar e s t i l lI i ne ar i ze d. Us i ngt hes am ede f i ni t i ons
t ' a A jH t z x f b % j
.
l x j= b a x
( 5 9 . 1 6 ) ( j q .j . ; a) ( 5 9 . I 7 , )
we r e t ai n al lm at r i xe l ement s oft he f or m
541
i nt he e quat i ons ofm ot i on. Thi sc ondi t i on meanst hatt he ex ci t e ds t at esc an be r e ache d ei t her by cr eat i ng or de s t r o yi ng par t i cl ehol e pai r si nt he gr ound s t at e. For hi s t or i calr eas ons t hi s pr e s c r i pt i on i s known as t he r andom phas e
( 5 9 . 1 8 a )
( 5 9 1 8 : ) .
Th ec o mmu t a t o r s o nt h el e f t s i d ea r ewr i t t e ni nE q s . ( 5 9 . 3 ) .( No t et h a t ( P, Lj )
i so b t a i ne df r om t h en e g a t i v ea d j o i n tofEq s . ( 5 9 . 3 ) . 1 l nc on t r a s tt ot h eTDA,
we now r et ai n a1 1t e r ms i n Eq.( 5 9. 3: )t hatl ' i e l de i t he raq ' b k orba,s i nc et hi s pr oc edur es t i l l gi ve sl i nea requa t i onsofmot i on. Thehr s tcont r i but i on( . : ct / ) ' F )
wasev al uat ed i nt he di s cus s i on oft he TD A .t he s e cond r equi r e s onl yt he s i ngl e
t erm
( 59. 20)
( : E0- ( . ' u- e , ) )- En ' L 4a ( ' 1 j ' -D N '( l . a j ; . p p z , l k ' ? u ' -1 / a j ; v b u( ; ' ' a ' , a ' J- 0
t ( . E ' o- ( e x- 6 , ) 1 -f ' , ) ( p t x ' ' b ' -; u . C( 1 * * t ' ' ' i -u * 4t & ' 1 -0 x ni v( rz # , a j: A , , , .
.
( 5 9. 22 :)
whi ch agai nf or m al i near hom ogene ous s et of al ge br ai ce quat i ons . l ft he com pl et es e t of H ar t r ee Fock s i ngl e par t i cl e wav ef unct i ons i st aken as t he bound s t at e spl ust hec ont i nuum s t at eswi t hs t andi ngwav eboundar yc ondi t i ons . t he n aI lt he m at r i x el ement si nt hi sexpr es s i on ar er e al 2
( 5 9 . 2 3 J)
( 5 9 . 2 3 :) ,
.D.Bohm and D. Pi ne s. Phv s.:,1 . . .82: 625( 1 9jl) ( s ect hecol mnn ent si nSec.1 2) . Thcappr oach di s cus s ed her ew' asor i gi nal l h ' devel oped r ort heel e ct r on gasb) rK.Sawada.Phv s.Ret ' . -106:3-h ( 1 9 5 7 ) . 2l n ourappl i cat i ons,t heHar t r e eFockua&ef unct i onsar eappr oxi mat ed byt he ( bound$s t al es oft he harmoni c os ci l l at or. Fora di s cus si on oft r ansi t i onst ot he c ont i nuun nst al ess ee.t oT exam pl e,F.Vi l l ar s and M .S.W' ei s s .Phys.f er p cr s ' ,11: 318 (1 964)and J.Fr i ar ,Phb n s .Sc :. , C1: 40 (1 9703 .
5*2
( j 9 . g 4 )
Q -) ( ( ' / , t a n , ' ) 1 , -v u n ) Lj l
ub
( 5 9 . 2 5 )
( 5 9. 2 6 )
Th e nt h ec ommu t a t o rwi t hX y i e l ds
o nt h el e f t s i 4 es h o u l db ep r o p o r t i o n a l t ol Ao rt ' ( E q s . ( 5 9 . 3 ) a n d( 5 9 . 2 0 ) ) a l o n g
wi t ht hee qu a t i on sof mo t i on( 5 9 . 2 2 )a n d( 5 9 . 2 3 ) . As s u meno wt h a tEq. ( 5 9 . 2 6 )
hol dsa sano pe r at ori de nt i t y, andt hatt hei nt e r ac t i nggr ound s t a t ecanbedesne d by t he condi t i on
Q 1 ( k 1 ' ( ) )= 0
a l l n
( 5 9. 2 7 )
l ' Fa l- ( ) 1 1 Y( ) )
or t honor m al :
( 5 9. 2 %
( 5 9 . 2 9 )
( Lj , 1 ' 1 p , 1 = ' = 3 . A b b b ,
1M .Bar anger ,l oc.ci t . t hebos on oper at or scont ai n pai r sofpar t i cl es .
( 5 9 . 3 0 )
KA . Q
( 5 9 . 3 1 J ) ( 5 9 . 3 1 : )
Toi n t e r p r e tt h e s ec o n di t i on s , wea s s u met h a tt h et r u eg r o u nds t a t et V%)c o ns i s t s ma i n l yo ft h ep a r t i c l e h ol ev a c uu mk 0 )p l u ss ma l l a dmi x t u r e so fot h e rpa r t i c l e hol es t at es wi t h Jn = 0+. Si nce t he num be r ofpar t i c l e s m us te qualt he num ber
ofhol es ,Eq. ( 59. 31 )r e al l yas s umest ha tNK I N< : <1whe r eN i st het ot alnum be rof
( k 1 %b %b 1 : F ); k $Nb< l y? 0 N
--
( 5 9 . 3 2 )
t ' l ' c I ( Qa , : : 1 n ) 1 I . F0 h- ) , (g 4t a n j ' ' *$ ( : n j t -pt a ' ' j ' ' * wt a p ' j ' )-3 n z .
( 5 9. 3 3 )
The t r ans i t i on mat r i x el eme nt of a mul t i pol e oper a t or f r om one oft he e xci t ed s t at est ot he gr ound s t at e can be i m medi at e l ye val uat e d. W i t hi nt he
( 5 9 . 3 4 ) ( 5 9 . 3 5 )
Th e di me n s i o n of t h e ma t r i xe q u a t i o ns( 5 9 . 2 2 )c a n be r e du c e dc o ns i d e r a bl yb y
not i ng t hatJ i s a good quant um num be r. W e us et her ot at i onali nvar i anc e of -
t h es y s t e mt oa s s u met h a tt al =( n l j mj ; a ndd e sn e
( 5 9 . 3 6 )
I nc on t r a s t ,t ( a b J M 4i sn o t
a ni r r e du c i b l et e ns orop e r a t o r , al t ho u g hweha v ea l r e a d ys e e nt h a t( -1 ) J Y m J z
EA
( 5 9 . 3 8 )
hn b l a b q e( ' l 3 MI XeJ M) l ' l % ) Z i i x mx j n mp l j x l h f ? s / a t $ mlmp + ! ? ' ( J d 9H&( ' l 3-I l ( J 1 J-M) l ' l %)
-
( 5 9 . 3 9 / )
( 5 9 . 3 9 : )
g e n e r a lmu l t i p ol eo pe r a t o ri n Eq.( 5 9 . 3 4 )c a nb e wr i t t e n wi t ht h ea i do ft he
Wi gner Ec kar tt hcor e m as
%M ' z k
u) t u j j sj y )nj
r 8 46
x mqm# M'
=
$ ' k ' ./ X m . & mbI j x J ' j / . l z;t . / A mn J ' j-p ; j l hy; ' A : f ' )
x q g s m . . l x m x p . / p J u ?)j
( 5 9 . 4 3 )
( 59. 44)
j - J'
' .
( I D J' ; I z r a mJ' ) / 1J L
-
e l e me nt si n Eq. ( 5 9 . 4 2 / ) . The s um of t l f y bk v wi t ht he Cl ebs chG or dan c oe c i e nti n Eq. ( i 5 9 . 3 9 / ) i s mme di at e l y ca r r i ed outwi t ht he hel p oft he f ol l owi ng i dent i t y obt ai n ed f r om Eq. ( 5 9 . 4 3 )
mamp M '
:46
Ther equi r e ds um i st he r e f or e gi ve n by
( 5 9 . 4 7 )
wher e
ul a b ; j a j a( . j ) l m . / 1 Jj . J t p i ? F 1 l
( j 9. 4 g )
r e c ov e r e df r o m Eq s . ( 5 9 . 41 )a nd( 5 9 . 4 9 )b ys e t t i n g( p t n '= 0 .
The equat i ons t ot hi s poi ntar e ent i r el y ge ner a land appl yt o at om saswe l l as nuc l e i . l I nt he nuc l e arcas e,howev er ,t he i nvar i anc e oft he i nt e r a ct i on under r ot a t i ons i ni s ot opi cs pi ns pace can be us e dt or e duc et he bas i sf ur t he r . Wi t h
t t x l=f n l j mj ; J r n r )i ti sc l e a rt ha twemu s tme r e l yi n c l u d ea ni s o t op i c s pi nc o up l i ng c oe c i e ntand phas ef ac t ora l ong wi t h eve r y angul ar m om e ntc oupl i ng co-
( 5 9 . 5 0 )
wher et he s ym bol E Ede not e sa r e duc ed m at r i xel em e ntwi t hr e s pec tt o bot h angu-
l a r mo me n t u m an di s o t o pi cs p i n . Th ec o e mc i e n t skq n g j , ( p j r n : / i nt h i sr e l a t i ons a t i s f y
t hes a me s e tofl i n e a re qu a t i o n s( 5 9 . 4 9 )wi t h
v l r a , ; , m
- -
5 x -( 2 J' +1 ) ( 2 F' +1 ) J j y ,
,
J j m
lForanappl i cat i ont oat omss eeP.L.Al t i ckandA.E. Gl as s gol d, Phys.Re t ' . .1 33: , *632(1 964) .
s47
sot ur l oN FOR THE ( IS I DI M ENSI ONAL SUPERM UL TI PL E T WI TH A 3( x) FORCE J nt hi ss e ct i on t he TDA and RPA equat i ons ar es ol ve df or a s pe ci fc m odel n he r et hei nt e r pa r t i c l ef or cei st aken t o be i ndepe nde ntofs pi n and i s ot opi cs pi n. The gr ound s t at e of t he nuc l eus i s as s umed t oc ons i s t ofcl os e ds hel l s and t o have t he qua nt um num ber s. %= L = F= ( ) . Thi s m ode li l l us t r a t es s om e ver y i nt er es t i ng s js t em at i cf e at ur es of t he par t i c l e hol ec al c ul at i ons . The Har t r ee -
Fo c ks i ng l e p a r t i c l ee ne r g i e sn o wd e p e n do n l yo n( n / / ,a n dt h es i n g l e p a r t i c l e
l e vel sc an be char ac t er i z e d by
bec aus e b0t h m :and n: sar e good quant um num be r sf ors pi ni ndepe ndentf or c e s . Thegene r alr es ul t sder i ve d abovear ewr i t t en l n a-/ jc oupl i n gs chemeappr opr i at e t ' orac t ual nuc l e i whe r et hes i ngl epar t i c l es pi nor bi tf or c et si mpor t ant . Al t hough we coul d ex pl i ci t l l 't r ans f or m t o an L-S c oupl i ng s c hem e appr opr i at ef or t he s i m pl es pi ni ndependentm odel .i ti sm uc h m or ec onve ni entt or epea tt he pr e vi ous ana l ys i sf r om t he be gi nni ng.s t ar t i ng wi t has l l ght l y di fe r e ntc anoni c alt r ans f or m at i on
( 59. 53)
( 5 9. 55) Si nc et he i nt er act i on and s i ngl e par t i c l ee ner gi e s ar e as s um e di nde pendent of s pi n and i s ot opi cs pi n,t he bas i s can be r edu ce d by i nt r oduc i ng s t at e s of gi ven L.S.and F,f orex am pl e.
el eme nt sf ac t or s . z S vhen Eq.( j9, 55) i s summe d wi t ht he Cl e bs chGor dan c oemc i e nt si n Eq. ( 55. 56) .t hes pi nand i s os pi ncoec i e nt smaybet akent hr ough
t he s ec ond t er m oft he i nt er ac t i on and appl i e d di r e ct l yt ot he w' ave f unct i on. 'Not et h a tBt orj .a nd Bt orj i .s ot h a tt h e! wo o p e r at or s = b% X f ( -l x-! t z= -b% q f a =l -.
mer el y di f l krb5anJdepe ndentphas e.
s48
=( ' v Z 1 1 2 ( 1 . r a , z j . ms j t ! . ! . 00 ) ( ! . ? ? : , A ! . r n s j , I ! . ! . 0 0 )
whi c hc ont r i but es onl yf or S = r = 0. The /de pendenc e of t he i nt e r a ct i on m at r i xe l em ent si st r e at ed exa ct l y asi nt hepr e vi ouss e ct i on. Thust he r edu ce d
( 5 9 . 5 7 / )
vu T . q b i l m= - N = ;x t g L'+ j )/
L'
I m I t f , , I ,( ( $l b LI P ' 1 / a l mL ) b a L
-
t h epa r t i c l e h ol ei n t e r a c t i o n( 5 9. 5 7 : )i st h e np a r t i c u l a r l ys i mp l eb e c a us et h el a s t
Tabl e 69. 1 Degener ate stat es of the
( 16 ) di men s i on al s pi ni s ot opi c s pi n
super m ul ti pl et s
l
I I
) L L - 1,LsL + 1
l
t e r m pr opor t i onal t o 3s ot s i w cv ani s hes . As t he r e mai ni ng i nt e r ac t i on i si n-
d e pe n d e n to f S orF,wec o n c l u d et h a tt h el 5s p i na n di s ot op i cs p i ns t a t e si n
Tabl e5 9. 1al ll i e att hes am eene r gy. The s es t at est he r e f or ef or m a de gene r at e
649
s p l i to f l f r o mt h eo t h e rs t a t e sbyt h ei n t e r a c t i o ni n Eq.( 5 9 . 5 7 : ) ,a n d we s ha l l
r e t ur nt oi tatt he end oft hi ss ec t i on. l Thepr obl em can be f ur t herr e duc ed by as s um i ngt hatt hepar t i c l e par t i cl e
( 5 9 . 5 8 )
Z ( I 3 r # 7 1 / 2m2 . ! / 1 / 2 ZM ) Y l , , ? , , ( f 2 )Fl : m a ( D)
g ,-t z( * q 2 l j +l ) 2 =( -l ) j j+l )1 'I II zLy -( j . j ; m
.
. .
-- .-
j( ( )( ;( )z . s f
l eads t ot he r es ul t
F numb? F l !mm
( 0 b0 / ,0 f 1 / ( y l 0 a0 l mZ 0 )
The r ec oupl i ng r el a t i on3( not et hate ac h oft he ? js ym bol svani s he sunl es st he s u mo ft h eJ ' si se v e n )
L V! . i i= f L f y L ' k
( 5 9 . 5 9 / )
L j y H ( l ) l . ( ( 2 / a + . 1 ) ( 2 / p + 1 ) ) 10 C V 0 j
.
( 5 9 . 5 9 : )
lI ft hef or cesar ei ndepe ndentofs pi nand i sot opi cspi n, t hehami l t oni ani si nvar i antundert he
t ? %= ( . 6l I c z . l I / , )
whe r e
( 5 9. 5 9 $
( 5 9 . 6 0 )
l , a . r i '
I nt hi se x p r e s s i o nu n l l ri st h er a di a lwa v ef u nc t i o n( s e e . f o re x a mp l e ,Eq. ( 5 7 . 6 ) ) .
i ss e pa r a b l e . Th er e s u l t i n gTDA e q ua t i on s( h e r e ,%b= e .- e , )
( e . , -6 n ) /( ( : ) ) z . ( J &1 -f t l ,Z ? k /t ( : ) 2 z ( / r ? ; ) -0 l a l
equat i on
( 5 9. 6l )
Thes ol ut i onst ot hi sequat i on f oragi venL ar ei ndi c at e d gr aphi c al l yi nFi g.59. l . I fn par t i cl ehol es t at esar ei ncl ude d,t he n n - loft he e i ge nval ue sl i e bet we en
Fi g. 5 9. 1 Pl ot o f) (( & ' j J2 ( 6- 6 . , ) 1a sa
* ab
f u n c t i on of e wi t ht he e i g e nv al u e se ao f Eq. ( 5 9. 6 2 )i n di c a t e db yc r o s s e s .
651
t ' t o p= t b+ fZ ( X22 a b
wa vef unct i on i st he r e f or e
( 5 9 . 6 3 )
r ) . + Z( XJ2
ot h e rn- 1e i g e nv a l u e s
5 9 6 4 ) ( -
n -o = 0
( 5 9 . 6 5 )
) ( ! 7 f , a/j 1 ) ) z , ( / r a )=0 1 / $
o t he rn- 1s up e r mul t i p l e t s
( 5 9 . 6 6 )
W e m ay us et he s er es ul t st oe val uat et he m a t r i x el em e nt soft he var i ous m ul t i pol esoft hec har gedens i t y
A
QL . M - J=l Zr . r c z -( f 1 , ) ! . ( 1+ r 3 ( . / ) 1
ar egi ve n by
( 5 9 . 6 7 )
Eq. ( 5 9 . 1 4 ) , t h et r a ns i t i onma t r i xe l e me nt s of ag e n e r a l i r r e du c i b l et e n s o ro p e r a t o r
( 5 9 . 6 8 )
( 5 9 . 6 9 )
( a b ) , t h er e du c e dr ha t r i xe l e me nt c a nb es i mp l i se dt o
( 5 9 . 7 0 )
Oa
I nt hes pe c i alc as et ha tt hei ni t i a lpar t i cl ehol es t at esar edege ner a t e,t hi se xpr e s -
s i o nb e c o me s( s e eEq s . ( 5 9. 6 4 )a n d( 5 9. 6 6 ) )
( ) j z 1 ( o l p s ) z . : . j g ' L : . : l j r j= V' -j g r L j yt s z . 4 2 ( ) s ej ab
..
u,
( 5 9 . 7 1 / )
o t h e rn- 1s u p e r mu l t i p l e t s
( 5 9 . 7 1 : )
Foreac h Z,we 5nd t he f ol l owi ng r e m ar kabl er e s ul t . The one s uper m ul t i pl e t t ha ti s pus hed up i n ene r gy c ar r i est he ent i r et r a ns i t i on s t r e ngt h, wher eas t he r em ai ni ngn - 1de gene r at es uper m ul t i pl et shav eno t r a ns i t i o ns t r e n gt h what e ye r . I ti s an expe r i me nt alf ac tt hat l owene r g y phot oabs or pt i on i n nucl eii s dom i nat e d by t he gi ant r es onanc e. Thi ss t a t ei sa f tw M t V wi de, and i t s e xci t a t i on ene r gy dec r eas es s ys t emat i ca l l yf r om about 25 M eV i nt he l i ght es t nucl eit o1 0Me Vi nt he hea vi e s tnuc l e i . Thedom i nantm ul t i pol ef orphot ons oft hi sene r gyi se l e c t r i cdi pol e ,a nd t he gi antr es onance al s os ys t e mat i cal l ye x-
Ql M = #=l Z( 3 / 4 =) 1xI M( . / ) JT 3 ( . j )
Thust he e xc i t ed s t a t e m us thave S = 0,F = 1 ,and Ln= Jn= 1 -i ft he gr ound s t at ehasS = F = 0 andLn= Jn= 0+ . The s i m pl e s t pi c t ur e of t he gi ant di pol er es onanc e, due t o Gol dha be r and Tel l e r , 2i st hat t he pr ot ons os ci l l at e aga i ns t t he neut r ons . The m or e s ophi s ' t i cat e d m ode lpr es ent ed her ewasor i gi nal l y pr opos e d by Br own and Bol s t e r l i j .( The obs e r ve d gi antdi pol er e s onanc e m ay be i de nt i he d wi t ht he T = 1 S = 0 , s t at e oft he t op L = 1s uper mul t i pl etand doesi nde e d ex hi bi tmany f e at ur esof t hi sm ode l . I tappe ar satanener gy hi ghert han t he unpe r t ur be d consgur at i on e ne r gi e se a vobt ai ne df r om ne i ghbor i ng nucl eiand c ar r i e sal lt hedi pol et r ans i t i on s t r e ngt h.
J al
x( 7)
2M . Gol dh a G ra nd E. Te l l e r , Ph y s . Re v . , 7 4: 1 0 4 6( 1 9 4 8 ) . 3G .E.BrownandM . Bol s t er l i ,Ph ys . Re v . Le t t e r s , 3: 47 2( 1 95 9) .( Th e s ea u t ho r swe r ep r i mar i l y c o n c e r ne d wi t ht h eF = l . J' '= 1 -e x c i t e ds t at e so fr = 0, J' ' t= 0+nu c l e i . ) %x ea l s o G. E. Br own ,
op.cf l . ,p.29.
5B3
wi t hf ournucl eonsi nt hel sos ci l l a t ors hel l . t hef l r s tne gat i v epar i t yex ci t e ds t at e s
a r ee x p e c t e dt ob e l on gt ot h e( 1 p) ( 1 : ) .pa r t i c l e ho l ec o n fg u r a t i o n wi t hL = I . A1 1t h es t a t e so ft h e( 1 5 )s up e r mul t i p l e tb u i l to nt h i sc on h gu r a t i o nh a v eb e e n
e xp er i ment al l yi dent i f i ed. l I n addi t i on,t her ei se vi denc ef r om i ne l as t i cel ec t r on
( 1 5 ) s up e r mu l t i pl e t swi t hi nt h ef r a me wo r ko ft h eRPA. Th el i n e a r i z e de qu a t i o ns ar egi ve n by Eqs .( 59. 22)and( 59. 23) ,and t hebas i sc anagai nber e duc edbyi nt r odu c i ngs t a t e s o f d e s n i t eF, S, a n dL. J u s t a s be f o r e , t he r s t t e r mi nEq. ( 5 9. 2 1 ) wi l l
not cont r i but ei fe i t her S or F di Fer sf r om z e r o, a nd t he C l e bs chG or da n coe ci e nt sf ors pi nand i s ot opi cs pi n maybet ake nt hr ought hes ec ondi nt e r ac t i on t e r m ont ot hewa vef unct i on. Ther e duc t i onoft heIpar t soft hem a t r i xel ement s
( 5 9 . 7 2 / )
( 5 9 . 7 2 : )
( -j ) L + S + F( v a L b y t z h L l m
Wi t ht h ea s s u mp t i o no 1 ac o n s t a n tJ ,t hep o t e n t i a li sa g a i ns e p a r a b l e ,a n dt h e
RPA equat i ons c an be wr i t t e n3
( E c , -E , , ) 4t ( : ) 9 z . ( c & )+ f r a ' ' ,5 t l t ' kk ' t J ) ! , , ( / ? ' n )+ ( -1 ) L + : + ' ' c f mf p t : s ' l s t / ? ' ' l l -0
( 5 9 . 7 3 / )
( %,+ %) g ' t g : ' s l t l a b )+ r a ' . b5 -E ' . ' kJ ' f k s b j l l msi -( -1 ) L + 1 ' + ' '1 . p 1 , , / ( t 7 s ' 3 , . ( / ? ? ' ) ) J -0
( 5 9 . 7 3 : ) Th ee i g e n v a l u ee qu a t i o nf o l l o wso n mul t i pl y i n gb yr f u ' t p / t e a ,. F 5 e a )a n ds u mmi n g ov e r( a b )
1 - =
j Y L, ) a b( 6n-
uc
eu ,- en+ %b
( 5 9 . 7 4 )
s o l u t i on sf orp o s i t i v ee n ( i n d i c a t e dg r a p h i c a l l yi n Fi g . 5 9 . 2 ) .J u s t a si nt h eTDA,
1W . E.Me y e r ho fa ndT.A. Tomb r e l l o,Nu c l . Ph y s . ,A1 0 9: 1( 1 96 8 ) . 2T.deFor es tand J.D.W al ecka.El e ct r on Scat t er i ng and Nucl earSt r uct ur e,i n Advan.Phys. ,
1 5: 1( 1 9 6 6 ) .
3The e xpl i ci tphas e dependenceon S and F c an beel i mi nat e d by cons i der i ng t he ampl i t udes
554
Z f
f
fa ,
Fi g.5 9. 2 Pl o tof) g( p j b ) 2 ( ( e- : .) 1- ( 6+ : j o ) -1 )a sa f un c t i o no fe
wi t ht heposi t i veei ge nval uesqni ndi cat ed by cr os s es.
1 3 s z1 t o p= =6 : 1r( p . , ) ee
( 5 9 . 7 5 )
Fo rt h i ss up e r mu l t i pl e ti tf ol l owsf r om t h eRPA e q u a t i on st h a t/a t , a n d +a va r e b o t hp r op o r t i o na lt os a L b ,wh i l e( J a v / p a t , =( -1 ) L + : e ' T ( e ( ) +e ) / ( o-e ) . Wi t ht he no r ma l i z a t i ono fEq. ( 5 9. 2 4 ) , t hewa v ef u n c t i o nb e c o me s +l 73 s ( J : )- ( -1 ) 1 , + . 5 + r' ( ' $ (L 2 . 2 . . l O p, ( , ) i LJ
b s t a b
t ' o- e ' t o p
( 5 9 . 7 6 J )
( 5 9. 7 6:)
/1 l j h L l a b )-
a b f oY -f t o p Z( yz t f t o p ' e o ) . ; L 1 22 a b
.
E f ,
e .= o
( 5 9 . 7 7 / )
+j : ) j z . ( c ? ? )= 0 o t h e rn- 1s u p e r mu l t i p l e t s Z r l p /t ( 1 ) 1 L l a bj = 0 a b
( 5 9 . 7 7 : ) ( 5 9. 7 7 c )
f r om Eq. ( 5 9 . 3 5 )wi t h S;r e pl a c e db yR j . Fo rt h ec h ar g emu l t i po l e so fEq. ( 5 9 . 6 7 ) ,i ti sa g a i nt r u et h a ton l yt h eS= 0 ,F = 1e x c i t e ds t a t e sc o n t r i b ut e ,a n d we: n d( c o mpa r eEq. ( 5 9 . 5 0 ) 1
'
555
e l e me n t si n d e p e n d e n to f( a b ) , t h i se x p r e s s i on b e c o me s
( 5 9 . 7 9)
ot h e rn- ls up e r mu l t i p l e t s
Hen c et h et r a n s i t i o n pr o b a b i l i t yi sr e d u c e db ya f a c t o r( e c / e ) 1f r om t h e TDA
r e s ul tf or t he c or r e s pondi ng s t a t es . Thi sr epr es ent s an i m pr ovementbe caus e t he s i ngl e par t i cl ehol e TDA cal cul at i on ge ne r a l l y put st oo m uch s t r engt hi n t he t op s uper m ul t i pl et l
pu s j z df u r t h e ri nt h eRP At h a ni nt heTDA. I na dd i t i on , t h eS= F= 0c o l l e c t i ves t at e hasa I ar ge rt r ans i t i on m at r i xe l e me ntt ot hegr ound s t at ei nt he RPA
2Fort he( 1 Js u p e r mu l t i pl e t ,o nl yt hei s o s c a l a rpa r toft hec h a r g emu l t i p ol e sc on t r i but et ot he t r a ns i t i on ma t r i xe l e me nl s ,a n dt her i g hts i d eo fEq s . ( 5 9 . 6 9 )t o( 5 9 . 71 )a nd ( 5 9. 7 8 )a nd ( 5 9. 7 9 ) mu s tb emu l t i p l i e dby1 / $ ' . , / 1. 3Fora ni l l u s t r a t i o n oft h e s ep oi nt s , s e eV. Gi l l e t an d M .A.M e l k a no f l Ph y s . Re v . , 1 3 3: B11 9 0 ( 1 9 64 ) . tThes r s tc al c u l a t i on soft h i st yp ef o rO1 6we r ec ar r i e dou tb yJ . P. El l i ot ta n dB.H. Fl o we r s , Pr o c.Ro y.So c .( Lo n d o nq ,A24 2: 5 7( 1 95 7)a nd G.E.Br o wn,L.Ca s t i l l e j o,a n dJ .A.Ev a n s , Nu c l . Ph ys , 2 2: 1( 1 9 61 ) . Th ep r e s e n tc a l c ul a t i on i sdu et o T. W. Donn e l l ya nd G. E. Wa l k e r , Ann . Ph ys .( N. F. ) ,( t ob ep ub l i s h e d ) .
:se
( s e e Fi g .5 7 . 3 ) . The r e s u l t i n g pa r t i c l e h ol es t a t e sa r el i s t e di n Ta b l e5 9 . 2 ,
1 8 . 5 5 1 7 . 6 8 2 2. 7 6 1 2 . 3 9 1 1 . 5 2 1 6 . *
( N. K) , ( t obep ubl i s he d) .
Th ep ar t i c l e h o l ei n t e r a c t i o ni sc ompu t e df r om Eq .( 5 9 . 5 1 J ) .I nt hi s
c al c ul at i on t he nucl e onnucl eon pot e nt i al F i st aken t o be ofa nons i ngul ar
:i nM e V
'
. >.
. . .. . 1 #2
1, 3, 3. 4 3 ( ) : 1 9 1 & 1 % : A
1 0 29 * ) -
Fi g.6 9. 3 T= 1s p e c t r um of O! 6c o mput e da s de s c r i %d i nt he t e x t . Al s os ho wn i st he s up e r mul t i pl etst r uct ur e obt ai ned when t hes pi ndexn-
Cal c u i a t e
spect r um
S u mr pul t i pl e t
a ppr oxl m at l on
s:7
F( 1 , 2 ) =( 1 F( r l z ) 1 #+ 3 F( r j z ) 3 #) j . ( j+ / u( 1 , 2 ) ) 3 P= $ ( 1- 11 . qz ) 3 P = 13+ 11 . ec )
e-Ht ' l z
( 5 9 . 8 1 )
1 / : , = 0. 8 5 47F' l 3 y . = 0. 7 2 6 1F1
e= 135* k i = 12 4 Me V
l 6x1 0
-6
4.
t ;
r f
3 -
2 -
q Q <
2 2
>
3A / i /@
3 0 2 8
a-
e( Me V)
Fi g. 69. 4 Ex mr i me nt a l s l xc t r u mo fe l Kt r o nswi t hi n c i de nt e ne r gye t =2 2 4 Me V i ne l a s t i c a i l ys c a t t e r e da t6= 1 3 5 9a saf u nc t i onofn uc l e a re x c i t a t i on e ne r gy k . Th e
c al c u l at e ds pe dr u m u s i n gt h es t a t e so f Fi g.5 9. 3i sa l s os ho wn ( wi t ha r b i t r a r y
over al lnor mal i zat i on;t he i nt egr at ed ar easf ort he vari ouscompl e xe sagr ee wi t h
:%
( ; >1 9 Me Vi nt hepr e s e n tc ' a s e )s ot ha tt h eus eofs i mp l eb ou nd s t a t e si si n a dequa t e. Neve r t hel es s,t hegene r alagr ee menti sve r ygood. I na cc or d wi t h our pr evi ous modelc al cul at i on,wc al s oi nv es t i gat et he s uper mul t i pl et s t r uct ur e of t he s es t at e s . The appr opr i at e par t i c l e hol e con-
a s s umi n gt h a tt h eob s e r v e d( n #)s t a t e sh a v eb e e ns h i f t e df r om a n or i g i n a lf n l ) c o n h g ur a t i on a c c or di ngt o Eqs .( 5 7 . 1 4 )t o( 5 7 . 1 6 ) . a n d wet h t nr e t a i non l yt h e s p i n i n de pe n de ntpa r toft h ei n t e r a c t i o ni n Eq.( 5 9 . 81 ) . Th er e s u l t i n g F= l me mb e r sof t h e( 1 5 ) s u pe r mul t i p l e t sa r es h owni nFi g . 5 9. 3 . Th es u p e r mu l t i p l e t
appr oxi m at i on c l e ar l y pr ovi des onl y a qual i t at i v e des cr i pt i on of t he ac t ual s pec t r um .
6X EXCI TED STATES : G REEN' S FUNCTI O N M ETHO DSI I nt hi ss e ct i on,we agai ns t udy t he col l e c t i ve ex ci t a t i ons ofa fni t ei nt e r ac t i ng as s e m bl y,butwenow appl yt he m or eg ener aland powe r f ult e chni que sofquant um Ee l dt he or y.
THE POLARI ZATI ON PROPAGATOR
Asdi s cus s ed i n Se c.l 3,t her es pons e oft hes ys t e mt o a pe rt ur bat i on oft hef or m
( 6 0 . 1 )
i s gove r ned by t he de ns i t ycor r e l at i on f unc t i on, or pol ar i z at i on pr opa gat or . I nt hepr es entc ont ex tofa hni t es ys t em,t he poi ar i z at i on pr opa gat ori sde hne d by2
( 6 0 . 2 )
c .- # ( - F) n +d ( F-x )S .b t .
Jus tasi n Se c.59,weagai ncons i deronl yc l os e ds hel lgr ound s t at es .
( 6 0 . 3 )
' Th ea pp r oa c hi nt hi ss t i oni sl a r g e l yba s e do n D. j . Tho ul e s s , Re p. Pr o g. Ph ys . , 2 7: 5 3( 1 9 6 *. > al s oW . Cz y : ,Ac t aPh y s . Po l o n . . R: 7 3 7( 1 9 6 1 )a ndG.E. Br o wn.Co ur s eXxl l l Nu c l e ar
Ph ys i c s ,i ne e pr oc . I nt .S c h oo lofPhy s i c s: En r i c o Fe r mi , '* 9p. 9 9, Ac a de mi cPr e s s ,Ne w Yor k, 1 9 6 3. 'Not et h at h e r et h eor d e rof t h ei n di c e son1 1i s s l i g ht l yd i S e r e n tf r o mt ha t i n Eq. ( 9. 3 9 ) ( c o mpa r e Fi o .9. 1 8a nd * . 1 ) . Th e pr e s e ntc hoi c ei s mor ec on v e ni e n ti ns t ud y i n g pa r t i c l e hol ei n t e r -
569
I 1 ( x, x' )= ( ' ! ' ( , h Fi f , f ( x ) ( . , ( x ) f1 ( x ' ), ; ( x' ) ) y k F( ) ) l ' I 1 ( x, x' )- ) ( wp ( t x l f +A ( x ) +z ( x' ) 1 @, ( x' ) HA s ; . j ( / -r ' )
a ;2 8
A p t
( 6 0. 4 J ) ( 6 0 . 4: )
( 6 0. 5 )
f , a -( En - fc l+ i . r l
-
l l A p z ; a , ( ? ' -/ ' )
a)
=
( -i l ' hj n
n=0
t ? ' ) c j t / ' ) ) p 0 ) c o n n e c t e u
s6c
t her ef or eomi t t ed f r om t he s ubs eque ntanal ys i s. . , ar ei ndepe nde ntoft- t ' ,howe ve r ,and cont r i but eonl yt ot heu )= 0 c om pone nt
o f1 7( ( t ) ) . Th e y wi l lt h e r e f o r eb eo mi t t e de n t i r e l yb e c a u s e we h e r ec on sn e
our s e l ve st ot hos ec om ponent swi t h( . o' # 0. Al t er na t i ve l y,we c oul d cons i dera pol ar i z at i on pr opa gat ordef i ne di nt e r m soft heCuc t ua t i on dens i t i es
( 6 0 . 8 )
( 6 0. 9 ) ( 6 0 . 1 0 )
wher et he c ' sar e now i nt hei nt er ac t i on r e pr es ent at i on. A f ami l i arc al c ul at i on l eadst o
Gy b ( =- #) + p ( F- t x ) at / a a l- 3 z a u)-t s. + i q ( . , o- o ) u- i y l
( 6 0. 1 1 )
Theonel owes t or de rc ont r i but i ont on i ss hown i nFi g. 60. 1 :, and a na ppl i c at i on ofW i ck' st heor e m gi v es
/ H0 A v : x j ( ?- ? ' ) -. ( 2 , 42. fd o ) , fd u ) , f t 4. ( r . z a l ) i ' Gb 0 p z ( t a , 2 ) E ' t > ' t , ' ' ' e ' t ' z t t ' ' '
( 6 0. 1 2 )
561
( 6 0 . 1 3 a)
Hk s i a j t ( z a l= - 2 ( 2 =) 1f d k Gj z t t sj ) Gj o s t t sj -( x ; )
( 6 0 . 1 ? b)
i f l 2
P@TP
( 6 0. 1 4 )
a nd t he del t af unct i on ca n be wr i t t e n
He nce we f i nd
Pr Pt 7
TN J ' E I
( s, . .. J t x ? j t t p c! . P r l . np , ) p # a a = T r
*
( 6 0 . 1 6 )
andt hesr s t or derFe ynm andi agr am sar es howni nFi g. 60. 3. The( . : , 5i nt e gr at i on i st he s am e i n1 7 0t ht er ms .uhi l e changi ng dum m y var i abl e spc c c o . i nt he s ec ond
562
t e r ma ndu s i n gEq. ( 6 0 . 1 3 )g i v e s
Z Hj l / x : p v t / . ? a . l Xt t l t t z g p p i n cHo n c , : a j t f . , ? l
( 6 0 . 1 8 ) ( 6 0. 1 9 )
t t l l
# Y )
t t l j
p z
%
( z ) j
( s2
f x l 3
r z
%
7 + C F Y ?
f . t l ;
P( . t ) 5
f . t l 2
Fi g. 6 0. 3 Fe y n ma nd i a g r a ms c o nt r i bu t i ng t o
( 6 0 . 2 0 )
t h a tt h e ke r n e lK * d e p e n dson l yo no ) ,a si n Eq.( 6 0 . 1 9 ) . Th e mo s tg e n e r a l
h t t
. ' < . .f
yv
563
H4 ( s )= I 1 0 ( f . s ) )- r 1 0 ( ( s ) K* ( t s ) H( ( s )
The i nv er s e oft hi s m at r i xr e l at i on yi el ds
( 6 0 . 21 )
( 60. 22)
He n c e H( t s )i sa h e r mi t i a n ma t r i xf o rr e a lo )a n dc a nb e di a g o n a l i z e d wi t ha
uni t ar yt r ans f or m at i on
( 6 0. 24)
s howst ha tt het r ans f or mat i onU al s odi a gonal i z esH ( ( . t ) 4 -l . Someoft hedi agonal mat r i xel ement sofI 1D( t . , ? ) haveapol eat t hee xac te xci t at i onener gyoft heas s e m bl y
l 1 ' c o = En- Ev ,whi c h means t hatt he cor r e s pondi ng di agonalm at r i x el em e nt s of
a r ej u s t t hee i g e n s r a l u e so f1 1 4 t . u , ) -l . Uea r r i v ea tt h eg e n e r a lp r i n c i p l et h a tt h ez e r o
ei z e nt ' al ue so f H( ( s) -lc ons i der ed asa J l ' k r / c / t p / ?qfc oc or r e s pond r t pt he c ' o/ / c cr ' c
X t a ? ) -l= 0
( 60. 27)
( 6 0. 28)
N'g 1 4 0 ( ( s) 1- K * ( c o j j q s ; a jCy j= 0
xb
!N V . Czy,l oc.cf r .
s64
'
' s ) :
-
Fi g.6 0, 5 Fe y n ma ndi a g r a ms f orn s u mme di nt h ea ppr ox i mat i o nK*; k r K! k ) . ourdi s cus s i on oft heel ec t r onga s , land t heappr oxi ma t i on her e,asi nt ha tcas e,
( 6 0. 2 9 )
Thi ss e tofl i ne ar ,hom oge ne ous ,al ge br ai c equat i onspos s es s e ss ol ut i ons onl yf or ce r t ai n ei genval ue s6 n .
W en ow s e p a r a t et hei n di c e s i n Eq . ( 6 0 . 2 9 ) i nt ot her e g i o n sa b ov ea n db e l o w E an dc h a n g edu mmyi n d i c e ss ot h a taa n dAa l wa ysr e f e rt op a r t i c l e s( , A> F) , a n dja n dJ . t a l wa y sr e f e rt oho l e st j s p , < F)
+' t a p . r P ' I #A ) 1 Ga )- 0
a> F, j<F a >F, #<F
A >F, p , <F ( 6 0 . 3 0 : )
( 6 0. 31 t 8 ( 6 0. 31 : )
56 6
s-) r 'x A
.
a- y ,1 ,-jA , ) ( ; ' 1 j J =0 ( 6 0 . 3 l b )
I fwer ec al lt hedef i ni t i onsi n Eqs .( 59. 1 0)and ( 59. 21 ) ,wes e et hatt hes ee quat i ons
c an be r ewr i t t en as
( 6 0 . 3 3 4 )
( 6 0. 3 3 : )
i nt h ev i c i n i t l .o t -t h eu n p e r t u r b e dp a r t i c l e h ol ee n e r g i e s( n a me l y,e n: 4 : k : x- 6 j ) . t h el o we s t or d e r po l a r i z a t i on pr op a g a t o r( Eq.( 6 0 , 1 3 c ) 1c a n be r e p l a c e db y ( 6 0 . 3 4 )
( 6 0 . 3 5 )
whi c ha r ej u s tt h eTDA e q u a t i on s .
566
4U) < . :j e n+ ( e A- e s )
-
( 6 0 . 3 6 )
t ha t a r es t r o ng l ys h i f t e df r o mt heun p e r t ur be dp a r t i c l e h o l ee n e r gi e s( p a r t i c u l a r l y t ho s es t a t e ss h i f t e dt ol o we re n e r g i e sf o rwhi c ho ; k ; 0 )s h ou l db et r e a t e di nt h e
RPA r a t he rt han t heTDA ;t he s ear egen er al l yt hemos tc ol l e ct i ves t at es .
CONSTRUCTI ON OF n ( u ; )I N THE RPA
>F, /<F
( 6 0. 3 7 J )
( 6 0 . 3 7 : )
RP A
( 6 0 . 3 8 )
( 6 0 . 3 9 )
Thi sexpr es s i onc har ac t e r i ze st hel i ne arr es pons ei n RPA t oane xt er nalpe r t ur ba-
t i o no ft h ef o r mo fEq. ( 6 0 . 1 ) .l tt h e r e f o r ep e r mi t su st os t u d yt h ee x c i t a t i o nof
nucl ea rs t at e s obt ai ned by el e ct r on s c at t er i ng,phot on pr oc e s s e s .we ak i nt er -
a c t i o ns ,a n de v e nh i g he n e r g yn u c l e on s c a t t e r i n g( t ot hee x t e n tt ha tt h e Bo r n a p p r ox i ma t i o na pp l i e st ot h ec x c i t a t i o np r o c e s s ) .
667
6IQREALI STI C NUCLEAR FORCESI Sof ar ,t hedi s cus s i on ofhni t es ys t e m shasbee nc as ti nr at herge ne r a lt e r m s, and t he t e chni que s appl yt o at om s and m ol ec ul e s ,as wel las t oa t om i c nucl ei . I n t hi ss e ct i on we br i e iy di s cus ss om e oft he s pe ci hc pr obl e m sa r i s i ng f r om t he
s i n g u l a r na t u r eo ft he n u c l e o n n u c l e o nf or c e . Th eh a r dc o r e( a n ds t r on g
I npr i nci pl e,t heEr s ts t e pi nt r e at i ngasni t es ys t em wi t hs i ngul art wobodyf or c es i st oc ons t r uc tt he H ar t r e eFoc ks i ngl epa r t i c l e wav ef unct i onsf oran e Je ct i v e t wobody i nt er a ct i on obt ai ned by s um m i ng t he l adder di agr am s . Thi ss um , i nt ur n,de pe ndson t he c hoi c e of s i ngl e par t i c l e wav ef unct i ons . Such a s e l f cons i s t e ntpr obl em i scl ea r l yv er y di c ul t . Asan i l l us t r a t i on,wes hal li ns t ead as s um et hatt hes i ngl e par t i c l ewavef unc t i onsand e ner gi e sa r eknown f r om our di s c us s i on oft he s he l l m odeland c ons i dera s i ngl ei nt e r act i ng val enc e pai rof
ne u t r on sorp r o t o n sou t s i d ead o u b l y ma g i cc o r ewi t hc l o s e d ma j o rs h e l l s( e . g . , He 6 ,O1 8 ACa 4 2 'e t c . ) . Th i ss i mpl i s e dp r o bl e ms e r v e sa sa pr o t o t y pef ora n y
s t udy ofa sni t es ys t e m wi t hs i ngul arf or c es . I n addi t i on,i ta l s o al l owsa di r ec t com par i s on wi t h ex per i m ent , f orweknow f r om Se c.58t hatt hem a t r i xel e me nt s
Fi g. 61. 1 Two nucl eons out s i de cl ose d s hel l s . ' #' -i ndi cat es t be degener at e val ence l eve l sand ' 'denot e st he cl os eds hel lcore. lThe s i m pl i f i ed di s cuss i on i nt hi ss ect i on f ol l ows t hatofJ.F.Daws on,1.Tal mi .and J.D.
Wa l e c k a,An n.Ph ys .( N. F. ) ,1 8: 3 3 9( 1 96 2 ) ;1 9: 3 5 0( 1 9 62 ) . For a t h or ou g ht r e a t me ntof nu c l e ars p e c t r os c o pywi t hr e a l i s t i cf o r c e s ,s e e B, H.Br a nd ow,Re v . M od. Ph ys . , 3 9: 7 71( 1 9 6 7 )
and M .H.Macf ar l ane,Cour seXL,Nucl earSt r uct ur eand Nucl earRe act i ons.i n Proc eedi ngs oft : fheInt e rnat i onalSchoolofPhys i cst Enr i co Fer mi , '' 'p.457,Academi cPr es s ,New York, 1 96 9.
su
( 6 l . l )
Thebas i cpr obl em i st o com put et hi st w opar t i c l ebi ndi ng e ner gy, aswel last he e xci t a t i on s pe c t r um oft he nuc l eus . To a chi e ve t hi sai m ,we as s um e t hatt he i ne r tc or es e r v esonl yt o pr ovi dea s e l f cons i s t entHar t r e e Fock pot ent i alwhos e l ev el s@Gar eal r ea dysl l e d. W et hen wor ki nt hei ndepe ndent pai rappr oxi m at i on and wr i t e a Be t heG ol ds t one equa t i on f or t he val enc e pai rt hatal l ows vi r t ual e xci t a t i ont oan ys t at e se xc e ptt ho s eal r e ad yocc u pi ed. Si nc et hi sl ' nt e gr ale quat i on
d e p e nd son l yo nt h ec o mb i n a t i on F /, i t ss o l u t i o ni s we l l de sn e de v e nf o r s i n g ul a r
pot e nt i a l s .
BETHEGO LDSTO NE EQ UATI ON
( 61 . 2 J ) ( 61 . 2 : ) He r et h ei n d e x n de n ot e st h es i n g l e pa r t i c l el e v e l sf n l mt J -s )a v a i l a bl et ot h e
val enc e pai r ,and we as s ume i ni t i al l yt hatt he unpe r t ur bed s i ngl e par t i cl es pec t r um ha st hef or ms hownont hel e f ts i deofFi g.5 7. 2. Thecor r es pondi ngs i ngl e -
569
oft h es e de gener at es t a t e s
' a ( . 1, 2)i K
' V
njn a( 7 21
-
C, C u ' (l ) ( ? . , , ( 2) ) T, l a J? ': a
x' c? ( ) * t r ) , = jl 3/ . u . . . Ja j ? J r r cI 1: j / ; ; ) l ;l l !, ) ; !1 1 ; :
Q
a k l . 1 , 2)- xa (l . j. a(
: z rJ
. ? 1.
Z. I? l i j
: z
? :1 ? ! ; j
c hoos et he c oe mc i e ntC) xb 1 / 1 1s ot hatt hent l mer at or si nt het i r sts um i n Eq.( 61. f5)
N ' ani s hi de nt i cal l y
,
l nt hi scas e.onl yt he s e cond sum i n Eq.( 61 . fa)r em ai ns:f ur t her m or e.al lt he s t at esi n1 2 'i nvol vean exc l t at i on t o hi gh ers he l l ss ot hatt he num e r a t or sN N i l li n gen er albe s m al l ert han.orcom par abl e ui t h.t he denonl i nat or s. Thi sr ef or m ul at i on oft he or i gi nale quat i ons( 61 . 2)i ss t i 1 1Ne r ) di f l i cul tt o s ol ve be c aus et he e xac te i ge nval ue sappe ari nl hede nonp i nat or si n Eq.( 6l . qa. . . W' e m ay now' , howev er .obs er ve t hat ) Z'r uns ove r al ls t at e s U her et he Na l enc e par t i cl es ar e pr om ot ed t o ex ci t e ds t at e s( i nt he har m oni c os ci l i at or nl odel . val en ce par t i c l e s m us t be m ove d an e ven num be rofos ci l l at ors paci ngst omi xi n
s t a t e soft hes amepar i t y) . Asa r es ul t .a1 lt heener gy denomi nat or si nt hes um Y'ar el ar ge( atl eas t2/ i o . ): k :81M e v. , 1i nt heos ci l l at ormode l )c ompar ed t ot he
e n e r g ys h i f t sf ' a- E t ob ee a l c u l a t e db e l ow ( af e w Me V) .a n d wema yt he r e f or er epl ac e Ex bJ 'Fy o. i nt hes et er ms . Thi s appr oxi m at i on al l ows ust o wr l t e
z .
, . , :? 2
570
( 61 . 6 ) )b e c o me s
e qu a t i o n sde t e r mi n e st h ec o e t T i c i e n t sCj u 1 j 2 . a n dt h eN a n i s hi n go ft hed e t e r mi na nt gi ve st he e i ge nv al uesFa. l ti scl eart hatEqs .( 6l . 7)and ( 6l . 8)r e pr oduc e Eq.
( 61 . 5 J)be caus et hec ondi t i onofEq.( 6l . 6)e l i mi nat e st hef i r s ts um i n Eq.( 6l .5 c) .
The di s cus s i on c an be gr eat l l 's i m pl i t i e di f we appr oxi m at et he H ar t r e eFock $ i ngl epar t i c l e u as ' ef unc t i ons r / , ,and ene r gi es En Q hos e of t he har m oni c in 2 by t os c i l l at or . l nt hi sc as e ,t he per t ur bat i on bec omes
t h a tr e p r e s e n t st h ed l j / e r c n c vb e t we e nt h et r u e Ha r t r e e Fo c kp ot e nt i a la n dt h a t
oft he har moni c os c l l l at or . ( To b es ' e r y expl i ci t .1 1 l= . P' ( r)- al . s ,wher et he
t i r s tt e r m i st he change i nt he pot e nt i alwel ll ea di ng f r om t he s pe c t r um on t he l e f ts i de ofFi g.57. 2t ot hatol 7t h el ef ts i de of Fi g.57. 3,and t he s e cond t er mi s t he s pi nor bi ti nt cr ac t i on. ) W es ha l lbe c ont entt ot r e athbi nt i r s t or der pe r -
n h( E' 0 , . - f. zl 8, , ,, , , ,3 a., , ,! Cj a 1 l d n i ) , -0
Att h ee n do ft h ec a l c u l a t i onwema yi n t r o du c et h es i n g l e p a r t i c l es t a t e s( n l jj -j )
t hat di a gonal i ze hj . and t he r e s ul t i ng s i ngl e par t i cl e consgur at i on ene r gi es E 0 - ./ 3 j ' v- : , / ? 2.- c :- 6 ac an be de t er mi ned e m pi r i c al l yf r om t he e ner gi es of ne i ghbor i ng odd nuc l e i . The l i r s ts t ep i n obt ai ni ng t he ene r gy l e ve l s Eu and coem c i ent s C,J I 2 ' u 2i st o
671
av er l 'i m por t ant s i m pl i f i c at i on.f or t he t u' ebody wav ef unc t i on ' n ' n zi s an k e i ge ns t at e oft he ham i l t oni an
n: 2, ? )
( 6l . 1 2)
X =. 1 . ( xl.xz )
x = xa- xI H jc an be r e u' r i t t en a s
P = p:- p:
p= ; ( p:- p: l -.
'
p2 P2 How s s-. - - nl c u zx 2- . - 4, z . , 2 4 . ,cxz 4nt l , 7 whi c hs epar at e st he c ent er of m as b m ot i on of t he N al e nce pal rf r om t he r el al l ' k ' f v m ot i on. The e l ge ns t at es of Ho a s wr i t t en i n Eq. ( 61. 1 4) t ake t he f or m
m as s and n H E. t l ml . ! . l A ? 5 ! J r / ? s y .t 1 or t h er e i a t l v eN N a : ef u nc t l o n. Ea c ho ft h e p e ,n s t at esc an beexpande d asa 1 1 nearc om bi nat i on oft he or l gi nals t a t es> n(l ) q ' ; ( 2h wi t ht he s am e t ot al t q opar t i e l ee ner g y '( and he nce s am e el gen:al ue of . / Y( , ) be ca us et he l at t er f or m ae om pi et es e t ofei gens t at e s of t he s ame ham i l t onl an Ho . Thuswe haN e
% . . x ( X) +n t x) = s uY - ? k I ? ? zNnzC / n , ( 1 ) c # ' n a ( 2 ) !s s
u' he r e5' 2c l enot e . al Ipo s s i bl el u' ( ? / / t z r ? / c Vcu f l at es#t xc l ? t ' r t z ? c' t ' ? ' J / ?t l l ci ni t i alJ ' / t z / t p . Thes e or t hogona lt r ans f or m at l on br acke t s l 1 1 j nz. Y? ? have bee ne xt e ns i s el y
NJ
.
j . .
' ' '? ' ' 'i 0 1 l nz b ' 1 71 . / . / v . n ' -1 . 1 l 1 1 : .N 1 7 ' h ?t1
( N ot et hatt he s um on nj nzi n Eq,( 6l . l f)can be appl i ed di r ec t l y 't ot he wave f unc t i on $0 n , n aon t he r i ghts i deofEq.( 6l , 8Js i nc et he quant i t ) 'Ey o .i st he s a me f ora l 1 t h ed e g e n e r a t es t a t e si nf z ' y, ) Th ee x p l i c i tc a l c u l a t i o no fkc t . ui sc o mp l i c a t e dby ' t her e s t r i c t e ds um Z' i n Eq.( 61. 8) -uhi c he oupl e st hec ent erofma s sand r el at i veuave f unc t i onsoft he
N ' a l enc e pai r , I ti st her ef or e conv ' e nl en:l or e ur i t et he s um as
N-' N' N'
s72
Thef i r s tt e r n ls un l sov eral I. 5 ' / t z / t p . q 'b s ' i l l le ner g) ' di j h ' l r e n:/ t ? ? ? ?1 y 0.and t hes e c ol l d
t er mr em ov est hos es t at est hatvi ol a t et he PauI i pr i nci pl e. W e ne gl ec tt hes e c ond
s e c t i o n. I fo nl yt h et i r s tt e r mi sr e t a i n e d,t h ec or r e s p on di n g wa v ef u n c t i o n4 0
s at i s f i est he e qua t i on
/ 0 % . ? 1 ( Xx )- ( p x( X) f r , , ( x), -
( ojj y j .
4 0 : . k ? l ( x* x). . ( / s ( xJ ' . J O I x) t l ' Wi t hi 1t h ede g e l e r a t es e tof s t a t e sQ. ys t h ema t r i xe l e me n t A' ) ? ' l z ' 1 / 0 , ) , i nEq. N ? 1 ,
. .
%1 1
( 6l . 2 0 J )
r', 1 . 1
-( , ( ?
s, ,- . ,
Thee ner gyde nom i nat or si 1 Eq.( 61 . 2 0/ ) )ar eagai 1 )atl e as tasl ar geaszho t ;
t ot he s ame de gr e e of appr oxi m at i on as bef or e . we e an t he r e f or er ewr i t et hi s e quat i on as
E, 1 -1 , 0a 1 E' nI p z I ; J 1 '
e quat i on
-
( 6l * 21 b)
( 61 . 2 2 )
He nc et hemat r i xel eme nt sr e qui r ed i nEq.( 6l . 20J)can b eobt ai ne d di r e c t l y wi t h Eq.( 61 . 21 bqr r om t he di s cr et ee i g enval ue s oft he di f l kr ent i ale quat i on ( 61 . 22) . Theunper t ur b ed (U ' =0)s ol ut i onst o Eq.( 6l . 22)ha ve a l r eady bee n gi ve n i n Eqs .( , 5 7. 7)t o( 57. I 2) 't . he y ar e pl ot t e di n Fi g.6l . 2f ordi f l er entv al uesof/ .
1W ea ss un n et hat I ' ' i sdi agonali n/ .
573
s o l ut i o nsu t t oEq. ( 61 . 2 2 )t og e t he r wi t ht he
squar e of t he txactJ wave s ol ut i on / z : st o
0. 9 0. 8 07 06 05 0. 2 0
1 . 0
1 u1 5 I 2
t o Jl l z ! I 1 2 dr= 1 . Al s os ho wn a r et he
x 7 N7
x t .
r a ng e s of t h e h a r d c or ea nd a t t r a c t i v e 0.1
i nt e r a c t i on si n Eq.( 61 . 2 3 ) .I Fr om j .F.
Dawson.1 .Tal mi ,and J.D.W al ec ka.Ann.
-
Ph ys .( N. F, ) .1 8: 3 3 9( 1 9 6 2 ) . Re pr i nt e d b yp e r mi s s i on . )
X
( ) 2 0 . 6 1 . 0 1 4 l 8 22 2 . 6 30 bNT i 1 + 1 / M 6.1
p r =
P ' o
e v r
y . r
( 61 . 2 3 )
y , = 1. 45F-l c= 0. 4F
Uo= 434 M e V
wi t ht h ep a r a me t e r s de t e r mi n e df r om a f i tt ot h el , S n u c l e o n n u c l e o n ph a s e
s hi f t . Thr oughout t hes ec al cul a t i ons t he os c i l l at or par amet e ri st aken as
7 +
-
Fi g.6 1. 3 Ex pe r i me nt a la n dt h e o r e t i c a lt wo ne ut ron bi ndi ng ener gy and l owl yi ng exci t at i on s pect r um of01 8. Thet heor et i calr e sul t s we r ec omp ut e dus i ng( a ) 1 h es i ngu l a r Br u e c k ne r -
2+ + 0 4
4 0*
The o r y
:74
a n dr e p l a c i n g /k . n , , . +s . +. ,i n Eq.( 61 . 1 6 ) .I nb o t hc a s e st h es i n g l e p a r t i c l e
c o ns g u r a t i o ne n e r g i e swe r et a k e nf r om O1 7 :e ( l # . j )x 0 ,E ( 2 . u)= +0. 8 71Me V, a n de ( 1 #! . ) = +5 . ( ) BM e V.
PAU LI PRI NCI PLE CO RRECTI ON
To i nc l u d et h ee f l k c t so ft h e Pa u l ip r i n c i p l e ,wed e sn epr o j e c t i onop e r a t or sP a n dQr e pr e s e n t i n gt h es r s ta n ds e c on dr e s t r i c t e d' s um on t her i g h ts i d eo fEq. ( 6l . 1 7 ) .l fEq .( 6 1 . 8 )wi t h Hjr e p l a c e db yP r i smu l t i p l i e db yP ' ,i tc a nb er e wr i t t e n asan i t e r at ed oper a t orequat i on
P G= P ' +P ' i t -Hz %. p ' +r ' P-p -P ' PQ F+ . fo Hv U -Hv
.
-
( 6 1 . 2 4 )
( 6 l . 2 5 )
Equ a t i on( 6 1 . 2 4 )c a nb er e a r r a n g e dt og i v e ( 61 . 2 6 / )
'
G0( 2 ? n 1 p n zH P ' / Rl n ) :
Thust hef i r s tPaul ipr i nci pl ecor r ec t i on i sgi v en by
.
( 61 . 2 7 )
( 61 . 2 g )
) .Gv N p= -G/-Q . . G( t i o
0-
a l s oi n c l u d e ac o r e po l a r i z a t i on t e r m( Fi g.61 . 4 )i nt h ee t l k c t i v ei n t e r a c t i o n.
1B.H.Br andow,I oc .ci t . ;M .H.Macf ar l ane,I oc.ci t .
57:
I ti sc l e art hatt hei ndepe nde nt pai rappr oa ch al s oc an beus e dt o 5nd t he gr ounds t at epr ope r t i e sofnucl ei . Ede netal .havec omput e dt hebi ndi ngener gy and dens i t y ofO l 6 us i ng t he har moni cos ci l l at or f r a mewor k.l A s omewhat di fer ent pr oc edur ei st o us et he G mat r i x cal cul a t ed f ornuc l e ar mat t e r asan ef l kc t i vepot ent i ali n a Har t r e e FocklorThom as Fer m it heor y3ofhni t enuc l ei .
=
>
F@ f r
F xr e -p o l a wz a t i on
A com pl et el yc ons i s t entcal cul at i on w i t ht he G m a t r i xf or a sni t e nuc l eus ha s neve rbe enc ar r i e d out .
PRO BLEM S
15. 1. Pr o v et h ea s s e r t i o nt h a tt h es ol u t i o n st o Eq.( 5 6. 1 7 )c or r e s p on di n gt o
di f l kr ente i ge nv al uesar e or t hogona land t hatt he de gener at es t at esc an al wa ys beor t hogona l i z e d.
15. :. Pr o v eE q. ( 5 8 . 3 3 ) .
15. 6. Us i ng t hes e c ondquant i z at i on t ec hni que sofSec. 58 ,s how t hatf ore ven
N
I J 1 + 1 j r x 2 j + l j l l N j ( 2 j + l l j t y j p g j y ) j a )
I nt hem anypar t i cl es he l lm odel ,obs er v et hatt hi st r ans i t i ons t r eng t hi se nhanc e d wi t hi ncr eas i ng N and r ea che sam axi m um f brahal f l hl l ed s hel l .
1 R . J.Eden.V.J.Emer y.anu S.Sampant har.'r oc. Ro y.So c. l Lo n # o n l ,A1 5 3: 1 7 7( 1 95 91 )
A2 5 3: 1 8 6( 1 9 5 9 ) ; s e ea l s o H.S. Khl era n d R. J .M c car t h y ,Nu c l . Ph ys 6 1 1( 1 9 6 6 ) . .. % : 2K. A. Br u e c k ne r . A. M. Lo c k e t t . a n d M . Rot enber g,l oc.c/ r . ,whi chcont ai nsot herr ef er ences . Fora r e vi ew oft hi s approach.s ee M .Bar anger s proce edi ngs oft he I nt er nat i onalNucl ear , ' Ph y s i c s Co nf er e n c e .Ga t l i n bu r g .Te n n e s s e e ' 'p.659.Academi c Pr es s .New Yor k,1 967:and . Cour s eXL.Nu c l e a rSt r u c t u r ea n d Nu c l e arRe a c t i on s n Pr oc.of' ' The l nt er nat i onalSchool .i ofPhys i cs' Enr i co Fer mi g . ' 'p.51l . Academi cPr es s,New Yor k,1 969. 3H .A. Be t he , Ph y s .Re t ' . , 1 6 7: 8 7 9( 1 96 8 ) .
s7e
O bs er vet ha ti fe i t hers he l li shal fsl l e d, t hi squant i t yvani s hesand al 1t hes pl i t t i ng c omesf r om t hes pi ndep ende ntpar toft hei nt er ac t i on.
1 s. 7. P r o v et h a tt h es t a t ei n Eq. ( 5 8 . 5 5 )h a st h e qu a n t um nu mb e r si n di c a t e d.
wh e r et h ec o e c i e n t sof f r a c t i on a l p a r e n t a g ea r ed e hne db yt h er e l at i o n
l ) j 2
J 1k 1 ' )
.
( Th es y mbo lb l j b . / 2 . j 3 )me a n st h a tt h ea n g u l a rmo me n t a mu s ta d du p,t h a ti s , 1 . / 1 -. / 2 l <. / 3<71 +. / 2 ) . ( > )Pr o v et ha tt h es a mer e l a t i onho l d sf ort h es t a t ei n Eq.( 5 8 . 5 4 )( t a k ek= 0 ) . 15. 9. As s ume t h e0 +( g r ou n ds t a t e ) . 2 + ( 2 . * Me V) , a n d 4+ ( 3 . 5 5M e V)s t a t e s i n O1 8b e l on gt ot h e( # 4 . ) 2c o ns g u r a t i o n. ( J )Pr o v et h a tt h e on l yp o s s i b l eJnv a l u e sf ort h r e ei de n t i c a lpa r t i c l e si nt h e
677
( t z ) Pr ovet hei de nt i t y
'
t h ed ou b l ec ommu t a t o ri sacn u mbe r( s e ePr o b.1 5 . 1 7 ) . t h eRPA t hu sp r e s e r v e s t hi se n e r g y we i g h t e ds um r ul e . t 15. 17. ( J) Show t hat t he el ec t r i c di pol e mome nt of a nucl eus me as ur e d
r e l at i v et ot he cent e r ofm as si sgi v en by
o J $ l x ( J . ) g i . 3 ( . / ) 4 ' r 3 j
( b )I ft h ei n t e r a c t i onp ot e n t i a li so ft h ef o r m F( xj y ) ,d e r i v et h edi p o l es um r u l e
f or N = Z .
A P P EN D I X ES
r t z ) -j R o d t t ' t z l
( ( z ) H :z N -p . z
/ , 7.
Thes e desni t i onsconv er ge onl yi nt hes pe ci he dr egi onsoft h ec om pl exz pl ane. butt hef unc t i onsc an b e anal yt i c al l yc ont i nue d wi t ht hege ner alr el at i ons
.( . a I F c)1( I- c)= 7
.
s i nr r z
s80
APPENDI XES
rt z+ l )= zPl z l
and i tt her e f or er educe st ot hef ac t or i alf unct i on f ori nt e gr alva l ues
r( n+ 1 )= n!
ni n t e g r a l
/ ( 1 ) =j * f ) d t e l l n t My
w he r ey i sEul e r ' scons t ant . Us e f ulnum er i c alv al uesar el i s t e d be l ow
( 4 0)= -! .
( ( 1 . )Q : 2 . 61 2
( ( 2 )- =2 / 6a ; 1 . 6 45
r( ! . )= Vz r; s1 . 7 7 2 r( l )= 0! =l
( 0)= 1 . 3 41
( ( 3 ): k : 1 . 2 0 2 ( ( 4 )= , . , 4 / 9 0; k ; 1 . 0 8 2
r( ); k 0. 9 0 6 4 r( J )=Jv' =; e0. 8 8 6 2 r( : ) ); k ; 0 . 91 91
y 0. 5 772
l , ( o= ( # ( d ( z z ) j z . 0 o j j n ( a . )
77 *( 2 1l ,+ j h -( 1-2 ' t t '
p-0
e ?a;1. 781
N umer ouss er i e sand de hni t ei nt e gr al sm aybee xpr e s s e di nt e r m soft hepr ec e di ng f unc t i ons: t
1- Ft X ) t t ' ' ) J x c d x e . x A l j z d x e rx + ! 1 =C 1 -2 1 R ) U ( n ) ( ( N J
-
J o d x x , l c s c h x -j * n d x s i n h x
-
z, -l
2 ( 1- 2 n )r( n )( ( n )
iAl l bu tt hel a s ti nt e g r al i nt hi sl i s t a r et ak e nf r on l H. B. Dwi gh t , e ' Ta bl e sofI n t e g r a l sa ndOt h e r M at hemat i calDat a, ' '4t h ed. ,chap.12,The Macmi l l an Company,Ne w York,1 964.
APPENDI XES
681
j = o t sx n l s e c h x =( c o J x c x o m s j j l x
*
=
2r( a )p=0 j l( -I ) p ( 2 p+ 1 ) a
j c o d x x . a j s e c h z x =j x o d x o o r s j a l x
=
2 2 , 4 1- 2 2 / )P( a )( ( n- 1 )
.
n> 0
Th eBe s s e l f u n c t i on#: ( x) ma yb ed t n e db yt h ei n t e g r a lr e p r e s e nt a t i o n
L L, L?= i e i j k l k
( B. 1 )
whe r ee i ki st he t ot al l y ant i s ym met r i c uni tt e ns orand a1 1angul arm oment a ar e m ea s ur ed i n uni t sofh. A l t houghJ coul d beahr s tquant i z e d oper a t or
L l ?
e t c .
Q - J, ; t ( xll' P
P ) y j y s-z j yk ( x ) d x e t c .
'Thi sdi s cus si on i s ver y br i ef , Fora mor ede t ai l e da na l y s i ss e ean yb a s i ct e x to n qu a nt um mechani csandes peci al l yt r e at i s eson t het he or yofangul armoment um s uch asA . R.Edmonds, * * An gu l arM ome n t um i n Qu an t u m Me c h a ni c s , ' 'Pr i nc e t onUni v er s i t y Pr e s s i nc et on,N . J. , . Pr 1 9 5 7 orM ,E. Ro s e .% s Mu l t i p ol e Fi e l d s . ' 'John W i l ey and Sons ,I nc. w Yo r k,1 9 5 5 . Th e . Ne t r eat mt nther ef ol l owst hatofEdmondsver ycl os el y.
*2
APPENDI XES
J= l . l Eq.( B. 1 )i si n d e mn d e n to fa n yp a r t i c ul a rr e pr e s e n t a t i o n,a n da l lt h er e s ul t s
de pend onl yo nt he :f t Wc c ommut at i on r e l at i ons . W e de fne t he r ai s i ng and l owe r i ng ope r at or s
Jk=J x+ i J y
and t hes quar eoft he t ot alangul armoment um oper at or
( B. 2 ) ( B. 3 )
J k1 . / z n )- A i . +, *1 . / -+1 )
Al l mt= R. /+ mt f l- m + 1 ) 1 1
desne sa par t i cul arc hoi ceofphas es ,and
( B. 5 )
( B. 6 )
E l > , J2 ) =E P, . 6) =0
coupLl NG OF Tw O ANGULAR M OM ENTA: CLEBSCHGORDAN CO EFFI CI ENTS
( AJI ! -( J, J l ) -( J , J2 )- 0
Company,Ne w Yor k.1 968.
( B. 9 )
AppENnl xEs
Onecompl e t es e tofc o.
. ng oper a t or si st he r e f or ede*ned by
r ot a t i onali nvar i anc ei mpl i e st ha tj and m ar e cons t ant soft he mot i on. Si nce
t he s e bas esar ee qui va l ent ,t he y mus tbe c onnec t e d by a uni t ar yt r ans f or mat i on
( B. 1 0 )
pa r t so ft h ewa v ef u n c t i o n( t hi sr e s u l t wi l l b es ho wnb ye x p l i c i tc o n s t r u c t i o n; s e e Eq .( B. l 7 ) ) . Th eor t h o g on a l i t ya n dc o mp l e t e n e s so ft h es t a t e sp y 7 j hj m)a nd l y . / l mb . / 2 M2 )i mp l yt h er e l a t i o ns t y / l ? F l 1 h mz 1 y 7 1 mt ' j z ? . n 2 ' )= 3 ml m l ' 3 m a m z , ( y / l J ' z . / r nl y . / l j z l ' r n / )= ' J J ' 3 , . , ( B. l 1 )
) (I y / l hi ms( y / l hj mz - Z I y 7 l , : 2 1 h? n z )t y . / l m, . / z mz i
J -1 mz
and i tf ol l owst ha t
? Nl Mz
( B. 1 2 )
Jm
J z=Jl s +J z ,
( B. 1 3 J )
J2= J(+ Jl+ 2 JI . J z ( B. l 3 : ) i nt heE n i t eba s i sI y / l ml . / a r r l 2 ) .S i n c et h eo p e r a t o r sJla n dJIa r ea l r e a d yd i a g onal ,i ti sonl y ne c es s ar yt o di a gonal i zeh and Jl . J2wher e 2 Jl . J c=Jt + A -+Jt -h++ u t z hs
Fort hehr s tope r at or ,wew r i t e
( B. 1 4 )
2 Jl J2 l y / l h. / r ? i )= n I y y l h. / r n )
( B.
l 6 )
ux
AppENnj xEs
I j t-A I <j*. / 1 +A
( B. l 8 )
wi t he ac h va l ueo joc cur r i ngonc ea ndonl yonce . Ther es ul t i ngCG coe ci ent s
a r ede t er mi ned onl yupt o ove r al lr e l at i v ephas es . Thusac ompl et es pec i sda t i on oft heCG coe ci ent sr e qui r esanaddi t i onals eto pha s eco nv ent i o ns;t hes t andar d choi c eli st hatt heCG c oec i e nt sar er e aland s at i s f y
( B. 1 9 J ) ( B. l 9 : )
.
j L M1 h ml I . / 1 J 1j mb= ( -1 ) 7 2 + M 2l j z-mz j mj j / c j j j -1 ) ( B. 1 9 $ L +i (
2 1+ l 1 .
( L i j / A 7 1 *1 . / 1 0 . / 1 m, )= 1 ( j 3 & l 1 j j- -1 r . / l . / 1 ( X ) )= ( -1 F1 M1 ( l jj +1 ) 1
s ym bol
( M . / 1 l M l q 3 N ( j j . i l J z m a L l j j . j . j ) . y ( y j s y j j g y j a j y j j g j j . m y . )
whi c h hast he f ol l owi ng pr ope r t i e s:
( 8. 2 2 ( z )
=
r ? 1, -. r z ; z -r ? :3
) , . j . / 1 / , +. y : . ( -j m b
.
h
-3
j ; z z y ) ( .
2Not et h atf orh a l f i nt e gr a l /: ( -1 ) 7 m= ( -1 ) ' n 1= -( -1 ) J + m. '' 3M .Rot e nY r g ,R.Bi v e n s . N.M e t r opo l i s , an dJ .K. Wo ot e n. J r . , K * f ' h eq ja nd 6 J ' Sy mbo l s ,
APPENDI XES
B85
) <( . / 1 2 mj 2 . / 3 mq l . / i 2 j j . / ? n ) ,( B. 2 3 )
orby coupl i ng t he s ec ond and t hi r dt of or mj z jand t hencoupl i ngjjandg ' z 3t o f or m/
x( / i ml J ' 2 3 =2 3 I j t . / 2 3 j m? s( B. 2 4)
Ei t h er oft he s es c hem e s gi v es a com pl e t e or t honor m albas i s ,f or t he pr oper t i es
oft h eba s i ss t a t e s1 . / 1 z nl h m2 j j r n a )a n dt h eCG c o e c i e n t si mp l y k x( J ' l . / 2 ) j t ' z . / 3 . / ' m'( . / 1 / 2 ) . / 1 2 J ' 3 j m3= 3 j k , k , z b j . j b m . m Z p ( . / l . / 2 ) . / 1 2 j j . / r n)( ( J ' 1 hl j j 2 j ? j mi jl aj m
.
( 8. 2 5 ( 7 )
p1jm aF a:
Z ( . / 1 , , 7 1 j z ' n z . / a mq ? ' r : . / , mb . / c mz hr , 7 3 1( B. 2 5 : )
( B. 2 6 )
Thes et r ans f or m at i oncoe ci ent sc anbepr ove di nde pende ntofm i nt hef ol l owi ng way. Cons i der
( B. 2 7 )
*6
APPENDI XES
Fr om t he de ini t i on,i ti ss e en t hatt he 6 js ymbol sa r ei nva r i ant under ( l )a nyp e r mut a t i o no ft h ec o l u mn sa n d un d e r( 2 )t h ei n t e r c h a ng eoft h eu pp e r
and l owerar gum ent si nea chofa nyt w ocol um ns . Anot herve r y us e f ulr e l at i on
t h a tf ol l o wsf r o m Eqs . ( B. 2 3 )t o( B. 2 7 )i s
Th e6 jc o e c i e n t sa l s oh a v eb e e ne x t e ns i v e l yt a b u l a t e d. l
I RREDUCI BLE TENSO R OPEBATO RS AND THE W I G NERECKART THEO REM
( B. 2 9 )
w e now i nt r oduc et he W i gner Eckar tt he or em.whi ch s t at e st hatt he m de pendenc e of t he mat r i x el e me nt of an i r r e due i bl et ens or oper a t or c an be
1M .Rot e nl xr getal . ,l oc.ci t .
687
' ' Koj m S K j j ' ? ? 7 ' X j ' t n ' I r( K( ? ) . y j m-= ( -l ) K J j ' ' . . . . . q x y' g ' ' p j rx8 : y jh ' i '. ( j ) . ; > j ) . ; ' .
( B. 3 0 )
The commut at i on r el at i ons ( B. 29) be t wee nt he angul ar mome nt um and TI KQ)( us i n g J2= KJJ-vJJj , Jz l g ja n dt h es e to fl i n e a re q ua t i o n s dehni ngt heCG c oemc i e nt s( B. 1 7)s how t hat
, .
, 2 ! . Y ! * j m ) , =jl j. .l ) j N . j m )
, .
a sp r ov e df o l l o wi n g
Eq.( B. 27 ) ,
3.Theor t hogonal i t y oft heCG coemci ent si m pl i est ha t
Eq. ( B. 2 9 )a n df r o mt hede h ni n gs e tofl i n e a re qu a t i o nsf o rt heCG c o e mc i e n t s ( B. 1 7 )t ha t t h equ a n t i t y A ( A ' Q) B EN 's Kj ( ? j Kj:2 1 A' 1 K:KQ$F( AI QI ) L ' ( K?;c ) ( B. 31 )
OIO1
i sagai n an i r r educ i bl et ens oroper a t orofr ank K. A s pec i alc as eoft hi sr e s ul t i st he s c al arpr oduc :oft wo t ens or oper a t or s
( B. 3 2 )
s88
AppENol xEs
whi c hi sa t e ns or oper at orofr ank ze r o and t her ef o i ns r e com m ut e s wi t h J. By er t i ng a com pl et es etot s t at es , us i ng t he W i gner Eckar tt heor e m , and us t hede Eni t i o i ng
noft h t6 js y mb ol , wtc a np r ov et h a t
.
I nex act l yt hes amef a s hi on, t hem at r i xe l e m entofa s i ngl eoper at ori nac s c he m ei s oupl e d
( B. 3 3 )
/ z
) y/ K 't l 1 F( A ) 1 y : / 1 ,
,
,,
( B. 3 4J)
K / ' ) t z / c ' l j r t x l h z / c ) ( B. 3 4 : )
.
I N D EX I
Addi t i o nt he o r e m f o rs ph e r i c a l ha r mon i c s , 516 Ad i a b a t i cp r o c e s s , 1 8 7 Adi abat i ce l swi t chi ngon. ' ' 59-61 ,289 Anal yt i c cont i nuat i on,1l 7p,297-298, 3023 03 , 4 93 Angul armoment um,344,5 04,571 p r evi ew of ,5 81 -588 Angul ar m om ent um oper at or .5 05 Anomal ousampl i t udes ,489 Anomal ousdi agr ams ,289
Bog ol i ub ov r e pl a c e me nt ,2 * ,2 01 ,2 0 3 ,31 5 , 489 Bo g ol i u b ov t r a n s f or ma t i o m 31 6 a, 32 6 3 3 6 , 527337 Bohrr adi us, 25 Bo hr so mme r f e l dq ua n t i z a t i on r e l at i o n,42 5 , 484 Bol t zmanndi st ri but i on,39,279 Bol t zm ann' scons t ant y36 Bor n appr oxi mat i on,1 88,197 /, 219:259,3 45, 368
An t i c ommut a t i t mr e l a t i on s ,1 6 Bos e Ei ns t e i nc on de n s a t i o n, 4 4, 1 98 2 *, 21 1 , At oms,116,121 ,1 68/.195 /,5 03,508,5 46,567 481 r i g o r o us de r i v a t i ono f , 41 a ands uper conduct or s ,441, 446,476 # BCSc o he r e n c el e n gt h. 42 6 . 46 5 , 4 69 Bo s o n ap pr ox i ma t i o ni ns h e l lmo de l ,5 2 6-
5 2 7 , 5 7 6 p Bo s o ns , 7 , 1 9 8 -2 2 3 , 3 1 4 31 9, 4 7 94 9 9
Bet he sal pet e requat i on,21 9 c ha r g e d , 2 2 3 /, 3 3 6 /, 5 ( f#, 5 01 # c he mi c a l p ot e nt i a l , 2 0 2, 2 0 6, 21 6 , 4 93 c o nd e n s at e , 2 X, 4 9 3 a t t i ni t et e mp e r a t u r e , 4 9 24 9 5 movi ng, 223 #,33 6/,5 01 # no nu ni f or m, 4 95 -4 9 9 densi t ycor r el at i onf unct i on,ll3 p di s t r i bu t i onf u n ct i on. 3 7 , 21 8, 31 7 Dy s on ' se q ua t i o ns , 21 1 21 4, 2 2 3 # Feynmanr ul e s: i nc oordi nat es pac e,208-209 i nmome n t u ms p ac e , 2 09 21 0. 2 23 # f i e l doxr a t o r , 2 * Gr e e ng sf u nc t i o ns , 2 0 3 21 5 gr ounds t at eener gy, 31 #.201,2 07,318 h a mi l t oni a n, 2 X, 3 1 5 Hei s ene r gpi ct ure, 204 Hu g e n hol t z pi ne sr e l a t i o n,21 6,2 2 0 ,2 22 , ll3 p
i nt e r a c t i onp i c t ur e , 2 0 7 2 08
ki net i ce ner gy.205 Le hma nnr e p r e s e n t a t i ons 21 4 21 5 moment um om rat or .204
09
en
I NDE X
Con de nut e . 3 3 , 2 *, 2 2 0 , 3 1 7 . 4 91 i nac h a nn e l , 5 0 2 , nu me ro -r at or , 2 01 2 0 2 i d e a l BOK g a s , 4 2 mr t ur ba t i o nt h e or y , 1 9 9 , 2 0 7 21 0 me a s u r e me nt o f , 4 9 5 p ot e nt i a l e ne r g y , 7 t m, 2 05 2 0 6 mo vi n g, 5 0 2 / pr o m rs e l f ene r r, 21 1 , 2 1 5 , 21 9 a n ds u xr f l ui dde n s i t y, 4 9 5 t e mm r at ur eG- n' sf u n c t i on, 4 91 s u r f a e ne r g y, 4 9 7 -4 9 8 t h e r mo dm a mi cp ot e nt i a l , 3 7, 3 8 , 2 02 , 2 07 wa v ef u nc t i on, 4 8 9, 4 9 2 vacuum s t at e, 201 bou n da r yc on di t i on , 4 9 6 Wi c k' s t h e or e m, 2 0 3, 2 23 # a t f i ni t et e mx r a t u r e . 49 4 -4 9 , 5 Ha r t r ee qu at i o nf o r , 4 9 0 f se ea l s oHa r d s ph e r eBOR g a s1 I n t e r a c t i ng s p a t i al v a r i a t i onof y 4 9 7 Bo s e> ) Br u mk ne r Gol d s t on et h e or ya nd t h e r mo Co nde ns a t i one n e r g yo fs u m mo ndu c t o r ,4 1 9 , d y na mi cp ot e nt i a l , 2 8 8 28 9 4 5 3 Br u kn e r ' s t b e or y , 1 1 6 , 35 73 7 7 , 3 8 2 3 8 3 Co vg ur a t i o ns p a c e , 7 Bu l kmod ul u s , 3 0, 3 9 0, 4 0 7 Co r mct e ddi a g r ams , 1 1 3 , 3 01 -3 02
Bu l kpr om r t yof ma t t e r , 2 A3 49
Co n s t an t of t hemot i o n, 5 9 Co nt i n ui t ym ua t i o n. 1 8 3 , 4 20 , 49 6 Can o ni c a l e - mb l e , 3 3 Co nt r a c t i on s . 8 7 -8 9 , 23 8 , 3 27 -3 2 9 Ca n oni c a l mome nt u m. 4 2 4 4 2 5 Co om r pa i r s . 3 2 03 2 6 . 3 5 9 -3 *. 4 1 7 , 441 Ca no ni c a lt -n m f or ma t i o nt op ar t i c l e sa nd bi n di nge n e r g y y 3 z s , 3 3 6 ho l e s , 7 0 -7 1 , l 1 8 #, 3 3 2 , 5 @$ 5 0 8 , 5 4 7 boundst at ewavef unct i on,336 # Cha r g e d e n s i t yo mr a t o r , 1 8 8. 3 5 3 Compo l ar i z a t i o np ot e nt i a l , 5 7 4, $ 7 7 p Cl wv dN x ga s , 2 23 p, 3 3 6 /, 5 X #, 5 01 / Cor r e l a t i on e n e r g y .2 9.1 5 5 ,1 63 -1 6 6 ,1 6 9 #, Ge mi Olpo t e nt i a l . 3 4. *, 7 5. 1 B 7 ,3 2 7 ,5 2 8 2 8 *2 8 7 5 3 2 , 5 3 5 an ddi e l xt r i cf u nc t i o n, 1 5 4 Ys o ns , 2 02 , 2 06 , 21 6 , 49 3 a ndp ol a r i z a t i onp r o pa g a t or , 1 5 2 h ar d s ph e r eg a s , 2 2 022 2 Cor r e l a t i on s : i de al . 3 9 -41 , 43 i nn uc l e i , 3 6 2 -3 6 3 , 3 65 -3 6 6 , 5 7 2 5 7 3 c l m s s i c a l l i mi t . 3 9 4 0 t wopm i c l e . 1 91 1 9 2 d i F e r e n i ns ux r c ond u ct i n ga n dn or ma l Coul o mbe ne r g yof nu c l e i , 3 5 s t a t e , 33 5 . 4 5 3 a Co ul ombi n t e r a c t i on, 2 2, 1 8 8 e l e c t r o nga s , 2 7 8 , 2 8 42 85 ( Se ea l s oS c r e e ni n gi na ne l e dr ong a s l Cou pl i ng c on s t a nt i nt e g r a t i on,7 0 ,2 3 1 2 3 2 , f e r mi o ns ) ha r d s pb e r e- , 1 7 4 280, 37 9 i d e a l , 45 48 , 7 5. 28 42 85 Cr e at i onox r at ors ,12 Cr i t i cal angul ar vel oci t y,499,5( f# p h o n o n s , 3 9 3 , 4 1 0 # , 4 8 5 4 8 6 a ndp r om rs e l f e n e r g y . 1 X Cr i t i c a l c ur r e n t . 47 6 p Cr i t i caliel d, 415, 451, 453, 474# Ci mu l a t i on, 4 8 3. 49 8 f 7 l n t t s i l l s cl a l xvo ne qt l a t i oh . 4 g g -s Yp Cr i t i c a l t e mrr a t u r e o f B o s e g m s , 4 0 , 2 5 9 2 6 1 Cl e bs c hGor da nc mc i e nt s , 5 44 , 5 8 2 -5 8 4 Cr i t i c al vel mat y,4K a,482.487,5*, Cl oe f e r mi onl oo ps , 9 8 , 1 3 Cr os ss e ct i on,s cat t er i ng,189,1 91,314-31 5 Ce mc i e n t s of f r a c t i o na l p a r e nt ag e , 5 2 3 a , 5 1 6 p Cr y s t al l a t t i c e . 21 , 3 0 , 3 3 3 , 3 8 9 . 3 9 0, 3 9 4 3 96 Co he mn l e ng t b: ( S e ea l s oPho no ns ) Cur i e' sl aw,254 #, 309 ,,5*, BCS, 4 26 , 4 65 , 46 9 Cur mntox r at or, 455 Gi n s b ur g a>nd a ut h e or y , z3 3 , 4 7 2 s ul x= nduct or y 4zz,426.433. 472 Cy cl i cpr ox rt yoft r ace. 229 Col l ct i v emod e s , 1 7 1 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 3 -1 9 4, 5 38 Co l l i s i o nt i me , 1 8 4 p ,1 81 , 1 95 #, 3 0 8. 3 09 #, 31 0 # Dampi ng,81,119 Co mmut a t i onr e l a t i on s , 1 2, 1 9 . ne by ef r e qu e n c y, 3 33 , 3 9 4, 3 9 5 n, 1 9 6, 4 z t c n Compr -i bi l i t y . 3 0. 1 X, 3 : 7 J , , 3 03 91
( Se ea l s oDi s c o nn ct e dd i a ra ms )
I NDE X
s91
Deby eHi kkelt heory,278-281 ,290, Debyeshi el di ngl engt h, 27 9,3 0* 308 Debyet emper at ur e,394-3 95, 448 Deb y et h e o r yof s ol i ds , 3 8 9, 3 93 -3 9 5 Def ormednucl ei , 51 5 Degener acyf a ct or ,38, 45 Del t af unct i on,1 01, 246 Dens i t y: off r eeFer migas. 2* 27 ofHe3andHe4 #480 ofnucl earmat t er ,348-352 of s t a t e s , 3 8, 1 6 62 6 7 , 3 3 3 , 44 7 Densi t y cor r el at i on f unct i on, 151, 17 4,21 7 3 ( 1 0-3 03, 558 anal yt i cprom rt i e s,181 n,3 02-303 f orbosons, 2l? p f o rf e r mi ons , 1 94 #, 3 0 2. 3 0 9 , atf i ni t et emper at ur e, 3( *. 3 02 Le t l man nr e p r e s e nt at i o n, 3 ( *3 01 pe rt ur bat i onexpansi on,3 01-302 andpol ari z at i on,153-1 54.302 r e l a t i o nt op ol a r i z a t i onp r o pa g a t o r , 1 53 , 3 2 r e t a r d e d, 1 7 3 , 1 9 4 #, 3 ( 03 01 , 3 07 t i me o r de r e d, 1 7 4. 1 7 5 D ens i t yiuct uat i onoper at or, 117 #,1 89 Depl et i on,2 21,317, 488 Des t r uct i onoper at or s,1 2 Deut er on, 343 Devi at i onoper at or: f orbos ons, 489 f o rd e n s t t y, 1 5 1 , 1 7 3 , 3 K, 5 6 0
f orGr e en' sfunct i on,1 05-111 Ha r t r e e Fo c ka p pr o xi ma t i on, 1 2 2 -1 2 3 f o rpo l a r i z a t i o n, 1 1 0-1 1 1 , 11 9 #, 2 5 2, 2 71 f ors uper conduct or s ,476#
Di s p e r s i onr e l a t i on l s ) :
f orpl as maos ci l l at i ons,1 81-182,310 # f orpr opagat or s ,79,1 91, 294295 f orzer os ound,1 83-184 Di s t r i bu t i o nf u nc t i o n: f o rb os on s , 3 7, 21 8, 31 7 f o rf e r mi on s , 3 8 . 46 , 33 3 -3 3 4 f ormovi ngs ys t ems 486, 5* , Dys on' sequat i ons: f orbos ons ,211-214,223 p f o re l e c t r on ph on ons y s t e m, 4 02 4 0 6, 41 1 / a t f mi t et e mp e r a t u r e . 2 5 0 25 3 , 41 2 p
Ef f e ct i vei nt e r ac t i on,1 55. 166-167,252-253 Ef r e ct i vemass: el ect r ongas,169 #,310 / ofi mper f e ctBos egas, 260 of i mpe r f e c t Fe r mi ga s , 1 4 8 &1 6 8 p, 2 6 6 i nnu c l e a r ma t t e r , 3 5 6, 3 69 3 7 0 i nsupe r conduct or, 431 Efe ct i v emas sagpr oxi mat i on,359,3#4 E/ec t i v er ange. 342-343,38 6, Ei konal approxi mat i on, 468-469,474 El e ct r i cquadrupol eoper at or ,514 El e ct r on gas: a di a ba t i cbu l kmod ul us , 3 9 0 c he mi c a l p ot e nt i a l , 2 7 8, 2 8 42 8 5 c l a s s i c al l i mi t , 2 7 5 2 81 , 2 9 0 # c o r r e l a t i o ne ne r g y ,2 9 ,1 5 5,1 6 3 1 6 6 ,1 6 9 /, 28* 287 c ou p l i ngt ob a c kg r o und s 3 8 9 , 3 9 6. . 4 06 d e g e n e r at e , 2 1 31 , 1 51 -1 6 7 , 2 81 2 8 9 di el e ct r i ccons t ant ,1 54 di me n s i onl e s sv ar i a bl e s f or , 2 5 ef l kct i vei nt er act i on,155,16* 1 67 ef l e ct vemass ,169 #,310 / el ect r i cal neut r al i t y, 25 gr ounds t at eene r gy, ?2p,151-1 54, 281 -289 hami l t oni anf or, 21 -25 Har t re eFockappr oxi mat i on, 289 p heatcapaci t y,289-290 / He l mhol t zfr eeener gy, 280. 284-285 l i n e a r r e s pon s e , 1 7 5 -1 8 3 , 3 0 3 3 08 pl a s maos c i l l at i o ns , l 8 0 1 8 3 , 3 0 7 -3 08 pol a ri z ed,32 p pr o pe rs e l f e n e r g y , 1 6 9 /, 2 6 8 27 1 s cr ee ni ng,175-180,195 /, 303 -307 s i ngl epar t i cl eexci t at i ons, 31 0p t her modynami c pot ent i al , 268, 273275, 278.28 4 z er ot emper at ur el mi t, 281 -289 El ect ronphonons ys t em : chemi cal pot ent i alofphonons ,41 0 p c o upl e dh e l dt h e o r y , 3 99 4 0 6 Dys on' sequat i ons, 402-406:411 p FeynmanDys on pe rt ur bat i on t heor y, 3 99-46 prope rel ec l r ons el f e ner gy,402,411,
B92
I NDEX
El e c t r on p hon o ns ys t e m( c on t ' dj :
pr operphonons el f ener gy,4 02, 411 p ve rt expar t , 402-406 e qui val ente l e ct r onel ect r on i nt e ra ct i on, 401 -402 Feynmanrul esf orT = 0, 399-4 01 iel dexpans i ons,3 96-397 sni t e t e m per at ur epr oper t i es , 412 / gr ounds t at eene rgyshi f t ,3 99, 411 p hami l t oni an,3 98 i nt er act i on,320,39* 399. 417 l i nearr es pons e, 41 2, Mi gdal ' st heor em, 406-410 phononsel ds41 0/ phononGr e en' sf unct i on,4* ,402, 411 p s cr ee nedcoul om bi nt er act i on, 397 supe rc onduct i ngs ol ut i ons , 440/,476 p El ect ron s cat t er i ng,171 ,l 88-1 94,348 -3 49, 557, 566 El ect roni cme anf r eepat h,425 El e ct r oni cspe ci sche at ,395a Ener gygap: i nnucl earmat t er, 36 0,383-385,388 / i nnucl ei , 385,526,533 i nsuper conduct or s,320,33 0, 41 7,447-449 Ens em bl eaver age,3 6 Ent r opy, 34-35 ofH eI I, 486 ofi de al Ferm i gas, 48 ofani deal quant um gas ,49 p ofi mper f ectFer migas .265-266 ofs uper conduct or ,41 9,476 / Equat i onofst at e,187 ofel ec t r ongas ,30,278-281 ofi dealBos egas, 39, 42 ofi dealc l as s i cal gas. 39 ofi dealFer mi gas , 45, 46, 47 -48 oful t r ar el at i vi s t i ci deal gas , 49 p Equat i ons ofmot i on,l i near i zat i on,440-441 , 538 -543 Equi l i bri um t her modynami csand t emper at ur eGr een' sf unct i on,227, 229-232 Equi par t i t i onofener gy. 394-395 Eul er' scons t ant , 580 Ex changeene r gy,29, 94,126-1 27,1 68,, 354 Exci t at i ons pe ct r um , 81 i nt er act i ngBos egas. 217, 31 7 i nnor m als t at e,334 i ns uper conduct or s,33 4.33 4a
Ex c l us i on p r i n c i pl e( s e ePau l i e xc l u s i o n pr i nc i p l e )
Ex t e ns i v ev a r i ab l e s , 2 9, 3 5
Fer mi gasmodel f ornucl e armat t er , 352-357 Fer mi m oment um , 26 Fer mi mot i on,1 93 Fer mis ea, 28, 71 Fer mi sur f ace ,1 79-18 0, 306, 33 4 Fer mi vel oci t y,1 85 Fer mi wavenumber ,27,46 Fer mi ons,1 5-1 9 Fe r mi ' se i Gol d e n Rul e , ' '1 8 9 Fer r omagnet i s m,32 p Feynmandi agr ams ,96,378.3 99-401 ,55 9-562 i nc oo r d i na t es p a c e , 92 -1 * atf i ni t et em per at ur e,241 -250 i nmome nt um s pac e,1 00-1 05 FeynmanDys on per t ur bat i on t heor y, 1121l 3,115,399-406 Fe ynm anr ul e s: f orbos ons ,208-21 0,223 p f ore l ect r onphonons yst em, 399 -401 f orf er mi ons, 97-99,1 02-103 athni t et empe rat ur e,2 42-243,24* 248 Fi e l doper at or s ,19,65,71 f orbos ons. 200 c o mmu t a t i onr e l a t i o ns of s 1 9 cr eat i on part ,86 de st ruct i onpart ,86 equat i onofmot i onf or, 68, 230 Fi ni t et e mper at ur e f or mal i sm, F = 0 l i mi t , 288-289, 293 ,296, 308 / Fi r stquant i zat i on, re l a t i ont os econdquant i zat i on,15 Fi r sts ound.184, 481 Fi ss i on,351 Fl uct uat i ons. 2 , 337 #, 527-528 Fl u xqua n t i z a t i o n, 41 5 41 6 , 4 2 5. 4 3 5 43 6 Fl uxquant um , 416, 435 Fl uxoi d,423-425,474 # Forwar ds c at t er i ng.133 Fr eee ne rgy: Gi bbs ,34 ofmagnet i cs ys t e ms, 41 8 ofs um rc onduct or, 432
i nt e r ac t i ng ( s e e Ha r d s ph e r e Fe r mi g as ; I n t e r a c t i n gFe r mi ga s ) no ni nt e r a c t i n g( J e c l d e a l Fe r mi g a s )
I NDE X
593
Fr e ee n e r g yL c o n t ' dj :
Hel mhol t z.3 4 ofcl ass i calel e ct r ongas, 280 ofm agnet i cs yst em s ,41 8 ofnoni nt er act i ngphonons ,393 ofquasi par t i cl esi nHeI I, 485 ofsuper conduc t or , 43l,451 ,453,474, Fr ees ur f ac ei nr ot al i ngH el I ,483 Fr equenc ysums ,2 48-250, 263. 281 Fr i edel os ci l l at i ons ,179 Gal i t s ki i ' sequat i ons,139-1 46,358,37 0,373 376, 567 a n dBe t h e Go l d s t one e qu at i o ns , 3 7 7 3 8 3 Gammaf unct i on,579-58 0 G ape quat i on,331 . 492 i nsni t enucl ei .531,535 normal sol ut i ons,332,531 i nnucl earm at t er ,383-385 s up e r c o ndu c t i n gs ol u t i o ns ,3 33 ,4 46 4 4 9, 475 p Gapf unct i on. 443, 466-474,489 Ga p l e s ss up e r c o ndu c t o r s . 41 7 n, 4 6 0 n Gaugei nva ri anc e,444, 454 Ge l l s l a f m a nd Lo w t h e or e m, 61 6 4, 1 l 3 208, Gi antdi pol er e sonance,552 Gi nz b ur g ta nda up a r a me t e r , 43 5 ,472 Gi nz b ur g La nda ut h e o r y , 43 04 3 9, 47 4 boundar ycondi t i ons ,432 coher enc el e ngt h, 433, 472 det er mi nat i onofpar amet e rs , 471-472 f i el dequat i ons, 43 2, 496a f luxquant i zat i on.435. 436 mi c ros copi cder i vat i onof , 466 -474 i nonedi mensi on, 437 pe net rat i on l engt h, 434, 47 2, 475 / s upe r cur r ent , 432 s urf aceener gy,436-438 wavef knct i on, 471 Gol d s t on edi ag r a ms .1 l 2 .l 1 8 p, 3 5 4, 376,3 81 Gol ds t o ne ' st he o r e m, 1 11 -1 l 6 . 3 8 7 / G or kove quat i ons ,444,466 Gr andcanoni cale ns embl e.33, 228 Gr a ndc an on i c al h ami l t oni a n , 2 2 8 , 2 . 5 6 Gr a ndp a r t i t i o nf u nc t i o n. 3 6. 22 8 / ,308 Gr e e n' sf u nc t i o nsa tz e r ot e mp e r a t u r e , 64-65, 25,213,228, 292,4 % advanc ed, 77 a na l y t i cp r op e r t i e s , 7 6 -7 9 as ympt ot i cbehavi or, 79, 297
Gr e e n' sf u n ct i on s )
f r equenc ydependenc eof ' ,75 Har t r eeFockappr oxi mat i on,1 24 f ori dealFer migas ,70-72 f ori nt er act i ngFer mi gas ,145 i ni nt er act i onpi ct ure. 85 m at r i xst ruct ur e.75-76 per t urbat i ont heoryf or, 83 -85. 96 f orphonons ,400.4 02. . . . 404, 41 0p, 41j p phys i cali nt e rpr et at i on,79-82
694
I NDEX
Hami l t oni an: t ir s t quant i zed, 4 m odel sf orphysi c al sys t e m s: bos ons , 200,315 el ec t r ongas ,21 -25 el e ct r onphonon,333,391 -393,3 96-398 pai r i ngf or c e,i nf i ni t enucl ei ,523 super conduct or s, 43 9-4 41 s econdquant i z ed,1 5,1 8 Har ds pher eBos egas ,21 8-223,317 -3l 9,480481 chem i cal pot ent i al y 220, 221 -222 depl et i on, 221,317 Gr e en' sf unct i on,220 gr ounds t at ee ner gy,221 -222, 31 8-31 9 ot he rphys i calpropert i es, 222 pr operse l f ener gi es ,21 9 Hards pher eFer m igas: chemi calpot ent i al ,147 e f l kc t i v emas s , 1 4 8 . 1 6 9 /, 3 7 0 -3 7 1 e f l kct i v et wobodyi nt er act i on,1 36-1 37 efect i vet wobodywavef unct i on.137-1 39 gr ounds t at e ener gy, 1 35, 1 48 -1 49, 169 /. 31 9, 373-374,387 ,, 480 he atc apaci t y,1 48 pr opers el f e ner gy,136,142-1 46.1 68/ s i ngl epart i c l ee xci t at i ons.1 46-148 ze rosound.195 ,.196 p H ar m oni c os ci l l at or,1 2.393,509-511.569571 Har t r eee quat i ons ,127,490 H ar t r e eFockpot e nt i al , 355-357,511,568 Har t r e eFock t he or y. 1 21-127, 1 67 /. 1 68 /, 399, 475 ,,504-508.575 f orbos ons, 25 9-261 equat i ons,1 26-127,257-258,507 sol ut i on f oruni f or m medi um,1 27,25825 9 of f i ni t enucl ei , 575 at sni t e t em per at ur e, 255-259, 262-267, 308,, 475/ Gr een' sf unct i ons, 124, 1 68/, 257. 308/, 440-441 ,476 p gr ounds t at epr opert i es,l 26-127,332 pr ope rs el f ener gy,12l -1 22,1 25.255-258 r el at i ont oBCSt heor y, 43 9-441 s el f cons i st enc y,121-1 22,1 27. 258 -259,265 s i ngl epar t i cl e ener gy, 127.258,33 0,507, 51 0, 513, 53 9, 556 Har t r e eFock wave f unct i ons ,352-353,503, 508 -511 ,541 ,558-559, 567 S t l l eal i ngdi st ance, ' '366,376
He 4 , l i qu i dVe eHeI I )
He3, l i qui d, 49,11 6,128,480 Br uec kne r' st heor y,15 0 heatc apaci t y,1 48 z e r os ou nd ,1 8 7 HeII , 44, 481 -488 cr i t i cal vel oc i t y, 482, 488 ent r opy, 486 heatc apaci t y. : l . 4. 48 4, 486 phas et r ans i t i onof , 44, 481 quant i zedvor t i ces . 482-484, 488 quas i par t i cl emodel , 484-488 phonons ,484-488 r ot ons , 48 4-488 s urf acet ens i on.498 t woi ui dmo de l , 4 81 Heatcapaci t y: De b y et h e o r yo fs o l i d s . 3 93 -3 9 5 ofel ec t r ongas ,269,289-290/ ofhar dspher eFer mi gas,l 48 ofHe11 . M, 484. 486 ofi dealBos egas, 42.43 ofi dealFer mi gms. 48 ofi mper f e ctFer migas ,261 -267 ofmet al s: Har t r eeFockappr oxi mat i on,269,289 / nor m als t at e,295n s uper conduct i ng s t at e , 32 0, 41 6, 42 0, 451-454 He i s e n b e r gp i c t ur e . 5 8 5 9, 7 3, 1 7 3 ,1 8 9 f o rb os on s . 2 0 4 gr ounds t at e,65,558 modi he d,f orhni t et emper at ur es ,228, 23 4 oper at or s, 65,11 5,213,292 r e l a t i o nt oi n t e r a c t i o npi c t u r e , 83 -8 5 Hi ghe ner g y nucl eonnucl euss cat t e ri ng,566 Hol ehol es cat t er i ng.149-1 50, 381 Hol es ,70-71,504-508,514,520,524,538543,558-566
Homo g e n e ou s( u ni f or m)s y s t e m, 6 9, 1 9 0 ,2 1 4 ,
292. 321 Hugel t hol t z pi ne sr el at i on, 216, 22 0,222,ll3 p Hydros t at i ce qui l i br i um,50p,1 77.195 /,386 #
I dealBos egas: chemi c al pot ent i al , 39-41, 43 cr i t i calt emper at ur e,40 e quat i onofs t at e,39, 42 Gr e en' sf unct i on,208 heatcapa ci t y, 42,43 num berdens i t y,39
I N DEX
595
l d e a l Bo s eg as( c o nt ' :
nearFc v259-2 . 61 ,493 occupat i onnum ber ,37 phas et r ans i t i on. 44 t u Wca l s oHa r ds p h e r eBos eg a s ) s t at i s t i cal m echani cs. 37. 44 l nt er act i ngFer migas,l28-1 50,261 -267,326s uper f l ui uz t y ' , 493 336 t emper at ur eGr e en' sf unct i on,232-23 4, di st ri but i onf unct i on.333-334 245-246, 501p ef f e ct i vem as s,1 67 /, 266 t her m odynam i cpot e nt i al ,37 a38 ent r opy,265-266 gr ounds t at eener gy,27,118 #,1 68/, 31 9 t wodi me ns i onal ,49 p heatcapaci t y.261 -267 I deal Fe r mi gas: magnet f zat f on,32p,1 69p, ?1 0p chemi c al pot ent i al , 45, 48,75, 28 4-285 pr operpol ar i zat i on,169 #,196/ dens i t y,2627,45-47, 35 2 ent ropy, 48, 266-267 zer os ound, 183-18 7,1 96 / ( Se eal s oHa r d s ph e r eFe r m g a s ) equat i onofs t at e, 45, 46, 47. . 48 Fer mi entr gy,46 I nt er act i onpi ct ur e, 5458 grounds t at eener gy, 26, 46 f orbosons a2 07-208 f orf i ni t et e mper at ur e,234-23 6 hea tcapaci t y. 48,26* 267 I nt er nale ner gy,34,247,251 occ upat i onnumbe r,3 8 par am agnet i cs us c ept i bi l i t y,49 Har t r e eFoc k,atEni t et emper at ur e,258 p, 25 4. p,309 / . st at i s ti calm e chani cs, 45 -49 ofi de a quant um gas ,39, 46, 49 p t em per at ureGr een' sf unct i on,232-234. and t emper at ur e Gr e en' sf unct i on, 247, 2f2 245-246 t l l er modynami cpot e nt i al ,38, 278, 285 l nt e ma r t i c i es p a c i ng ,2 5,2 7 ,3 4 9,3 6 6 ,3 89 , t wopar t i cl ec or r el at i ons,1 92 394. 397 l magi nar yt i meoper at or, 228 l r r educi bf edf agr am, 403-405 r r educi bi et ens oroper at or,5 05,508.543,58 6 l mpe r f e c t Bos eg a s( s e e Ha r ds p h e r e Bos e l g a s; l nt e r a c t i ngBo s ega s ) l r r ot at i onal f l ow, 425. 481 I mp e dk ctFe r mig as( s e e Ha r ds p h e r e Fe r mi l s ot opeef f ec t ,320,41 7,448, 476/ g a s; l nt e r a c t i ngF er mi g a s ) I s ot opi cs pi ns353,508, 546 I m pul s i vepe r t ur bat i on,180,184,3 07 I ndependent pai rappr oxi m at i on,357-377, 480 Jose phsonef l kct , 435n groundst at eener gy,3 68 j u s t i sc a t i o n, 3 7 6 , 4. a? ( , , Ki net i cene r g3 . , , . z oj. 2 , : 9 s el f cons i st ency, 368 Kohnej y e c! 4 j k p . s i ngl epar t i cl epot ent i al ,368 r a. , Kr oneckerdel , 2 3 l n de p e n de nt p a r t i c l e mo de lo ft h t nu c l e u s . 35 2-357.366
j u s t i f i c at i o n, 3 7 6
Int e gr alkem e lf ors uper conduct or .456, 458 i nPi ppar dI i mi t . 463 I nl egr al s , desni t e, 57 9-581 l nt ensi vevari abl es ,35 I nt e r act i ngBos egas ,21 5-218,21 9.31 4-31 9 chemi cal pot ent i al . 216,336 , depl et i on.218.317 exci t at i onspect r um,21 7,218,317 grounds t at eene rgy.318,3 36 , movi ngcondens at e,223 /,336,, 501 / pr opers el f energi es .215 s oundvel oci t y, 217,317 s upe / ui di t y, 493
La dd e rd i a gr a ms ,1 31 -1 3 9 . 3 5 8 , 3 78 3 7 9 . 56 7
Lagr angem ul t i pl i er ,203,486/, 500 / Laguer r epol ynomi al s.5 09 Lam bdapol nt a 481 Landaue r i t i c al vel oci t y, 488, 493 Landaudampi ng. 308 Landaudi amagnet i s m,462, 477 / Landau' sFe rmi l i qui dt heoo' ,1 87 Landausquasi par t i cl emodel .484-488 Legendr epol ynomi al s ,51 6 Legendr et r ans f or mat i on,34,336 , Lehmannrepr es ent at i on: f orbosons . 214-21 5 f orc or r el at i onf unct i ons s299.3 00-301 ,456
596
I NDEX
N eut r ons c at t er i ng,171 ,1 94,196 ,, 485 r ons t ar s, 49 f orGr ee n' sf unct i ons atz er ot emper at ur e, N eut 66, 72 -79.107 Newt on' ss econdl aw,1 83,1 86, 420 f orpol ar i zat i onpropagat or,117 p,174,300- Nonconde ns at e, 491s 494-495 Nonl ocalpot ent i al s, 322 301 ,559 f orr eal t i meGr een' sf unct i on.293-294 Nonuni f or m Bos es ys t em, 488-492, 495-499 f ort emper at ur eGr een' sf unct i on,297 Nor mal f l ui dde ns i t y,481 ,486-487, 5( X1 , m al or der edproduct , 87. 327 Li f et i meofe xci t at i ons .81-82,11 9 #.14* 1 47, Nor N ucl e arm agne t i cr es onance,1 79 291 ,308,3 09 ,.31 0 p Li nearr es pons e.1 72 -175 Nucl e arm at t ers11 6,1 28, 348-352. 48 0 bi ndi ngener gyofA par t i cl ei n, 387/ ofchar ge dBosegas, 501 / ofel ect rongas,175-183,303-308 b i n di nge n e r g y / p ar t i cl e, 3 5 2, 3 5 3 35 5 ,3 7 1 el e ct r ons c at t er i ng,188-194 377 i nfni t enucl ei ,5 66, 577 / Br ue ckner ' st he or y,15 0,357-377,382-383 atsni t et emperat ur e,298-303 compre s si bi l i t y,387 / ne ut r ons cat t er i ng,196-1 97/ c or r el at i onsi n,362-363, 365 -366 ofs uper conduc t or ,454466 . dens i t y,3 48-352 ef r ect i vem as s ,356, 369-37 0 t oweak magnet i cf i el d,309/ 7 ,454-466.477/ z er os ound.183 -1 87 e ner gygap,330,360, 383-385,3 88/ Li near i zat i on of e quat i ons of m ot i on.440Fer miwave number ,352 heal i ngdi s t ance, 366 441. 538 -543 London equat i ons ,42 0-423,425,434,45 9i ndependent pai rappr oxi mat i on,357-377 i ndependent part i c l e model ,352-357,366, 460, 4741 1 , 475 / Londongauge, 425, 427, 45 4, 461 376 manybodyf or c es. 377 Londonpe net rat i ondept h, 422 Londonsuper conduct or , 427 pai r i ng,351 ,383,385 Longra ngeor de r, 489a wi t ht s r e al i s t i c' 'nucl eonnucl eon pot ent i al , 366-377 r ef er ences pect r um met hod,377 M acr os copi coccupat i on.1 98, 218 s at ur at i on,355.357,375 M agnet i cse l d,3 09/. 418, 42 0 s i ngl epar t i c l epot ent i al , 355-357.381 st abi l i t y ' , 355 t her modynami cs ,418-420 M agnet i ci mpur i t i es,l 79 s ym m et r yener gy,386/ M agnet i cs us c ept i bi l i t y.l74,254/,309 /, t e ns orf or c e,e f r ectof, 367, 375, 386/ t hr e ebodycl ust er s, 376-377 31 0/ Magnet i z at i on,169 /,3 09 / N ucl earr ea ct i ons,1 7l eonnucl eon i nt er act i on. 341 -348, 354, Ma j or a nas pa c e e x c ha ng eop e r a t or . 3 46 , 3 5 4 Nucl 367, 504,567 M anybodyf or ce s,377 M axwel l ' sequat i ons , 41 7. . . . 41 8 nucl eonnuc l e ons cat t er i ng,342-347 Mei ss neref l kc t, 41 4, 421, 423, 457, 459-460 phenomenol ogi calpot ent i al s,348.3 61,367, 557,573 f brBos egas ,5 01/ s ummar yofpr oper t i es,3 47-348 cr i t er i onf or s429 Mel t i ngcur vesf orHe, 48 0, 499-500, Nucl eus, 49, 5Qp,1 21,1 88, 503 Met al l i cf i l ms ,194, 476 p Bogol i ubovt r ans r or mat i on,31 6/,326-336, M et al s, 21. 49,1 21.1 80,188,333,389 527-537 ene r gyatf i xedN.532 Mi c r o c a no ni c al e ns embl e , 48 6 / , 5 00 / f orevenandoddnucl ei , 533 -534 Mi gdal ' st heor em,406-41 0 Mi xeds t at eofsuper conduct or s, 41 5/, 43 9 iu c t u a t i ons of R, 5 27 5 2 8 , 5 3 7 M ol ecul e s, 503, 567 f o rpa i r i ngf or c ei nt h e /s he l l , 5 3 4 5 37 M om ent um , 24, 74, 2 04, 332 r es t r i ct edbasi s ,528 M ul ti pol eexpans i on oft wobodyi nt er act i on, si ngl equas i par t i cl em at r i xel ement s , 533 51 6 534
Le hman nr e p r e s e nt a t i o n( c o nt ' dj :
l NDEX
697
Nu c l e us( c o nt ' d) :
c har gedi st r i but i on, 348 -349 def ormed,515 e ne rgyg apa385,526, 533 exci t eds t at es: appl i c at i ont oO l 6555 -558 const ruct i onofH ( c o)i nR PA,566
wi t h3 ( x) f o r c e , 5 47 5 5 5 t h e( 1 5 J s up e r mul t i pl e t , 5 48
Gr e en' sf unct i onmet hods ,558-566 Har t r e eFoc kexci t at i onener gy,539
3 ( x ) f or c e , 5 1 8 51 9
gener alm at r i xel em ent s -51 * 51 8 part i cl ehol ei nt er act i on, 539 m ul t i pol eexpans i on. 516 quM i bos onappr oxi mat i on, 542,5 43 N um berdensi t y, 20. 66, 229,247,251 r andomphas e approxi mat i on ( RPA) , c ompar i s onofs uper conduct i ngandnor mal 540-543, 564-565 s t at e, 33 4, 451 r e duct i onofbasi s ,543-5 46 ofel e ct r onga s,28 4 r el at i on bet wee n RPA and TDA, 565H ar t r e eFockappr oxi mat i on,124,257 566 ofi dealBos egas, 39 Ta mmDa nc r o F ap pr o xi ma t i o n( TDA) , ofi dealFer m igas , 45 538-540.565-566 ofquas i par t i cl esi n HelI s 486 t ransi t i onm at r i xel ement s ,5 40,5 43 Numberoper at or ,12,17,20,73, 201-202.315 gi antdi pol er es onance, 552 Har t r ee Fock gr ound st at e,506,53 8-539, 560 magi cnumbe rs ,511 Occupat i onnumberHi l ber ts pac e.1 2,37,31 3 manypar t i cl es hel l model : Occupat i onnum ber s ,7,37.38 bos ona ppr oxi mat i on,526-5 27 Oddoddnucl ei , 350. 517, 576p coemci ent soff r act i onalpar ent age,523a, O per at or, onebody, 20, 66,229,51 2-515 576 / Opt i calpot ent i al ,1 35, 357 normal c oupl i ng exci t ed s t at es ,5 22-523, O r de rparamet er , 431 576 p Os ci l l at orspaci ngsi nnucl ei ,5 09/,569 nor mal c oupl i nggr ounds t at es, 520 onebody oper at or i n nor m alc oupl i ng, 520-522 pa i r i ng f o r c epr ob l e m, 5 2 3 5 2 6 Pai r i ng,3 26, 337 ,,351, 431, 519 s e ni or i t y,524 Pai r i ngf or ce,523-526 t h e or e t i c al j u s t i f i c at i o n, 5 2 6 Par i t y, 344, 504, 577 p t wo b odypo t e n t i al i njs he l l , 5 2 2 5 23 Par t i cl ehol ei nt er act i ons ,1 92, 53 9,562-563 t woval encepar t i cl es ,515-51 9 Paul ie xcl us i on pri nci pl e,15,26,47,1 27,1 34, oddoddnucl ei .3 50,517,576 , 184,1 93.322,344, 357.480, 520, 572, 574 pai ri ng, 351 ,383,385, 51 9, 523 -537 f ornucl eons, 353 r eal i s t i cf or c es f or t wo nucl eons out s i de Paul imat r i ce s,75-76,104,11 9/,196 /,343, cl os eds he l l s ,567-575 353 appl i cat i ont o0 1 8 573-574 Paul i par am agnet i s m ,49 /,254 ,, 3 09,,443, Bet he Gol dst oneequat i on, 568-570 462, 477 p har m oni cos ci l l at orappr oxi m at i on, 57> Penet r at i onl e ngt h: 575 Gi nzbur gtandaut heor y, 434, 472.47. $ p i n de p e nd e n t p a i ra pp r o x i ma t i on ,5 6 7 s u p e r c on du c t o r( s e eSu pe r c on du c t o r: 575 pe ne t r a t i onl en g t h ) Paul ipr i nci pl ecor r e ct i on, 574 Per i odi cboundar ycondi t i ons ,21,352,3 92 r el at i vewavef unct i on, 57 2-573 Per s i st entc ur r ent s, 41 5-416
t h e( 1 1 s up e r mul t i pl e t , 5 55
698
I NDEX
Pe r t u r b a t i ont he o r y: f or bo s o ns , 1 99 , 2 07 21 0 f or d e ns i t yc or r e l a t i onf u nc t i o n, 3 01 di agr ammat i canal ys i s, 92-116 f orsni t et emm r at ur es, 23 4-250 f ors cat t er i ngampl i t ude,1 32-133 f o rt i me de v e l o pme nt op e r a t o r , 5 *5 8 Phas ei nt egr al ,468-469 Phas es hi f tf orhar ds pher e,1 29 Phas et r ansi t i on,44,259-261, 431, 481 Phononex changeandsuper c onduct i vi t y,320, 439, 448 Phonons: Gr een' sf unct i on, 4 ,4 07 Lehmannr epr es ent at i on, 41 0, f ors uper conduc t or ,477-478/ i nHeI I ,480,484-488 i nt er act i on wi t h el ect r ons , 320, 3 96-399, 41 7 noni nt eract i ng,390-3 95 c hemi calpot ent i al , 393 De byet heory,393-395 di s pl ac eme ntvect or ,391 -3 93 nor mal modeexpans i on,3 92 quant i z at i ons3 93 Phot onpr oces s es ,566 Pi ct ur es: He i s enber g,5 8-59 i nt er act i on, 5458 S c h r di ng e r , 53 -5 4 Pi ppar dcoher e nc el e ngt h, 426, 465, 469 Pi p pa r de q ua t i on, 4 2 5 43 0 , 46 5 Pi ppar dker nel , 428-42 9 Pi ppar ds uper conduct or, 427, 461 -463 Pl anewaves t at es. 21&1 27, 258, 352,3 92 Pl as madi s per s i onf unct i on, 305 Pl m s maf r e qu e n c y , 1 8 0 ,1 8 2, 2 23 #, 3 0 7 Pl as maos ci l l at i ons,21,1 80-183,194,307 -3 08 compare dt oze ros ound,186 da mpi n g, 1 81 , 1 9 5 /. 3 08 , 3 1 0 , di s p e r s i o nr e l a t i on. 1 81 -1 8 2 , 3 0 7 3 0 8, 31 0 p Poi ss on' se quat i on,177,183,279 Pol ar i zat i onpr opagat or ,11 0,152,190 anal yt i ccont i nuat i on, 302-3 03 d i s p e r s i o nr e l at i o nf o r , 1 91 , 3 * i nsni t es yst ems ,558,563 cons t r uct i oni nRPA.5 66 athni t et e mper at ur e,252,271 i nl owest or der , 158-163,272, 275, 282, 3 ( *305,561 r el at i on t odens i t ycor r el at i onf unc t i on,1 53 . 3 02
( Se ea l s oPr op e rp ol a r i z a t i on )
Pos i t r ona n ni hi l a t i oni nme t al s , 1 7 1 Pot e n t i al e n e r g y. 4, 6 7 6 8, 2 X ,2 0 52 0 6 , 230 Pot e nt i a l s: cor e pol ar i zat i on,574,577 p nonl oc al ,322 s epar abl e,3 22 s ho! ' tr ange vs.l ong r angey1 27,167-1 68 /, 186 s pi ni ndependent ,1G4-11 0 symmet r ypr opert i es ,328,529 Poynt i ng' st heor em,418/ Pr es sur e,3 0.3 4-35, 222, 278 Pr opa g a t i o noft h ee ne r g ys h e l l ,1 3 0, 3 8 2
Qu an t i z e dvo r t e x, 4 88 , 4 98 -4 9 9 Qua n t um hu i d, 47 9, 4 8 9 Qua n t um s t a t i s t i c s , 6 Qu m s i bo s ona pp r ox i ma t i on, 5 4 2 -5 43 Qu a s i e l a s t i cm ak ,1 9 3 -1 9 4, 1 9 6 p, 4 95 Qua s i pa r t i c l e s ,1 4 7 .31 6 ,31 7,3 2 7 ,4 8 7 ,5 3 2 5 3 7 i nHeI I , 4 8 4 48 8 i ni nt er act i ngFer migas, 332, 4* a wei ghtfunct i on,309 ,
I NDEX
599
Ra ndo mp ha s ea ppr o xi mat i o n; el Kt r ongms,l 56 i nnucl ei , 540-543.564565 Real t i me Gr n' sf unct i ons at sni t et empe rat ur e,292-297 di s per si onr el at i ons ,294295 Lehmannr epr es ent at i on,293-294 f o rn oni n t e r a c t i ngs y s t e m, 2 9 8 r el at i on t ot empe rat ur e Gre en' sf unct i ons , 297 -298 r et ar dedandadvanced, 294297 r el at i ont ot i meorder ed, 295 -296 t i me or der ed, 292-293 z er ot emper at ur el i mi t , 293. 296,3 08 / Reduc edmas s,129,259 Ret ar dedcorr e l at i onf unct i on,1 74,299 Ri e ma nnRt af un c t i on , 5 7 9 -5 8 0 Ri ngdi arams, 154-157,271-273. 281 ,564 Rot at i ngHel I. 482 -484,5* / Rot ons, 484-488 Ry de r g , 2 7
Separ abl epot ent i al ,322 Ser be rf or ce,3 46,355 Shel lmodelofnucl eus ,5 08-515 bos onappr oxi mat i on i n, 52* 527,576#
Si ng l e pa r t i c l e Gr e e n' sf u n c t i on ( s e e Gr e e n' s
f unct i onsatzer ot em per at ur e;Tem per a-
t u r eGr e e n' sf un c t i on )
Si ngl epar t i cl e oper at or, 20, 66, 229, 512 51 5 Si ngl epar ti cl e pot ent i al i n nucl ear mat t er. 355 -357,381
G/s y mbol , 5 8 5 5 8 6
<ot t er i ng: opt i calt heor em,131 ph a s es hi f t s , 1 28 -1 2 9 S c a t t e r i n ga mp l i t ud e ,1 2 8 -1 3 0,1 4 3 -1 46 . 31 4 Bor ns er i es,13 2,135 S c a t t e r i n gc r o s ss e c t i o n, 1 8 9 , 1 9 1 , 3 1 4 31 5 S c a t t e r i n gl e ng t h, 1 3 2 ,1 43 , 21 8, 3 1 4 . 3 42 -3 4 3 . 48l n Bol ' nappr oxi mat i on,135, 219 S c a t t e r i n gt h e o r yi n mo me n t um s pa c e .1 3 0 131 S c mt e r i ngwa v ef un c t i on, 1 2 9 . 1 3 8 -1 3 9, 3 8 0 Sc h r di ng e re qu at i o n, 4, 5 4, 5 0 9, 5 7 2 i nmoment um s pa ce,130-131 i ns e condquant i zat i on,1 5,1 8 t wopart i cl e,1 29, 320-322 Sc h r di n g e rp i ct ur e , 53 -5 4 . 1 7 2 Sc r e e ni ng i na ne l e c t r o ng a s .3 2 #,1 6 7 ,1 7 5 180,195 /.303-3 07,31 0/.397 Se c on dqu an t i z a t i on . 4 21 , 3 53 Se c on ds o un d, 481 4 82 S e l f c o n s i s t e n ta pp r o xi mat i o ns ,1 2 0, 3 58 -3 6 0 , 442 . 446,492 Sel f energy,1 04,1 07-1 08. 250
Skel e t ondi agr am. K 3-K s Sl at erdet e r mi nant s,16 Sodi um , 30,391 Sol i di hc at i onofHe, 479 Soundvel odt y,1 87, 391, 407, 484 i ni nt e rac t i ngBos egas, 217 ,222, 31 7,494 Soundwaves: cl as si c alt heor y,186-1 87
p r o pe r( s e ePr op e r s e l f e n e r g y )
S e mi e mpi r i c al ma s sf o r mul a , 3 4 9 3 52 S e ni or i t y , 5 2 4 , 5 3 6
I NDEX
Su pe r c on du c t o rL c o n t ' d) :
cri t i c al sel d, 41 5,451 ,453,474 p l owe ra ndupp e r , 4 3 8 , 4 3 9 , 4 7 5 # e fe c t i v ei n t e r a c t i o n, 44 8 , 4 7 6 # ef r ect i v emas sandchar ge, 431 and el ect ronphonon i nt er act i on,444,448, 476# Dyson' se quat i on, 476 / phononpr opagat or ,477. . . . 478 p ener gygap,33 0, 417, 447449 e nt r o py , 41 9 , 4 7 6 p exci t at i onspect rum.334 exper i me nt al f act s , 414 -417 f i l ms. 474 p, 476p f l uxquant i z at i on, 415-416,425 ga pe qu a t i on, 3 3 3 . 44 6 4 4 9 gapfunct i on, 443,466-474, 489 gapl e ss , 417 /, 460a gaugei nvar i ance,t t' ! , 45 4
Gor k ove qu a t i on s , 4 z l 4, 46 6 g r ou nd s t a t ec or r e l a t i o nf u nc t i o n, 3 3 7 , gr oundst at eener gy,335 heatcapa ci t y,32 0, 416, 420, 451 -454 He l mhol t zf r e ee n e r g y, 43 1 , 45 1 , 45 3 , 47 4 p i s ot opee eect , 32 0, 41 7, 448, 47 6# l ocal , 427 London, 427 mat ri xf or mul at i on, 443444 M ei s s ne r ef l ect ,414.421,423,457,459460 mi xeds t at e,41 5a, 439 modelhami l t oni an,441 nonl ocal , 427 numer i calval ues ,t abl es ,422,448 or derpar amet er ,431 penet r at i onl engt h, 427, 43 4, 472, 475 J gener aldesni t i on, 429 l ocall i mi t , 427, 429. 460 non l o c a l l i mi t , 4 2 9 43 0: 4 6 0, 4 61 -4 6 3 t abl e,422 per s i st entc ur r ent s, 415 -416 phas et r ans i t i on,431 Pi ppar d, 427, 461 -463 r el at i on t o Har t r e eFockt he or y,439-441 s el f consi s t encycondi t i on, z l tt, 446 s pi ns us cept i bi l i t y, 471 p st abi l i t yofM ei s s ners t at e. 430 s t r ongcoupl i ng. 4K a s ur f a c ee n e r g y , 43 , 43 6 43 8 t empe rat ur eGr ee n' sf unct i on,442444
I N DEX
01 Vacuum st at e,1 3,201 Var i at i onalpr i nci pl e,29,336.337 /,333,502# Vec t orpot ent i al ,42 4,425-428,431 -433,435 437, 45 4-456, 459: 465, 468 Vel oci t ypot ent i al , 482. 495 Ver t e xpart s, 402-406. 411 # Vor t i c esi nHeII . 482-484,5*#,5 02/
e ne r g y/ un i t l e ng t h, 4 8 4, 4 9 9
vor t excor e,484,498-499
f o rc on de n s at e ( s e e Cond e n s at e: wa v e f u nc t i on)
Di r ac,188 f orGi nzbur gl andaut heor y, 471 manybody.5-8,16 s cat t er i ng.129,138-139,380 si ngl epar t i cl e,5 Har t r ee Fock, 352 -353, 503, 5 08-511 , 541,558-559,567 spi nandi s os pi n. 21, 353 3 /s y mb ol , 5 8 4 W eak i nt er act i ons , 566 Ti medevel opmentoper at or, 5&. 58 t e dwar fs t ar s ,49,5 0p Ti meor der e d densi t y cor r el at i on f unct i on, W hi W i ck' s t heor e m, 83 -92, 327, 399,441,506, 1 7 4 , 1 7 5 5 79, 560 Ti meor der e dpr oductofoper at ors , 58s 65, 86f or bo s ons , 2 03 , 2 22 p 87 at sni t e t em per at ur e, 234241, 441 Tr ans i t i onmat ri xel ement s, 540, 543 gner Eckar tt heor em,5 05,521,544,586Tr ans i t i on t e mper at ur e of i nt t ra ct i ng Bos e Wi 587 gas ,259-261, 493 Wi gne rf or ce. 35 4 Tr ansl at i onali nv ar i anc e,73-74 W i g ner l at t i ce, 31 ,398/ Tr ansve rs epartofvect orsel d, 45 4 Wi gne r' ssuperm ul t i gi ett he or y, 549/ Twoqui dmodel ,481 Twpar t i cl ecor r el at i ons,1 91 -1 92 Two p ar t i cl eGr e e n' s f u nc t i o n, 1 1 6 p, 2 5 3 , Zer opoi ntener gy,41 .393 Zer os ound, 183-1 87,1 95 ,.1 96 / c ompare dt opl ms maos ci l l at i ons ,186 dampi ng.187,195 ,.310 / di s >r si onrel at i on,183-184 Ul t l a s on i ca t t e nu at i o n, 41 1 /, 4 4 9 , 47 8 # i nl i qui d He3 .187 Uni f or mr ot at i on, 483 -48 4, 5* # s pi nwaveanal og,1 96/ Uni f or ms ys t em, 69,1 90, 21 4, 292, 321 v e l oc i t yof . 1 85 -1 8 7