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Past modals with have Some past modals can be formed by using have + the past participle of the

main verb immediately after the modal. (should have, could have, would have, etc.) However, since modals express possibility, intention, obligation, etc., they do not always indicate a definite tense. Therefore, when using past modals with have, special meanings need to be considered. I should go to the funeral. I should have gone to the funeral. Lex might take Karen to the airport. Lex might have taken Karen to the airport. Lex could have taken Karen to the airport. Lex would have taken Karen to the airport. Otis didn't come to work yesterday. He had to take care of his children. His children must have been sick. (I feel an obligation to go--later.) (I didn't go. Now I regret it.) (It's a future possibility.) (He may be on his way there now.) (Most likely he didn't.) (He didn't. He had an excuse.) (past fact) (past obligation) (conjecture about the past)

certainty

can't have

e.g. I can't have lost my keys! (I'm sure I didn't) permission

could

e.g. When I was a teenager, I could go out as late as I wanted. general ability e.g. Tom could walk by the age of 8 months. possibility, but did not happen

could have

e.g. I could have passed my driving test if I'd really tried. uncertainty

e.g. I guess it could have been Sandra on the phone. permission

couldn't

e.g. When I was a teenager, I couldn't stay out as late as I wanted. general ability e.g. I couldn't walk until I was 2. ability in a particular situation e.g. I tried hard but I couldn't persuade him to go to the party with us. possibility/ability

couldn't have

e.g. I couldn't possibly have passed my driving test, even if I'd tried harder. uncertainty e.g. It couldn't have been Sandra on the phone, could it? with comparative adjectives e.g. I couldn't have asked for better weather on my wedding day. unwillingness e.g. I couldn't have left the dog in the car for long (so I didn't). unnecessary action not done

didnt need to had to

e.g. As I was alone this weekend, I didn't need to do any cooking (so I didn't). obligation (past form of must)

e.g. I couldn't go out last night because I had to do my homework. uncertainty

may have

e.g. I guess I may have been a bit hard on her when she came home an hour late. uncertainty

may not have might have

e.g. He may not have found out yet that he has passed the test. possibility (didn't happen) e.g. You might have been killed! uncertainty e.g. I guess I might have been a bit hard on her when she came home an hour late. annoyance at someone's failure to do something e.g. You might have told me that you had invited all your colleagues round for dinner! might have known + would (idiom to ironically express that somebody's action was typical) e.g. I might have known that he would finish with me as soon as he found out I wasn't wealthy!

might not have must have

uncertainty e.g. He may not have found out yet that he has passed the test. certainty

e.g. He must have known how much it was going to cost. (I'm sure he knew.) with surely in exclamations e.g. Surely he must have known how much it was going to cost! unnecessary action that was actually done

needn't have ought not to have ought to have

e.g. Oh, you needn't have done the washing up! criticism (more common is shouldn't have) e.g. You ought not to have been so frank with him. expectation (should have is more common) Why is she late? She ought to have arrived by now! expectation

should have

Why is she late? She should have arrived by now! should have + verbs of thinking e.g. I should have thought you knew. with be and adjectives, describing chance e.g. It was weird that you should have been staying in the same hostel last month. criticism (you didn't do something, but it would have been the right thing to do) e.g. The party was such fun last night! You should have come!

criticism

shouldn't have

e.g. You shouldn't have been so frank with him. polite expression of thanks on receiving a gift or favour "Here's a bottle of wine for you" "Oh, you really shouldn't have!" events in the past that did not happen

would have

e.g. I wouldn't have gone out with him, but he didn't ask me. assumptions e.g. Oh, that would have been Sarah on the phone just now. unwillingness

would not

e.g. I asked Tom to close the window, but he wouldn't do it.

1. Your house looks great. You ___ spent a lot of time painting it.
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must have could have should have

Michael went running in the rain. He ___ gotten sick.


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must have could have shouldn't have

It was so dark that I fell down the stairs. I ___ fixed the light.
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must have

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could have should have

Patty ___ gone by bus. Why did she walk?


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must have could have should have

I called his apartment and nobody answered. He ___ gone out.


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must have could have should have

You ___ shovelled the front walk. It looks so clean.


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must have could have should have

He ___ stolen the car. He was with me all the time.


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mustn't have couldn't have shouldn't have

My bicycle is broken now. I ___ ridden it down the stairs.


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mustn't have couldn't have shouldn't have

Jim looks very happy. I think he ___ gotten a new job.


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must have could have should have

The chocolate cake is all gone! Someone ___ eaten it.


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must have could have should have

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