Facts about:

Aluminium fabrication
Member of the Linde Gas Group
CONTENTS
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3
Main users .............................................................................................................................. 4
Transport ............................................................................................................................... 5
Motor vehicles.......................................................................................................................... 5
The all-aluminium car and the space frame concept ....................................................... 7
The ULSAB concept: Steel vs. Aluminium............................................................................. 8
Marine ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Trains.......................................................................................................................................... 8
Selection of joining process ........................................................................................... 10
Tailored blanking ..................................................................................................................... 11
Welding...................................................................................................................................... 12
Weldability .................................................................................................................................... 12
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) ............................................................................................ 13
MIG and TIG welding ................................................................................................................ 13
Laser welding................................................................................................................................ 15
Friction stir welding ..................................................................................................................... 15
Adhesive bonding .................................................................................................................... 16
Mechanical joining.................................................................................................................... 17
Clinching ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Riveting........................................................................................................................................... 17
Cutting..................................................................................................................................... 18
Mechanical cutting ................................................................................................................... 18
Water jet cutting ..................................................................................................................... 18
Thermal cutting ........................................................................................................................ 18
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 19
References.............................................................................................................................. 20
AGA AB 1996
3
Aluminium and aluminium alloys are structural materials with many
good and useful properties:
Low weight. The density of aluminium is only 1/3 of steel and the
tensile strength ranges from 70 to 600 MPa.
Low corrosion tendency. With a proper design aluminium does
not corrode, due to the formation of an oxidised surface layer.
High heat and electrical conductivity. Per unit weight, aluminium
conducts both heat and electricity better than copper.
Good processing properties. Aluminium can easily be extruded to
form profiles of desired shapes, thereby satisfying demands onde-
sign flexibility.
Good low temperature properties. Tensile strength increases at
lower temperatures and, unlike many types of steel, aluminium
does not become brittle. This explains why containers for
transporting liquid nitrogen (temp 196C) are made of alu-
minium.
These are the most obvious advantages of aluminium as an engineering
material. A factor that must be considered, however, is the low Youngs-
elasticity modulus. It can in combination with high strength in some
cases result in problems with rigidity. The low fatigue properties that
aluminium exhibits must also be considered.
Introduction
4
Aluminium is a rapidly growing material in spite of problems with the
fluctuation in price, which in turn are a result of the variable supply.
Growth is taking place primarily in the transport sector i.e. cars , buses,
trains and marine vessels. The world production of primary aluminium
increased over 400% from 1960 to 1990 and the average growth per
year is at present 4%. The total production in Western Europe was 3.5
million tonnes in 1992, the same as the stainless steel production. The
consumption amounted to 6.7 million tonnes. This figure is higher
because it also includes recycled aluminium.
1
Main users
0%
Transport Mechanical
industry
Electrical
industry
Household
and office
Packaging Others
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
Main areas of application for aluminium
Figure 1. Areas of application.
5
The main sector for growth is found in motor vehicles including
automobiles and commercial vehicles (trucks and buses). The esti-
mated consumption in transport (in ktonnes) is shown in the table
below.
Aluminium represents 3-5% of the total weight in an average automo-
bile today. This figure has been constant during the last 20 year period,
but today, the effort to improve fuel economy has promoted increased
use of aluminium.
2
If for example 200 kg of steel could be replaced by
100 kg of aluminium, the break-even point where an aluminium car
would be economical lies at 36 000 km of travelling. The European fuel
price and the price of aluminium in relation to the price of steel are
taken into consideration, as is the required energy for the production
of primary aluminium. The expected fuel consumption is reduced by
0.5 litres of gasoline per 100 km.
Transport
Motor vehicles
Figure 2. Estimated
consumption in
transport.
0
1990
Automobiles
Marine
Commercial Vehicles
Aerospace
Railways
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1995 2000
ktonnes
6
Figure 4. Manufacturing
process/market share
relationship.
ALL ALUMINIUM
BODY
DOOR
TRUNK
LID
FENDER
HOOD
1990
50 kg/car
200 kg/car
1995 2000
Figure 3. Expected maximum
aluminium weight in a car, 1990,
1995and 2000.
The recycling possibilities are also impressive. At present 95% of the
aluminium in old cars can be collected after dismantling and shredding.
Almost all sorted aluminium is recovered after remelting, and two
thirds of the aluminium foundry products go to the transport sector.
Even though aluminium only accounts for a couple of percent of the
weight of a car, it gives more than 50% of the value of the recovered
material.
3
A fair prognosis is that the amount, by weight, of aluminium in an
average automobile will amount to 10% by the year 2000 and 15-20%
by 2010. An example of this is that an average Volvo body structure
consists of 3% aluminium by weight and will, if the present develop-
ment programs are followed, have 15% aluminium by weight.
2
Manufacturing Market Share %
Process
1990 2000
Extrusion 6 10
Casting 78 72
Forging 3 3.5
Rolling 12 14
Total 100 100
7
The all-aluminium car and the space frame concept
Audi AG in Germany and Alcoa began discussions in 1982 to address
ways of reducing autobody weight to improve the car frames stiffness-
to-weight ratio, fuel consumption and emissions. Audi have, together
with Alcoa, developed a complete aluminium body for the Audi A8.
The space frame concept that the car is based on is a significant change
from traditional manufacturing methods and materials used for the
primary structure of automobile bodies. Instead of spot welding 300
stamped steel components together to form the structure of the car, only
100 aluminium extrusions and interconnecting aluminium die cast
nodes are joined to form the space frame structure. This results in a
body weight reduction of 35%, potential for increased stiffness,
reduced tooling and high recycling value.
4
Alcoa opened a plant in April 1995 in order to supply the Audi A8 with
aluminium, and they are planning to invest in a second plant with a
capacity of 100 000 cars a year.
Volvo and Mitsubishi have co-operated in an all-aluminium car project
called the Access. Ford and Alcan are also planning a new aluminium
car and 40 test vehicles have been built. Aluminium is also the choice
for electric automobiles. GM, Chrysler and Ford are presently looking
at manufacturing aluminium based electric cars.
5
Figure 5. The Space Frame Concept.
8
The ULSAB concept: Steel vs. Aluminium
When it comes to producing a light-weight automobile, 32 steel
producers from 15 countries have co-operated in order to present a
counter-move to aluminium light-weight automobiles. The design has
been developed by Porches engineering service unit, based in Troy,
Michigan. They introduced the UltraLight Steel Auto Body (ULSAB).
Besides the body weight reduction by up to 35% the cost is reduced by
14% together with an improved torsional rigidity by as much as
132%.
6
This is achieved by using high strength steels and using
techniques such as hydroforming, tailored blanking and laser welding
combined with careful stress analysis and holistic design models.
Holistic design incorporates viewing the body as a whole, rather than
as a collection of isolated modules or components.
7
Aluminium plate and extrusions are used extensively in the superstruc-
tures of ships where the designers wish to increase the above waterline
size of the vessel without creating stability problems. Aluminium has
been used in shipbuilding since 1900 due to the good strength/weight
relationship and long life. These factors have enabled various types of
surface skimming vessels, such as multihulled catamarans, in order to
obtain more from the available power.
There are fewer than 10 shipyards working with large fast aluminium
ferries and there is expected to be a global need for 170 ferries of the fast
going type before the end of 2000, with the emphasis on ferries for more
than 100 cars. Stena AB have ordered four fast going catamarans from
Finnyards in Rauma, Finland, to serve the route between England and
Ireland. This is to be the largest single object ever built in aluminium,
with a weight of 3000 tonnes consisting of 1000 tonnes of aluminium
extrusions and 1000 tonnes of sheet aluminium. The shipyard
Karlskronavarvet in Karlskrona, Sweden is building 10 coastguard
vessels for the Swedish coastguard in aluminium, using 10-12 tonnes of
aluminium per ship.
8
The off-shore industry utilises aluminium in applications such as
helicopter platforms, walkways and catwalks, ducts and louvres.
Aluminium accommodation modules have been installed on the Snorre
and the Statfjord C platforms in the Norwegian sector of the North
Sea. An overall weight saving of 40% compared to an equivalent steel
structure has been achieved in the case of the Snorre accommodation
module. The module was built using 20 different profiles and needed
780 tonnes of aluminium, making it one of the largest aluminium
structures when it was built. Many more applications are possible such
as fire walls, structural applications and external cladding of alu-
minium on other metals.
9
Railway vehicles are characterised by a long life-span, presently 30-40
Marine
9
years. A goal is therefore to minimise the maintenance costs and ensure
that the vehicle is able to withstand the long term dynamic load.
10
Extruded aluminium profiles designed in a space frame concept are
suitable for railway vehicles, and there are many examples of recent
cars being delivered with this design.
The low weight aluminium offers lower acceleration and retardation
forces and lower track forces which in turn leads to less maintenance.
Aluminium structures are therefore suitable for commuter trains. Oy
Transtech Ltd is the largest manufacturer of rolling stock in Finland.
Transtech manufacture high speed train bodies of aluminium for the
Finnish State Railways. Another example of an aluminium train
concept is the Danish IC-3, of which over 100 trains have already been
delivered in 1995.
11
Trains
10
There are a number of joining techniques available for use in aluminium
structures. Since aluminium is rather new as a load bearing engineering
material, much work is being carried out in order to compare different
advantages and drawbacks for different methods.
For the purpose of comparison, joining methods are broadly catego-
rised as either discrete or continuous methods. These terms refer to the
means by which forces are transferred through the joint. Discrete joints
transfer load only at specific points of contact between the components
that are connected, while the continuous joints provide a distributed
load transfer over the region to which they are applied.
Joining technique selection is always based on several factors such as
the type of construction, the performance expected of the particular
joint, and the environmental protection required by the joint. The main
manufacturing/assembly considerations that have to be taken into
account are:
Ease of automation
Thickness of parts being joined
Production readiness
Degree of access to the joint
Capital investment costs
Production per day
Type of alloy
Tolerances
Joint length
One proposed method is to use the Quantitative Decision-Making
approach
12
which incorporates weighing of different factors (or consid-
erations) against each other and making a decision after intuitively
summing them up.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to estimate what joining techniques are
growing most rapidly. This is because many techniques are rather new
and have not been fully tested. When comparing different areas of
industry where aluminium is extensively used, such as motor vehicles,
aerospace, trains and marine, there are differences in joining methods.
Selection of
joining process
11
Joining methods
Fusion welding
Resistance welding
Adhesive bonding
Clinching
Riveting
Riveting
Fusion welding
Riveting
Adhesive bonding
Fusion welding
Area
Automotive
Trains
Aerospace
Marine
Tailored blanking is a concept incorporating joining blanks before
pressing, thus mixing different properties in the same blank. Tailored
welded blanking of aluminium is a rather new field. Two main welding
techniques are presently used: CO
2
laser welding and TIG welding.
Powerlaser Ltd., Waterloo, Canada has already established a facility
featuring CO
2
laser welding of aluminium tailored blanks. For the TIG
process, welding speeds of 6-7 m/min can be reached in a process
patented by Reynolds Metals, Richmond, USA.
13
The main advantage
of welding tailored blanks of aluminium is the possibility to vary
thicknesses. Typical thickness variations can be
0.8/1.5, 1.0/1.5, 1.5/2.5 or 1.5/3.0 mm.
2
Most interest in aluminium
tailored blanks can be found in the automotive industry for less loaded
structural components like deck lids and hoods. Further on there will
be an increased interest in aluminium for body components, door
inners and floor panels. A major field will be in electric cars.
Tailored Blanking
12
AA Alloy type Typical applications
terminology
1XXX Non-alloyed Packaging, decorative applications.
2XXX Copper Aircraft sheet construction.
3XXX Manganese General purpose applications, strip.
4XXX Silicon Filler wire.
5XXX Magnesium Marine components, pressure
vessels, railroad cars.
6XXX Silicon+Magnesium Automotive frames.
7XXX Zinc High strength aircraft applications.
8XXX Other alloying
elements.
Weldability
The main groups of aluminium alloys are: Al-Cu, Al-Mn, Al-Si, Al-Mg,
Al-Si-Mg, Al-Zn. In Europe, the most common type of classification for
base materials is the AA classification.
The properties of the different alloys are dependent on several factors
such as hardening mechanism and heat treatment. The properties vary
for different alloys within each group and it is therefore difficult to
categorise the properties for each group.
The most rapidly growing alloys are the 3XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX
alloys. Care must be taken when choosing the base material for a
construction which is going to be welded. Not all good base materials
have good weldability. An example of aluminium alloys that are
difficult to weld are the copper bearing alloys (<4% Cu).
Weldability Holds for For example (ISO)
Good
Non alloyed Al All types Al99.7, Al99.5, Al99.0
Non hardenable Al Most types AlMn1, AlMg4.5Mn
Hardenablen Al Some types AlMgSi, AlSi1Mg, AlZn5Mg
Reduced
Non hardenable Al Some types with AlMg (1-2%)
low Mg content
Hardenable Al Alloys with Cu, AlCuMg, AlCuMgSi,
Pb, (Zn) AlCuMgPb, AlCuZnMg
Welding
13
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
RSW was one of the first joining techniques considered for aluminium
automobile fabrication, mainly due to the fact that it has been so
extensively used for joining steel auto body sheet. RSW is generally not
suitable for joining extrusions and castings, and is therefore not the
primary joining process chosen for space frame fabrication. It is,
however, often used for assembling aluminium sheet parts in spite of
problems with diffusion and extensive electrode wear. While electrode
wear limits electrode life to 10 000 spots when welding steel, typical
electrode life when welding aluminium is 1000 spots.
14
RSW can only
be used to make flange or lap joints. Butt, tee and edge joints are not
possible. This often limits RSW use or requires compromise in design,
as does the fact that both sides of the joint must be accessible.
Non-destructive testing of resistance spot welds is very difficult.
Though many methods have been developed, no technique has proven
to be reliable. Quality criteria must therefore be based on process
control, including welding parameter control and control of the sheet
surface condition.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low deformation Production cost investment
Known process Mechanical properties
Easy to automate Requires surface preparation
Spot welding is used on the Audi A8 in areas which are not accessible
to punch-riveting. A total of 500 spot welds are made (compared to
over 4000 on the steel body).
15,16
The aerospace industry utilises spot
welding and an example of this is the French jet aeroplane Caravelle
that was spot welded. Swedish aeroplanes are also manufactured with
spot welding, but riveting and adhesive bonding dominates.
MIG and TIG welding
MIG welding was developed in the 1940s for aluminium welding.
MIG welding is chosen instead of TIG welding for a plate thickness of
more than 6 mm. TIG welding can be used for thicker material but the
productivity becomes too low. The lower range for MIG welding is
around 3 mm; the process is difficult to control at lower thicknesses. If
pulsed MIG welding is used, thicknesses down to 1 mm can be welded.
MIG welding is mainly chosen when high welding speeds or long weld
lengths are of interest.
17
14
MIG welding has a number of characteristics which make it attractive
for automotive fabrication.
Advantages Disadvantages
Known process Process control necessary
Easy automation Fatigue performance
Good accessibility May need post treatment
The designer must consider the effect of the heat on the mechanical
properties. All aluminium alloys are strengthened by heat treatment,
thereby degrading the mechanical properties in the HAZ resulting in a
reduction of strength by up to 40-50%.
Equipment for MIG welding of aluminium is somewhat different from
that for steel. Water cooled torches are necessary in order to carry the
higher welding currents required and wire feeders should be of the
push-pull type.
Aluminium is very sensitive to hydrogen which forms pores and reduces
strength. It is therefore essential that no moisture is introduced into the
gas delivery systems. This can be avoided by using the right materials
and by minimising the number of valves or connections.
Extensive surface preparation for MIG is not necessary. A simple
stainless steel brush is usually sufficient. Oil, grease and other surface
contaminants should also be removed.
MIG welding is the predominant joining process in marine applications
due to its reliability when correct procedures are employed.
The various problems which can arise have been studied in detail.
Typical defects are shown in Figure 6.
On the Audi A8 the extrusions are joined to the space frame using 129 m of
MIG welding.
2
Approximately 80% of these welds are made robotically.
MIG welding is also suitable for joining space frames in railway
vehicles. Spot welding is not considered a suitable process.
Microporosity
Macroporosity
Shrinkage
Softening
Figure 6. Weld defects.
15
TIG welding is applicable for thin sheets 0.7 mm and on short weld
lengths. TIG welding is mainly used for sheet thicknesses ranging from
1 to 3 mm. The method is excellent for applications where the root run
cannot be welded with MIG due to e.g. a large air gap between the
sheets. The biggest drawback with TIG is the low welding speed which
causes dimensional instability, poorer mechanical properties and poorer
corrosion resistance than MIG welding.
Laser welding
Laser beam welding is characterised by high welding speeds and deep
penetration, which makes welding of overlap joints possible. The high
welding speed makes the laser suitable for long, one-dimensional
welding. Another advantage is that it only requires one-sided access. It
offers new possibilities in light-weight structures where lapped joints
often are used. Until recently, only CO
2
lasers were used to weld
aluminium due to the need for high power and beam quality that were
required to reach the intensities needed for deep penetration. Nd:YAG
lasers have recently undertaken a rapid development and can today
reach sufficient welding speeds (2-7 m/min) up to plate thicknesses of
3 mm. When it comes to lasers, there are a few issues that must be
addressed:
1. More knowledge is needed to evaluate risks and potentials.
2. Design guidelines are needed.
3. The cost has to come down.
4. New technologies needed for fixturing.
Friction stir welding
Friction stir welding is a new method that incorporates a rotating tool
that is pressed into the joint between the parts to be welded. The tool
is then moved along the joint and welds the material together through
the friction energy created when the tool rotates against the material.
The tool stirs the material with no melting. Welding speeds of up to 0.6 m/
min have been reached on 5 mm thick aluminium.
18
Advantages Disadvantages
No filler needed Backing bar needed
Fatigue resistance Welding fixtures needed
Easy to automate Only to be used on straight flat
workpieces.
Low tooling cost Leaves an end hole when the tool is pulled
out.
The method is ideal for long butt welds, but overlapping welds are also
possible. The process was patented in 1992 by TWI.
16
Adhesive bonding exhibits some advantages over other joining proc-
esses.
Advantages Disadvantages
Corrosion resistance Joint strength
Fatigue resistance Durability
Metal property retention Surface treatment
Joint stiffness Fabrication and assembly
Join different materials Quality assurance
Seals joints Environment
Adhesive bonding is most appropriate for lap joints. Butt joints are
almost never used. The continuous nature of the joint implies that the
joint distributes stress better than discrete joining processes such as
resistance spot welding and riveting. This means that adhesive bonding
shows improved fatigue properties over these processes.
13
Adhesive bonding means that the joint is made of plastics or rubber
which implies that the joint is considerably weaker than the base
material.
Joining of aluminium to other metals and non-metals using adhesive
bonding is possible. The adhesive can also act as an electrical insulator,
minimising galvanic corrosion problems, and as a joint sealant or anti-
flutter agent.
There are many problems to solve before adhesives can find widespread
use. The long term durability must be determined and non-destructive
methods must be defined. The maximum operating temperature lies
under 200 C and the long cure times are also drawbacks for some
applications.
Adhesive bonding is often combined with riveting or welding to obtain
the benefits of both processes. The rivets or spot welds may also act as
fixtures and clamp the bonded parts in position until cured.
Adhesive bonding might not seem to be a modern method of joining
when considering the recycling aspect. The metal is easily recycled, but
the adhesive is not. It is not, however, this problem that is considered
a drawback; it is the way that the adhesives are produced that can cause
a problem from an environmental standpoint.
19
On the Audi A8, adhesive bonding is applied around the door frames,
floor panels, hood and deck lid. The aircraft industry has used adhesive
bonding since the 1940s and it is today used for joining a great deal of
the load bearing parts of an aeroplane. A major problem with the
adhesive bonding is that repairs of glued components are difficult to
perform.
Adhesive bonding
17
Clinching
Clinches form a joint by pressing a punch on the plates and deforming
them in a die. One application is the joining of the hang-on sheets to
extruded components in space frame designs if a suitable flange is
incorporated into the extrusion. The process requires two-sided access
to the joint and the fact that most clinches pierce the metal can permit
water ingress. The machinery is capable of producing 40-60 clinches
per minute although the process has not been fully automated. The
Audi A8 has approximately 90 clinches.
14
Advantages Disadvantages
Low energy consumption Not suitable for visible areas
Low maintenance costs Different tools for different tasks
Joining of different materials
possible
Only light cleaning necessary
Riveting
Rivets are generally available in two types: solid rivets and blind rivets.
Both aluminium and stainless steel rivets are applicable for joining
aluminium, although aluminium rivets are preferred due to their lower
cost. A special type of rivet is the metal piercing rivet. In this process no
hole is drilled and the rivet is punched through the materials and the
tubular end is flared open, thus locking the rivet into place. Since no
hole is made, cycle times are shorter. Blind rivets have the advantage of
only requiring access from one side. Rivets are only suited for lap or
flange joints and the loading should be in direction.
Mechanical joining
Punch
Joined
parts
Die without
moveable parts
Figure 7. The principle of clinching.
18
It is not possible to cut aluminium with a flame torch due to the fact that
the melting point of aluminium is lower than the melting point of
alumina, which constitutes the oxide layer of the metal. The most
common method of thermal cutting is plasma cutting.
Mechanical cutting and sawing are still extensively used for cutting
aluminium sheet and extrusions. This has to do with the fact that it is
economical and versatile. Aluminium can be worked with common
machine tools found in most fabricating shops. Aluminium has often
been compared to wood in that the same tools work for both materials
and at roughly the same cutting speeds. The cost of cutting aluminium
is about half compared to steel. The cutting zone quality is not very
high, so that other cutting methods often are applied when the material
is to be welded.
An alternative to the thermal cutting methods is water jet cutting. The
method has proven to be very applicable to aluminium sheet and
extrusion cutting. A high pressure water jet mixed with an abrasive is
able to cut through 120 mm sheet with good results.
20
The method
produces a cold cut resulting in sharp corners.
Plasma cutting
The material thickness range for aluminium plasma cutting extends
from thick foil to 150 mm. It must be taken into account, however, that
when cutting thick aluminium, the noise levels are extreme. The
method is faster than laser in this range, but the quality of cut is lower.
Laser cutting
Laser cutting results in a high-quality cut, narrow kerf and low heat
transfer to the workpiece. The high reflectivity of aluminium means
that high power output is required to cut efficiently. The equipment
costs are often very high for laser machines of this type.
Mechanical cutting
Water jet cutting
Thermal cutting
Cutting
19
One of the most important key factors when using aluminium for
structural purposes is getting the joining right. Before selecting a joining
method, all the different aspects of each method must be evaluated as
well as the details to be joined and how the joint must work. The
selected method is often a compromise between speed, quality, cost and
compatibility with other steps in the production process.
Joining methods Advantages Possible problems/issues
Arc welding Known process Distortion, heat affected zone
Spot welding Low deformation, Tool wear, surface treatment,
known process investment
Adhesive bonding Low deformation, can be Surface treatment, personal
used with dissimilar metals safety, less accepted in structural
applications
Mechanical joining Low cost, light cleaning, Strength, galvanic effects, local
(riveting, bolting, known process deformation
clinching)
Friction stir welding Low tooling cost, good Backing bar needed, only for
working environment straight and flat workpieces
Laser welding High welding speeds, low Expensive equipment
deformation
Summary
20
1. EAA, European Aluminium Association.
2. Larsson, Johnny K, R&D co-ordinator,
Body Engineering, Volvo Car Corporation AB, Gteborg,
Interview 13/11 1995.
3. EAA, European Aluminium Association,
Quarterly Report, first quarter 1994, p 4.
4. The Welding Journal, September 1993, note on p 83.
5. Andersson, Norbert,
Hollnska aluminiumbilen tar form*,
Ny Teknik, n 41 1995, p 36.
6. Martin, Darryl,
Steel industry to spend $20 million to build demonstration
ultralight steel automobile,
INTERNET http://www.steel.org/ultralightnews/mainrel.html.
7. Automotive Steel,
Ultralight Steel Body Consortium, brochure 1995.
8. Rosn, Svante, Karskronavarvet, Interview 21/11 1995.
9. DEAN, Robert,
Large aluminium extrusions in marine applications,
Marine Technology, February 1995, p 65-67.
10. Alvelid, Magnus, ABB Traction AB,
Skillnader mellan konstruktionsprinciper i stl, rostfritt och
aluminium*,
Svetsen n 3 1995.
11. Andersen, Nils-Erik,
Welded aluminium constructions on rail, road and sea,
Svetsaren v 50 n 3 1995.
12. Stol, Israel,
Selecting manufacturing processes for automotive aluminium
space frames,
Welding Journal, February 1994, p 57-60.
13. Irving, Bob,
Welding tailored blanks is hot issue for automakers,
Welding Journal, August 1995, p 49-52.
* Only in Swedish.
References
21
14. Armao, F.G; Long, R.S; Winter, E.F.M,
Joining techniques for aluminium castings, extrusions and
sheet,
Fugen von Aluminium - Entwicklung und Chansen, Seminar
25-26 Februar 1992, Neu-Ulm.
15. Andersson, Norbert, Ny Teknik, n 9 1994, p 10.
16. Wanke, R, Audi AG, Ingolstadt,
Fugen von Aluminium in der Groserie anhand praktischer
Beispiele,
Fugen von Aluminium - Entwicklung und Chansen, Seminar
25-26 Februar 1992, Neu-Ulm.
17. Runnerstam, Ola; Persson, Kjell-Arne; Lund, Trond;
The importance of a good quality gas shield,
Svetsaren v 50 n 3 1995, p 25-27.
18. Knipstrm, Karl-Erik,
New welding method for aluminium,
Svetsaren v 50 n 3 1995, p 5-6.
19. Diggelmann, Kurt,
Elatisches Verkleben von Aluminium im Farzeug,
Fugen von Aluminium - Entwicklung und Chansen,
Seminar 25-26 Februar 1992, Neu-Ulm.
20. Mattson, Staffan,
Aluminium Scandinavia n 6 1995, p 23.
AGA Gas AB Sweden Telephone: +46-8706 95 09
www.aga.se
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Member of the Linde Gas Group