General Relativity Summary Sheet I.

Tensor Analysis, Geodesics, Covariant Derivatives Tensor Analysis The basics of general tensor analysis are very similar to those of special relativity, with the Lorentz transformation replaced by general transition functions from x x , x /x . A scalar transforms according to (x ) = (x) where a single x denotes the four coordinates x . A contravariant vector transforms according to V

(x ) =

x V (x) x

Note that the coordinates themselves, x , are not vectors under general coordinate transformations (although innitesimal changes in coordinates dx are). A covariant vector transforms according to U (x ) = x U (x) x

Similar transformation laws hold for more general tensors, e.g., T

x x x T x x x

The Kronecker delta, = diag(1, 1, 1, 1) is a second rank tensor, whose components take the same numerical value in all coordinate systems. Basic rules of tensor algebra follow easily. As in special relativity, linear combinations, outer products and contractions of tensors give tensors, but the partial derivative of a tensor is not a tensor. The metric tensor g is a symmetric second rank tensor that is non-singular. This means that detg = 0, and thus its inverse exists, and is denoted g , where g g =

The metric may be used to raise and lower indices, V = g V , U = g U

The inner product between vectors is dened as before, as U V = g U V Geodesic Motion Particles and light rays in curved space satisfy the geodesic equation, F = where the connection is given by = 1 g (g, + g, g, ) 2 1 d 2 x dx dx + =0 2 d d d

The connection is not a tensor. It transforms according to the rule: =

x x x x x 2 x x x x x x x x

The connection is symmetric on its lower indices, = . It is often written so that the upper index sits in between the lower pair. However, we will never have need to raise and lower the indices on the connection (although this is done in some textbooks), so the location of the upper index in relation to the lower ones does not matter. The second derivative term in F is also not a tensor, and transforms in such a way as to cancel the inhomogeneous term in the transformation law of the connection, hence F is in fact a tensor. The quantity g x x , where a dot denotes dierentiation with respect to , is constant along the geodesic, hence gives a rst integral of the equation of motion. In particular,

dx dx = d d

1, for particles; 0, for light rays.

where the parameter is proper time s for particles. The geodesic equation may be derived using the calculus of variations: the functional S [x ()] = d L(x , x )

is extremized by the path x () obeying the Euler-Lagrange equation d d L x L =0 x

The geodesic equation, for particles, then follows by taking L = g x x

1 2

and the geodesics have the interpretation as the paths that extremize the total distance S [x ()] between two points. However, it is readily shown that the geodesic equation may also be derived by taking L = g x x In practice, the geodesics for a given metric are always derived by using this form of L in the Euler-Lagrange equations. Furthermore, the connections may be read o from the equations for the geodesics, and this is generally easier than calculating them directly. The Newtonian limit of the geodesic equation for particles involves low velocities and static, weak elds. Let dx/dt << 1 and write g = + h , where is the Minkowski space metric, |h | << 1 and h is independent of time. Then the geodesic equation implies that d2 t = 0, ds2 d 2 xi 1 h00,i ds2 2 dt ds
2

=0

Comparing with the Newtonian equation of motion for a particle in gravitational potential , d2 x + = 0 dt2 implies that g00 = 1 2 in the Newtonian limit. This xes one component of the metric in terms of the Newtonian potential in the limit of weak, static, gravitational elds. 2

Covariant Derivatives The partial derivative of a tensor yields an object that is not a tensor under general coordinate transformations. We therefore dene a new type of derivative, the covariant derivative, dened so as to map tensors into tensors. The covariant derivative of a vector is dened by
V V ; = V + V

The covariant derivative of a covector is dened by U U; = U U The covariant derivative of a scalar is just the partial derivative = The covariant derivative of a general tensor has the form
T = T + T T T

When taking two covariant derivatives, start by calculating the outer derivative rst, e.g.,
V = ( V ) ( V ) ( V )

and then insert the formula for the covariant derivative of a vector. The covariant derivative has the following properties. It is linear, (aA + bB ) = a A + b B where a and b are numerical constants, and A and B are tensors of any rank; it obeys the Leibniz rule (AB ) = ( A)B + A( B ) for any tensors A, B ; it commutes with contractions, T ;
=

= T ;

The covariant derivative has the important property that the metric is covariantly constant g = 0 = g Likewise the Kronecker delta,
=0

The rst relation is the natural analogue of the relation, = 0 in special relativistic equations. It has the important consequence that special relativistic laws of physics may be successfully turned into generally covariant laws by replacing with g and with . The geodesic equation may be written in terms of the covariant derivative as, U U = 0 where U = dx /ds is the velocity 4-vector. 3

Curvature Tensor The covariant derivative commutes on scalars, which means that it has the property, = This is not true on higher rank tensors. On vectors, V V = R V where
R = +

is called the Riemann curvature tensor. In at space, and in Cartesian coordinates (t, x, y, z ), g = = constant, so the connections all vanish and the Riemann tensor is zero. Because it is a tensor, this means that it must also vanish in any other set of coordinates in at space. Hence the Riemann tensor provides a coordinate independent characterization of atness. In fact, it may be shown that a space is at (i.e. it has a global set of coordinates (t, x, y, z ) in which the metric g is the Minkowsk metric ) if and only if the Riemann tensor is zero. The Riemann tensor has the following symmetries. Let R = g R , then R = R R = R R = R It also obeys the cyclic identity R + R + R = 0 These relations are proved by considering a point P in the space, and choosing locally inertial coordinates close to that point, so that g = and g, = 0 at P (this is the general relativistic version of choosing local coordinates such that g = = 0 in Newtonian gravity). Then at P , in those coordinates, R = 1 (g, g, g, + g, ) 2

The above symmetry relations are then easily proved. The symmetry relations are tensor equations, so if they are true at P in one coordinate system they are true at P in any coordinate system. Furthermore, the point P is arbitrary, so the relations hold generally. The Riemann tensor is a 4th rank tensor, so has N 4 components in N dimensions (= 256 if N = 4). However, the above relations reduce this number to N 2 (N 2 1)/12 independent components (= 20 if N = 4). The Riemann tensor also obeys the Bianchi identity, R ; + R; + R; = 0 The Ricci tensor R is dened by R = R and is symmetric, R = R . The Ricci scalar R is dened by R = g R The Einstein tensor G is dened by 1 G = G = R g R 2 4

and contracting the Bianchi identities leads to the property G = 0

Absolute Derivatives Consider a curve x (), where is a parameter. Then the absolute derivative of a vector V along the curve is dened by DV dx dV dx = V = + V d d d d It clearly takes tensors into tensors, and moreover, it reduces to the ordinary derivative, dV /d, in a locally inertial frame. Its properties follow readily from the properties of the covariant derivative, e.g., d D = , d d and so on. Geodesic Deviation Consider a geodesic x (s), and a neighbouring geodesic, x (s) + (s). Then it may be shown that D2 =x x R ds2 This is the equation of geodesic deviation and describes the extent to which neighbouring geodesics converge or diverge as a result of non-uniformities in the gravitational eld. It clearly exposes the Riemann tensor as responsible tidal eects. The analagous Newtonian equation is d2 (xi ) = Eij xj dt2 where Eij = 2 xi xj D g = 0 d

hence the combination x x R in general relativity is analagous to the Newtonian tidal tensor Eij .