The Complete Professional, All Skills You Need

THE COMPLETE
Solutions For
Today’s Workplace
PROFESSIONAL
THE COMPLETE
SOLUTIONS FOR
TODAY’S WORKPLACE
PROFESSIONAL
E D ITE D BY
B R I G IT D E R M OTT
L EARNING E XPRESS • N EW Y ORK

The Complete Professional
Solutions for Today’s Workplace
Edited by Brigit Dermott
LearningExpress • New York
Copyright © 2000 LearningExpress, LLC.
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright

Conventions. Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The complete professional/edited by Brigit Dermott.

p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 1-57685-344-6(pbk.)
1. Career development—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Professional
employees—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Dermott, Brigit.
HF5381 .C6853 2000

650.1’3—dc21 00-042842
Printed in the United States of America

987654321
For Further Information

For information of LearningExpress, other LearningExpress products,
or bulk sales, please write to us at:
LearningExpress
900 Broadway
Suite 604
New York, NY 10003
Visit our website at www.LearnX.com

THE COMPLETE PROFESSIONAL I N C LU D E S TH E W O R K O F TH E FO LLO W I N G:
C O NTR I B UTO R S
Erik Chesla
Elizabeth Chesla, M.A.
Grace Fox
Robert Gregor
Judith McManus
Susan Shelly
Dawn B. Sova, Ph.D.
E D ITO R
Brigit Dermott
TAB LE O F C O NTE NTS
INTRODUCTION ix
Who Should Read This Book ix
About This Book x
How to Use This Book to Your Best Advantage xii
CHAPTER 1: GETTING ORGANIZED 1

Getting Started 1
Organizing Your Desk Space 6
Organizing Your Files 9
Organizing Your Time 12
Getting Organized with Technology 22
Summary 27
CHAPTER 2: WRITING FOR WORK 29

Getting Started 29
Types of Documents 35
Improving Your Writing 50
Summary 54
CHAPTER 3: COMMUNICATING AT WORK 55

Getting Started 56
Communication Skills 61
Making a Speech 70
Communicating in a Meeting 77
Summary 82
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCHING AT WORK 83

Getting Started 84
Places to Find Information 90
Summary 105
CHAPTER 5: GETTING ALONG AT WORK 107

Etiquette 107
Working with Your Boss 113
Teamwork 118
Leadership 128
Summary 132
CHAPTER 6: GETTING AHEAD AT WORK 135

Problem Solving 136
Networking 146
Moving Up 151
Summary 158
CONCLUSION: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 161

RESOURCES 167
INDEX 173
I NTR O D U CTI O N
Is your work life as rewarding as it could be or are you only work-

ing for your paycheck? While getting paid is an important part of
why we work, you can also make the time you spend at your job
interesting, challenging, and satisfying. You will also find that if you
enjoy your work, you will be more successful. The Complete
Professional is the book you need to make the most of your career
whether you are just starting out or if you are well on your way up
the corporate ladder.
WHO SHOULD READ THIS BOOK?
The Complete Professional has information that will help any profes-
sional—from those just starting out to managers—improve their
x THE COM PLETE PROFESSIONAL
performance at work and advance their career. If you are an entry-

level employee, this book will introduce to you important skills that
will set your career off on the right foot. Working in a professional
environment for the first time brings many challenges. The topics
covered in this book will help you tackle them and help you avoid
making some common mistakes.
As a manager, you might think you know everything you need to
know about working in an office, but everyone has room for
improvement. Is your desk as organized as it could be? How com-
fortable are you writing employee reviews? Do your meetings run
as smoothly as you would like? The Complete Professional addresses
such topics as writing reviews, running a meeting, leading team
projects, and building a professional network that are critical for
any successful manager to master.
Also, as a supervisor it is important to know how to help your
employees be as efficient as possible. While, thankfully, you are no
longer responsible for filing, understanding the principles of orga-
nized filing can help you help your employees do their jobs well,
which in turn will make your job easier.
ABOUT THIS BOOK
The Complete Professional covers all the critical skills any profession-
al needs to succeed: organization, writing, communicating,
research, workplace etiquette, teamwork, problem solving, net-
working, and moving up. After you have completed this book, you
will be prepared to meet the challenges of your workplace.
You will know the fundamentals. You will be able to organize
your space and your time to your best advantage. You will be able
to write professional documents such as letters, memos, reports,
and proposals, and you will improve the clarity and style of your
writing. You will also develop your communication skills. It is
I NTO D U CTI O N xi
important to be able to communicate effectively whether you are

giving a speech, participating in a meeting, or just talking with your
colleagues.
You will also learn skills that will help you stand out. You will dis-
cover how to research for business, including using the Internet. You
will come to understand some of the important fine points of busi-
ness etiquette such as what to wear and how to handle office rela-
tionships. You will learn how to negotiate working with your boss,
working as part of a team, and leading your colleagues. Finally, you
will develop the skills you need to get ahead. One skill you should
acquire that would make you an invaluable employee is problem
solving. An employee who can come up with effective, creative solu-
tions to workplace problems will be noticed and rewarded.
The Complete Professional will help you become the best you can
be at your job, and it will help you capitalize on your success in the
workplace. When you are ready to move ahead, The Complete
Professional gives you the tools you need to get promoted or find a
new job. From networking, to asking for a promotion, or looking
for a new job, this book has information that will make advancing
your career easier and more rewarding.
The Complete Professional is divided into six chapters that move
from the basic skills you need to master to the more advanced skills
that will help you move ahead. There are also some special fea-
tures. Read the “True Stories” to learn firsthand about other work-
ers’ experiences. These stories can help put your own workplace
dilemmas in perspective, and can help you see how the skills you
are learning can really make a difference. The references at the end
of the book will point you to some more resources that can help
you in your career.
xii THE COMPLETE PROFESSIONAL
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO YOUR BEST

ADVANTAGE
As we mentioned, this book has something for every professional.

Where you are in your career will affect how you use this book. If
you are just starting out, read each chapter carefully. When you
have read the entire book, go back to the first chapter and start
applying what you learned to your workplace. Get your desk orga-
nized, and improve your time management so that you are working
as efficiently as you can. Next tackle your writing; are you writing
as clearly and concisely as you can? Each chapter will have some
advice that will help you get your career started successfully.
Some chapters will be more applicable to your situation than
others, but it can’t hurt you to learn some skills that will help you
in the future. For example, maybe you are starting your career in
advertising as a receptionist at a major firm and research seems like
something far removed from your duties answering the phone. Not
only does knowing where to find the information you need always
come in handy, but research is a vital skill for many aspects of a
career in advertising. Remember that any young professional
should be looking one step ahead. Learn the skills now that you’ll
need later.
If you are already at a managerial level, you should still read each
chapter. There will certainly be some tips in each chapter that will
serve to refresh your memory of some basic skills that perhaps
you’ve let lapse or never learned in the first place. Then you can
focus your attention on the material that is of specific interest to
you. Maybe your company is moving toward a more team-oriented
approach after years of a top-down managerial style. In this case,
you should concentrate on the section about teamwork strategies
and the section about communicating in meetings, as you will find
yourself in many more meetings.
The Complete Professional is your guide to making the most of
your career. Many people learn these critical skills by trial and
I NTO D U CTI O N xiii
error. Don’t wait to make critical mistakes at work before you learn
how to write well, how to communicate effectively, or how to con-
duct yourself in a meeting. By learning these skills you will not
only be a better employee but you will also find work more enjoy-
able. After all, doing a job well—without the stress of feeling over-
burdened or out of your depth—and earning the respect of your
superiors and colleagues is one of the most rewarding experiences
you can have at your workplace. So read on, make the most of your
job, and get ready to move your career forward!
THE COMPLETE
SOLUTIONS FOR
TODAY’S WORKPLACE
PROFESSIONAL
C HAPTE R 1
GETTING ORGANIZED
GETTING STARTED
H OW D I S O R GAN I Z E D AR E YO U?
Before you can begin to get organized you need to examine the
ways in which you are disorganized and how it affects you at work.
Most of us really don’t know how disorganized we are, because we
can usually put the blame for our stress and frustrations on any
number of other workplace problems. While these factors may
contribute to our feelings of being pressured or overwhelmed,
they are rarely the sole problem and they often disappear once we
take control.
An out-of-control work life can wear you out mentally and
physically and make you feel dissatisfied with your job perfor-
mance and with yourself. It can also hurt you professionally
2 THE COM PLETE PROFESSIONAL
because, no matter how qualified and capable you are, other

people will only see the deadlines that you miss and the infor-
mation that you misplace. Fortunately, you can improve your
professional performance and your professional image as
well—if you face your problems openly.
R ATI N G YO U R WO RK EFFI CI EN CY
Identify the number of times each of the following has occurred at work in
the past month and place that number on the line after the item.
1. You forgot about or failed to meet a deadline. _____

2. You put off returning a telephone call until “later,” then
forgot until the person called a second time. _____
3. You forgot about or failed to show up for an appointment
or meeting. _____
4. You completed work then misplaced it and had to do the
work a second time. _____
5. You misplaced a telephone number or address. _____
6. You spent so much time socializing in the office that you
were unable to complete your work. _____
7. You couldn’t begin a work assignment immediately because
you were missing materials or supplies. _____
8. Your office e-mail account contained duplicate messages
from people because you failed to respond to their earlier
messages. _____
9. You submitted work that was hastily done and given only
your cursory attention. _____
10. You took work home to finish that should have been
completed during the regular business day. _____
Total Score _____
G E T TI N G O R G A N I Z E D 3
So what is your score? Let’s be blunt about your situation. Any

score other than zero shows that you have been unnecessarily
inefficient and that some improvement in organization is needed.
If your score is three or less, you probably have fairly good
control over your work life, even though you certainly can iden-
tify areas of improvement. You know that missing even one
deadline—the wrong deadline—can ruin your professional
image and make you seem unreliable to others. Forgetting to
return even one telephone call or one e-mail message can hurt
business relationships and make you an outsider with the wrong
people. Missing one appointment or meeting can have devastat-
ing professional consequences.
I almost lost my job because I lost one piece of paper—my boss’s

paycheck. Every payday I got the checks for the department and
distributed them. My new boss was out of town so I held his
check in my desk drawer, at least so I thought. When he got back
to the office two days later, I opened my drawer to get his check
and I had that sinking feeling in my stomach. It wasn’t there. I
searched my office, which meant looking through all my over-
flowing wire baskets, all the loose papers in my drawers, through
the stacks of papers on my desk. I never found it, and my boss
never really trusted me again. I got a new job in my company and
never let my office get that messy all over again!
—KAREN, ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT
If your score is between four and eight, your level of disorga-

nization is most likely taking personal and professional tolls on
you. Being unable to meet deadlines, complete projects, connect
with others on schedule, or finish work during the business day
may leave you feeling stressed out and overburdened. Beyond
the personal toll, you may find that your career has remained on
hold, rather than advancing at the speed that you had expected.
If your score is eight or above, your situation is critical and

you should decide now to take the steps that can turn around
your professional life. You may have a lot of work ahead, but
together we can improve the situation considerably.
S ET TI N G YO U R G OALS TO GET ORGANIZED
Now that you know how disorganized you are—whether you

need a little improvement or if your situation is critical—you
can begin to tackle the problem by setting goals. Getting orga-
nized at work requires that you create a system to suit your par-
ticular needs. Some of us have difficulty completing work on
time, while others run into problems with appointments and
meetings. The same organizational solutions can’t be randomly
applied to everyone because all of us have different needs, which
change as our situations change. Success lies in directly address-
ing your weaknesses and building on your strengths as you cre-
ate a system of organization that is right for you right now.
First identify the areas in which you seem to be weakest. Don’t
just put aside your responses to the “Rating Your Work
Efficiency” scale—study them. Which incidents have occurred
the most in the past month?
Are you more likely to miss meetings or appointments?

Do you habitually forget to return telephone calls?
Is work often completed late?
As you review your answers, do you see a pattern emerging?

Identify the three areas in which you seem to have experienced
the greatest difficulty in the past month, and focus your atten-
tion on developing strategies to turn those weaknesses into
strengths. Now, identify the three areas in which you seem to

have been most efficient in the past month.
You have identified the strengths that you already have and
that you will use to create your plan to become organized at
work. To improve your organization at work you must first for-
mulate specific goal statements that address your weaknesses
and exploit your strengths. Your goals must be structured and
specific. Statements such as “I hope to become better organized”
or “I want to become successful” are too vague. Instead, goal
statements must focus directly on your problems at work. Your
goals should be realistic and manageable. If socializing at work
is your weakest area, do not set a goal of eliminating socializing
all together. This is not realistic. You are probably naturally
friendly and, when managed effectively, this can be a great
strength at work. Instead, make your goal to limit your socializ-
ing to an appropriate amount of time.
Also, remember that you can work toward one goal at a time,
starting with the problem that you think is the most important.
G OAL STATEM ENTS
• I will limit my breaks to five minutes, and only take one in the morning
and one in the afternoon.
• I will return each phone call within the hour. If I don’t have the infor-
mation the person has requested, I will touch base with them to let
them know where things stand.
• I will start keeping an appointment calendar, and keep track of all my
appointments and deadlines in one place.
• I won’t let e-mail and voice mail messages accumulate. Every Monday I
will go through my e-mail messages and make sure I’ve responded to
the message or taken care of the request. I will delete any messages
that are not important and archive those that are.
• I will reorganize my desk files.
ORGANIZING YOUR DESK SPACE
You will feel more in control of your work if you are in control
of your work environment—and for most workers “environ-
ment” means their desk and the surrounding area. You will save
time and project a competent image if you can immediately
locate whatever you need without having to shuffle through
papers and folders or search through every drawer in the desk.
As you look at the things accumulated on your desk, do you
have a difficult time imagining what you can do without?
Everything on your desk may seem necessary and irreplaceable,
but there are a large number of items that you can live without.
As with any major project, you should plan your approach
before cleaning the desk. Before you begin weeding out items,
obtain three boxes to contain the papers and files that you remove
from the desk. You should also place an empty trashcan near the
desk to encourage you to throw out useless paper and other items.
To organize the desktop successfully, you must start with a clean
desk surface on which to work. Clear everything off the desk—all
papers, files, supplies, and equipment—then place them on the floor
at a distance from your desk, so that you don’t add to the chaos.
Because you plan to be thorough, take everything out of the
desk drawers as well. (If your desk has file drawers, organize these
using the guidelines in the next section: “Organizing Your Files.”)
Separate all papers from the rest of the items. You will sort and
file these papers with the piles of paper that you took from the
desktop. As for the remaining items from the desk, put your tools,
supplies, and personal items off to the side for sorting later.
Once the desk has been emptied, clean every inch of it so that
you can organize a truly clear desk. You should view what you are
doing as marking a new beginning, because it is. Not only are you
making an important effort aimed at getting organized at work, but
this also means taking a new approach to your work habits. If you
are extending your efforts to your desk, why not start fresh with it,
as well? Treat your desk as a valued element in your working life.
Start with the equipment and supplies that you removed
from the desk. Ask yourself the following questions about each
item and decide what absolutely must be on the desktop.
Do I need this item to complete tasks?

How often will I use it?
How will I use it?
Do I have another item that can do this task and others,
as well?
As you carefully make your decisions, return necessary

items to the desktop one by one, and evaluate the need
for each item individually.
The single most important item among such essentials is your
computer, which should occupy a central position on the desk
unless you have been provided with a separate workstation or an
adjustable desk extension for it. First position the computer in a
suitable place on the desk, and then replace the other desktop items
in a logical manner. IN, OUT, and PENDING boxes and other essen-
tial items that you use throughout the day, such as a desk calendar
and a rotary address file, also have their places on the desktop.
After you have returned all necessary items to the desktop,
begin the real work of sorting through the papers and file fold-
ers. You have already placed IN, OUT, and PENDING boxes on the
desk, but don’t use them immediately. Instead, begin by sorting
the papers into three piles: one containing papers that you will
keep at your desk or file, a second for papers that you will dis-
card, and a third for papers that must be given further consider-
ation. Move the trash can a little closer and begin the laborious
task of deciding which papers stay and which must go.
Throw away any paper that is not necessary to keep or to con-
sider further. Before you do, record in the appropriate place any
information of value that appears on a paper. For example,
scraps of paper containing personal or work-related telephone
numbers, addresses, or reminders should be entered into the
appropriate address books or planners and then thrown out.
Likewise, invitations to professional events should be recorded
in the planner then thrown out.
After you have sorted all the papers, you will have two
remaining stacks: those to keep at your desk and those requiring
further sorting and consideration. Put the second pile aside and
work on the papers you are keeping. Put these papers into one
of the three boxes on your desk. Place information entering the
office into the IN box, and place material that should be filed,
mailed, or passed on to a colleague into the OUT box. Use the
PENDING box for material that represents work in progress or
that requires further information.
These three boxes will be valuable tools in your crusade to
achieve paper control on the desktop. Sorting every paper that
comes to your desk will keep you organized, but don’t allow the
boxes to simply become depositories of clutter.
• Items that are placed into the OUT box during the day
should leave the box by the end of the day.
• Items in the PENDING box should only remain there for a
short time, while awaiting further action. Don’t use this
box as a dumping ground for items that you don’t know
what to do with.
• Items in the IN box should be relocated by the end of each
day. Place completed items into the OUT box to mail, file,
or give to someone else to process. Deal with everything
in the IN box each day, and do not allow items to pile up.
Review all the papers in the second pile that you put aside
and try to sort them as well. Many may go into the trash, now
that you have given them a second review, but others may be
passed on to someone more appropriate to process.
After the desktop is clear, organize your desk drawers, and be
as severe in throwing out unneeded and unwanted material as
you were in sorting the paper. Install trays or bins to separate
items and to provide order in the drawers. As you return items
to the desk, return any duplicate supplies to the supply room.
You don’t need to be a pack rat. You can also keep needed per-
sonal items in the desk. Use one of the smallest drawers to hold
only those that you might need during the day, but don’t turn it
into a junk drawer.
ORGANIZING YOUR FILES
ASSESS THE F I L E SYSTE M IN PL ACE
Filing is a key activity in any system of business organization.

Information about past, present, and future activities is kept in
company files—on paper, disk, or hard drive—and knowing
what type of information is available as well as the correct
means of accessing that information is vital to success.
You probably inherited a filing system when you were hired. As
you have probably already learned, not all filing systems are equal-
ly effective. Many new employees of seemingly well-established
companies have been shocked by the disarray in which they find
the company files. Even more shocking is that they are expected to
10 THE COMPLETE PROFESSIONAL
maneuver through the files and continue to maintain order in a

chaotic system. The first step in identifying the best filing system
for your company or department is understanding the types of files
that are common to all effective systems. Every filing system
should contain files that fall into three broad categories:
• Working files that must be kept close at hand.

• Secondary files that are referred to periodically and can
be less accessible.
• Archive files that are rarely referred to and can be stored
out of the office.
Working files are active files that contain information that

you need now. They should be readily accessible, in either your
desk file drawers or a cabinet within arm’s reach. Client
accounts, expenses, personnel records, transactions, and the like
all belong in the active file. You add to active files daily as you
sort and file incoming papers, and you will refer frequently to
the information contained in these files.
Secondary files are also current, but they consist of informa-
tion that might prove useful as research or support information.
They do not contain material that refers to the daily operation
of the office. You should scrutinize these files more harshly and
purge them more freely than you do the working files. Keep the
following guidelines in mind when reviewing secondary files:
Ask yourself under what circumstances you would use the
information. If you can’t think of any reason to keep the mater-
ial, throw it out.
If you decide to keep the information, decide which key
words would come to mind if you wanted to locate it.
Consider how you will use the material in order to determine
the appropriate key words to use.
Use cross-references as they are needed.
Archive files usually contain information and documentation
that remains from completed projects or accounts that are no

longer active. Laws and policies vary as to how long to keep
records, and many companies that have substantial storage space
simply keep everything from their first days of operation. Other
companies purge their archive files on a regular basis because of
space limitations, and they keep only legally required documents.
Even if the records are no longer active, you should periodi-
cally go through the archived files to see if you can combine
materials and organize the files to make them even more effi-
cient. Don’t just dump a large amount of related papers into one
folder. Instead, divide broad topics into new, more clearly
defined categories.
K E E P I N G YO U R F I L E S O R GAN I Z E D
The following guidelines will provide long-term benefits in

the amount of time that you will save and the aggravation you
will avoid later.
• File only what you really need to keep.
• Remove paper clips from all papers because they create
bulk in the folder if they stay on or accumulate at the
bottom of the folder if they fall off.
• Staple related pages of a single document, so that the
entire letter or report will be viewed and individual pages
will not be misfiled.
• Check already stapled documents before filing to make
certain that the pages really do belong together.
• Arrange single sheets and stapled documents within a
folder in reverse chronological order, placing the most
recent first.
No matter what organizational approach you use, you should

periodically go through all the active files in each drawer of the file
cabinet, vertical file, and desk drawer file. By doing so, you can
make certain that the headings are still current and useful, and
that the contents of the folders are up to date.
Do you have a file maintenance plan? Do you schedule the
cleaning of files on a regular basis? You should. How often you do
so depends on the size of the company you work for and how
busy the office is.
Cleaning and reorganizing files is not an easy task, and it may
take a complete day or more, even in a small company. A larger
company conducts more business and records more transactions,
so the files are more numerous, and organization becomes a
greater chore. If the number of files is too great to go through in
one day, divide the files into manageable batches. For example,
organize A-D one day, and so on until you reach the end of the
alphabet. Take out all the papers in one file or related group of files.
Divide the papers into only two categories:“Refile” or “Discard.” As
you sort through the files, be thorough and remember that the
work you do now will make your daily filing much easier.
ORGANIZING YOUR TIME
Most of us could benefit from having more minutes in an hour

and more hours in a day to do everything that we have to do and
want to do. How often do you promise yourself to finish a task or
put the finishing touches on a project “tomorrow”? Then “tomor-
row” arrives and new work faces you or another uncompleted task
grabs your attention, leaving earlier work incomplete and the “fin-
ishing touches” undone. Does this sound familiar? If you don’t
seem to get as much done as you expected and often wonder
where the time in your workday has gone, you need to identify
where your minutes go and then resolve to take control of time.
WHERE DOES THE TIM E GO?
You probably think that you are too busy to analyze where your
time goes. Yet, you need to get organized at work, and managing
your time is important if you are going to succeed. A big part of
managing time is setting priorities. You can afford to devote sever-
al hours to gaining control of your time and your life. Once you do,
you will be happier and more productive.
In which activities do you spend most of your time while at
work? Are you really completing work most of the time and taking
advantage of the hours available to you? Or does much of the day
pass with only spurts of work being completed? What do you do
during the time that you are not working?
One way you can answer these questions is to keep track of your
time by creating a time journal in which you record everything that
you do in the course of each workday over a two-week period. This
time frame is necessary to allow you to record and analyze both daily
and weekly activities. Periodic tasks, those that must be completed
weekly or monthly, should be noted in separate areas of the journal.
In some jobs, each day is relatively the same. In this case, you
can simplify your journal greatly by setting up a chart with
columns that are headed by the usual tasks in a day. If your daily
tasks vary and if you have specific weekly and monthly responsi-
bilities, you should take a different approach to examining your
workday. Rather than arranging the day according to tasks, view
your day according to one-hour increments and identify the activ-
ities completed within each increment.
Some companies allow employees to take advantage of flextime. These

employees do not work the traditional nine-to-five schedule, but struc-
ture their own work hours. If a different schedule would make it easier
for you to balance your work and family obligations, for example, flextime
might appeal to you. Find out if this option is available at your company.
If it isn’t, you might consider presenting a proposal suggesting that your
company institute a flextime option.
C R E AT I N G AN ITI N E RARY
To get organized at work, you have to use time efficiently.

Creating a daily itinerary that identifies what you intend to do
for every hour of the workday will structure your priorities and
help you use you time wisely. The unexpected will arise and you
will have to modify your schedule at times, but the basic struc-
ture should be maintained. Use your two-week time and task
assessment to create your itinerary. The itinerary is important
because when supervisors or coworkers come to you with unan-
ticipated demands, you can more accurately explain why you can
or cannot accomplish what is needed in the time that is allotted.
That will not always eliminate late work evenings, but it will be
useful in setting manageable deadlines and preventing you from
making promises you can’t keep.
If you are going to succeed in getting organized at work, you will
have to take several important steps on your own—later we will deal
with negative external influences. You—not other people—stand to
benefit from becoming better organized, so begin with yourself.
Following are several general ways you can manage your time.
1. Identify your periods of peak performance. According

to the assessments, when do you appear to be most effi-
cient? Are you a morning person whose energy level is
highest at the beginning of the day? Do meetings,
appointments, and telephone calls made early in the

day seem to be the most successful? If so, try to manip-
ulate your schedule so that tasks requiring more ener-
gy and concentration take place in the morning.
Many people return from lunch and become sleepy
within a few minutes of sitting at their desks. Are you
one of these people? If so, arrange to complete the
most important—and, when possible, the most bor-
ing—work before lunch. Save for after lunch those
activities that will force you to move away from your
desk and walk around. In this way, you can use activity
to keep you awake when your body clock runs down.
2. Schedule your tasks on daily, weekly, and monthly
bases. Identify how you will complete your usual daily
tasks. Draw up a schedule in which you name the task
and the time of the day (based on your periods of peak
performance) that each task should be completed. Also
establish a time-frame in minutes (or hours, as need-
ed) within which the task should be completed. Be
realistic in scheduling so that you can use the results as
a guide to the success or failure of your daily (and
weekly or monthly) performance.
Include in your itinerary the amount of time for
breaks and for lunch that your employer allows. Be
honest and also include the inevitable moments that
you spend in socializing, but don’t overdo it. An itiner-
ary is only a guide, and one that is only useful when it
contains current information. As your responsibilities
change, make changes in your daily, weekly, or month-
ly itinerary and post them in full sight of your desk.
3. Remain flexible in completing tasks. You might com-
bine several tasks or share tasks with others in the
office, and this can save you time and aggravation. As
you use new equipment or become more adept at com-

pleting repeated tasks, the time devoted to these tasks
should lessen.
On a periodic basis, review the itinerary and revise it
by shortening your time-frame for tasks that have
become second nature to you. If you can accomplish
something in 30 minutes rather than the 45 minutes
that it once took you, plan to put the remaining 15
minutes to better use. Your increased efficiency will
allow you to take on more challenging projects and can
lead to greater job security and more chances for
advancement.
4. Get started now. Stop procrastinating at every point in
your itinerary. Stalling for time only leaves you out of
time when the workday ends. Use your schedule of
tasks as a list of deadlines and decide that they will be
met, so that you can end the workday on time.
If your itinerary indicates that you are supposed to
open the mail at 9:15 A.M., don’t decide to make calls
first or to catch up with a coworker’s social life. Open
the mail at 9:15 A.M.—and stay within the time-frame
that you allotted to the task.
Of course, the key is to remain flexible and to make
up a schedule that works for you and helps you become
more organized at work. You may find that you consis-
tently avoid opening the mail as your first task of the
day and that you would rather do something else to
begin. If your supervisor has given you freedom to
decide the order in which you complete work, rewrite
the itinerary to reflect your preferences. Different tasks
motivate different people. You need to find the one task
that will serve as a catalyst to start your day.
5. Gather and use appropriately marked bins to lessen
time lost in confusing paper shuffling. If your itinerary
includes the use of specific files, forms, or other

papers on a regular basis, obtain wire boxes to hold
each type of paper. At the least, be sure to use your IN
and OUT boxes to separate the work that will be sent
out from the work that must be responded to and
filed. Within each box, organize the papers in order
of their importance or in the order in which you
must deal with them, then follow through on that
organization.
6. Use technology to keep you on schedule. Use a per-
sonal digital assistant (PDA) or scheduling software
on your computer to aid you in tracking appointments,
providing reminders, managing your calendar, and
generally keeping you on top of your schedule. Many
office software packages come with an electronic cal-
endar that allows you to schedule your day and create
task lists. Many will even send you reminders about
the items in your agenda.
PDAs differ widely in cost. They range from the low-
technology electronic organizers that cost around $100
to full-blown PDAs, which include fax, e-mail, and
paging features and cost around $800. Your needs and
career goals will determine just how organized you can
afford to be.
THE TELEPHONE AND TI M E MANAG E M E NT
The telephone can be a major obstacle to getting organized at

work. It eats up valuable work time, whether we are making or
returning calls. Nevertheless, unless we want to alienate clients
and lose business, we can’t just let the telephone ring or switch
on the answering machine and selectively return calls. And,
despite the e-mail explosion, the telephone is still a better tool
for making a person-to-person contact when we can’t meet face-

to-face. The following guidelines can help you use your
telephone time efficiently.
1. Create a directory of the most important telephone

and fax numbers that you call and keep it next to your
telephone for ready reference. This list should contain
not only important clients and other business contacts,
but should also include technical support numbers for
vital office equipment.
2. Establish a specific time in the day when you return
telephone calls that are not of an emergency nature.
Grouping calls in this manner allows you to create
blocks of uninterrupted work time and to control the
amount of time that you spend—not waste—talking
on the telephone.
3. Cut down on telephone tag by telling callers, either
directly or by leaving messages on their voice mail, that
you will return their calls at a specific time. Making tele-
phone appointments in this manner cuts down on the
need for others to call you at times when you are out.
Formalizing an intended call by setting a time also makes
others more likely to wait for your call, thus lessening the
possibility that a flurry of telephone calls will result.
4. Return calls that do not require extensive explanations
during times when the recipient is likely to be out of
the office or about to leave. If your call is simply a brief
response to a question, or if you have only a brief ques-
tion to ask, call right before or during lunchtime or just
before the end of the workday. Most people will not
want to extend the conversation and you will obtain
more direct responses.
5. Return calls that require lengthy explanations via e-
mail or fax to avoid misunderstandings. Let the recipi-
ent know that you are responding through one of these

means and your reason for doing so. Also request that
your callers provide lengthy information, which may
have significant consequences, via e-mail or fax.
Remind people that this arrangement permits you
both to have a hard copy for future reference.
6. Leave complete messages on answering machines or
voice mail when you respond to calls or try to connect
with another person. In addition to your name, tele-
phone number, and the time of the call, leave a message
that includes a time when you can be reached. If your
call is to obtain information, provide your listener with
your complete question and all the specific details, so
they will be prepared to give you a complete answer.
7. If you use voice mail or an answering machine, write
down detailed information as you listen to each message
and delete the messages immediately. Saving the mes-
sages to listen to later seems like an efficient idea, but it
can backfire when you accumulate too many messages.
8. Prioritize the information in long telephone calls, and
cover the most important issues first in case the call is
unexpectedly cut short. Because you might feel harried
or hurried when you have numerous points to cover in
a telephone conversation, organize your thoughts on
paper and create an agenda before making an impor-
tant call. As each point is covered to your satisfaction,
cross it off the agenda and move on to your next point.
9. Provide the recipient of your call with full information
at the outset—at least give your name, affiliation, and
the reason for your call—so that you will either receive
needed information or your call can be transferred to
the right person to help you.
10. Use a telephone headset for your workday calls if you
take a lot of calls or if you must complete other tasks
while speaking on the telephone. Instead of twisting

your head and neck to jam the telephone receiver
between your shoulder and ear, you can move about
freely while you sort mail and papers, clear the desk, or
take notes as you listen to the caller.
I had just begun a project with a freelance editor who had a very
busy and erratic schedule. She would often be away from her
phone—usually at unpredictable intervals. I had a more consistent
schedule, so I decided it would be easiest if I contacted her first,
letting her know when I took my lunch, and when I had my week-
ly meetings. She called me back at a time I had suggested, and
let me know how appreciative she was that I had let her know my
schedule. It saved a great deal of time, and got our working rela-
tionship off to a great start!
—DUNCAN, E DITORIAL ASSISTANT
MANAG I N G YO U R TI M E S P E NT S O C IAL I Z I N G
Does your workweek contain significant periods of time wast-

ed in socializing? If it does, you can eliminate them by changing
the way the people who surround you at work view you and by
making them understand that you need to focus on profession-
al, not social, tasks. This won’t be easy, and doing so without
hurting the feelings of others or alienating coworkers and
friends can be tricky—but it can be done. Have you ever sat
patiently with glazed eyes as someone related a seemingly end-
less story about their weekend, while inside you may have been
silently screaming with frustration, hoping to end the socializing
and return to work, so that you could end your day on time?
Why didn’t you? Were you afraid of being rude?
Such concerns are admirable in most social situations, but not at

work. Although you may feel pressured to join others around the
water cooler or at the coffee machine, you must remind yourself
that these activities will not help you complete your work. Getting
organized at work means using your time to attain maximum effi-
ciency, not becoming the most popular person in the room.
So how can you make others understand and accept your new
goals? Start with yourself. Review the assessments and identify
the areas in which you have sacrificed work time for social time.
Examine each incident carefully and try to remember how that
lost time interfered with your workday and prevented you from
enjoying personal time.
• Did you have to stay later just to complete work?

• Did you take shortcuts that lessened the quality of your
work?
• Did you feel frazzled? Stressed out?
• Was the time spent socializing important?
• What effect did the lost time have on your feeling of con-
trol over your work?
• What effect did the lost time have on the extent to which
you felt you had control over your life?
Once you know when and where you are most likely to
become distracted, plan to remain alert to those situations. First
of all, you will have to convince your coworkers that the change
in your attitude toward work is serious and permanent. This
may be hard, because people are creatures of habit and they may
have some difficulty accepting the change, especially if they feel
guilty about their own behavior at work.
You should assess your relationships and divide your cowork-
ers into categories, according to their importance to your life.
Three possible categories follow: (1) People whom you gen-
uinely like and with whom you have developed an emotional
relationship; (2) People whom you like but who have little or no
impact on your life; and (3) People whom you could gladly do
without.
Focus on maintaining a solid work relationship with people in
categories 1 and 2, and use your newfound dedication to orga-
nizing your life at work to eliminate the people in the third cat-
egory. Let the people who count know what you are doing. You
must communicate your goals if you expect their cooperation.
Finding the words to let others know that you have changed
is not as hard as you might think. Be honest. If you are tired of
rushing through your work and of leaving long after the day
should end, say so. If you have an especially stressful project due,
or if you feel that your work performance has held you back
from promotions, admit this as well. Once your coworkers know
that you have specific goals, they will be less likely to take your
new behavior personally. In fact, you might be surprised to see
how supportive they will be of your efforts.
Not everyone, however, will applaud your change of heart.
You should also be ready to meet resistance, which might simply
result from the desire to continue a friendly relationship with
you and not a deliberate attempt to sabotage your new effective-
ness. In this case, be kind but firm in dealing with the person.
Offer options for socializing during lunch or after work, but do
not let sympathy for a coworker’s problems or repeated dilem-
mas keep you from proceeding with your newly developed sense
of organization at work.
GETTING ORGANIZED WITH TECHNOLOGY
Sending information via fax or e-mail is a true time-saver

because you can send it at any time—day or night—and you
don’t have to be present when people respond. Unlike telephone
calls and voice mail, both fax and e-mail provide you with hard
copy to read, study, and keep. The technology helps you orga-
nize your communications on your own schedule, because you
can respond at your convenience. You also avoid the lost time
involved in waiting for the mail—even express mail—to arrive,
and your schedule is not disrupted by having to wait for a tele-
phone call.
Extensive as the advantages may seem, faxes and e-mails are
not an appropriate means of communication in all instances. Do
not send an important document via either fax or e-mail if the
appearance of the original is vital to the recipient’s appreciation
of its value. Business etiquette requires that formal correspon-
dence should be sent in their original condition with the origi-
nal signature.
You should also refrain from sending a letter via fax or e-mail
if your boss has instructed you to obtain a signed return receipt
from the recipient. A fax or e-mail message report is not legal
proof that a person has received your document. The law still
requires an actual signature for such verification.
W H AT C A N F A X M A C H I N E S D O FOR YO U?
The fax machine can save you a lot of time, because you can
complete work on letters or documents late in the day yet deliv-
er them via fax transmission before the business day ends.
Knowing that you have such flexibility permits you to schedule
other, more pressing work that might have to reach the package
shipping counter or the post office before it closes. Your dead-
lines to complete work actually become more generous when
you are able to send a document via fax. Other features, such as
polling and broadcast, can increase your time flexibility and
allow you to plan in advance long tasks that might take up the
better part of a day.
AR E YO U G ET TI N G THE M O ST FROM E-MAIL?
The benefits of e-mail are many. E-mail allows you to respond

instantly to messages, by simply typing in your response and
clicking the “reply” button. You don’t have to use letterhead or
prepare an envelope. Using e-mail also helps you avoid the
dreaded “telephone tag” game.
E-mail is more economical than fax transmission, because you
can send messages locally or thousands of miles away for the
same cost of a local call. This is one advantage over the fax
machine, which accrues long distance call charges for long docu-
ments sent to distant sites.
E-mail is also convenient because you can send a message at any
time of day or night, and you can read your respondent’s reply
with the same freedom. The message waits until you and your
recipient are free to access it. You are not limited to simply brief
messages, but you can attach long files when you want to transfer
a report or even a book manuscript. If your office computer has a
scanner, you can scan pictures, graphics, and text into your com-
puter then send this information as an attachment, although the
potential for distortions in transmission should be taken serious-
ly. In addition, you can program your software to save all of your
incoming and outgoing messages in an electronic file cabinet, thus
to maintain a complete record of your electronic correspondence.
HOW CAN THE I NTE R N ET H E L P YO U?
How much time would you save if you completed a large part of
the busywork of business tasks while sitting at your desk? What if
you did not have to travel to the office supply store to pick up sta-
tionery or supplies? What if you did not even have to sit at your
desk holding the telephone receiver and waiting until a customer
service representative became available to take your order?
Think of how you could plan and schedule your workday if

you knew that you would not have to worry about being inter-
rupted and asked to go to the bank to verify account records or
transfer company money. How much better organized could
you be if you accessed government statistics via your computer
rather than trudging to the library, researching, then copying
the information?
If the ability to do all of this and more while seated at your
desk and using your computer appeals to you, get ready to go
online! Several organizing tools make searching and communi-
cating on the Internet more manageable, including search
engines and bookmarks. Search engines help you locate sources
of information and web-based services. Each of the premium
provider services has its own form of search engine. In
addition, several others can also be accessed by typing in their
addresses or by going to their sites. For Yahoo, type in
http://www.yahoo.com, and for AltaVista, the address is
http://www.altavista.com. You can obtain the names and site
addresses of others by simply typing in the words “search
engine” in some provider programs.
How can search engines work for you? Let’s assume, for
example, that you wish to compare the prices of office supplies
from various companies, so that you can reduce costs and
increase your convenience in ordering. A large number of com-
panies of all types have websites and offer online ordering. You
could go to the search engine, type in the phrase “office supplies,”
and the engine, or browser as it is sometimes also called, will
give you a list of other websites that will give you more infor-
mation.
A search engine allows you to become a more competitive
shopper. Instead of maintaining your company’s association
with one distributor who may not charge the lowest prices, you
can now get a listing of other distributors. Using search engines
allows you to get the same comparative shopping information in
a matter of minutes, where it would have previously taken days

to gather the same pricing information.
Bookmarks, like their physical counterparts, allow a comput-
er user to save a place—in this case, a favorite website. After typ-
ing in the site address or finding one through a search engine,
you can just bookmark it and the computer will save that web-
site address. The next time that you wish to visit the site, all you
have to do is click on the bookmark option on your screen, then
select the name of the exact page, and the computer will auto-
matically take you there.
The services offered on the Internet are indeed quite vast, but
here are four key ways that it can directly help to organize any
business and save you time. The first is through comparative
shopping, the second is facilitated ordering, the third is online
tracking, and the fourth is research access.
Comparative Shopping. Basically any good or service that you can
think of can be found on the Internet. Because these companies
have lower overhead costs they can offer the consumer discount-
ed prices. Not only can comparative shopping on the Internet save
you time, but it could also save your company money.
Ordering Online. This can make your life a little easier. It pro-
vides you with a way of organizing your time because you can
plan when and how long you will search.
Tracking Shipments. The Internet offers a way for you to check
the status of your shipment efficiently, which can save you time
that would have been spent on the phone with customer service.
Major shipping companies have now developed online tracking
software that you can install on your personal computer free of
charge.
Research Access. Many organizations and government agencies
have websites, which offer a wealth of information available on-
line. You can print out case studies and profiles of various coun-
tries, compliments of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), or
locate and print out a copy of current legislation that may still
be in Senate committee, compliments of the Library of Congress.

Many government agencies, such as the Bureau of Labor
Statistics and the Bureau of the Census, provide useful and cur-
rent data.
To access research sites, use the same approach that you used
to locate goods and services. Locate a search engine and simply
type in the topic in which you are interested. Then bookmark
the sites to which you expect to make repeat visits.
Once you gain an understanding of how the Internet can help
you and your business, it will save you both time and money. You
will find that you will have more time to plan and to schedule other
activities, and you will become more organized in the process.
SUMMARY
Getting organized at work will make you much more efficient

and will greatly reduce your stress level. First you need to find
out how you are disorganized, since we all have our own trouble
spots. Analyze the types of problems you’ve had recently that
resulted from being disorganized, and then concentrate your
efforts on correcting the problem.
Approach any organizing project—whether it is your messy
desk, your chaotic files, or your hectic schedule—methodically.
When you reorganize your desk take everything off the top and
out of the drawers. Consider each item and only replace those
items that are essential to your day-to-day work. Your goal is to
create a clutter-free desk where everything has a place. Analyze
your filing system—you should have working, secondary, and
archive files—and make sure that you are filing things in the
appropriate place. Only file what is useful and necessary, and file
items in a consistent, logical manner. Finally, consider how you
use your time and then take control of the hours in your day.
When you create an itinerary that structures your time and

tasks so that you maximize your efficiency, you will find that you
are able to meet your deadlines and use your time at work effec-
tively. Limit your socializing to the people who are important to
you, and manage your telephone time so you don’t waste count-
less minutes playing phone tag and trapped in unnecessarily long
phone calls. Finally, use technology to increase your efficiency.
Faxes, e-mail, and the Internet can all save time and make your
work easier.
When you are working in an organized and efficient manner
you will find you have more time to concentrate on developing
other skills instead of struggling to keep up with tasks and keep
track of your work. Writing and communicating are two impor-
tant skills that every professional needs to conquer. Writing for
business is addressed in the next chapter.
C HAPTE R 2
WRITING FOR WORK
GETTING STARTED
Workplace or business writing has several characteristics and

standard practices that make it different from other kinds of writing.
More than any other kind of writing, writing at work is audi-
ence specific: What you say and how you say it depends entirely upon to
whom you are saying it. This means that before you begin to write,
you need to be very clear about your audience. Workplace writing
is also distinguished from other types of writing by its focus on
purpose. In anything you write for work, your reason for writing
must be made clear, and made clear from the very beginning. You
must let your readers know, as quickly and as clearly as possible,
why you’re writing to them and what it is you want to convey.
K N OW YO U R AU D I E N C E
It is essential to keep your reader foremost in your mind at all

times. After all, writing is communication—and if the person
receiving your communication doesn’t understand your message,
you’ve failed in your task.
You need to know to whom you’re writing in order to choose the
right kinds of words and to present the right attitude,or tone.Are you:
• A superior writing to a subordinate?

• A subordinate writing to a superior?
• A coworker writing to an equal?
• A customer/client writing to a company?
• A company writing to a customer/client?
• A company writing to a potential customer/client?
• A customer/client writing to a company?
If you’re a subordinate writing a request to a superior, for exam-

ple, your tone should be gentle and polite, but not overly polite or
flattering. A superior writing a request to a subordinate, on the
other hand, would still be polite but be more straightforward or
demanding.
My boss asked me to write a cover letter on her behalf to accom-

pany a press kit being sent to a client. I, personally, didn’t know
the client, so the cover letter I wrote was brief and very imperson-
al. When I showed my draft of the letter to my boss, she explained
to me that my company had a long-term and friendly business rela-
tionship with this client, and the client might consider the imper-
sonal tone of the letter rude. I have learned to write letters with the
recipient’s relationship to my company in mind.
—SARAH, ADVERTISING ASSISTANT

W R ITI N G FOR WORK 31
K N OW YO U R P U R P O S E
Before you begin to write, think about your purpose. Often

the purpose of your writing will fall into one of the four follow-
ing categories:
• Informing and reminding.

• Requesting and inquiring.
• Following up and responding.
• Thanking, welcoming, or congratulating.
The strategies for writing a communication that aims to

inform or remind are really very simple. First, tell your readers
what you’re going to tell them in a clear opening sentence. Second,
provide the specific information you need to convey. Finally, indi-
cate to your reader why this information is important.
Requests and inquiries follow the same general format as
communications that inform and remind. Specifically, in
requests and inquiries you should first indicate the general
nature of your request. Then, make the specific request (kindly),
and be as detailed as possible so your reader knows exactly what
you want. Always explain why you need it and by when, if
applicable. Finally, thank your reader. Remember that people are
far more likely to give you what you want if you are gracious
about it.
When you are writing to follow up on a meeting or conversa-
tion or to respond to a letter or phone call, begin by thanking
the person for the letter, memo, telephone call, meeting, or
whatever. Then, remind the person of the highlights of your
meeting or conversation, if applicable. Provide the information
or items the person requested, and/or explain why you can’t
provide it. End on the assumption that you will continue work-
ing together or with a “looking forward” or “best wishes” type of
statement.
For communications that thank, welcome, or congratulate, be

specific about what you’re thankful to the person for, welcoming
the person to, or congratulating the person for. Use exact names,
dates, places, and so on. Keep your message brief. If your mes-
sage is too long, you may come off sounding insincere.
Remember that timing is important. Make sure you send your
thanks, welcome, or congratulations promptly. A late message
may be interpreted as a sign that you don’t really mean it.
Knowing the purpose of your writing guides how and what
you write. If you begin with a clear purpose, you will be able to
write succinctly and effectively.
EDITING AND REVISING
Another key to successful business writing is editing and

revising your work. Even the best, most experienced writers
don’t get it right the first time. In fact, the more experience a
writer has, the more drafts he or she tends to write. Experienced
writers know that they should first get their ideas down—how-
ever roughly—and then worry about making it sound “perfect.”
The process of revision means just that: re-vision, to look at
again. In other words, revising means reviewing what you’ve
written to make sure that it does what it’s supposed to do and it
does it effectively.
To evaluate your work be sure to get feedback. Read your
writing aloud or show your work to someone else. Reading your
work aloud enables you to hear how your writing sounds and
catch confusing ideas and errors. By showing your work to oth-
ers, you can get objective feedback about how well you’ve ful-
filled your purpose.
Don’t expect to write and revise a perfect memo or proposal
in ten minutes. In fact, the earlier you begin your writing task,
the better, because a little distance always helps. That is, if you
draft your communication and then sit down to revise it right

away, your draft may be too fresh in your head for you to think
clearly about revisions. However, if you can put what you’ve written
aside for a while—even if it’s just for 15 minutes while you have a
cup of coffee—when you come back, you will be able to think
more clearly and creatively about what you’ve written.
N E AT N E S S AND AC C U RACY
Finally, you must remember that when writing for business neat-
ness and accuracy count. This may seem obvious, but often neat-
ness and accuracy get lost in the rush to meet a deadline, to get a
letter out before the end of the day, or to respond quickly. Writing
with spelling mistakes, grammatical errors, or poor presentation
will undermine your purpose and alienate your audience.
How you present what you say often matters as much as what
you say. Readers will form an opinion of you and your company
simply from the appearance of your document, and this can
make all the difference in how seriously your readers treat what
you have to say.
Here are a few general rules about presentation:
1. Proofread any written work before you send it out. And

proofread it not just once, but twice—even three times.
2. Think about the appearance of your document. Don’t
crowd words onto the page, and balance the white
space.
3. Use a font and type size that is easy to read.
Take the time to be accurate and to check your accuracy. Here

are some examples of ways to improve your accuracy:
1. Give exact dates whenever possible. For example, if you

are writing to request a raise, don’t estimate the time you
have worked at your company. Instead, give the specific
date you were hired. An estimate might seem like you
are stretching the truth. A specific date appears honest
and professional.
2. Don’t guess the spelling of a person’s name. Check to
make sure you have the name of the person you are writ-
ing to spelled correctly, as well as any people you refer to
in your document.
3. Check any figures in your document, and double check
your math.
4. Get your facts straight. Your readers will draw conclu-
sions, take action, and/or make recommendations based
on your document. You could be putting your company
and your job in jeopardy if your document includes false
information.
I was in charge of setting up my boss’s appointments for an

upcoming international book fair, some of which were with very
important contacts she had not yet met in person. I was eager to
make the correspondence “perfect,” so I made sure to spell-
check everything. Only, there was one problem. My fax template
was set to “automatic replace” when spell checking, and I did not
modify it to “ignore” my boss’s name. The result was that on each
and every fax, her first and last name were replaced with a rather
embarrassing pairing of words, and the faxes were all sent with
this incorrect name. I learned the hard way to always proof all
correspondence before sending it out.
—JOHN, FOREIGN R IGHTS ASSISTANT

TYPES OF DOCUMENTS
Now that you have mastered the basic principles of writing for
work, you are ready to apply them to specific types of business
documents. The four basic types are letters, memos, reports,
and proposals.
LETTERS
Business letters can have up to eleven parts. You may not use
all of them every time. They’re listed below in the order in
which they should appear in a letter.
1. Writer’s address. If your letter will not be sent on com-

pany letterhead, make sure your full name and address
are the first items on your letter. Include your title and
company name. This way your reader knows immedi-
ately who has sent them a letter. Write out all the
words in this address (write Street, not St.) except the
abbreviations for Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., and the state (IN
instead of Indiana). Note: In business letters, the titles
Mr., Mrs., and Ms., are often omitted in the writer’s
address. Dr., however, usually remains.
2. Date. Next, type the month, day, and year. Write out
the full name of the month (September, not Sept. or 9)
and use the number for the day (12, not twelfth or 12th).
Don’t include the day of the week.
3. Inside address. Write the full name, title, company and
address of the reader. Don’t abbreviate except for Mr.,
Ms., Mrs., and Dr., and the name of the state.
4. Subject or Re: line. Re: is an abbreviation for regarding.
The re: line (often called the subject line) is a quick ref-
erence telling the reader what the letter is about. The
re: line is not mandatory, but it’s very helpful and it’s
almost always used in correspondence regarding legal
matters or past due accounts. The re: line should be no
more than a few words and is usually underlined. It can
range from an account number to several words
describing the letter’s main subject.
5. Salutation. The salutation is the greeting or opening of
the letter. Begin with the word “Dear” and be sure your
salutation properly reflects the formality of your rela-
tionship to the reader. Here are some guidelines for
determining the proper salutation:
a. If you are not on a first-name basis with the reader,
use Mr./Ms./Mrs. and the reader’s last name.
b. If you don’t know the reader’s name, use Sir/Madam,
or use the person’s title (for example, Dear
Sir/Madam or Dear Customer Service Representative).
c. If you know the reader’s name but don’t know
whether the reader is male or female, do not assume
or guess. Use Mr./Ms. ____ or use their first and
last name (For example, Dear Randy Jones:).
Follow the salutation with a colon (:).
6. Body. The body of the letter (your actual message) is
usually single spaced, with double spacing between
paragraphs.
7. Close. This is your “goodbye.” There are several options
for how to close your letter, and again, your close
should reflect the formality of your relationship with
your reader. The following list of closing words and
phrases in order of formality, with the first being the
most formal: Very truly yours, Yours truly, Sincerely
yours, Sincerely, Cordially, Best regards or Best wishes,
Regards, Best, Yours.
“Sincerely,” is the most common close used in everyday

business communications. Only the first word of a close
gets capitalized, and be sure to put a comma after the close.
8. Signature. Four lines beneath your close, type your full
name and, directly beneath that, your title. Sign your
full name in the space between the two. However, if you
are on a first-name basis with the reader, just your first
name will do. Letters without signatures are generally
not considered valid, and if someone else signs for you,
it shows that you haven’t taken the time to sign yourself.
9. Steno line/File number. If someone else types your let-
ter for you—or if you are typing a letter for someone
else—this should be indicated on your letter. One or
two lines beneath the signature, the typist should write
the initials of the letter sender in capitals followed by a
slash (/) and then his or her own initials in lower case
letters. Thus if you wrote the letter and your initials
are JTE, and a typist with the initials DF typed it for
you, the steno line would look like this: JTE/df.
Sometimes, in combination with or in place of the
steno line, there is a file name or number to indicate
how the document has been saved, filed, or stored on
the computer. Both conventions (the steno line and the
file name or number) are used primarily to help track
down documents and document errors.
10. Enclosures. If you’re enclosing documents with your
letter, you need to include the enclosure line. Type
“Enclosure” or “Enc.” against the left-hand margin. You
can list the documents that are enclosed, but this is not
always necessary.
11. CC:/Distribution. If people other than the addressee
are to receive copies of your letter, and you want your
reader to know that these people are receiving copies,

then use a “CC” line. CC stands for carbon copy, a left-
over from the days before copy machines when dupli-
cates were made with carbon copy sheets. For example,
if you were to write to someone and wanted to send a
copy of that letter to your boss, you would double
space down from the enclosure line and type the name
of your boss: CC: Joanne Berg.
If you want to send copies to several people, there are
two choices for how to list those names: You can list
those people in alphabetical order, or you can list them
according to rank. You can also show their titles. (Note:
CC can be printed in capital or lower case letters.)
• SAM PLE B USI N ESS LETTE R •
Mary Morrison
The Ithaca Community Center
100 Elm Street
Ithaca, NY 14850
April 16, 2000
Jim Keller
Keller Productions
1200 Broadway
New York, NY 10036
Re: Ithaca As It Was
Dear Jim:
Thank you for all your hard work on Ithaca As It Was. We are delighted
with the video, and are looking forward to showing it at our annual Ithaca
Celebration. I have processed your final invoice, so you can expect to receive
payment in two to three weeks. I would also like to arrange for the return of
the material from the Historical Society Archives. Please send the photos by
FedEx using our account number, and, of course, pack them carefully since
they are valuable originals.
We would love to invite you as our guest to the screening of Ithaca As It

Was, which will be held on May 19. Please let me know if you would like to
attend and we will make arrangements. Again, thank you for this wonderful
history of our town.
Best regards,
Mary Morrison
Enc: FedEx shipping label

CC: Carl Harrington, Archivist, Ithaca Historical Society
MEMOS
Memos are generally used for most internal workplace com-

munications. A memo is the “letter” that is sent internally, with-
in companies or organizations.
You may also have the occasion to write an external memo—
a memo to someone outside of your company. It might be a
company that you regularly communicate with for reasons not
having to do with your normal moneymaking business. For
example, if you and two other companies share a security service
for your building and you had to communicate something
regarding security, you’d send a memo instead of a letter. The
main difference between memos and letters is that memos are
less formal. Like letters, they can have a variety of subjects, pur-
poses, and formats, and all memos have the same parts.
Memos are divided into six parts that fall into two main sections:
the heading and the body. The heading shows who is writing to
whom, when, and about what; the body then conveys the message.
The heading of a memo should include these five parts in this order:
1. To. List the recipients of the memo. Include first and

last names, and titles (or departments) for more formal
memos or memos to superiors. Even if the subject is
not formal, include titles if you’re not sure everyone on
the list knows everyone else on the list. If all recipients
know each other’s names and positions, then you can
use just the first initial and last name of each recipient.
When you have several recipients, you have to decide
how to list them. As with ccs on letters, you have two
choices: list them alphabetically or by rank of position.
Either order is acceptable.
If you are writing an external memo, then you should
include the name of the company that each recipient
works for as well.
If your memo is going to a lot of people, you don’t

have to list dozens of names. Instead, you can name the
group or groups that the recipients belong to (so long
as everyone in that group is getting the memo). Here
are some examples:
TO: All Employees
TO: Production Managers
Production Line Assistants
2. From. List the author(s) of the memo. You should gen-

erally list the name(s) and/or title(s) of the author in
the same way you’ve listed the name(s) and/or title(s) of
the recipients. If the memo is from several people, follow
the same rule: List them alphabetically or by rank.
3. Date. List the month, date, and year just as you would
in a letter.
4. Subject or Re: line. The re: or subject line is much the
same as the re: line in a letter, with one important
exception: In a memo, the re: line should be more spe-
cific. It should still be short enough to fit on one line,
but it should give readers a precise idea of the subject
matter of the memo. Specific re: lines help personnel
instantly prioritize their internal mail.
5. Distribution/CC. This part of a memo is just like the
CC section of a letter. List those readers who are not
direct recipients of your message but who should have
a copy for their information or reference. The same
rules apply for the order and format in which you list
these names and/or titles.
The body of a memo is usually separated from the heading by

a solid or dotted line or by several spaces. Some writers use
asterisks (*) or other symbols. Check with your company to see
if there’s a routine way of separating the heading from the body.
The body of a memo, like the body of a letter, is usually single

spaced with double spacing between paragraphs. Writers use
several strategies to make the body of a memo easier to read and
understand.
First, the body of a memo should include parts that serve as
an introduction, body, and conclusion. Thus, memos usually:
1. Start by stating the general facts, problem or issue of

discussion. What is the memo about? Begin with a
clear topic sentence.
2. Then, state the facts or discuss the problem or issue.
Provide support for the topic sentence.
3. Finally, discuss the significance of the facts, problem or
issue and/or request an action from your readers. In
other words, what does this add up to? What should
the reader do?
For longer memos, use headings to break the subject matter

into logical sections. You can bold face, italicize, and/or under-
line these headings so it’s clear that they’re headings (but don’t
do all three). Headings are most clear if they are on a line by
themselves, but as long as they are boldfaced, italicized, or
underlined, they can begin a paragraph.
If your memo includes instructions or a number of items to
be discussed, use lists. The items in your lists can be numbered,
bulleted, or marked with letters of the alphabet.
If your memo includes a lot of numbers and statistics, use a
table or graph to convey that information. By putting informa-
tion into a table or graph, you make it easier to read.
• M E M ORAN DU M •
To: All Employees

From: Karen Marx
Date: May 14, 2000
Re: Memorial Day Picnic!
Memorial Day is just around the corner, and that means it’s time for the
annual company picnic. The picnic will be held this year at Great Falls State
Park on Saturday, May 25. There will be bus service to the park leaving
from the building at 10 A.M. Please sign up if you plan to come by bus. The
sign-up list is posted on the kitchen bulletin board. For all you drivers, the
festivities will start at 11:00.
I’ll send an e-mail later in the week with more information about planned
activities and, of course, food and drinks. Looking forward to seeing you all
on the softball field!
R E P O RTS
At work, you may be called upon to give an account of some-

thing you’ve done, seen, heard, or learned. More often than not,
you’ll have to put that report into writing.
In any report, there are certain items you must cover: the who,
what, when, where, why, and how. These are the basics in any
report, and the more specific you can be, the better.
For many types of reports it is important to be objective, to
provide the facts so that people can then form their own opinions.
When a report requires that you offer impressions and opinions,
this report takes on the status of an analysis, review, or editorial.
Some types of reports include a section for conclusions or rec-
ommendations. If you are writing this kind of report, you
should offer conclusions or recommendations that you feel are
logical based upon what you’ve seen, heard or learned. Clearly
the recommendation of a report will be subjective, but in order
for it to be valid, it must be based upon the objective material pre-
sented somewhere in the report.
Here are some of the types of reports you may have to write:
meeting reports (minutes), progress reports, periodic reports,
trip reports, production reports, incident reports, accident
reports, and work reports.
Some of these reports are written on a regular basis (every day,
week, month, or year). Some reports are made on preformatted
forms and you will just have to fill in the blanks. For others, you’ll
have to start from scratch. Either way, you should know the gen-
eral format for reports and some specific report formats.
Unlike letters or memos, most common workplace reports
don’t have many parts. They usually begin with a simple title
that indicates their subject, like “Work Report” or “Accident
Report,” and then list the author and date of the report. Then,
the body of reports usually follows a structure similar to the
body of memos.
Most of a report—the body, so to speak—consists of an

introduction, body, and conclusion. First, the beginning of a
report introduces the subject and purpose of the report, using a
clear topic sentence. Reports may also begin with a sentence
that summarizes the information to be contained in the report.
If a report is to be filled out on a standard form, or if the
report is one that employees fill out frequently, there’s often no
need for an introduction, because the information provided at
the top of the form tells readers everything that would be in
such a topic sentence.
The paragraphs in the body of the report support the main
idea. The more detailed and specific you are in this support, the
better. Remember that the body of your report should not eval-
uate or assess the facts you report. Opinions or impressions
should be reserved for the conclusion or recommendations sec-
tion. The body of a report, like the body of a memo, can be made
reader-friendly by the use of headings, lists, tables and graphs.
The conclusion should tell readers if there is any action to be
taken or if there are any recommendations based upon what
you’ve reported. For example, in a progress report, your conclu-
sion might present your goals for the next report period or dis-
cuss problems you’ve been having during this report period. An
accident report might recommend changes to be made to pre-
vent similar accidents in the future.
Now let’s look at how this report structure works for a few
specific types of reports.
Progress reports. Most reports follow a chronological order. A
progress report, for example, will begin by naming the time period
covered in the report. Then the body will be organized as follows:
• Past: what has been accomplished?

• Present: what work is in progress?
• Future: future plans/goals and a time line for completion.
Be specific about what you have accomplished and plan to

accomplish. List any issues or concerns that you may have (things
that may prevent you from achieving your goals, for example).
Trip report. A trip report should be formatted as follows:
• Past: what you did or saw.

• Present: how you feel about it, how you are using it in
your work.
• Future: how this can be used in your work, other trips, etc.
Meeting minutes. A report containing minutes for a meeting

should be formatted as follows:
• Past: unfinished business from last meeting.

• Present: current issues.
• Future: when and where the next meeting will be held.
Meeting minutes include the time and date of the meeting,

who attended, and who would usually attend but was not
there for this meeting.
Another type of report is an employee review. Reviews, unlike
other types of reports, are marked by personal opinion, impression,
or reaction. A review, in short, says, “Here is what I think, and
here’s why.” What distinguishes a good review from a bad one is
the “why”—how much and what kind of evidence is offered to
support the writer’s assertions.
In general, a review should do the following: make a strong,
clear assertion about the person, place, or thing being reviewed;
offer a brief explanation of why an issue is being reviewed, if
applicable; and offer strong evidence supporting the opening
assertion.
Offer specific, detailed support for your assertions in a review.
A review should contain both the good and the bad. A review
that is entirely one-sided (either completely positive or com-

pletely negative) might not be taken as seriously as one that
shows some balance. This doesn’t mean that you can’t write a
good or bad review; it simply means you should show that
you’re discriminating—that you’ve looked for the bad in the good or
the good in the bad. When you note areas of an employee’s perfor-
mance that could use some improvement, it is always good to
include suggestions to resolve the problem.
As a manager, I have to write performance evaluations for my

employees. One employee had a particular problem with her
phone manner. When making calls, she would rarely, if ever, begin
the call by stating her name, the company, or her reason for call-
ing. Because of these weak phone skills, the calls she made were
resulting in fewer sales than the calls her coworkers were making.
Rather than citing only her low sales in the evaluation, I suggest-
ed that she begin her calls more clearly and that she practice calls
with coworkers to become more comfortable with customers. My
suggestions worked, and not only did her sales increase but her
attitude improved dramatically. In this situation, offering sugges-
tions to an existing employee was easier and much more effective
than hiring and training a new employee.
—J UAN, TELEMARKETING MANAGER
PROPOSALS
A proposal is a formal attempt to convince someone to

approve, sponsor, agree to, or support a project or idea. Like all
types of business writing, in order to convince your reader you
must know your audience and your purpose. First determine
exactly whom are you trying to convince? The more specific you
can be about your audience, the better you will be able to deter-
mine the wants and needs of your readers. And the more you
know what your readers want and need, the easier it is to show
how what you want fills their desires or needs.
Next, brainstorm about your purpose. Clearly, your main goal
is to convince. But what exactly do you want to convince your
readers to think or do? Again the more specific you can be the
more convincing your proposal will be.
Once your audience and purpose are clear, the next step is to
clarify exactly how your readers will benefit from doing what
you ask. You know how you’ll benefit from what you want; now
ask yourself how will the reader or the company benefit?
So you’ve told your readers that they will get certain benefits
from agreeing to do what you ask. Why should they believe you?
The answer, of course, is to provide specific evidence for your
claims.
If what you want requires people to give up time, energy, or
money—especially if you want them to spend money—they are
probably going to have reservations or objections to what you
want them to do. And if they are going to have to get approval
from someone else, that person might have reservations and objec-
tions as well. You’re much more likely to convince people if you
acknowledge and overcome their reservations and objections.
Another strategy for effective convincing is to request a spe-
cific action from your reader. You’ve asked for what you want;
you’ve shown readers exactly how they will benefit; now, as you
conclude, tell readers exactly what you want them to do.
Now that you know the basic strategies you can use to con-
vince the reader of your proposal, you are ready to write. There
are many different kinds of proposals, and they can range from
the very complicated to the very simple. Generally, whatever the
kind, proposals fall into one of three categories:
• Proposals to provide a good or service

• Proposals to make a change or improvement
• Proposals to approve a program or project
Some proposals combine purposes. In any case, all proposals,

complex or simple, follow this very basic organizational structure.
Proposals have several parts. Depending upon the length and
complexity of the proposal, these parts may or may not be sep-
arated as individual sections, and not all parts are applicable for
every proposal.
1. Title. Make sure your proposal has a simple, direct title

and that it indicates the date, the author of the pro-
posal, and the receiver. If you’re writing your proposal
in memo form, then this information will be taken care
of in the heading of your memo and you should not
repeat it in the body.
2. Problem statement. Describe the problem. Be sure to
provide sufficient background information so that
readers fully understand the problem.
3. Describe the solution you are proposing. First, use a
general topic sentence to summarize the solution.
Then provide the specific details of the solution.
Readers need to know exactly what’s involved in a solu-
tion before they can approve it. You can break the solu-
tion down into the following parts:
• Procedures. If your solution requires several steps or
complicated procedures, a procedures section will be
helpful for readers. List the steps to be taken in chrono-
logical order. Readers need to know exactly what’s
involved in a solution before they can approve it.
• Personnel. If several people will be working on this
solution, explain who those people would be and why
they’d be the best ones to accomplish those tasks.
• Materials. If special equipment or materials are

required for your solution, list that equipment or
those materials.
• Timeline. How long will this solution take? Can it be
done in a day, a week, a year? Offer your best guess.
• Budget. How much will it cost to implement you solu-
tion? If there are large costs involved, it’s a good idea
to provide a budget if you can offer accurate figures.
Remember, when convincing, you need to anticipate
readers’ questions and objections, and one question
they’re sure to ask is “How much will this cost?”
4. Summary. Restate the problem and summarize your
solution. Remember that the overall goal of a proposal
is to convince. That means you need to: show how your
solution will clearly benefit readers; anticipate readers’
reservations and objections; and provide specific evidence
for your claims.
IMPROVING YOUR WRITING
Now that you can tackle most of the types of writing that you will
encounter at work you are ready to finesse your writing skills.
W R I T I N G C L E A R LY
You must write clearly. If your reader can’t understand what

you’ve written, you can’t achieve your purpose and you won’t reach
your audience. Here are some rules to help you write clearly.
Avoid jargon. One of the most common flaws in workplace
writing is the use of jargon. Jargon is technical or specialized
language used by a limited audience. The key to avoiding using
jargon inappropriately is to be sure that you write at the appro-

priate level for your readers. Will they understand you if you use
technical language? If you’re an electrician and you’re writing to
other electricians, sure. But if you’re an electrician and you’re
writing to someone in accounting, for example, you’ll confuse
your reader if you use electrician jargon.
If you must use jargon and your audience is not technical or
won’t be familiar with your specialized terms, then be sure to define
those terms for your readers. This is also true of abbreviations. If
you use an abbreviation readers may not know, be sure to define it.
Avoid pretentious language. Writers often believe that big words
impress readers, but you don’t add any authority or value to
what you write by using big words when short, simple, clear
words will do. For example, there’s usually no need to use words
like “utilize” or “facilitate,” when “use” and “help” are just fine, and
often clearer.
Avoid ambiguous language. Ambiguous means having two or
more possible meanings. So of course ambiguous words and
phrases interfere with clarity. Take a look at this sentence, for
example: “The photographer shot the model.”
This sentence can be read two ways: Photographers “shoot”
pictures with a camera, but this sentence can also mean that the
photographer shot the model with a gun. This kind of ambigu-
ity happens whenever a word has more than one possible mean-
ing in the way it’s used in a sentence.
Another type of ambiguity happens when a series of words is
in the wrong place in a sentence. For example, look at the fol-
lowing sentence:“The woman ate the sandwich with a blue hat.”
Here, the word order of the sentence, not an individual word,
causes the confusion. Did the woman eat her sandwich with her
hat? That’s what the sentence actually says, but of course that’s
not what the writer intended. This sentence should be revised to
read: “The woman with a blue hat ate a sandwich.”
Here’s another ambiguous sentence: “When reaching for the
phone, the coffee spilled on the table.” The sentence, as written,

means that the coffee reached for the phone. Therefore, the word
order needs to be rearranged. A missing word also needs to be
added—the subject of the sentence—to fully eliminate the
ambiguity: “The coffee spilled on the table when he reached for
the phone.”
Use the active voice when possible. Using the active voice means
making sure a sentence has a clear agent of action and a direct
approach. For example, compare the following sentences:
Passive: The file was put in the wrong drawer.

Active: Florence put the file in the wrong drawer.
Notice how the active sentence gives readers an agent of

action—a subject performing a verb. In the passive sentence,
you don’t know who or what put the file in the wrong drawer;
you just know that somehow it got there. The active voice is
more direct and makes a sentence sound more authoritative and
powerful.
There are times when the passive voice makes sense—like
when you don’t know the agent of action or when you want to
emphasize the action, not the agent. It’s also useful when you
desire anonymity or objectivity.
WRITING WITH ST YL E
Clarity is essential, but clarity alone does not make for a good
workplace writing style. Also important are these three rules for
workplace writing: be concise; use the right degree of formality;
and get straight to your point.
Time is money, and in workplace writing, you can’t afford to
waste your reader’s time by taking too long to convey your mes-
sage. Readers are quickly annoyed by writers who take ten sen-
tences to say what could be expressed in four or five. Here are

some ways to avoid wordiness:
Cut any unnecessary words. For example,“Because of the fact
that” can usually be replaced with “because.” That and which
phrases can often be rephrased by turning the idea in the “that”
or “which” phrase into an adjective. For example:“This is a man-
ual that is very helpful” would be more simply phrased: “This is a
very helpful manual.” Using the active voice, as discussed above,
can also help to avoid this type of verbal clutter.
Avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure you are not saying
the same thing in two different ways. For example, the sentence
“The room is red in color” is repetitious.
Use exact words and phrases. Wordiness can often be trimmed
by using exact words and phrases. This means substituting a
strong, specific word for a weak, modified word or phrase. (A
modifier is a word that describes, like red balloon or very juicy
apple.) Notice how exactness cuts back on wordiness and makes
for much more powerful sentences in the following example:
He walked very forcefully into the room.

He burst into the room.
Whenever you write, you must decide on a level of formality

that ranges from very formal (proper, stuffy, distanced) to very
informal (slangy, relaxed, intimate). In most cases, you should
fall somewhere near the middle of the scale, but on the formal
side. As the person you write to increases in rank, so should
your level of formality.
When you write for work, get right to the point. If you wish
to get personal or add a friendly comment or two, do it at the
end of your letter or memo (in no case should there be a per-
sonal message in a report or proposal) after you’ve taken care of
business. You show more respect for your reader by getting
straight to the point than by starting off with small talk.
SUMMARY
Writing is an integral part of every professional’s work life. From

letters to memos to reports and proposals, always write with
your audience in mind and with a clearly stated purpose.
Remember that writing means revising, and you should always
check your documents for neatness and accuracy. Each type of
business document has a prescribed format that you should fol-
low. Finally, your business writing will be much more effective if
you write clearly and with style. To write clearly you should
avoid jargon and pretentious language, and write in unambigu-
ous, active language. The style of your writing will improve if
you are concise, use the right degree of formality, and are direct.
Writing for business is an important part of how you com-
municate with your colleagues, customers, and coworkers.
Verbal communication is the subject of the next chapter and it
is equally, if not more important, as writing in today’s workplace.
C HAPTE R 3
COMMUNICATING AT WORK
Being able to communicate effectively is a highly valued skill in

the workplace. Many surveys indicate that executives rank good
communication as a top priority for their employees. Why?
Because each day in businesses around the world thousands of
hours are spent creating and delivering oral messages, which are
exchanged in meetings, interviews, sales pitches, customer service
conversations, and formal presentations. Research indicates that
you spend a minimum of 50 percent of your time at work speak-
ing with others. If you’re a manager, salesperson, or customer ser-
vice representative, the average time you spend talking to other
people jumps up to 80 percent.
GETTING STARTED
When communicating at work it is important to know three

things: your audience, your purpose, and how you’re perceived.
In order to communicate effectively you must consider to
whom you are speaking, what you are trying to accomplish,
and your audience’s points of view. Once you know these key
pieces of information, you will speak with greater ease and
more confidence, and you will be far more successful in your
communication.
K N OW YO U R AU D I E N C E
Who are the people who will be listening to you talk? Do you
work with them? Are they potential or current customers? Are
they supervisors, or are they the owners of your business? The
more clear and specific you can be about who these listeners are,
the easier it will be to design a message suited to their needs.
Ultimately, you want your audience to understand and accept
what you have to say; the more you can adapt your speech to fit
their needs, the better your chances are for success.
Once you define your audience, you’ll be able to use the exam-
ples, language, and concepts that can best reach them. The fol-
lowing list of questions will help you define your audience.
1. How many people will you be speaking to—1, 10, 20, or

100? The number of people listening will determine
how loud you need to talk, what kind of special
arrangements you will need to make for seating and
sound, and the type of audiovisual aids you will use. It
will also affect the style and level of formality of your
talk. Speaking with one person will be more impromp-
tu and will involve more give-and-take, while address-
C O M M U N I C ATI N G AT WORK 57
ing a large group will require a more formal, prepared

speech.
2. Are they men, women, or a mixture of both? The gen-
der of your audience can influence what kind of exam-
ples you use. Although you want to be careful about
generalizing, some examples may elicit stronger reac-
tions in certain audiences.
3. What does your audience know about your subject?
You don’t want to bore them by telling them what they
already know, but at the same time, you should never
confuse them by assuming that their knowledge is
greater than it actually is.
4. Do they speak a particular jargon or do they know
complex technical information? You should tailor you
language to suit your audience’s knowledge. You may
need to create a handout or other audiovisual aid
explaining technical facts or information that is used
only by your business.
5. How long will you be speaking to the group? The dif-
ference between a five-minute speech and a thirty-
minute talk is about 3,000 words.
6. What does the audience expect from you? Once you
know what they expect to have learned at the end of your
talk, you can tailor your words to their expectations and
incorporate valuable information into your talk.
7. What do they have that you want? Be clear about what
you want to achieve as a result of your talk. Do you want
a job? Do you want money for a product? Or is having a
satisfied customer reward enough for your talk?
Knowing the answers to these questions can make a major

difference in creating a message that is both beneficial and inter-
esting for your audience.
K N OW YO U R P U R P O S E
Most of us have sat through long, drawn-out speeches at

work. We’ve listened to reports or briefings and wondered what
the point was. As we all know from personal experience, it can
be extremely frustrating and boring when someone is speaking
and you haven’t a clue where they’re headed.
As a speaker, one of your most important tasks is to define
your reason for speaking. It is not the responsibility of your
audience to sort through your presentation, trying to figure out
the objective. It’s up to you to define clearly about what you’re
speaking. Each conversation, talk, or presentation that you give
has a general and a specific purpose. The three general purposes
in communication are to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
An informative speech is an instructional talk that is designed
to increase your audience’s knowledge about a particular subject.
Examples of informative speeches include a report on the sales
made over the Internet in the last quarter or an introduction of a
new employee. In informative speeches you present your materi-
al without bias and with an objective of educating the audience.
A persuasive speech’s primary intent is to change the views,
opinions, or behaviors of an audience. Persuasive speeches in
business are generally designed to get the audience to accept an
opinion, adopt a new strategy, or buy a product or service. The
bottom line in a persuasive speech is that, as a result of your talk,
you want people to make a change.
An entertaining speech results in enjoyment and lifted spirits.
Entertaining speeches are humorous, comprising jokes, illustra-
tions, and stories. Generally, entertaining speeches occur at
social events, such as an award gala or a banquet for key sales
personnel. Your entertaining speech should keep the audience
interested and amused.
While informative, persuasive, and entertaining speeches have
three distinct purposes, you may have overlapping objectives in
certain speeches. There’s certainly nothing wrong with adding

some information to your entertaining speech. And more likely
than not, you will probably sell more of your product if you
include humor in your persuasive speech. Just make sure that if
your goal is to persuade, you don’t spend all of your time enter-
taining, at the cost of a sale.
K N OW H OW YO U’R E P E R C E IVE D
As you do more and more speaking for business, you’ll learn

that one person’s interpretation of a speech may be entirely dif-
ferent from another’s. Researchers say this is because of differ-
ences in perception. Our perceptions influence how we view the
world. They are based on where and how we were brought up,
and what we learned from our guardians, friends, and educa-
tional experiences.
As speakers, it is important to be open and positive, realizing
that not everyone views the world as we do. Try to understand
where members of your audience are coming from; that is, to
put yourself in their shoes. A good speaker will treat an audi-
ence with respect, even if the views of the individuals in the
audience do not match the speaker’s own beliefs.
Here is an extremely valuable idea to remember: How your
audience perceives your message is the key to any presentation.
Ultimately, it doesn’t matter what your intentions are—your
audience’s perception will determine whether or not you are
successful. Therefore, being conscious of the perceptions of
your audience will assist you in creating a speech that will affect
listeners in the way you want.
Understanding perception is especially important when
communicating with people from cultures other than your
own. As our global village becomes a reality, people in business
recognize the necessity of understanding and respecting other
cultures. You should recognize that a person’s language not only

provides a tool for relating to other people, but it is also the
means by which realities and perceptions of the world are
formed.
When I (an American) was interviewing for my current job at a

major Christian broadcasting company in Australia, I was invited
out to eat with several of the top executives of the company. I was
treated to a hearty Australian dinner and said, “I have to tell you,
I’m stuffed.” I couldn’t understand the uncomfortable silence. I
thought maybe they took what I had meant as a compliment
about the great meal as a complaint. I was shocked when my
prospective boss asked me the next day what I had meant, and
told me they were very concerned. I found out, in Australia, “I’m
stuffed” means “I’m pregnant,” and the company’s strict moral
code prohibited them from hiring an unwed, pregnant woman.
We laugh about the incident now, but I almost lost a great oppor-
tunity because I wasn’t aware that colloquial phrases don’t
always travel.
—KELLY, B ROADCASTING EXECUTIVE
People from different cultures may vary in their degree of

assertiveness. The Japanese are so polite that in business they
have a distaste for the word “no.” As a result, many American
businesspeople have interpreted such statements as, “We’ll
need to look into it further,” “We’re not sure,” and “We’ll do
whatever is possible,” to mean, “yes,” when the actual meaning
was “no.” Understanding a culture’s intent and use of language
can help you understand how you will be perceived. Knowing
your audience’s perception is an important key to effective
communication.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Your ability to communicate depends upon several skills: creating

a good first impression, using language effectively, controlling your
voice, paying attention to body language, and listening carefully.
F I R ST I M P R E S S I O N S
The success of many communications will depend on your

ability to create a good first impression. Have you ever met a
stranger and realized after only a few minutes that this was
someone you’d like to get to know better? If you answered yes
then, like most people, you have experienced a powerful first
impression. Because of this instant feeling that most people
have when facing a strange business or person, you must be
actively aware of the image that you and your business present.
It is said that within the first four minutes of meeting a
stranger, you evaluate the person and decide to continue the
interaction or to part. First impressions are formed very quickly
and stay with us for a long time, acting as filters through which
we see everything else we learn about a person or place.
First and foremost, your clothing does make a difference in
how you’re perceived. In one recent study, people were asked to
rate pictures of business personnel according to their credibili-
ty. The people who were dressed in a more professional manner
were given the highest ratings. The most important clothing
rule is to wear clean, neat clothes and jewelry that are appropri-
ate for your work environment. Follow the explicit and implicit
clothing codes wherever you work and dress appropriately.
Your attitude and demeanor are also extremely important to
others’ first impression. You should exhibit confidence. People
want to work with those in business who believe in their prod-
uct or service, as well as themselves. One way to boost your con-
fidence is by acting self-assured. Your behavior will have a posi-

tive effect on the way you feel and vice versa. Go into every situ-
ation with a positive attitude and an enthusiastic demeanor, and
you’ll be pleased with the type of responses you get.
L ANG UAG E
As a speaker, you must try to use the most accurate, complete,

and clear words so that your audience will decipher the message
you send. Miscommunication in business can occur when peo-
ple are imprecise, inaccurate, and inconsiderate in using the
English language.
Note how precise language makes the second sentence more useful to the
audience than the first.
“Many people in this room will be able to afford the huge amount of
money that an average house costs today.”
versus
“Approximately one out of four people in this room will be able to afford
the $110,000 necessary to purchase a home today.”
Specific language is more effective than relative terms. For

example, if you state,“It’s going to take a really long time to com-
plete this project,” your audience could infer that you mean two
months or five years. It would be better to say,“It’s going to take
at least four months to complete this project.” When you define
your terms, you narrow your audience’s interpretation and limit
any confusion that could occur.
Be aware that you may need to explain technical language. No
matter what business you’re in, there will be some specialized
language or jargon that only your trade or profession uses. If

your audience is unfamiliar with the jargon you use, you can
confuse and alienate them. Therefore, always explain jargon as
well as any other foreign, complex, or unfamiliar words. The
same is true for acronyms (using the first initials of each word
to stand for the full name) and abbreviations. Always use the
full name unless you are sure your audience knows the meaning
of the acronym.
Use concise and powerful language. Eliminate words that you
don’t need. For instance, rather than saying “At this point in
time,” just say “Now.” Powerful language is persuasive and believ-
able, resulting in a credible and positive image for the speaker.
Some examples of powerful language include action verbs, clear
and precise descriptions, relevant and vivid examples.
Nonpowerful language is most easily observable in four cate-
gories: tag questions, disclaimers, hedges, and hesitations.
Tag questions are asked after a statement is made. An exam-
ple of tag question is: “It’s about time that we accepted the poli-
cy, don’t you agree?” Disclaimers are words preceding a second
set of words that limit the meaning of the latter. For example,
“I’m not really sure about this, but . . .” Hedges are a group of
words that seem to circumvent an issue or an opinion.
Statements such as “I guess,” “sort of,” or “in some ways” are
examples of hedges. Hesitations occur when a speaker is unsure
of his or her position and pauses or interjects unrelated words.
Some example of hesitations is “um,” “so, what I was thinking
was . . . ,” or “I was wondering . . . .” These speech habits under-
mine a speaker’s credibility and should be avoided in business
communication.
Have you ever been in a business meeting or attended a
speech and found that your mind started to wander? And then,
when you focused back on the speech, you were confused about
where the speaker was headed? Some studies say that people
“tune out” several times during a presentation. As speakers, it is
our responsibility to keep our audience on target so that they

will understand and retain as much of our material as possible.
One of the techniques that we can use is to incorporate con-
nectives into our speech. Connectives are words, phrases, or sen-
tences that bridge or attach two distinct ideas or thoughts.
Numbering your points, for example, gives your audience mark-
ers to follow as you proceed through your speech. Cause and
effect connectives, such as “as a result,” “consequently,” and
“therefore” help your audience stay involved, and bridge the gap
between one set of thoughts and another.
In today’s business world it is essential to use nondiscrimina-
tory language. Avoid the exclusive use of male pronouns (he, his,
or him) if you are unsure of the gender of your subject. Rather
than always using male pronouns in sentences, remain neutral or
use both male and female pronouns. Also, avoid the use of -man
on the end of some compound words. For example, instead of
saying postman say mail carrier.
VOICE
What you say is clearly important; how you say it is equally

important. Your voice can make a big difference in how well your
message is received. Studies indicate that certain vocal qualities
are most inclined to cause problems for an audience. If someone
speaks in a monotonous tone over a long period of time, people
decide that they’re not really interested in their material. When
a speaker uses a high-pitched voice, an audience may not take
that speaker very seriously. And when a person speaks rapidly,
he or she may be perceived of as impatient or aggressive.
It can be a frustrating experience to strain to hear a speaker,
or being asked to repeat what you’ve said at a meeting. Speaking
loud enough so that an audience can hear you seems to be the
most important factor in controlling your voice. By standing
erect and relaxing, you should be able to project to an audience

of fewer than 200 people. If you’re addressing more than 200
people, use a microphone. Concentrate on being loud enough so
that everyone can hear you, and on varying the loudness of your
voice. If you’re discussing a private situation, you can speak soft-
er for effect. When you are talking about an exciting invention,
increase the volume of your voice.
Novice public speakers have a tendency to speak very quick-
ly, so just remember to go slow enough to be heard. You also
need to speak a bit slower if you’re addressing a large crowd as
opposed to a few people. You know you’re speaking too fast if
you’re gasping for breath or running your words together. But if
you find that people are becoming bored or constantly request-
ing that you get to the point, then you may want to speed up
your delivery.
Besides varying the speed of your delivery, you should utilize
pauses in your verbal delivery. If you’ve delivered a particularly
important point or quotation, you can pause for a few seconds
to let the audience reflect on the significance of what you’ve said.
Pauses can be the punctuation marks of speech.
The third aspect of your voice is your pitch, or the high and
low tones. Ideally, you should vary the pitch to create inflection
in your voice. Most audiences find a monotone or one-pitch
voice particularly irritating; aim for a middle pitch for most of
your talking and work to vary the tone of your voice. If you want
to change a particularly squeaky, husky, or gentle voice, you can
begin by using a tape recorder. Tape yourself using higher and
lower voices. Find a voice that you like and then emulate the
sound repeatedly until it becomes natural.
I worked for years as a high school coach, and decided that I was
ready for a change. I was offered a job as a textbook sales rep,
and I was really excited about the opportunity. As a former
teacher, I knew the material and the market really well, and I have
a good manner with people. I was disappointed when my sales

didn’t match my expectations. I asked an experienced rep what
she thought and she told me that my loud and assertive voice,
which I developed on the playing field, might be intimidating to
the teachers and librarians with whom I was meeting. I practiced
speaking in a softer voice, and found that my sales improved and
I developed a much better rapport with my customers.
—FRANK, TEXTBOOK SALES R EPRESENTATIVE
If, after several attempts, you need additional help changing

your speaking voice, find a professional communication consul-
tant or speech therapist for assistance.
B O DY L A N G U A G E
Nonverbal communication or body language is important in

business. When you smile, customers think you care about them.
If you are slouched over your audience might think that you have
no confidence. Researchers have found that 65 percent of the emo-
tional meaning of a message comes from the nonverbal delivery.
Good posture is an important component of effective nonver-
bal communication for several reasons. First, a relaxed yet erect
posture can boost a speaker’s confidence. Speakers look and feel
more confident when they stand up straight. Second, good pos-
ture improves the quality of your voice. And finally, your self-
assured posture sets the tone for your audience. If your posture
is too stiff, then your listeners may feel uncomfortable. If you’re
slouched, they may be inattentive.
Eye contact is a key element of facial expression. Good eye
contact means connecting with the person or people you are
speaking to in the most natural manner possible. When speak-
ing to a group, you need to look at as many members of your
audience as you can. It’s important not to favor a few special peo-
ple in the audience, but rather to vary your eye contact with each
section of your audience.
Another crucial part of facial expression has to do with the
emotions we convey. Studies have found that smiling creates a
favorable impression, that CEOs smile more than other work-
ers, and that smiling can actually make you feel better. Of
course, smiling is not appropriate if you’re discussing the down-
ward trend in sales or the multiple layoffs at your factory, but,
for most occasions, optimism pays off and is contagious.
Body movements and gestures are other important means of
communicating nonverbally. There are basically three important
points to remember when using gestures. First, your movements
have to look absolutely natural. In fact, the more natural you
appear, the more likely you’ll be to connect with your audience.
Second, both your movement and gestures need to coincide
with what you saying. If you’re discussing the three main rea-
sons to support your proposal, then you could use one, two, and
then three fingers to emphasize your point. Third, remember
that there is something a lot worse than not using any gestures,
and that is using too many gestures.
Gestures are most effective when they are so natural that an
audience will look at your presentation in totality, instead of
thinking about your overuse of arm, hand, or body movements.
Use gestures to subtly emphasize the points you are making. Your
audience will be distracted by gestures that are forced and will
remember your waving arms instead of the points you are trying
to make. It’s also very important to avoid distracting mannerisms.
Never twist a paper clip, chew on a pencil, or play with your hair.
Respect others’ space. Each of us has our own territory and
we begin to feel a little nervous if someone gets in our space.
Most people have a personal distance of approximately one
arm’s length before they feel uneasy. Be aware whenever you
interact with someone that you shouldn’t cross personal space
boundaries.
L I STE N I N G
Many problems occur in business because employees aren’t

attending to the task of listening. It is interesting that most peo-
ple think of listening as a passive activity and talking as an active
one. And, in the world of business, most people would agree
that active is better than passive. Listening, however, is an
extremely active activity that requires patience, skill, and energy.
Many people don’t listen because they’re too busy with their
intrapersonal communication (what they’re telling themselves).
When your thoughts are concerned with being angry, bored, or
stressed, you don’t listen to what someone is saying. Sometimes you
are so preoccupied with how you feel or how you are coming across
that you aren’t aware of what someone is trying to communicate.
Another reason that people don’t listen is because there is too
much external noise around them. There are several types of
sensory external “noise” that hinder listening. Maybe there is too
much traffic outside or people are yelling in the hall. Perhaps the
lights are too bright or the chairs too hard. Or it could be that
the speaker’s habit of playing with his paper clip is interfering
with your listening.
A third reason that people don’t listen is because they’re pre-
occupied with their own view of what is being said. When an
idea or opposing view is expressed, these individuals may think,
“I’ve heard that before,” “There’s no point in listening to this,” or
“I’m sure I know everything that’s going to be said.” They
become close-minded and are thus shut off from any different or
new ideas. It is best to listen with an open mind.
The final reason that people don’t listen is because most peo-
ple’s minds can process approximately 500 words per minute,
while most people speak, on average, at a rate of 120 to 150
words per minute. This difference means that because most peo-
ple’s minds work faster than speakers can talk, listeners’ minds
may wander. Whatever the reasons, there are times when most
people don’t listen. That’s fine when it’s your leisure time, but,
when you’re being paid to work, listening is an important skill
that you need to master.
One of the most important things that you can do to improve
the quality of your listening is to have a specific objective or pur-
pose for listening. When you are listening to a customer’s com-
plaint, know that your objective is to solve a problem and
empathize with that person. During your annual evaluation ses-
sion with your supervisor, listen for your strengths and weak-
nesses, and what your boss wants you to do. And when you are
receiving computer instruction, listen so that you will be able to
perform a specific computer task.
Listen with an open mind. When you go into a situation
thinking that you will not learn anything or that you have all the
answers, you are shutting yourself off from effective listening
and learning. Avoid jumping to conclusions about the speaker
and what’s being said. Listen to the total message before you
draw your conclusions. Give a speaker a chance to develop an
argument and substantiate major points. Most people have a
tendency to make snap judgments on the basis of an initial
impression, but it’s in the best interest of you and your business
not to label or stereotype someone after a few minutes.
When you listen to someone, face the speaker and develop eye
contact. Eliminate any external barriers to listening such as a dis-
tracting radio, a blinding light, or a humming computer terminal.
Don’t interrupt people when they’re trying to talk, but do get
into the habit of providing feedback to the speaker. When you
nod your head or provide verbal responses, you are reminding
your speaker and yourself that you are listening. It’s best to use
neutral statements such as “I understand what you’re saying”
until the speaker has completed his or her complete explanation.
Or you can paraphrase something that has been said to make
sure that you fully understand the idea. Withhold your judg-
ments, however, until the other person has completed talking.
Be prepared to listen. If you’re going to listen to a speech on

this year’s marketing successes, make sure that you are familiar
with both this and last year’s marketing objectives and strategies.
Or, if you are attending a panel discussion on the annual report,
make sure that you have read the whole written document. It is
also helpful to keep a small notebook or laptop with you at all
times to record important times, dates, and other business infor-
mation. Because you cannot be expected to remember every-
thing, a written document will be helpful to jog your memory.
MAKING A SPEECH
You are already well on your way to being an excellent public

speaker. You know to define your purpose and your audience
and to be aware of how you will be perceived. You know how to
use language, your voice, and body language effectively. Even the
listening skills you just read about can help when you are mak-
ing a speech. You need to “listen” to your audience and be aware
of their nonverbal cues to hear how your speech is being
received. Remember communication is always a two-way
process that involves speaking and listening.
The skills we’ve discussed so far pertain to all types of com-
munication, but there are some specific techniques that will help
you with the difficult task of public speaking.
OVE RCOM I NG N E RVOUSN ESS
Few people can speak before an audience without feeling

some discomfort. Most people experience stage fright with
symptoms of sweaty palms, trembling hands, a dry mouth, or,
the old standby, butterflies in the stomach. Even celebrities—
talk show hosts, singers, and politicians—routinely state in

interviews that they have had to overcome nervousness. The
bottom line is that everyone is touched to some degree by stage
fright, and most people who are successful have learned to chan-
nel their fear into enthusiasm for speaking.
Using the following five steps, you can turn a negative emo-
tional response into a positive experience.
1. The most important thing to do to alleviate nervous-

ness is to use positive thinking and focus on success.
All of us communicate to ourselves. The best way to
become comfortable speaking to others is to become
aware of what you say to yourself, replacing negative
thoughts with positive ones.
Positive reinforcement will do a great deal to improve
your self-confidence. Stop putting yourself down out
loud or inside your head. Replace “can’t” with “can” and
“won’t” with “will.” You won’t acquire total self-confi-
dence overnight, but it will happen. One single act of
confidence breeds a feeling of self-assurance that in turn
breeds more and more acts of confidence. Try positive
thinking and watch your self-confidence increase, your
nervousness diminish, and your speaking skills blossom.
2. Taking several deep breaths can have a calming effect.
Try inhaling through your nose and holding your
breath for a count of seven. Then, exhale completely
through your mouth. Repeat this deep breath a few
times, and you will feel notably relaxed.
3. Expect that your audience will be attentive to your
speech and interested in what you have to say. People
want you to succeed. They want to learn something, be
touched, or be motivated by your talk. As a result, audi-
ences are not going to be as critical of you as you are of
yourself. In most speaking situations, the audience does
not even know that the speaker is nervous.

4. Be yourself instead of trying to act in way that you feel
you should. Maximize your own personal style by
relating to others naturally. Focus on your subject mat-
ter and your audience. Instead of spending your time
wondering how you’re coming across, concentrate on
whether your listeners understand your message.
5. Take charge of your speaking situation. Audiences
want to listen to someone who is in control, so incor-
porate a confident demeanor into your delivery. Pause
before you begin your speech, and then use short sen-
tences in your introduction. Go slowly in order to get
your bearings and never include statements such as, “I
really wish I wasn’t giving this speech,” or “I hate being
in front of you today.” Recognize your responsibility of
speaking in front of a group, relish the opportunity to
improve and increase your self-confidence, and assist
your audience in understanding your information.
6. Use an outline of the main points of your speech. If you
write out your speech word-for-word you will be
tempted to simply read from your text instead of
engaging your audience. Try writing short sentences or
phrases of the most important items in your talk.
Then, when you are speaking, you can briefly glance
down at your main points and still concentrate on
relating to your audience.
The final point is crucial: Spend time rehearsing your
talk. Practice delivering your outlined speech in front
of a mirror or to a friend or relative. You can evaluate
your own speech by videotaping or audiotaping your
presentation. People are generally their own worst crit-
ics, so lighten up—you’ll probably be delighted to see
and hear that you’re a much better speaker than you
thought you would be.
I really enjoyed my job as a content developer for my company’s

website, but I had to make presentations at company meetings
and for our investors. I was really considering resigning because
public speaking was such an awful experience for me. I wouldn’t
sleep at all the night before; I couldn’t eat because my stomach
was so upset. I would get up before the audience feeling tired,
weak, and tense. I love our website, but I wasn’t able to convey
my enthusiasm because I was such a wreck. Luckily my boss
recognized that I was struggling and he suggested that I take a
public speaking course. I learned to relax and focus on my
enthusiasm for my work when addressing an audience. Instead
of seeing the audience as my opponents, I learned to see them
as my allies. Now I really enjoy the chance to promote the web-
site to a room full of people!
—JANE, CONTENT MANAGER
O R GAN I Z I N G YO U R S P E E C H
How you deliver your speech is very important, but what you
say is what really matters. A successful speech is one that is well
organized. Even the most confident and entertaining speaker
will not succeed in communicating if his or her speech is hard to
follow. If you organize your speech into a beginning, middle, and
end, you will help your audience understand and remember
what you are saying.
The introduction sets the tone for the rest of the speech. One
recent study indicates that people have a tendency to remember
best what they heard first or last in a speech. Consequently, you
must create an engaging and instructional introduction. When
creating an introduction you need to include two elements.
First, you must include something that entices and interests
your audience to continue listening. Second, you need to
embody your specific purpose, telling your audience what the

speech is about.
There are four tried-and-true techniques that speechwriters use
again and again to secure the attention of an audience. These meth-
ods include using a rhetorical question, statistic, quotation, or story.
A rhetorical question is asked to motivate your audience to
think about a particular topic. When you begin your speech
with “How many people in this room know what they need to
be financially prepared for retirement?” you don’t want everyone
to yell out their answer or for someone to take a quick personal
survey of audience members. You just want your audience to
begin thinking about and become interested in the topic. Then
you can proceed with your speech about becoming financially
independent by retirement.
Another technique to use in an introduction is the statistic.
Statistics are numerical data stated in a comprehensible manner
for your audience. For example, you might introduce your
speech about waste management by stating that American
households cumulatively dispose of ten tons of garbage every
minute. You should frame the statistics as dramatically as possi-
ble to grab your audience’s attention.
A quotation is a particularly effective way to inspire your
audience and give some supplementary information on the con-
tent of your speech. You can select a quotation from someone
famous, an expert in a particular area, or someone who has first-
hand experience with a situation. The quotation you use should
be meaningful to your speech and to your audience and the per-
son whom you quote should have the authority, expertise, or
experience to make the statement credible. For example, if you
are making a speech about the upcoming company retreat that
will be held at a golf resort you might begin with the famous
Mark Twain quote that the game of golf is “a good walk spoiled.”
Another effective way to engage your audience at the begin-
ning of your speech is to tell a story. People love to hear personal
accounts or stories. A personal testimony or a narrative about

someone else can be a dramatic and engaging opening to your
speech. For example, if your speech is introducing the expensive
equipment your department has purchased for the pediatric
ward, you might begin your speech with a story about a child
whose life was saved thanks to this piece of equipment.
Once you’ve introduced your topic to your audience, turn your
attention to the middle or body of your speech, in which you will
develop the main points given in your introduction. The three
most common and effective ways to organize your main points
are according to topic, time, or problem-and-solution. When you
organize the body of your speech into topical units, you divide
the main points into some common classification system. For
example, when presenting your company’s new toys for the holiday
season, you could organize your speech into toy categories such
as computer games, action figures, and dolls. The topical orga-
nization is suitable for informative, persuasive, and entertaining
speeches. An attractive aspect of the topical organization is that
you can change the order of the main points depending upon
the audience.
You can also organize your speech chronologically. Let’s say
that you have been asked to discuss the history of your small
business’s use of computers. The most effective way to organize
your information would be according to time. The chronologi-
cal pattern is ideal for handling historical matters.
A particularly effective organizational pattern to use in per-
suasive speaking is problem-and-solution. The first part, the
problem or need section, emphasizes the necessity to change the
way things are. The second component, the solution or satisfac-
tion stage, has the resolution.
No matter what organizational structure you use, the impor-
tant thing is that you are presenting your material as completely
as possible in a coherent and clear fashion. The more organized
your main points are, the better your audience will understand
and remember what is said. Remember that organization in

speaking, as well as in business, is a highly valued commodity.
Your conclusion summarizes what you’ve been saying in the
body of your speech and leaves your audience with something
dramatic and easily remembered. The ending is not the place to
introduce any new concepts or facts, but rather the place to
revisit the specific purpose or objective of your speech in a mem-
orable fashion. There are three simple and extremely popular
ways to close your speech. These techniques are the use of
repetition, the challenge, and the quotation.
Repetition of a message is one clear way to get an audience to
remember what you’ve said. The next time you hear a commer-
cial on television or the radio, listen to the number of times a
name, phone number, or a two- or three-word concept is repeat-
ed. Quite simply, people remember something that they hear a
few times rather than something they hear just once.
In business you are called upon many times to motivate a per-
son or a group of people to change the way they act, feel, or
believe. One of the most effective ways to conclude your persua-
sive talk is by challenging your audience to make some changes.
For example, you might close a speech to your company’s sales
force by challenging them to exceed their sales goals for the year.
If you want to end your speech on a somewhat personal tone,
using a quotation is most appropriate. Using the literal words of
an expert, an executive of the company or association you repre-
sent, or a business tycoon would probably carry quite a bit of
credibility with most business audiences.
S U P P O RTI N G YO U R O P I N I O N
In order for your speech to be truly effective, you must sup-

port what you say. Merely stating your opinion, even in a confi-
dently delivered, well-organized speech, is not enough. There are
four effective types of evidence that can be used in supporting

your opinions: examples, quotations, statistics, and comparisons.
An example is a story about a person or place that personal-
izes the point you are making. Many popular speakers use anec-
dotes to engage an audience and maintain their interest. While
you can use hypothetical examples, research has demonstrated
that audiences assign more credibility to factual examples.
Another effective technique for reinforcing your opinions is
to use a quotation. A quotation from an expert, a respected peri-
odical, or someone who has firsthand experience is an excellent
way to add weight to what you believe to be true.
Statistics are a natural way to support your argument. Any fact
that can be quantified is particularly attractive in business. In fact,
statistical information provides the substance of most oral and
written business reports. If you can incorporate statistics into
your supporting materials, you’ll be one step ahead of the game.
Comparisons can be either literal or figurative. Business speakers
rely primarily on the literal comparison. For example, in a speech
about year-end performance you might compare earnings per share
for the current year to the previous year. In business, there is great
value in creating clear, succinct numerical comparisons.
Figurative comparisons, or analogies, make a comparison
between the unknown (for example, the workings of a micro-
processor) and the known (the way a brain functions).
Figurative analogies are particularly effective when explaining a
very complex concept or operation. Working from a familiar
concept, audiences will more easily grasp the new idea.
COMMUNICATING IN A MEETING
Communicating in a group employs all the principles of good

communication skills that you have learned. To communicate
successfully in a meeting you must also be skilled at either lead-

ing or participating, depending on your role.
Many employees attend meetings and wonder why they’re
there. Some businesses establish weekly meetings and neglect to
inform participants what the purposes of the meetings are.
Many managers do not know how to run an effective meeting.
And innumerable meetings end without a summary of what
future responsibilities for meeting participants will be. These
problems are all failures in communication.
LEADING A M EETING
Being the leader of a meeting is no easy task. It involves work

before, during, and after the meeting. The following list of
responsibilities will help you to assume an effective leadership
role when conducting business meetings.
First, state the purpose of the meeting. The best thing to do
is to distribute an agenda and any pertinent information before
the actual meeting. This gives your participants some time to
prepare for the meeting. If you encourage your participants to
prepare for the meeting, their input will be more insightful and
beneficial.
Create an environment that encourages communication by
reducing external distractions. This means that you should con-
sider the seating, lighting, external noise, and refreshments. If
you’re looking for maximum interaction among participants, a
circular table works best. People can see each other better, and
it’s a democratic arrangement for seating. Make sure that you
have the correct number of chairs. Too many chairs limits inter-
action, so take a count of attendees and plan appropriately.
If you’re responsible for refreshments, find out what is
usually served and order those items. A combination of nerves
and talking can contribute to a dry mouth, so at the very least,
make sure that water is available. And if there are any other
items (paper, pens, notepads, etc.) that are necessary, don’t
neglect your duty to supply them. Before the meeting, make
sure that the room is clean and the temperature is appropriate.
When the meeting begins (and it must begin on time), intro-
duce new participants, state the purpose, and refer to the agen-
da. As you move through each item on the agenda, adhere to a
preconceived time line so that you’ll complete the meeting on
time. During a meeting, keep the discussion going by asking
questions, paraphrasing unclear comments, and providing back-
ground information that some participants may not have. It is
also the leader’s responsibility to bring participants who digress
back to the topic under consideration.
If a topic comes up that gets your discussion off track, make a proce-
dural suggestion to table the discussion, take the conversation “off-line,”
or put it on an issues chart that will be delegated or assigned for reso-
lution outside of the meeting.
A leader must be able to handle any conflicts and be ready to

step in and resolve any misunderstandings that may develop.
Conflict resolution involves listening carefully to what partici-
pants are saying, being rational, and taking command of any dis-
ruptions. Throughout the meeting, a leader should praise each
individual’s efforts and avoid personal criticism.
At the end of a meeting, a leader should summarize the
group’s major decisions or plans, review the assignment of tasks,
and genuinely be appreciative of the time and energy expended
by each member. After the meeting, a leader should ensure that
minutes are prepared and distributed as soon as possible, and
that participants are completing their agreed upon tasks.
P A R T I C I P AT I N G IN A M EETING
A lot of people think that when they attend a meeting, their

only responsibility is to fill a seat. Can you imagine if everyone
attended meetings with that same philosophy? Not much would
get accomplished. As a participant, you need to be prepared,
organized, curious, analytical, and cooperative.
Do your homework. Know the purpose of the meeting. If the
leader of the meeting doesn’t tell you, ask for more information.
Read and think about handouts and prepare any necessary writ-
ten materials. Always sit in a strategic spot at the meeting, that
is, one where you can be seen and heard. Sitting in a key posi-
tion, such as across from or next to the leader, will increase your
participation.
Avoid lengthy speeches. It’s always a good idea to be brief.
Make your point in four or five sentences. Then support your
point with one documented reason. You can always add addi-
tional evidence later. You’ll find that simplicity pays off.
Be flexible and stay alert. Meetings are full of interruptions,
new ideas, and spontaneous requests. Don’t be caught day-
dreaming when you should be actively involved in the meeting.
Practice the listening techniques discussed earlier in the chapter.
I attend a lot of meetings in my line of work. I’ve discovered that

taking notes in a meeting really helps me keep up with the dis-
cussion, and shows the other people that I’m interested in what’s
being said. Once I was asked to attend a meeting with the region-
al sales reps as a representative of my department. I wasn’t really
being asked to participate, but I took notes so I wouldn’t just be
sitting there like a lump in a chair. I occasionally asked a question
recapping what someone had said, “If I understand what you’re
saying . . .” Because I participated, instead of just attending the
meeting, the sales reps remembered me and I’ve built some great
relationships that have been very helpful. When I call to ask how
a particular product is doing in their region I always get a quick
call back and a thoughtful answer.
—ROZ, DIRECT MAIL DIRECTOR
Focus your comments on the topic at hand. You may have an

unrelated yet fascinating point to make, but avoid the tempta-
tion to discuss it. Most employees at a business meeting want to
get back to their other work and they can get irritated when
someone spends time on an aside.
Use evidence to support your points. People will be persuad-
ed if you back up your “I think” statements with facts, statistics,
and quotations so incorporate them into your reasoning.
Always assist your leader. If there is a misunderstanding
among members of the group that only you understand, facili-
tate the rest of the group’s comprehension. For example, you
might say, “I believe Mark is referring to last week’s complaint
from Spitzer Industries that our deliveries are always two days
late.”
Agree or disagree with other members’ remarks in a rational,
nonjudgmental manner. Comments such as, “I agree with
Heather’s statement. We should increase our telephone budget.
And based on the 20 percent increase of telephone calls we’ve
made over the past two months, it’s important that we make this
change immediately.” Or to disagree you might say,“John’s point
does have some obvious merit. I do, however, disagree with his
overall plan. Let me briefly explain our department’s three-point
plan that includes John’s ideas.”
As with any oral communication, watch your posture (don’t
slouch), speak slowly and clearly, be attentive, and display inter-
est and enthusiasm. It is extremely important that participants
at your meeting believe that you care about the business at
hand.
SUMMARY
Communicating at work is probably one of the most important

parts of any professional career. In all forms of verbal communi-
cation it is essential to keep in mind who you are talking to, what
you are trying to accomplish, and how you come across.
Successful communication relies on effective use of language,
voice, and body language. And remember that communication is
a two way process; it involves speaking and listening.
When speaking before a group use strategies like positive
thinking and relaxation techniques to overcome your nervous-
ness. Being prepared is an important step in becoming a confi-
dent public speaker. This means planning an organized speech
with a beginning, middle, and end. It is also important to
support your ideas.
Speaking in a meeting also requires preparation. If you are a
leader, be sure you have a clear agenda and stick to it. If you are
a participant, make sure you know the agenda of the meeting
and come to the meeting prepared to join in the discussion.
Improving your communication skills is a sure way to advance
your career and make work a more satisfying experience.
When you are preparing a presentation, you may need to do
some research about your topic or you might want to use some
statistics to introduce your speech or to support your points.
The next chapter will teach you the strategies for business
research that will help you find the information you need easily
and efficiently.
C HAPTE R 4
RESEARCHING AT WORK
Business research is the process of gathering information

that can be used to answer a question or solve a problem relating to
your business or company. There are different methods of conduct-
ing research, but the goal is always to come up with information
that your business can use to make decisions or solve problems.
In order for a business to grow and expand, it has to have an
idea of what it’s doing right, and in what areas it should be look-
ing to improve. If a company that makes gloves and mittens, for
instance, is selling twice as many mittens as gloves, but continues
to manufacture as many gloves as it does mittens, something is
wrong. Either company officials are unaware of how the product
is selling, or they don’t understand the basic concept of supply and
demand. In either case, some basic research and proper manage-
ment of the results could help.
Businesses employ research in all sorts of situations: to deter-

mine if a product will be favorably received, to determine what
their competition is doing, to find out to whom a product
should be marketed, and for many other reasons. Basically, busi-
ness research is the means of finding the answers to questions
that affect a business. Regardless of how it’s done, or who does
it, it’s the most direct route to gathering information. The infor-
mation, in turn, can be used to make intelligent decisions.
GETTING STARTED
D ETE R M I N E YO U R O BJ E CTIVE S
The first step in any research project is to determine your

objectives. Once you know the goal of your research, you will be
able to figure out the best way to find the information you need.
The primary goal of any type of business research is to gather
information. Some other objectives that are common to all busi-
ness research include:
• To provide answers to specific questions.
• To provide enough information so that people within the
business will be able to draw accurate and conclusive
results from the information gathered.
• To enable decision-makers to make intelligent, timely
choices based on the information collected during
research.
While all business research may share certain common objec-

tives, there are different types of business research, which are
used to determine different things. The most common types of
business research are those used for the following reasons:
RESEARCHING AT WORK 85
• To determine who is using your company’s products or

services.
• To determine who might be persuaded to use your com-
pany’s products or services.
• To locate and/or monitor competition within the market.
• To assess the chances for success of a new product or
service.
• To assess the feasibility of expanding a business or
service.
• To determine why the popularity of your company’s
product or service has decreased, or increased. Remember,
business research can be used to figure out why things
are going right, not just why things are going wrong.
Normally, you’ll have a primary objective, and at least one—

usually more than one—secondary objective. The primary
objective is the big question. If you could learn only one thing
from your research, that would be it. The secondary objectives
are other things you’ll discover as a result of the research.
Secondary objectives also can be identified before research
begins. Often, however, they are discovered by accident as the
research unfolds.
To identify your research goals, simply make a list of every-
thing you’d like to learn from the research you’ll be doing. Just
be sure you have a clear idea of the purpose of the research
before you start writing down objectives.
List everything you can think of that you’d like to learn from
your research project. If the purpose of your research is to find
out who’s buying your greeting cards, your initial list of objec-
tives might look something like this.
1. Who buys our greeting cards?

2. In what shops are our cards sold?
3. Where are those shops?
4. Who shops in those stores?

5. Are the customer bases similar for all the stores in
which our cards are sold?
6. What is the average age of the customer who shops
where our cards are sold?
7. What is the average income of those customers?
8. Are our cards sold anywhere other than the stores iden-
tified?
9. Who would be the customers at those places, if they
exist?
Once you’ve come up with some objectives, put them into the
order that you think they should be researched. Not all of the
questions on your list will be worthy of an out-and-out research
effort. It’s likely that some can be easily answered, perhaps sim-
ply by contacting the owners of some of the shops that sell your
cards. Be sure you identify the primary objective, and list the
secondary objectives in order of relevance and importance.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT M ETHOD
Now that you have determined your research objectives, you

need to choose the right research method.
First, there are two basic categories of research: primary and
secondary. Primary research is when you start at the ground level
to design and carry out a research project and gather original data
in order to answer the questions your company is facing.
Secondary research is the process of gathering information that’s
already available. It’s considered research because the information
can be difficult to locate, and may have to be verified, sorted, and
organized. In many ways, secondary research can be just as diffi-
cult, as primary research, and in some cases even more difficult.
A mistake that many new researchers make is not taking full

advantage of work that’s already been done. In their haste and
eagerness to get involved with a business research project, they
overlook all kinds of readily available information, and spend
time and resources doing the same work over again. But be sure
that the information you use is up-to-date and accurate. Always
use the most current and reliable sources you can find.
Once you start digging into information that’s already been
collected, you might discover there’s no need for primary
research. If that’s the case, fine. You will have completed your
task with less effort than you had anticipated. As long as you
found out what you set out to learn, and conducted your project
in an orderly and conscientious manner, it doesn’t matter that
you used only secondary research.
If you learn, however, that there’s not enough—or not any—
information available concerning your research topic, then you’ll
have to get down to some primary research. If that’s the case,
there are two different methods that can be used to conduct pri-
mary research. They are: the quantitative method and the qual-
itative method. The quantitative method of research uses things
like surveys or questionnaires to gather information that can be
compiled and presented in numbers or percentages. This
method is very structured, and the results are easier to interpret
than those generated with the qualitative method of research.
Qualitative research is based on techniques such as focus
groups and one-on-one surveys and is used to gather descriptive
information. This sort of research allows those conducting it to
go into greater depth and gather more information than a
survey or questionnaire could. This is one of the strengths of
qualitative research. A criticism of qualitative research, on the
other hand, is that it’s more subjective than quantitative, so the
results can vary depending on who conducts the research and
how the results are tabulated.
Some of the most common research methods include use of

the library or Internet, interviews, surveys, and focus groups.
Each of these methods is discussed in detail later in the chapter,
but before you begin your research project you will need to
choose the right method to meet your objectives. The optimum
method will vary from project to project, and depends on vari-
ous factors. You shouldn’t assume that because your company
used a telephone survey five years ago to collect information
from its customers, that a telephone survey is the best way to
proceed today.
You have to take into account things such as the amount of
time you have available to complete your research, how much
money you can spend on your study, the amount of help and
other resources you’ll have available, the type of information
you’re seeking, and what information you might already have.
Obviously, time is an important factor in any project, includ-
ing research projects. Some methods (mail surveys, for instance),
take more time than others. They simply can’t be completed
quickly (unlike telephone surveys, for example).
Research costs money, and some methods are more expensive
than others. Telephone surveys can be relatively inexpensive,
unless you have to hire people to do the calling. Focus groups
can get expensive if you have to rent facilities in which to con-
duct them, hire a moderator and other personnel to help with
them, and pay the participants. You’ll always have some control
over the cost of your research, but it’s important to consider all
the possible expenses before deciding which method to use.
If you’ve been assigned to do a business research project all by
yourself, think carefully about the method you choose. Try to get a
realistic idea of the amount of work each method will entail, and
consider how much help you’ll have before choosing one. Also look
at what other resources you might have, such as access to lists and
other sources of information. Think about what you are trying to
learn. Is the question that prompted your research best answered

with numbers or with detailed description?
The final step in choosing your method of research is to con-
firm your decision with others. Make sure you and the person
for whom you are conducting the research have the same expec-
tations concerning the research. This will accomplish several
things:
• It ensures that everyone involved has the same expecta-

tions concerning the project.
• It may affect decisions you’ve made about how you’re
going to proceed with the project. If your boss’s deadline
is sooner than you thought you may need to reevaluate
your choice of research method.
• It makes the research project official, and gives you a
starting point and time to begin. Having your boss rec-
ognize the project and how you plan to proceed with it
gives you the green light to go ahead and get started.
SET A T I M E TA B L E
Now that you are ready to get started, you should get busy
and set up a schedule, or timetable, for your research. A
timetable is nothing more than an estimate of how long each
part of your research will take. Leave yourself a little margin for
error, because there’s no way to know exactly how long it will
take to complete each step.
If you’ve been given some breathing room on your project,
consider yourself lucky. You can make yourself a comfortable
working schedule and conduct your research on your own
terms. If you’ve been given a specific amount of time to complete a
research project, then you’ll have to work within those parameters.
That will take careful planning, and will limit your flexibility
somewhat. But, regardless of whether you have a set amount of
time to complete the research, or whether you can take as long
as you want to, it’s to your advantage not to drag out the project.
To keep things organized and on track, you should make some
sort of timetable chart.
Completing such a chart and having it in front of you will keep
you organized and, hopefully, on schedule. Remember, there is no
exact science to setting a timetable, but, it will give you an idea of
what you need to accomplish and when.
PLACES TO FIND INFORMATION
Now that you are really ready to dig into your project, you need
to find the information you are looking for. There are many
research methods, but there are five tried and true places to find
information that can answer most research needs.
L I B RARY
If your company has a library, take a walk down the hall and see
what’s available. You could have a wealth of information only a
floor or two away, just waiting to be examined and used. If you’re
heading for the public library, make sure you know how to make
your time at the library the most productive.
Your first stop at the public library should be the reference
department. There, you’ll find a wealth of information, and usual-
ly some very knowledgeable librarians to help you locate what you
need. The reference section of a library typically contains all sorts
of directories, giving you information on everything from church-
es, synagogues, and temples across the country, to who’s who

among Fortune 500 companies.
While these directories can be a bit daunting, they contain all
kinds of valuable information, and it’s well worth your time to get
to know about them. Here are just some examples of directories
you might find useful:
• The Thomas Register of Manufacturers. Lists most U.S.

manufacturers and companies, and their products and
trade names.
• The Dun & Bradstreet Million Dollar Directory.
Provides information on the nation’s largest companies,
including company name, address, and phone number,
members of the board of directors, principal products,
sales, key personnel, the number of employees, the year
founded, and stock information.
• The U.S. Industry and Trade Outlook. Gives an up-to-date
economic forecast for a particular business or industry.
• The National Directory of Women-Owned Firms. Lists
all companies in the U.S. that are owned and operated by
women.
• The Dun & Bradstreet Regional Directory. Gives updated
lists of owners, number of employees, estimated sales, and
more, of businesses within a particular geographic region.
• Who’s Who in Commerce and Industry. Gives personal
information about people running companies, including
age, job experience, family information, what college they
attended, and more.
• Standard & Poor Stock Reports. Provides extensive
financial profiles of more than 4,600 companies traded
on the New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock
Exchange, and the Nasdaq Stock Market.
While you’ll probably be intrigued with all the directories and

guides contained in the reference department, be certain not to
overlook the other useful resources there: telephone directories,
chamber of commerce directories, and city directories.
Of course, the library also has books—many of which can be
extremely valuable to your business research project. To find the
books that might be helpful, you’ll use the card catalog, or the
library’s computerized card catalog. Most libraries have comput-
erized card catalogs that are user-friendly and provide clear
instructions. You simply enter the name of a particular book, the
name of an author, or a subject area. If you type in “conducting
business research,” for instance, you’ll get a list of any books the
library has that apply to that topic. It probably will tell you if the
book is currently available, and where in the library it’s located.
It might even give you the names of other libraries that have the
book, in case yours doesn’t.
THE INTERNET
The Internet is becoming an increasingly important source of

information. It can be ideal for business research, since you
never have to leave your desk to access it. You can even visit a
“library” on the Internet. Aside from its convenience, the
Internet probably offers the best variety of data.
If you don’t have Internet access at home or in your office, try
your public library. Libraries are connecting to the web at a rapid
rate, and many have computers available to the public. Simply
put, the Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks
that link together all sorts of businesses, universities, govern-
ment agencies, and individuals. The Internet allows us to access
information from countless sources.
Exactly how do you find out what you need to know on the
Internet? How is it possible to sort through the vast amount of
information available, and to find the pieces you want?

Some of the large Internet service providers include web
channels that sort the Internet into categories. These channels
can include topics such as: travel, sports, computing, research,
lifestyles, health, families, entertainment, personal finance,
shopping, news, interests, international, local, and kids. When
you “click” on any of the channels, you’ll see a submenu of what’s
available for you to browse. If you prefer, you can use a search
mechanism, which allows you to type in some keywords to get a
list of sites on the Internet that might apply to your search.
Once you’re on-line you can access other search engines, such
as Yahoo!, Alta Vista, and Lycos. Like the search engines pro-
vided by some of the Internet access providers, these sites help
you to narrow your search. Some of the major search sites, and
where they can be accessed on the Internet, are listed below.
Yahoo!: recommended for researching broad, general

topics. It can be accessed at www.yahoo.com.
Alta Vista: recommended for precise and complete

searches. It can be accessed at www.altavista.com.
Lycos: recommended for advanced searches, very

thorough. It can be accessed at www.lycos.com.
Excite: recommended for searches on broad, general

topics. It can be accessed at www.excite.com.
Hotbot: the search site of Wired magazine, recommended

for finding specific information. It can be accessed at
www.hotbot.com.
Infoseek: not as large as some other sites, but very

accurate. It can be accessed at www.infoseek.com.
If you can’t get to the library there are several library sites on-
line that can be very useful. A great place to access information
about nearly any topic is The Research Zone’s Electric Library. A
user simply types in some keywords or a question and the Electric
Library searches its database of 150 full-text newspapers, hun-
dreds of full-text magazines, two international newswires, and
2,000 classic books. It also contains hundreds of maps, thousands
of photographs, and major works of literature and art.
The information is updated daily through satellite transmis-
sions, and the Electric Library is a quick and reliable means of
information. Materials accessed through the service can be
printed, or copied and saved into a word processing document.
However, there is a subscription fee for the Electric Library.
Find the Electric Library at www.elibrary.com.
Other library sites include the Library of Congress website,
which contains a great assortment of photos, video and sound
clips, and documents about nearly everything imaginable. Find it
at http://www.loc.gov. Another is Library Spot, which contains
all the references you’ll ever need in one location. Find it at
http://www/libraryspot.com.
Also, see the resource section at the end of this book for some
guides to conducting business research on the Internet that will
give you many more useful research sites. Some examples of
other types of sites that you will find on the Internet include
company websites, on-line editions of newspapers, sites dedicat-
ed to financial news, and so on. One thing to remember when
researching on the Internet is to be careful about your sources.
There is a lot of information available on the Net, but it isn’t all
up-to-date or accurate. Be sure you use reliable sources and try
to confirm information whenever possible.
INTERVIEWS
Of course, published sources might not be specific enough to

answer your particular research objectives. Sometimes people in
your business or in the field you are researching will be your
most direct sources of information. An interview is one research
method used to gather information from people.
If you need to conduct an interview for your business
research project, following these steps can help you achieve the
best results:
1. Explain exactly what it is you’re hoping to find out, and

why you need the information. Be sure to be very cour-
teous. Remember, you’re asking for someone’s valuable
time and knowledge.
2. Be prepared to share some information about yourself
and your research project. An interviewee will want to
know where you’re calling from and how you will be
using the information you are asking them to provide.
3. Know exactly what it is you’re trying to find out, and
be ready with follow-up questions. For instance, if
you’re trying to find out about companies that offer the
same product as your company, be sure you have an
accurate description of your product and decide if you
want to know about competitors in your state, across
the country, or worldwide. Don’t waste someone’s time
by being unprepared.
4. Have a backup plan in case your interviewee declines to
offer the exact information you are seeking. If you have
some backup questions prepared, you may still be able
to get something useful out of the interview.
5. Know when to quit. As important as it is to be persis-
tent when you’re trying to get information, it’s equally
important to know when to stop trying. If you’ve been
respectful and courteous, your source is more likely to

reconsider and give you the information you are looking
for than if you have been overly pushy.
Before you get too caught up in locating far-flung people who

may be able to help with your business research project, stop
and take a look around your own office. Help might be much
closer than you thought.
Are there people who have been with the company for a num-
ber of years? Maybe even since the company started? Is there an
administrative person who knows everything about the place,
right down to the birthdays, names of kids, and favorite foods of
most of the employees? These kinds of people are vital to any
company, and they can serve as valuable sources of help and
information for your business research project. Be sure that you
don’t overlook them.
Consider everyone within the company, from the boss to the
maintenance staff, as potential sources of help, but pay special
attention to: those who came to your company from competing
companies, those who have been with the company for a long
time, others who have had the job you currently have, anyone who
seems particularly knowledgeable about the topic you’re research-
ing, anyone who appears particularly helpful and cooperative, and
your company’s historian (either an official or unofficial position).
S U RVEYS
Another way to gather information from people is through

surveys. Mail and telephone surveys are traditional and widely
used tools in business research. The size and scope of the sur-
veys can vary tremendously from project to project, but certain
principles and rules apply across the board. A survey, regardless
of how it’s conducted, is a type of quantitative research that

measures results in the form of numbers or percentages. No
matter what type of survey you’ll be doing, there are several
things to consider. You must to determine the following:
Who should be included in the survey?

How large should the survey be?
How would your survey best be conducted?
What’s the best type of questionnaire for your survey?
When considering who to include in your survey, keep the

following things in mind:
• Participants should be selected according to the type of

information you’re looking for.
• People who use your product or service will be able to
give you firsthand information concerning the quality or
effectiveness of the product.
• Potential customers are different from actual customers,
and will have different kinds of information.
• Who you include in your survey could depend on factors
such as where potential participants live, their age, their
marital status, their political affiliation, their income, and
so forth.
I was asked to research the market for a new anti-wrinkle cream

that my small, natural cosmetics company was developing. I
decided that a phone survey of potential customers was the best
method considering my resources and time-frame. I selected
numbers at random from the local area phone book. (I was trying
to control costs by limiting myself to local calls.) Unfortunately,
our office is located in a college town and our population is dis-
proportionately young. My results indicated that an anti-wrinkle
cream would not be in great demand. If I had added some demo-

graphic questions to exclude respondents under a certain age, or
conducted my survey in an urban area, I might have had very dif-
ferent results.
—ZOË, PRODUCT MANAGER
Be sure to get a group that’s large enough to give you a rep-

resentative sampling. If you’re conducting the research project
by yourself, you’ll most likely have to settle for a smaller group
of respondents than if you have a team of people helping you.
Also, if your boss has allocated only $2,000 for the project,
you’ll need to have a more limited survey than if your budget
was $10,000.
Choosing a methodology for your survey is very important,
and something on which you’ll need to spend considerable time.
There are advantages and disadvantages to both mail and tele-
phone surveys. Circumstances such as time, budget, and the
amount of help you have, should also be considered when
choosing your survey method.
Advantages and disadvantages of a mail survey include the
following:
1. It’s normally possible to ask more questions in a mail

survey than in a telephone survey. However, getting too
lengthy is risky, for it may discourage participants from
responding at all.
2. Mail surveys are generally more expensive to conduct
than telephone surveys, and they may take longer to
institute. Remember that if you decide to go with a
mail survey, you’ll need to have your surveys printed,
provide postage-paid return envelopes, and perhaps
arrange for follow-up mailings to participants.
3. You might be able to save on mailing costs by qualify-
ing for a bulk mailing. If you do qualify, however, you’ll
have to either sort the mail yourself to meet the postal

service’s regulations, or hire someone to do it for you.
4. Getting responses to a mail survey can be a slow and
frustrating process. You have no control of when your
survey participants will respond, or even if they’ll
respond. If you don’t get responses back by a specified
date, you’ll need to send follow-up mailings, which
adds expense and takes additional time and manpower.
5. Even if participants respond promptly to your mail
survey, there still is the time necessary for the survey to
reach the participant, and to get back to you, by mail.
Even under the best circumstances, mail surveys can
take at least ten weeks to see results.
6. Mail surveys often are not as accurate as telephone sur-
veys. Participants sometimes do not follow the instruc-
tions included with a mail survey, or they answer only
certain questions.
The advantages and disadvantages of a telephone survey

include the following:
1. Telephone surveys can be very effective, but they often

are difficult to conduct, especially for small companies
that try to do them in-house. Conducting surveys by
phone can be very time-consuming, and may take
longer than planned if there are a limited number of
people making calls.
2. Telephone surveys can be implemented more quickly
than mail surveys because you avoid the tasks associat-
ed with mail surveys, such as printing questionnaires.
3. Telephone surveys provide immediate responses, and
can give you insights into the attitudes of participants.
For instance, if a customer were happy with the service
he received on his car, but was unhappy with another
matter at the car dealership, he’d be able to relate that

information more easily by telephone than by trying to
write it on a printed questionnaire with little room for
additional comment.
4. It’s easier to control the quality of a telephone survey
than a mail survey. Researchers are taught to know
which questions are applicable in various situations
and should be able to obtain all answers to all the nec-
essary questions.
5. Many people consider telephone surveys to be intru-
sive, and may refuse to cooperate. There is a prolifera-
tion these days of telephone surveys and solicitations,
and some people refuse even to consider a call that they
think might be suspect.
There is another important trend in survey taking that has

been widely adopted in the business world: the e-mail survey.
Sending an e-mail questionnaire can give you the fast response
time of a telephone survey combined with the more detailed
responses you might expect from a mail survey. E-mail surveys
can also be quite cost effective.
FOCUS GROUPS
Focus groups are another method of gathering information

from people. Focus groups are frequently used in business
research, and can be a great way to get detailed information
about an idea or product. Using a focus group—a small group of
people brought together to offer opinions and insight about a
particular topic—is a qualitative method of research. It is
intended to produce in-depth conversation, and to find out what
people like or dislike, or how they feel about something. Because
a focus group is based on conversations with people, instead of
numbers or facts acquired through a survey or other means, the

results are subjective.
While focus groups seem relatively straightforward and easy,
they entail a great deal of planning and preparation. You’ll need
at least a month to prepare for a focus group. When using focus
groups as part of your business research, you’re not limited to
one or two groups. If you have enough time and your budget per-
mits, you could conduct a dozen focus groups to gather informa-
tion from people with many different perspectives.Your first step
in planning a focus group is to figure out how many focus groups
you’ll have, and who should be included in each group.
When selecting candidates, it’s important to remember that
different people have different perspectives, and your focus
groups must be representative of your customer base if you
hope to get a reliable range of opinions. Once you decide whom
your focus groups should involve, you’ve got to figure out how
you’ll screen potential candidates to see if they qualify to partic-
ipate. In order to determine which candidates are appropriate,
formulate a brief questionnaire that sets the criteria for partici-
pation. The survey allows you to screen subscribers during a
brief phone call.
Once you’ve selected the focus group members, it’s time to
appoint a moderator and prepare a discussion guide for that
person. If you’re leading the business research, you may be
expected to be the moderator. If that’s the case, don’t panic. If
you won’t be moderating, try to find someone to do it who is
friendly but businesslike. It is very important to keep the dis-
cussion on track and moving ahead so that the entire agenda can
be covered in the appointed amount of time.
Professional moderators can be hired in some areas, and usu-
ally can be contacted through large marketing firms. If your
focus group research is relatively simple, however, someone
from within the company probably can handle it.
In order to get the most out of a focus group, you should
make arrangements to videotape, or at least audiotape, the dis-

cussion. As the date of the focus group approaches, you should
send out confirmation notices to participants. Be sure to include
the time, place, date, and directions.
Now that you’ve taken care of the details, it’s time to think
about the actual business of conducting a focus group. It may
seem that a focus group is simply a time for participants to sit
down and talk, but that isn’t the case. Conversation must be
directed and steered to keep it on track. You need to be sure that
everyone participates, and that the conversation isn’t dominated
by one or two people.
Let’s look at some of the things a moderator is responsible for
during a focus group discussion.
• Making everyone feel comfortable. Thank the partici-

pants for coming, and take a few minutes to chat about
things like the weather and other general topics.
Everyone should be introduced, and you’ll need to
explain what your role, as moderator, will be.
• Explaining the focus group process. Don’t assume that
the participants know the purpose or procedure of a
focus group. You should explain what you hope to
accomplish by having the focus group, and how the
group will operate. Be sure to tell participants that the
conversation is being recorded so that you’ll have accu-
rate records for your analysis. Assure everyone that their
names will not be used in any way, and that they should
feel free to say whatever they want to.
Last year I participated in a focus group called a “brain trust” led

by a self-described trend-setter. My friend (working for the trend-
setter) had rounded up acquaintances to meet in a hotel board-
room for a morning of questions, freebie muffins, and coffee.
Unlike more typical marketing focus groups, we weren’t told the
identity of the client or product. We broke into small groups and

answered open-ended questions about the future of education,
technology, communities, even food. We were also asked to
select what kind of consumers we were from a list of “consumer
personalities.” I didn’t really like the idea of being reduced to a
consumer profile and I think almost everyone in the group had a
cynical outlook about “selling” trend predictions and thought it
was humorous that we could be qualified as trend-setters our-
selves. The whole thing was confusing because we never knew
the real objective of our group.
—ABRAHAM, WRITER
• Keeping the conversation on course. This can be diffi-

cult, and requires your close attention. Just like in any sit-
uation, there probably will be people within the group
that are much more talkative than others. A focus group,
however, relies on input from all its members, not just a
couple. It is the job of the moderator to get everyone
involved in the discussion, and to be sure everyone gets a
chance to state his or her opinions.
• Getting everyone involved. Just as some people are
inclined to talk a bit more than you’d like them to, there
may be others who don’t say much or anything. If you
have people like this in your focus group, try to draw
them out. Ask one of them to start the discussion on a
certain question. Provide feedback to their comments to
encourage their participation.
• Making sure the questions are understandable. Ask if
everyone understands each question before you start to
get input from participants.
• Keeping the discussion flexible. Your discussion guide is
just that—a guide. Be careful to not get too rigid about
staying on schedule. If the conversation starts to wander
off your scheduled topic, but is revealing important and
applicable information about another topic, don’t be too

quick to stop the new discussion. Of course, the danger
is that you won’t be able to cover all the predetermined
topics if you allow the discussion to wander too much, so
you have to be able to determine when enough is enough,
and steer the conversation back to the original question.
If the conversation moves to another topic on the discus-
sion guide that you had planned to cover later anyway, by
all means, let participants continue to talk about it. Don’t
discourage a natural flow of conversation just to remain
on schedule.
• Avoiding bias. This seems like an obvious task for a mod-
erator, but, if you’ve never been involved before with a
focus group, you probably don’t realize how easily you
can bias the participants. Under no circumstances should
you express your own opinion about one of the ques-
tions, or anything else related to the group discussion.
Don’t agree or disagree with any comments from any of
the group members.
When the designated time for the focus group discussion has
ended, the moderator must end the conversation. Be sure to
thank participants for their help, and tell them how much you
appreciate their sharing the comments and opinions. After par-
ticipants have been paid and have left the site of the focus group,
there are a few things you should do.
• Make notes about anything that occurred during the

group that you feel is especially significant.
• Take the tapes and store them in a safe place.
• Write each member of the focus group a short note,
thanking him or her for participating.
SUMMARY
Successfully completing a business research project can be an

interesting and rewarding experience. To get your project start-
ed, first determine your objectives and choose the right method,
and set a timetable. Before you begin, confirm your decisions
and make sure you are on the right track. Some of the key places
to find information are the library, the Internet, interviews, sur-
veys, and focus groups. There are advantages and disadvantages
to each, and you should consider your objective, your timetable,
and your budget when designing your research project.
A well-conducted research project that is presented effective-
ly either in a written report or spoken presentation is a surefire
way to impress your colleagues and superiors.
C HAPTE R 5
GETTING ALONG AT WORK
The ability to work well with others is essential to any success-

ful career. How you present yourself, how you handle friendships
and romantic relationships at work, how you relate to your boss,
how you work in a team, and how you behave as a leader can all
have a tremendous impact on your career. While getting along at
work is guided by many of the same considerations as getting
along with other people in any setting, there are special consider-
ations in the workplace that are important to understand if you
want to succeed.
ETIQUETTE
Etiquette, which involves social conventions and behavior, is most-

ly about treating others with kindness and graciousness.
Understanding etiquette will give you the kind of polish that

will make you highly promotable. Protocol is a special branch of
etiquette that is practiced in virtually every office. Protocol is the
usually unwritten set of guidelines that dictate appropriate
behavior.
If you follow accepted guidelines for behavior in the work-
place, every aspect of work will go more smoothly. You and the
people you work with will feel like part of a community—which
an office is, after all. Knowing your way around an office social-
ly will advance your career by making you more successful and
promotable.
W H AT TO WEAR
Dressing well—and appropriately—for work is important. It

helps you fit in and speeds your acceptance by your coworkers,
management included. It definitely can help you get promoted.
Sadly, the reverse is true as well: inappropriate dress will hold
you back.
When building a work wardrobe, try to choose quality over
quantity. A few good pieces will make everything you already
own look better. A shirt or a knit jersey, for example, doesn’t
have to be expensive if you wear it under a good jacket. The
same is true for accessories: for example, investing in good qual-
ity shoes, replacing your backpack with a more professional bag,
or wearing an expensive, yet plain watch will dress-up your over-
all appearance.
If you groan at the thought of not being able to dress like
yourself, don’t worry. Dressing for work once meant dressing in
a uniform of gray and navy, but this is no longer true. Many
companies conform to the business casual style of office wear.
For women, the “power suit” has been replaced with a sweater
set and a skirt or pants, for example. For men, khakis and a shirt,
G E T TI N G A L O N G AT WORK 109
without a tie, are now acceptable work attire. You can still have
your own style, but you’ll fare better if you dress to impress the
people who make the decisions.
Not dressing professionally can be a costly mistake. For
example, a manager who wears a t-shirt and jeans when even his
subordinates save their jeans for the weekend will undermine
his authority and send a message that he does not take the
workplace seriously. The price of dressing inappropriately may
be that you don’t get the promotion you covet or the raise you
deserve. Even worse, you’re often the last to know what is hold-
ing you back. Most bosses who will readily point out problems
related to your work will be reluctant to tell you that your style
of dress is inappropriate for the workplace.
Companies that still conform to traditional business attire
often permit the wearing of casual clothes on Fridays. However,
these offices may have a host of unwritten rules about what’s
acceptable. Casual Friday does not necessarily mean that you
can wear to work what you wear around your house or on the
weekend. In some offices, casual Fridays are just as competitive
as any other workday. For this reason, it is a good idea to wear
regular office dress the first few weeks on a new job so you can
get an idea of what your office considers “casual.”
When casual Fridays were first introduced at my company, I was

so happy. I thought, finally, one day of the week I won’t have to
wear stockings, a jacket, and heels. One Friday my boss was
going to be out of the office and I was planning on reorganizing
the files. I decided I was going to be really comfortable. I wore
my old jeans, running shoes (that I had done plenty of running in),
and my college sweatshirt. Then I got a call from the CEO of the
company. He usually worked out of our corporate headquarters
in another state and was visiting our offices that day. He knew my
boss was away so he decided to use his office to make some
calls. I’ll never forget the look he gave me when he saw how I
was dressed. He made a comment like, “When the cat’s away . . .”

as I tried to explain that I was doing some clean-up. I realized that
“casual” doesn’t mean dress like you’re cleaning out your garage.
—MARCIE, ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT
OFFICE R E L AT I O N S H I P S
We spend a lot of time at work, so it is no surprise that many

coworkers form personal relationships—both friendships and
romances. Being aware of etiquette in these situations can pre-
vent you from turning this positive into a negative.
Wherever people work as colleagues, inevitably some friend-
ships develop. Outside work, you can be as tight as you like with
whomever you choose, but at work, it’s good protocol to exercise
some restraint. Just because you and your friend work together
does not mean that it’s okay to socialize freely at work. You must
also be careful of your other colleague’s feelings. Here are some
guidelines to help you keep an office friendship from becoming
a problem at work:
• Plan social activities on your own time. In other words,

do your social planning outside the office.
• Avoid exclusivity. Don’t share jokes or accord special
privileges from which others are excluded.
• Vary your lunch partners. Occasionally go with someone
else, and sometimes invite others to join both of you.
In the case of male–female friendships it helps to be extra

sensitive. Don’t be overly discreet. This tactic can work against
you by making it look like you have something to hide.
Announce that you’re having drinks together, and ask your
coworkers to join you. Be up-front. If one or both of you are

married, make a point of letting others know that you have met
one another’s spouses socially.
If your friendship becomes the subject of gossip, state your
case and be done with it. Some people want to believe the worst,
and they’ll choose to believe you are having an affair when you
aren’t. Don’t feel obliged to protest the rumors if they persist.
When you are having a problem with a coworker, address the problem
with them directly and before it permanently affects your work relation-
ship. For example, maybe you feel your coworker is not pulling her
weight and her long coffee breaks are becoming increasingly irritating.
Instead of stewing about it and watching the clock while she flips
through her magazine, try talking to her about the problem. You might
find that she is more than eager to work but simply didn’t know what she
should be doing. Even if she doesn’t appreciate having her break reined
in, you will at least have aired your grievance and have grounds to go to
your supervisor if the problem is not resolved.
Of course sometimes the rumors are right, and there is a

romance behind an office friendship. Office romances happen,
and when they do, they occasionally cross some uncomfortable
lines. Any office affair will be easier on both participants and
bystanders if everyone understands what is expected.
There are both written and unwritten rules about office
affairs. It is very important to know the written rules. Some
companies have explicit rules against coworkers dating.
Although the unwritten rules vary from company to company, a
few guidelines will help you handle this situation with poise:
• Avoid involvement with inappropriate people. In other

words, do not have an affair with anyone who would create
a conflict of interest; for example, someone you supervise.
• Consider requesting a transfer. If you do become
involved with someone you supervise, or vice versa, and
the affair appears to be long-term, one of you should
either arrange a transfer out of the department or look
for a job at another company. It’s not fair to anyone,
including your coworkers, for one worker to get special
treatment from the boss.
• Be discreet, particularly at first. It is not uncommon for
people to have little flings. Often they don’t turn into
grand affairs, so the fewer people who know about them,
the better.
• Don’t make a big deal about the affair. Even if it does
become a grand passion, resist the temptation to
announce it to the whole office. People will know you are
an item, it’s true, but some things are better left unsaid.
• Arrive at and leave work separately. This one small ges-
ture can do a lot to protect your privacy; you will be less
noticed and less a subject of gossip if you do this.
• Treat each other like strangers at work. Well, almost like
strangers. Everyone will be watching, and they don’t want
to see flirtatious looks, hear jokes shared only by the two
of you, and notice that you’ve stolen a few moments
behind closed doors. The more normal you act, the more
accepted the relationship will be.
• Grant each other no special privileges. If a meeting is
scheduled to begin at 9 A.M. and your beloved has over-
slept, that’s not your problem. Start the meeting on time.
Even tiny privileges you think won’t be noticed by others
will be, so don’t risk it.
WORKING WITH YOUR BOSS
The most important office relationships are the professional

ones. And your relationship with your boss will affect every
aspect of your work life. Following the rules of etiquette can go
along way to making this relationship rewarding and productive
for both you and your boss.
Everyone has to figure out how to get along with the boss—
sometimes with several bosses, because the lines of authority are
not clearly drawn in every company. Knowing how to make your
boss—or bosses—happy is what gets you noticed and promot-
ed. A good beginning is to understand and respect the boss’s
power. A few basic guidelines will help you do this:
• Call your boss what he or she prefers. Whether it’s Mr.

Jones or Jim, respect your boss’s wishes.
• Let your boss take the lead. This doesn’t mean you can’t
show initiative, just that your boss generally gets to go
first. Let your boss say what’s on his or her mind before
you say what’s on yours.
• Put your boss first in small things. If you’re on the phone
and your boss comes into your office, end the call. If
you’re chatting with a coworker—even if you’re talking
about work—and you see that your boss wants to talk to
you, cut your chat short.
• Be friendly, but don’t overdo it. Limit your exchanges to
polite conversation and work-related topics until you
know your boss well enough to know whether he or she
has any interest in having more personal conversations.
• Don’t waste your boss’s time. This is perhaps the most
important hint of all. Bosses usually are busy people; so
don’t take up their time unless you have a legitimate
business question that no one else can answer.
You’ll not only want to respect the boss but also make sure he
or she respects you. This is the key to getting interesting and
important work assignments, to say nothing of raises and more
responsibility.
Respect takes time to build, so when you’re new on a job,
remember that it won’t come immediately. In many offices, you
will encounter an invisible barrier that holds you back until your
prove yourself—or until you’re off probation. Smart bosses
know better than to get chummy with new employees before
they have proven their worth. They hold something in reserve
because they know they may have to fire that person.
For your first few months in a new job, therefore, assume that
your boss doesn’t trust you. Your boss will be watching your
work habits to see whether you arrive at work on time, whether
you’re willing to stay late when necessary, whether you’re a team
player, and how well you do your work—in short, whether
you’re the kind of employee he or she wants to keep on the team
and possibly take up through the ranks.
You need to earn a boss’s respect on two levels. The first is the
nitty-gritty everyday level, where you simply show that you are
a good worker and take your job seriously. The second is a high-
er level that will make you look like someone who should be
given added responsibilities and promotions. To earn this kind
of respect,
• Arrive on time. You might feel that it shouldn’t matter

that you arrive 10 minutes late if you do your job well,
but promptness really matters. Bosses like to walk in and
see all their employees looking ready to put in a full day’s
work. Furthermore, if the boss comes in early, it’s not a
bad idea to do the same—if you’re ambitious.
• Try arriving at work early. Apart from the edge this may
give you in doing your work, this shows genuine eager-
ness and interest and is a surefire way to impress the
boss. Coming in even 10 or 15 minutes early will make a

good impression.
• Act eager—even when you’re not. In all jobs, people have
to do tasks they don’t particularly want or like to do. If
you show a willingness to do these things, your boss will
notice and find a way to reward you.
• Complete assignments on time and with minimal fuss.
This is how you show that you are a go-getter. Do assign-
ments to the best of your ability, without making a big
show of it, and you’ll impress your boss in a big way.
• Try to take on all the work you can accomplish. Don’t
refuse tasks because they are unfamiliar or unappealing
to you. But do be wary of promising to do something you
are incapable of completing due to either time or skill
restraints. Accepting an assignment you can’t complete
won’t impress anyone.
• Take the initiative. When something comes around that
you really want to do, volunteer to do it or to work with
whoever is doing it. If you wouldn’t necessarily be con-
sidered for this assignment, arrange to sit down with
your boss for a few minutes to pitch yourself as the per-
son for the assignment.
• Leave your personal problems at home.
This last point requires a little more discussion. An employer is

primarily interested in whether you are a good worker. If you are
preoccupied with a personal problem, the boss may be empathet-
ic but also begin to worry how much this situation is going to
affect your ability to do your job. In a similar vein, if you go out
dancing every night after work and let everyone in the office know
it, the boss may start to wonder whether you are too tired to get
the job done. He or she may blame mistakes on your late night
habits, even if this is not the case. Leaving your personal life at
home will prevent it becoming a problem at your workplace.
Sometimes a personal problem becomes so overwhelming

that you cannot keep it out of the workplace. In such situations,
it’s usually better to let your boss know rather than to let him or
her notice your distraction and possibly make the wrong
assumption—that is, that you are simply goofing off. If a prob-
lem is serious enough, you may want to meet with your boss to
discuss the difficulty, but sometimes it’s a wiser move to let him
or her know in a more subtle way. If at all possible, try not to dis-
cuss personal problems until you have arrived at some solution
and can offer some assurance that your difficulties are under
control and will not affect your ability to do your job.
One of a boss’s least pleasant tasks is to give criticism, and one
of an employee’s least pleasant tasks is to accept it. It is simply
not possible that you will always do your job so perfectly that no
occasion will ever arise when you must be reprimanded by your
boss. To put criticism in its most positive light, it can help you
do your job better. If you aren’t doing something right, it’s better
to be told about it so you have a chance to remedy the situation,
rather than to continue doing it wrong, not understanding why
you’re not getting any praise.
Keep in mind that if you are not doing something right, it
reflects poorly on your boss. Therefore, it reflects doubly poorly
on your boss if he or she doesn’t straighten things out with you.
A good boss knows how to offer criticism so you feel no sting.
Unfortunately, too many bosses lack this skill. Your job is to take
criticism—in whatever form—constructively.
To make criticism to work for you, remember these points:
• Always take it seriously. Never laugh or joke when the

boss tells you that you haven’t done something correctly
or as well as you might.
• Never dismiss it or offer excuses. When a boss offers crit-
icism, he or she wants a situation to improve. Your boss
is not interested in why you think it can’t—or shouldn’t.
• Ask for examples. Criticism does you little good if you

don’t know specifically what you’re doing wrong. Always
ask for concrete examples when someone criticizes your
work.
• Offer your own examples if you can. Describe a situation
and ask your boss whether this is to what he or she is
referring. Your boss will appreciate your even-handedness.
• Ask how you can improve. This response shows remark-
able initiative, and you will impress your boss with your
maturity and willingness to take criticism constructively.
I was working as an assistant for a small, busy office when I first

graduated from college. I worked very hard, but I often felt over-
whelmed and underappreciated. My boss asked me to have
breakfast with her to talk about how I was doing. I assumed that
she was pleased with my performance. So, when she, very
uncomfortably, said she was having some problems with my
work, such as phone messages not being passed along quickly
enough or worse not at all, I was shocked. I took the criticism
very personally, and I did not mask my indignation. By not taking
the criticism maturely and working with my boss to find a good
solution, I damaged our work relationship. When I left the posi-
tion, my boss told me that I had done some excellent work and
that she was even considering me for promotion. Because I took
her constructive criticism as an attack, I blew it out of proportion
and allowed it to sour my work experience instead of using it to
improve my performance.
—J EFF, SOCIAL WORKER
The worst criticism is criticism that is offered publicly; even

when it’s mild, it feels like humiliation. The best bosses are
either extremely tactful about issuing criticism in public or offer
it only in private. There is one situation where your boss is
entitled to criticize you publicly: when your mistake makes him

or her look bad. Even when it’s deserved, public criticism still
stings at least twice as much as private criticism. Even so, these
tips might make it a little bit easier to handle:
• Stay polite. Don’t snap back at your boss or in any way

make him or her look bad. Apologize, and explain how
you’ll correct the problem, if possible, and that’s it.
• Keep your cool. Getting emotional won’t go over well.
Your quivering chin won’t win you any lasting sympathy
from the boss, even if it wins you a few immediate allies
among others in the room. If you have a good cry later,
don’t do it in front of anyone.
• Say as little as possible. Sputtering excuses or offering a
long-winded explanation of what you’ll do to fix the sit-
uation only makes matters worse. Briefly respond if a
response is called for, and leave it at that. Or, offer your
boss an explanation later in private if he or she is inter-
ested. As a general rule of thumb, the faster you get
through a bout of public criticism, the better you and
your boss will feel.
TEAMWORK
The one-on-one relationship of boss and employee can be com-

plicated and knowing business etiquette will help you make the
most of your situation. However, in today’s business world,
many companies are placing less emphasis on the one-on-one,
hierarchical relationship between bosses and their employees,
and are more focused on building teamwork and collaboration
among groups of employees. Knowing how to work well within
a team can be great asset in the modern business environment.
TEAM ROLES
Understanding the different roles that team members play

can help you maneuver to your best advantage in a team envi-
ronment. By knowing about team member roles you can have a
positive impact on your team; you can curb the troublemakers
and encourage the builders. Knowing what roles can be healthy
for a team and what roles can be destructive will help you find
roles that you are comfortable in and that help build the team.
Task champions take on task-oriented, team building roles.
They get the job done, while reinforcing unity by focusing on
the team’s mission. There are many different types of task cham-
pions. The following list describes each type.
• The initiator proposes new ideas to accomplish tasks,

and is good at starting the problem-solving process if the
problem being addressed is task-oriented and can be
overcome by doing something.
• The investigator always seeks the facts, will ask ques-
tions of everyone in order to uncover hidden clues, miss-
ing pieces of information, and like a good investigator,
will remain objective or neutral throughout the ques-
tioning, reserving judgment for a committee or for some-
one else.
• The pawn, like the pawn in the game of chess, is always
willing to pave the way so tasks can be accomplished.
Members in the role of pawn don’t have to be the most
skilled in the task at hand, yet they are the first to jump
in and start doing, once the initiator breaks the ice.
• The synthesizer waits until many ideas are being dis-
cussed and then organizes the ideas into a coherent, uni-
fied solution. Synthesizers summarize the current ideas
and then draw conclusions based on a little of this idea
and a little of that idea.
• The producer puts the requisite energy and effort into

accomplishing the tasks at hand. Every team member
should be able to slide into the role of producer at one
point or another. When tasks involve everyone pitching
in to get the job done, producers go to work to get the job
done.
Social champions take on social or emotional team building

roles. They help task champions get the job done by strengthen-
ing the unity of the team through supportive and reinforcing
behavior. The following list describes the various types of social
champions.
• The supporter encourages ideas by making members feel

good about participating. Supporters often praise ideas
and build commitment to the team through positive
reinforcement.
• The facilitator convinces other members to join the dis-
cussion. Facilitators will draw out ideas from members
who may not offer their suggestions on their own. They
get everyone talking.
• The peacemaker reconciles conflict and builds areas of
agreement between members who are not seeing eye-to-
eye. Peacemakers will take heated discussions and
reword or reformulate the argument to draw parallels
and make connections so the parties work together
towards a solution instead of against each other.
• The “norm”inator confronts members who act outside of
the team’s accepted norms. Norminators, or “Norm Police,”
attack and destroy undesirable behavior by pointing it out
in front of the group and threatening to take action to pun-
ish the members who display such behavior.
• The compromiser agrees with others and even shifts
his/her own opinion to agree with the consensus in order
to maintain unity within the group. A group that has too

many compromisers operates with very little tension but
makes sub-optimal decisions due to a general lack of dif-
ferences of opinion. However, a few compromisers in a
team can make for smoother discussions and can serve to
ease tension.
• The counselor monitors the collective behavior of the
team’s members and makes recommendations to help
keep the social atmosphere positive. The counselor will
address issues that affect the dynamics of the group,
keeping a keen focus on such elements as cohesiveness,
cooperation, commitment, and motivation, whether or
not they affect the task at hand.
Not all team member roles are positive. Task inhibitors exhib-
it task-oriented, team-subverting roles. They can act against
their teammates in many ways: some openly exhibit behavior
that stifles unity and teamwork, while others subtly stir up dis-
content. The following list describes several task inhibitor roles.
• The dominator takes over the lead in a discussion

regardless of whether he is qualified to lead. Dominators
rarely seek other opinions or invite others to participate
and they monopolize discussion even when other mem-
bers try to contribute.
• The naysayer stops progress right in its tracks by subtly
or overtly shooting down the team’s ideas.
• The detractor criticizes every plan or idea. Detractors
find fault with everything.
• The free rider doesn’t do any work and is never pre-
pared. Often free riders can keep their position on a team
because they defend the odd ideas and win a few sup-
porters along the way.
• The digresser always takes the conversation somewhere
else. Whether caused by a short attention span, a lack of

focus, or an inability to connect one idea to another, the
digresser will almost always take the focus of the group
away from the task at hand.
Social malcontents take on social or emotional team-subvert-

ing roles. Their behavior hinders group cohesion because they
undermine the team building activities and the focus on positive
attitudes by attacking members’ ideas and making the attacks
personal. Social malcontents can take on several roles.
• The instigator is always on the attack, not so much on

other’s ideas, but on them personally. Instigators have to
start fights, even if they are not involved in the fight.
• The labeler has to put a label on everybody, even if the
label doesn’t apply. Some members, in order to avoid real
communication or having to deal with their own emo-
tions, will put labels on other members. As you know,
once labels and stereotypes are used, the communication
process can be altered and the dynamics of the team cer-
tainly suffer.
• The schmoozer loves to make members feel comfortable
just for the sake of being their temporary friend. They
are part of the team to be in the social environment and
often couldn’t care less about the tasks that need to be
accomplished.
Of course, one person on a team may take on several of these

roles. Maybe your team initiator is also a facilitator. Or maybe
your team supporter is also a bit of a schmoozer. As a team
member you should encourage your colleagues to adopt the pos-
itive team roles so that your team can be its most effective.
C O M M U N I C AT I N G E F F E C T I V E LY IN TEAMS
In order for teams to be effective and cohesive units, working

together towards a common goal, open communication has to
be valued by every member. Members should feel free to say
what they mean, and mean what they say. Successful teams
encourage feedback and their members share emotions in a pro-
fessional and constructive manner.
Creating a team atmosphere where communication is open
and free-flowing requires both trust and respect. When levels of
trust and respect for each other are high, the resulting openness
in communications can foster creativity and lead a team to high
performance and unity.
While most business communications should limit the inclu-
sion of emotions and personal feelings, it is almost impossible to
limit such factors in a team environment. Communications
among team members will almost always include emotionally
charged language based on personal feelings and not objective
viewpoints. Team members should be aware of the difference
between objective viewpoints and subjective feelings. Once they
are aware of the difference, expressing emotions can be an effec-
tive team-building tool.
Another important and often emotionally charged aspect of
team communication is feedback. Feedback is essential to effec-
tive teamwork. It is the tool that lets members communicate to
each other about performance, behaviors, and attitudes. Since
feedback can be emotionally charged, teams need to actively
manage feedback and keep it constructive.
Team members should be aware of the important role feed-
back can play in the growth of the team, and constructive feed-
back should be encouraged and accepted by all members.
Feedback should be used for positive reinforcement, not just to
point out areas of concern or problems. Positive feedback will
not only give energy and higher self-esteem to those who receive
it, it will also serve to legitimize the negative feedback.
Assertive communication is another important tool in team
communication. Not to be confused with aggressive behavior,
assertive behavior implies that you respect the same rights of
others to assert their point of view and express their opinions
and emotions. Aggressive communicators don’t care about the
feelings or rights of others; they just want to get their point
across and will do so at any cost.
Assertive communicators respect the rights of others to
express their feelings, opinions, needs, and desires and their
right to seek change in other’s behavior if it is deemed destruc-
tive. Their comments and criticism are confined to behaviors
and attitudes and are not made as attacks on the individual. The
following steps will help you to develop your skills as an
assertive communicator.
1. Give facts and use concrete examples when asserting

your point of view. Describe situations with specific,
objective details.
2. Express your feelings in a friendly and professional
manner. When expressing a situation relate your feel-
ings about that situation by clearly announcing opin-
ions, emotions, needs, and desires as you own.
3. Always invite feedback from your team members. Your
team members have a right to give their feedback to
correct information and include their feelings, opin-
ions, needs, and desires.
4. When seeking change in others’ behavior, clearly
describe the behavior that you would like to see. Also
describe the benefits that the team will enjoy if the
behavior is changed.
5. Accept that your own behavior may need adjusting.
When your own behavior has not been effective or has
drawn criticism, accept responsibility and attempt to

make the necessary changes.
By following these steps to assertive communication you are

adhering to the fundamentals of communicating effectively in a
team. You are fostering trust by being clear and direct. You are
encouraging openness by being open yourself. And you are
demonstrating respect for others. All these elements add up to
an effective team that communicates with ease and maximizes
the potential of all the team members.
R E S O LV I N G T E A M C O N F L I C T
Most teams will experience conflict, but the question is

whether or not they resolve it in a positive manner. Successful
teams know that resolving conflict is the key to their success.
Teams that use effective communication techniques and are pre-
pared to deal with conflict in a professional and friendly manner
will use conflict to strengthen their unity.
One of the factors that makes a team productive and provides
for a rich experience for its members is the diversity of its mem-
bership. This diversity means that there are different personali-
ties and differing points of view on a team. Whenever you have
a group of diverse people all trying to communicate with one
another you will certainly have a few differences in opinion or
clashing views. These differences often result in an argument,
and when arguments escalate, they result in conflict.
Other factors that cause members to argue and can lead to
conflict include: stress; unclear objectives, responsibilities, or
procedures; miscommunication; external anger or unmet needs
being projected onto the team; inappropriate emotions; uncer-
tainty about the future of the job or the team; competing
personal needs; or poor leadership.
Teams need to avoid escalating conflict, not conflict itself.

Instead of trying to avoid conflict, teams should instead prepare
for handling it in a positive way, because conflict can help a team
grow by strengthening the communication skills of their mem-
bers and helping build team unity.
The best way to prepare a team for handling conflict in a pos-
itive manner is to train the members in constructive feedback
practices and assertive communication techniques. Prevention is
the best cure in this case, because if a team is prepared to deal
with differing opinions and arguments by using constructive
feedback and/or assertive communication techniques then the
chances are relatively high that conflict will not escalate.
When it becomes apparent that conflict has set in, it is very
important to take action right away. The team should work
together to resolve the conflict. The following guidelines will
help you resolve conflict within your team in a professional and
constructive manner.
1. Acknowledge that conflict exists and make it a team

issue.
2. Identify the core issues. Separate the emotional issues
from the core issues. Once the emotional issues are
identified and dealt with, then the core issues need to
be defined and resolved.
3. Moderate the discussion. Team members should trans-
late what the members involved in the conflict are saying
so that those members can hear what they are saying, but
without the emotional attachment.
4. Explore compromise and reconciliation. Facilitate an
understanding between the parties. They may not
agree with each other, but the team should be able to
get them to accept and understand each other’s views.
5. Agree on a solution. Seek agreement from both parties
and the rest of the team for a solution that allows both
parties to feel as if they have reconciled their differ-

ences, making sure that the team’s goals have been the
top priority. While the above steps are for the team,
the following tips are for the individual members
involved in the conflict.
a. Relax and focus on being calm and rational.
b. Be empathetic. The other person has a legitimate
point of view, so if you can think of what the other
person is trying to accomplish you will be better at
approaching what you want, particularly as it com-
pares to what they want.
c. Use active listening skills. Give the speaker your full
attention and respect. Maintain eye contact and
keep a positive posture. Pay attention to nonverbal
cues from the other party involved in the conflict
and your teammates, as well your own. Use verbal
affirmations, ask questions, paraphrase, and reflect
the implications. Control your emotions during the
discussion, don’t interrupt other speakers, and hold
off on rebutting until you have heard the whole
argument of the other side.
d. Defer to the group. The conflict may be between
you and another individual, but the issue is a team
issue and the team should be in charge of the reso-
lution process. Cooperate with the team’s recom-
mendations for reconciliation.
When team members are encouraged to adopt positive roles

and when a team communicates effectively, conflict resolution
can be a team building experience. And when all these factors
are in place, working as part of a team can be one of the great
rewards of working in the modern business environment.
LEADERSHIP
Many of the principles you’ve learned about working successfully

with your boss or within a team also apply to being an effective
leader. Trust, respect, and good communication will help you lead
the people beneath you or your colleagues with strength and
grace. The best managers use a light hand. Their goal is to get the
work done as efficiently as possible. Tact is a necessary ingredient
for any manager. There are many ways to be tactful to someone
who works for you:
• Use praise to motivate. People respond to honest compli-

ments.
• Criticize in private. Offering criticism behind closed
doors is a good way to maintain the person’s dignity and
avoid provoking their resentment.
• Set a good example. Nothing is more galling than a man-
ager who tells others what to do while failing to pull his
or her own weight. If others see that you work as hard as
they do, you will find you have crossed a big hurdle in
getting them to work hard for you.
• Soften your language. Rather than issuing commands,
suggest, “You may want to do it this way” or “Have you
thought about this approach?”
• Take subordinates into your confidence when you can.
This doesn’t mean that you have to share your every
thought or confidential company information with them.
Your goal is to tell people enough about company goals to
motivate them.
Being tactful is important in any leadership situation. It

will almost always get the best results. However, if you are
the boss your employees will do the job you tell them to
do—sometimes grudgingly, as anyone who has ever had a

tactless boss can attest. If on the other hand you are a team
leader, either appointed or due to your initiative, tactful
leadership skills are especially important.
TEAM LEADERSHIP
Team leaders need to guide their teams to the point where the
members can work cohesively together to accomplish shared
goals. Since most workplace teams are set up for a purpose, it is
the leader’s ultimate responsibility to make sure that the team’s
purpose is realized.
In order for people to be effective team leaders, they should
possess certain traits. They should be:
• Driven. They need to achieve, their energy level is always

high, and their initiative is strong.
• Motivated by leadership. They inherently seek to empow-
er others to help them reach personal and team goals.
• Confident. They know that they don’t know everything
and they trust their ability to get the best out of others.
• Open. They share information on a professional and per-
sonal level. They are honest, trustworthy, and work with
a high level of integrity.
• Intelligent. They integrate and interpret large amounts of
information and facilitate problem-solving and decision-
making activities.
• Original. They use their creativity and flexibility to adapt
to many different situations and to fulfill multiple
requirements.
• Visionary. They can look ahead and envision what the
team should be like and do the right things along the way
to get it there.
Team leaders take on many roles within their teams. Teams

get more productive as their members work with each other and
become a unit. During a team’s development, the ultimate job of
a team leader is to help the team along the path towards cohe-
sion and production.
In the early stages of team development a team leader will
take active leadership roles, directing members through exercis-
es for the first time and demonstrating positive roles by leading
discussions and problem-solving and decision-making tasks. A
team leader should work very hard in the early stages of team
development to make sure that the team’s members all partici-
pate in establishing the goals of the team. As the team moves
through the early stages of development, the leader will work
with individual members to make sure they are comfortable and
confident in their own roles and that their roles serve the goals
of the team. The leader will also serve the norminator role, act-
ing as the watchdog to protect team norms.
As the team advances into more mature stages of develop-
ment, the team leader will take passive leadership roles, coach-
ing members through exercises and facilitating discussions and
decision-making and problem-solving tasks instead of leading
them. Once a team advances through the different stages of
development and becomes a cohesive unit that can realize its
goals without the active help of its leader, the leader serves as a
consultant or an advisor. As either a consultant or advisor, the
team leader is present for any help the team may seek, but offers
very little in terms of proactive advice or direction.
In the first month at a new job, I was invited to present my ideas

about the direction of the organization I was hired to lead at a
meeting of the board of directors. I wanted to make a good
impression, so I worked hard on my presentation. I made sure my
comments were comprehensive and I had all the bases covered.

On the day of the meeting I was full of enthusiasm, and I thought
my presentation went really well. But when I asked for questions,
comments, or suggestions, the silence was stunning. After the
meeting I asked one of my new colleagues what she thought of
my presentation. She told me that everyone thought it was great,
but I had done such a thorough job that it was clear I didn’t need
anybody’s contribution. The group had come in as a team, and in
my enthusiasm to impress them I didn’t allow them to work as a
team. I’ve since learned that I can’t possibly have all the answers
and that the vitality of any organization comes from the synergy
of ideas and viewpoints—and I now know to let that happen.
—H ERBERT, DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC R ELATIONS
Team leaders use a soft approach in order to ensure social

growth and team cohesion. They must, themselves, demonstrate
these behaviors, as well as teach them to their group. Team lead-
ers need to communicate well. They are the role models, and
members frequently imitate their behavior. When team leaders
communicate, they always use active listening skills and make
effective use of constructive feedback. Since all teams go
through periods marked by conflict, it is up to the team leader
to take charge and make sure the team goes through the proper
channels to resolve conflict in a constructive and lasting manner.
Team leaders need to use effective group problem-solving
techniques. Solving problems using critical thinking skills is
important for team leaders, who must not only solve problems
on their own but must also help team members solve individual
problems and group problems. Teams can be very successful
solving problems and evaluating opportunities if all members are
given the chance to participate and the proper techniques are
used to ensure quality decisions. It is the team leader’s responsi-
bility to implement effective team problem-solving techniques.
Without trust a team will never reach a state of cohesion. At

the very nature of collaboration and teamwork lies trust. A team
leader has to build trust between herself and the members, as
well as between the members. Setting up open communication
channels and using continuous objective feedback can help a
team leader foster trust within the team.
Sharing and building trust go hand in hand in creating an atmos-
phere where communication is open and team experiences are rich.
Team leaders have to share information, power, praise, and respon-
sibilities in order to facilitate the growth of the team. As a role
model, the team leader who hides or guards information will not
motivate his team.
Being a team leader is excellent management training. All the
leadership roles and skills discussed above can be readily applied
to managing employees. After all, a company is really a team of
employees with a shared goal.
SUMMARY
Getting along at work involves following the principles of etiquette,

such as wearing appropriate attire and keeping office relationships,
both friendships and romances, discreet. Being mindful of etiquette
can make a big difference in how you succeed at work.
The most important aspect of getting along at work is how
you handle your professional relationships, and earning your
boss’s respect is essential to a good employee/boss relationship.
Respecting your boss’s authority is an important way to earn his
or her respect. Teamwork is an increasingly significant aspect of
the modern workplace. Understanding the roles that team mem-
bers play, and encouraging the positive roles, can make teamwork
exciting and rewarding.
Good leadership skills are also vital to getting along at work.

Understanding how to effectively motivate your employees with
positive feedback, good communication, and tact will make you
a leader who earns respect and gets work accomplished. Being a
team leader can require even more diplomacy than being a boss,
because you can only encourage, rather than dictate, coopera-
tion. Understanding how the team leader’s role changes as a
team develops can help you lead your team to success.
C HAPTE R 6
GETTING AHEAD AT WORK
You have the skills you need to excel at your job. You’re orga-
nized, you communicate effectively, you can research your way out
of any problem, and you understand how to work well with oth-
ers to your advantage. Now you’re ready to take your career to the
next level.
There are two important skills that will help you move ahead:
problem solving and networking. Finding creative solutions to
everyday problems and knowing how to implement them is a skill
that gets you noticed. Making connections with the influential
people in your workplace and in your field will put you in touch
with opportunities that will help you advance. Once you’ve put
yourself in a position to move ahead, you’ll need to know how to
make the move, either within your company or outside.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Effective problem solvers go places. Their ability to handle diffi-

cult situations, to somehow avoid disaster and make things right
again, makes them extremely valuable in the workplace.
In order to become an effective problem solver you must first
understand what a problem is. A problem is an undesirable situation
that is difficult to change. Problems are best expressed in a two-
part problem statement that describes the current situation and
asks how a specific, desired goal can be reached. The solution is
the mechanism employed to change the current situation to the
desired situation. How do you get from problem to solution?
First you have to define the problem and set goals.
DEFINING THE PROBLEM AND SETTI NG GOALS
It’s one thing to know that there’s a problem. It’s another thing
altogether to be able to identify exactly what the problem is. All
too often we fail to solve our problems because we come up with
a solution for the wrong problem. The key to accurately stating
the existing problem is twofold: first, make sure your problem
statement is a statement of fact, not opinion; and, second, make
sure your problem statement is manageable.
I was responsible for sending out a mass advertising mailing. I

had hired a temp to stuff, address, seal, and put postage on the
envelopes. After only an hour, our postage meter ran out of
money, bringing my mailing to a halt. I was horrified when I found
out it would take about five days to get more credit to the
machine, by which time it would be too late for my advertising
campaign to be of any value. I spent about an hour talking with
customer service explaining my dilemma and asking if there was
any way to rush our payment. I was almost ready to declare my
G E T TI N G A H E A D AT WORK 137
advertising campaign a disaster when I realized I was looking for

a solution to the wrong problem. I didn’t need money on our
meter so much as I needed to get my envelopes in the mail. I
quickly contacted some direct mail suppliers and had my mailing
out the door the next day. The revenue generated by the mailing
easily offset the extra cost of paying the direct mail house.
—MARY, MARKETING MANAGER
Essentially, the difference between fact and opinion is the dif-

ference between believing and knowing. Opinions may be based
on facts, but they are still what we think, not what we know.
Opinions are debatable; facts usually are not. Ask yourself, can
this statement be debated? If you can answer yes, you have an
opinion and you need to rethink your problem statement.
When your problem statements are not factual, you run the
risk of derailing your entire problem solving process. Imagine
that you have difficulties with one of your coworkers, Sam. Your
boss created work teams, and you have been assigned to group
B, and so has Sam. Now, look at the following problem state-
ments:
1. Current situation: I’ve been placed on a project team

with Sam.
Desired situation: How can I minimize my interac-
tions with Sam without jeopardizing the project or my
job?
2. Current situation: Sam is lazy.
Desired situation: How can I avoid working with him?
3. Current situation: I need to be on a different team.
Desired situation: How can I get out of this group?
Problem statement #1, of course, is the most effective of the three.

Why? Partly because its description of the current situation is fact,
simple and straightforward. In the second example, the current sit-
uation is clearly expressing an opinion, and not a particularly con-

structive one at that. Its lack of objectivity will lead to a misdirect-
ed goal and therefore a solution to the wrong problem.
The third problem statement is ineffective because it, too,
lacks objectivity. It not only expresses an opinion, it also suggests
a solution. A problem statement that suggests a solution has sev-
eral negative effects. First, your goal will be misdirected. Second,
suggesting a solution in your problem statement will severely
limit your ability to brainstorm for effective solutions.
Effective problem solvers know that problem statements must
not only be facts; they must also be focused. Focusing the prob-
lem statement makes it manageable. Your problem statement,
then, should address a specific, focused problem that you can do
something about.
Once you’ve clearly identified the problem, you need to articu-
late the desired situation. A clearly articulated goal is essential to
reaching an effective solution. It’s not enough to know that you
want to change the current situation. For effective problem solv-
ing, you need to know exactly what you want to change the cur-
rent situation to. A clearly defined goal, then, enables you to focus
your problem-solving energies on generating a solution that will
get you exactly where you want to go when you want to get there.
Whether you’re working on a problem statement or outlining
career or personal goals, there are four guidelines for effective
goal setting that you should follow:
1. Make sure your goals are specific.

2. Make sure your goals are measurable.
3. Make sure your goals are ambitious.
4. Make sure your goals are realistic.
Now that you have defined the problem, established your goals,
and created a two-part problem statement, you are ready to find
your solution.
A N A LY Z I N G THE PROBLEM
A problem will seem more manageable if you break it down

into parts. First determine the scope of the problem by asking
questions based on your problem statement. Ask a series of
who, what, when, where, and why questions based on the cur-
rent situation. You will clearly understand the scope of the prob-
lem, and seeking the answers to these questions will help you
develop an effective solution.
PRO BLEM ANALYSIS
Current situation: Customers are complaining that their products take

more than six weeks to be delivered.
Desired situation: To have products in customers’ hands in three weeks or less.
Here is a list of questions for the problem above. Note that the overarching
question here is the first one:
• Why are the products taking so long to be delivered?

• What products are being complained about? (Is it all products, or just a
certain few?)
• When did we start receiving complaints?
• How long after a customer places an order is it shipped?
• Where do orders go when they come in?
• How much is charged for shipping and handling?
• What exactly happens to an order once it is placed? What are the steps
in the order-fulfillment process?
• How are products shipped?
• Who handles the orders once they are placed?
• Who handles the shipping?
To maximize your time as you prepare to solve your problem,

take these important steps before you begin your research:
1. Eliminate any questions that are irrelevant. Make sure

each question is clearly related to the matter at hand
2. Cluster questions around related issues. Because
answers to related questions can often be found in the
same place, lumping the questions together like this
makes it easier to find the answers you’ll need to develop
an effective solution.
3. Prioritize the questions by determining the order in
which they need to be answered. Because some ques-
tions are clearly more important than others, and
because certain questions must be answered before
others can be addressed, it’s essential to rank the ques-
tions in the order in which they need to be answered.
Just as a detective needs to find the facts regarding the crime

in order to solve it, problem solvers need to find the facts behind
the current situation in order to change it. Before you begin
brainstorming a solution, then, it’s crucial that you do your
homework and find the answers to all those questions you ask
when breaking the problem into its parts. As you do your
research, keep the following strategies in mind:
1. Keep accurate records. As you find answers to your

questions, be sure to accurately record those answers.
2. Consider levels of causation. Don’t make the mistake
of assuming that there’s only one cause to your prob-
lem. There could be a series of cause and effect rela-
tionships that led to the current situation. Or there
could be two or more factors working together to cause
your problem.
3. Keep asking questions. The most diligent problem

solvers—those who keep asking questions—develop
the most effective solutions.
Once you’ve answered your questions and gathered all the rel-
evant facts, it’s time to summarize the problem so that you can
begin working on your solution. To summarize, simply restate
the current situation and the desired solution, and then list the
key facts that you discovered in your research.
D E V E L O P I N G Y O U R P R O B L E M - S O LV I N G D I S P O S I T I O N
The most important tool for brainstorming a solution to your

problem is a problem solving disposition. What is a problem
solving disposition? It means having the right attitude, rekin-
dling your curiosity, being open to different perspectives, and
igniting your creativity.
The right attitude for problem solving is a positive attitude,
which opens up your outlook, prepares you to expect good
things, frees your creative energies, and leads you to success. You
can maintain a positive attitude if you follow these steps:
1. Face reality. Acknowledge the problem and acknowl-

edge your power to change it.
2. Embrace challenges. Don’t shy away from a problem
because you are afraid to fail. Remember, problems are
opportunities to learn and to develop your skills.
3. Trust your intuition. Don’t suppress your gut feelings;
you’ll be surprised how often they’re right.
4. Be patient. Take one step at a time.
You can rekindle your curiosity by tuning into your sur-

roundings. You can’t be curious about something you haven’t
noticed. Paying attention to the world around you will lead you
to ask questions. A habit of looking carefully will enable you to
see things others don’t and asking questions is the first step to
finding answers.
The ability to see situations from various points of view is
essential for effective problem solving. Looking at a situation
from other points of view not only expands your understanding
of the problem; it also increases your ability to empathize with
others. When you understand that problems affect different
people in different ways, and you actively imagine the situation
from those different points of view, you develop a much clearer
understanding of the scope of the problem and are much more
likely to come up with a solution that is not only effective, but
considerate and fair.
We might all be able to solve a simple problem, but a creative
person will be able to develop a solution that is unique (and
uniquely effective) because he or she has the ability to “see”
things differently. Instead of simply taking the standard
approach to problems, instead of accepting the standard notions
of boundaries and limits, creative people reach out beyond the
“normal” modes of thinking to see the problem or situation in a
new way. The good news is that you can develop your creativity.
We all have the capacity to be extremely creative, but many of us
bury our creative energies under layers of fear. We’re often afraid
to share our ideas because we’re afraid that we’ll be ridiculed or
misunderstood.
Creativity is like a muscle. If it’s not exercised regularly, it will
atrophy. That’s why an active sense of curiosity and an ability to
see things from various points of view are so important to cre-
ativity. They do for creativity what daily stretching does for the
body: they keep you limber, ready to run with a new idea, make
new connections, and see things in an exciting and innovative
way. Another important step to building your creativity muscle

is to let go of your fear. So open your eyes, be curious and open
to new ideas, and then let yourself be creative. Don’t hold back
and you’ll be surprised how creative you can be!
FINDING A SOLUTION
Now you’re in a problem-solving frame of mind, it’s time to

find a solution to your problem. Brainstorming—unrestrained
idea production—is the place to begin. When you brainstorm,
your aim is to come up with as many ideas as possible in a short
period of time. There’s only one rule in brainstorming: anything
goes. All ideas count, no matter how ridiculous they may seem.
So don’t censor, don’t criticize; don’t worry if something seems
outlandish or absurd. It’s an idea, and it may lead to another idea
that may not be so ridiculous after all—it might, in fact, be the
perfect solution.
Here are four effective brainstorming techniques:
1. Listing. Simply, this means creating a list of your ideas.

2. Mapping. A map is a visual way of getting your ideas
on paper. To create a map: put the desired solution a
circle in the middle of the page, and put your ideas in
circles that connect to the desired solution. If one idea
leads to another, draw another circle that’s connected
to the first idea. This strategy helps you to cluster your
ideas.
3. Drawing connections. This is an important aspect of
mapping. Think of as many connections between your
ideas as you can. You never know where your connec-
tions might lead.
4. Out-of-the-box thinking. Also known as a paradigm
shift. Paradigms are the major beliefs that shape our
perceptions, like a frame though which you see the

world. Creating a paradigm shift helps you break open
that frame and think about your problem is a less lim-
ited way. Change one of the three key elements of the
problem (even if it makes the situation absurd): the
current situation, the desired situation, or the facts of
the situation. It will help you think about your problem
in a new way.
E V A L U AT I N G Y O U R S O L U T I O N
So you’ve brainstormed a number of possible solutions. How

do you find the right one? Here are two effective strategies.
1. Simply rank the solutions in order of best to worst.

Rank the solutions according to different criteria—for
example, easiest to implement, most far-reaching,
cheapest, quickest—and see which solution has the
best overall ranking. Creating a table is good way to
visualize various criteria.
2. Consider the pros and cons. List the pros and cons of
each solution and determine which one has the most
pros and the least cons.
It is important to avoid some common errors in reasoning

when you evaluate your solutions. First, beware of appeals to
your emotions. Emotional appeals can cloud your judgment. For
example, flattery, scare tactics (warnings that are not based on
logic or reason), peer pressure, or pity can lead you to choose
one solution over another, more effective solution. This is an
error in reasoning.
Some other errors in reasoning are slippery slope, false dilem-
ma, circular reasoning, and non sequitur. The slippery slope fal-
lacy assumes that if X happens, then Y will follow—when X

isn’t likely to lead to Y. A false dilemma poses only two choices
when there are really many choices in between. Circular reason-
ing occurs when a statement and the support for that statement
say the same thing. Finally, a non sequitur draws a faulty con-
clusion through a leap in logic by assuming that Y will happen
just because X is the case. Check your solution for these com-
mon errors in logic before you proceed.
IM PLEM ENTING AND P R E S E NTI N G YO U R S O LUTI O N
Now that you have found the best solution and checked to
make sure your reasoning is sound, you are ready to implement
your solution. Create an action plan. There are six steps to cre-
ating an effective action plan:
1. Break the solution down into tasks to be accom-

plished.
2. Determine the order in which those tasks must be
completed.
3. Determine who will handle each task.
4. Determine how long each task will take and how much
it will cost.
5. Set specific start and end dates for each task.
6. Develop back-up plans—especially for those tasks that
depend on outside factors, such as a delivery or
approval from another person.
When you have created your action plan you are ready to pre-
sent your solution. Unless you are your own boss, you will usu-
ally have to get support—either in terms of time, money, people,
or approval—for your solution. Here are some methods to help
you present your solution so that you get the support you need.
1. Consider your audience. Think about what your audi-

ence knows about the subject, what misconceptions
they might have, what their perspective might be, and
what type of solutions they might be expecting.
2. Clearly define the problem. Take your audience
through your problem-solving process.
3. Summarize the scope of the problem and the key facts.
4. Present your solution. Describe your solution and
explain the evaluation and decision-making process.
Then describe your implementation plan.
5. Anticipate objections. Carefully considering your audi-
ence’s concerns will show that you have really thought
carefully about the problem.
As you can see, problem solving is a thoughtful and creative

process that requires planning and good communication skills.
Employees who are able to solve problems demonstrate these critical
skills as well as provide a vital function. Problems arise every day
in the business world, and if you are able to tackle problems
creatively and effectively you will be a valued employee who is
ready for promotion.
NETWORKING
Networking is another important means of getting ahead at

work.
W H AT I S N E T W O R K I N G ?
In its basic form, a network is the people that you know and
the people that they know. Think of it as a web, with strands
connecting people who know each other. These connections

criss-cross and form an interwoven, interdependent structure.
Networking is being able to locate a person within this web who
can help you in a particular situation, with the understanding
that that person may someday call on you for help.
Some people are natural networkers. They keep up contacts,
strike up conversations with new people easily, and are curious
about other people’s interests—without even thinking about it.
Some people have to overcome shyness, lack of self-confidence,
and disinterest in people they don’t know in order to work on
their network. In either case having a strong network offers
great benefits.
Networking will make your career more successful and your
life easier. It also does the following:
• Gives you access to people you want to know. Did you

ever wish you could meet somebody but didn’t know
how to do it? When your network is in place, you should
be able to find somebody who knows somebody who
knows the person you want to meet.
• Keeps you in touch when you’re out of the mainstream.
Keeping up with your network during times of transition
is critical, because these people provide support and
encouragement.
• Lets you help others. As you get involved with network-
ing, you’ll quickly learn that it’s a two-way street. You’ll
also learn that the benefits of helping someone can be as
great as receiving help.
• Allows you to pursue your interests and develop new
ones. Networking gives you access to people who know
about all kinds of things, from auto racing to Chinese
history.
HOW TO B U I L D YO U R N ET WO R K
Before you panic about building a network from scratch, it’s

important to realize that parts of your network are already in
place.
Your core network includes your immediate family, close
friends, and relatives. Your expanded network includes people
that you know casually such as friends of friends, friends of your
family, former coworkers, people you know from activities, and
people you know from your neighborhood and businesses.
Begin building your network by listing all the people in your
core network and then all the people in your extended network.
You’ll be surprised by how many people you know. Of course some
people on your list will be more useful than others. If you work in
computer programming, your rock-climbing instructor might not
be as useful to you as if you worked in sporting goods. But don’t
rule people out; you might discover that your rock climbing
instructor’s husband owns a small computer-consulting firm.
When you are actively building your network it is important
to be organized and prepared. Be sure to keep your list of con-
tacts in a place that is easy to access and update. Some common
tools are an address book, a paper Rolodex, an electronic orga-
nizer, or an address file on your computer. A business card is a
must for networking. If you don’t have one through your current
job, you can easily and fairly inexpensively have some printed.
Some truly indispensable tools for networking—that you can’t
buy but that you have within you—sincerity, a strong hand-
shake, a ready smile, and a good dose of persistence.
Your network is something that you build all the time. Always
be open to the possibility that someone you know or meet might
be a useful connection, or that you might be of use to that per-
son. But sometimes you will make use of your network more
actively, especially when you are ready to advance your career.
There’s no substitute for a good mentor when it comes to getting ahead.

A mentor is someone who takes an interest in your career and who is in
a position to help you avoid the pitfalls and take advantage of opportu-
nities. The sooner you are able to find someone with whom you have a
good rapport who is willing to serve as your advisor the better.
First, don’t confuse the word “use” with “exploit.” A network is

a two-way street, not an opportunity to take advantage of a rela-
tionship. Think about what the people in your network can do
for you, and offer your help whenever you can be of assistance.
When you want to ask someone in your network for help keep
the following hints in mind:
• Don’t be afraid to ask for help. Remember most people

are happy to give advice and share their knowledge.
• If someone refuses to help, don’t take it personally, and
don’t write that person off for future networking. Their
reason for not helping probably has nothing to do with
you.
• Prepare carefully when you approach someone for his or
her help.
• Be direct when you ask for help.
• Meeting in person is better than talking over the phone,
which in turn is better than e-mailing. Try to meet face-
to-face whenever you can.
• Dress neatly. Not only will you make a good impression
but also you will show the person that you take them and
the time they are giving you seriously.
• Be yourself.
Building a network also means maintaining it. You can’t

expect to make contact once and have the person remember you.
It’s up to you to stay in touch with a renewed connection. Look

for interesting ways to keep in touch with people: for example,
sending an acquaintance an article that will be of special interest
to him or her. Be positive and upbeat when you interact with
your contacts. Always let a contact know if a tip or a reference
they gave you resulted in a job. And, of course, always thank
people for the time or advice they have offered.
When I graduated from college, I thought networking meant call-

ing up people I didn’t know and asking them for job leads and
career advice. I found the whole process really difficult, and one
that I wanted to quickly put behind me. As my career has pro-
gressed I’ve realized that networking should be something you
do all the time, not just when you’re specifically looking for career
information. A thriving up-to-date network is the kind of thing
that snowballs. When people know that you keep a database of
contacts—a Rolodex, Filofax, or PDA—they start asking you for
information or giving you information, then one name leads to
another, and so on. I don’t wait until I need to contact someone
for a lead; I just keep in touch with people and good things gen-
erally happen.
—CHRIS, ACCOUNT MANAGER
Maintaining a good network is not only helpful when looking

for a new job, it also makes you a more desirable employee. If
you have a strong network you may be able to recommend a can-
didate for an open position in your company. Or, perhaps you’ve
been recruited to help plan the company holiday party and your
network just happens to include your college roommate who
runs a wonderful catering business. Using your network at work
not only makes you look good, but also helps the people in your
network.
MOVING UP
Of course, the most obvious use of a network is when you are

searching for a new job. We’ll discuss looking for opportunities
outside your company later. First, let’s talk about getting your-
self promoted.
M OVI NG U P WITHIN Y O U R C O M PA N Y
Of course, the best way to get yourself promoted is to follow

the steps we’ve covered so far. Make yourself the best employee
you can be and you will most likely be rewarded for your hard
work. Sometimes, however, a position will open up that you are
not offered—even though you might think you are perfect for
the job. In this case, you may want to ask for a promotion.
Employees rarely ask for promotions for the simple reason
that most bosses like to choose whom to promote and when.
This doesn’t mean you can’t ask for a promotion, and get one.
Prepare your promotion pitch as carefully as you would any
important presentation. Here are some hints on how to go
about presenting yourself for advancement:
• Make your case. Never ask for a promotion without

doing your homework first. Review what skills you’ve
learned and tasks you’ve accomplished in your current
job that have prepared you for the promotion. Learn as
much as you can about the duties of the job you asking
for so you can accurately explain why you are a strong
candidate. Rehearse what you’re going to say.
• Show off your accomplishments. Begin by describing
what you have accomplished in your current position.
Even if your boss knows all this, take a minute or two to
review the facts. It will set the stage for your request.
• Justify your ability to do the job. Explain how you will be
able to meet the requirements of the new position, and
demonstrate that you know what the new job entails.
• Have someone in mind who can take over your old job.
Perhaps someone you’ve been working with is also ready
for a promotion. Or perhaps there’s someone in your net-
work who would be perfect to fill your shoes.
• Don’t be presumptuous. Don’t claim that you’re the best
person for the job; you may only remind the boss that you’re
not the most obvious candidate. Similarly, don’t criticize the
other candidates; you don’t want to appear to be questioning
your boss’s judgment.
• Leave the door open for future negotiations. If your boss
says that she doesn’t think this position is right for you,
let her know that you respect her judgment and that you
hope she will consider you for advancement in the future.
You may also want to ask her what will help you become
more promotable.
LO O K I N G FOR A NEW JOB
If you’ve explored the opportunities for advancement in your

company and have decided that it is time for you to move on,
you will be faced with the difficult task of looking for a job while
you are still working.
The first step in any job search is to write a new resume. A
resume is a sales tool. It describes your talents and work skills in
the very best possible light to prospective employers.
A good resume, above all else, does not waste the reader’s
time. It is well written and organized logically, so that the infor-
mation is easy to read. In fact, one of the purposes of a resume
is to show that you can organize your thoughts and present
them clearly in writing. State what you’ve done in very positive

terms, but don’t exaggerate or embellish your accomplishments
or responsibilities. Your resume also has to be easy to read and
look good on the page.
The heading of your resume should list information about
how to reach you. Give your home address, and include tele-
phone and/or fax numbers and an e-mail address that are not at
work. No mode of communication is secure at work, and if you
use one, you run the risk of having your job-hunting efforts
revealed prematurely.
The job objective is in some ways the most important part of
your resume. Spend considerable time working on it. The job
objective sets the tone for the kind of job you want. Emphasize
responsibilities and skills that you enjoy, and play down—or
omit—those that you don’t. Similarly, if you have a skill that is
particularly desirable, say so here.
You may also use the job objective to set your sights high—
to skip a job level, for example, if you can reasonably expect to
do this in your next job. If you don’t aim a little higher than your
present position, you may well find yourself fielding offers for
jobs similar to the one you have or only slightly better. On the
other hand, it is never wise to appear too grandiose in your job
objective.
List your previous employment in concrete terms. For each
job held, prospective employers will want to know who
employed you, where the company was located, what your job
title was, and how long you worked there. Also describe your
areas of responsibility at each job; for this you can—and perhaps
should—use a little creativity. You should never lie about what
you have done, but you should make yourself look as good as you
possibly can when you describe how you did your past jobs.
Try to be as careful and accurate in describing your education
as you were in listing your past work experiences. Begin with the
most recent school you attended and progress backward.
Generally, you need not list any education prior to college, or

high school if a high school diploma is your highest degree. For
each entry, list the name of the school, the year you graduated,
your course of study, and the degree or certificate you were
awarded (if applicable). Night school and any professional
courses or seminars should be listed here as well.
Even though it is a given that you will furnish references any
time you are asked to do so, most resumes still contain a line
about this anyway, such as “Reference available upon request.”
Never list the names of your references on your resume.
You may also decide to add one or more additional sections to
your resume. If you have military experience, for example, this
should be listed separately. List the branch of the armed forces,
the dates of service, any special training you received, and the
fact that you got an honorable discharge—if you did. If you got
another kind of discharge, it is usually better not to mention this
on your resume, and then to discuss it, if it comes up, during a
job interview.
You should never state salary requirements on a resume or, for
that matter, in a cover letter—even though some job advertise-
ments request this information. Salary is something to negoti-
ate, and it is too important and possibly too flexible to be put
into writing like this. Try to discuss this topic in person.
However, if you feel you must address salary requirements in
order to get a response to an ad, do this in your cover letter.
You should always send out a resume accompanied by a cover
letter. Even if you know the person to whom you are sending
your resume, and even if that person has requested that you
send it, include a cover letter. At minimum, enclose a brief note
to say hello and remind the person who you are and that your
resume is enclosed. A cover letter introduces you in a more per-
sonal manner than the resume. It also is a good place to empha-
size one aspect of your job goals, show what you know about the
company, or say why you are especially interested in the job.
To write a good cover letter, you’ll need to do a little home-

work. First, try to get the name of someone to whom you can
address your resume and cover letter, because it is more effective
when it is directed to a specific individual. Whenever possible
call and find out the name of the person who is hiring for the
position and address your letter to that person. Rather than
writing to “Dear Human Resources Manager:” call the Human
Resources Department and ask to whom you should address
your letter. Use the cover letter to show your enthusiasm for the
job and the company.
As soon as you officially begin to job hunt, you will need to
line up some references. References are people who can vouch
for your abilities, talents, and devotion as a worker. Often they
are past supervisors or mentors. Rarely are personal references,
such as your minister or rabbi, used in business. Before you use
someone as a reference, call or write that person to ask whether
you may.
Then, it is especially nice to touch base with that person again
each time you give out his or her name. Among other things,
you can describe the prospective employer and offer suggestions
about what to say that would help you get the job. When you do
get a job, take a minute to drop notes to your references, thank-
ing them for their help and letting them know where you have
relocated.
Sometimes you will have a bad reference, a former employer
who, for whatever reason, is not going to say very nice or help-
ful things about you. For example, an employer may be angry
simply because you left them, and refuse to give a positive refer-
ence. Whatever the reason, less-than-perfect references must be
handled with special care:
• Avoid listing a reference who will not speak well of you.

Instead, point prospective employers toward people who
will speak of you in positive terms.
• Remind the interviewer not to contact your present boss.

If your present boss is the one who would give a bad ref-
erence, say you need to be discreet because your employ-
er does not know that you are looking for a new job.
• If someone you expected to give you a good reference for
some reason does not and your prospective employer
questions you about the reference, ask, in a neutral way,
what the reference said specifically, and then explain your
side of the story briefly, calmly, and objectively. Do not
criticize your former employer, even though you may feel
betrayed. Keep your response as short as you can; you
certainly do not want to dwell on a negative reference.
Offer to give the interviewer another reference who can
vouch for your good qualities.
Once you have started a job search, you will need to figure out
how you will balance it while working at your current job. It is
always difficult to find the time to look for one job when you’re
gainfully employed at another, but it certainly is less stressful
from a financial point of view. Do not let your job-hunting
efforts distract you in any way from your responsibilities at your
present job. Similarly, do not use company time or supplies to
job-hunt. More specifically, you must be careful to follow sever-
al rules:
• Send your resume out on personal letterhead—never the

company’s. It is entirely inappropriate to use a company
letterhead to job hunt, and this tactic will work against
you. People who ordinarily might have interviewed you
for a job will not appreciate your lack of respect for your
current employer.
• Don’t use your work e-mail address. Company-supplied
e-mail is not confidential, and it’s not your private line.
• Make calls short and local. It’s okay to make a quick local
call, but no toll- or long-distance calls should show up on

the boss’s bill because you are job hunting.
• Keep your reasons for time off to yourself. If you must
take time off from work to go to an interview, take a per-
sonal day and say as little as possible about what you are
doing.
• Keep your job-hunting efforts low-key. If you can man-
age it, tell no one you have a new job until you have had
a chance to tell the boss. You boss is entitled to hear the
news first, and he or she deserves to hear it from you.
It is especially tricky to deal with telephone calls about
job leads when you are at work. Occasionally, though,
you will have to. Here are some hints on doing this:
• Make phone calls related to your job search from outside
the office. Take a coffee break and go use your cell phone
or a public phone, or come to work a little late so you can
make the call from home.
• If a prospective employer calls you at work, say you’ll call
back later. It is okay to admit that you can’t talk and then
establish a time after work hours when you can. After the
employer has made the initial contact, he or she will
understand that any real conversation has to be put off
until a more appropriate time.
Even though it can be awkward, job searching at your current

position is a common predicament. As long as you do not
neglect your current job and handle your search discreetly, con-
ducting a job search while working can be accomplished tactful-
ly and successfully.
SUMMARY
The first step in getting ahead is first to do the best job you can
in your current position. Develop your skills such as staying
organized; writing, communicating, and researching for work;
working with your boss; teamwork; and leadership. These skills
will help you stand out as a valued employee. Working on your
problem solving skills will make you stand out as a person who
is creative and resourceful.
In order to become a problem solver you must first define the
problem by creating a two-part problem statement. Next you
should adopt a problem-solving disposition. This means having a
positive attitude, being observant, asking questions, and sparking
your creativity by being open to new ideas and perspectives, and
unafraid of making mistakes.
When you are ready to work on the solution to your problem,
it is time to brainstorm, that is, freely generate ideas without
censoring yourself. When you have come up with a number of
solutions evaluate them to determine which one is the best
answer to your problem. Check your solution to make sure you
haven’t made an error in your reasoning. Finally, present your
solution by taking your audience through your problem-solving
process.
Networking is another important skill that will help you get
ahead. A network is the group of people that you know and the
people that they know who can help you, and who you can help,
professionally. Building a network is an ongoing process that
requires being open to new people, maintaining ties with the
people you have met, and keeping organized records of contact
information. An active network can be rewarding both person-
ally and professionally.
Finally, when you are ready to move on from your current posi-
tion you have two options. You can ask for a promotion within
your company or you can begin a job search. You can ask for a
promotion and get one if you prepare and present a strong case
to your supervisor. Looking for a job while you have a job can be
awkward but you can handle it successfully if you proceed with
tact and discretion. After all, every employee wants to advance,
and your employer will probably respect your decision to move
on if he or she cannot offer you increased responsibility.
C O N C LUS I O N
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
We’ve covered a lot of ground, so let’s recap what we’ve

learned. You’ve not only mastered some basic skills that are essen-
tial for every professional, but we hope you have also acquired
tools that will help you in any situation that you might encounter.
You’ve learned some ways of working that are applicable to almost
every avenue of work. You’ve learned that first you must define
what you are trying to accomplish and then set goals. The proce-
dures you’ve learned for getting organized, writing a letter, or con-
ducting business research will help you to approach any situation
with confidence and give you the best results.
The information you’ve covered has given you solutions to
almost any situation you might encounter in your workplace.
• Getting organized. The first step in getting organized is to

analyze where your time goes and to set specific goals for
getting your work under control. The first place to

start is with your desk. Your desk should be organized so
that everything has its place and the desk stores only
what you need in your day-to-day work. Then you should
organize your files so that you have a streamlined infor-
mation system. Finally, and probably most important,
you need to organize your time. You’ve already looked at
how you use time at work; the next step is to create an
itinerary so that you maximize that time. Other ways to
manage your time are to follow the ten telephone tips, to
limit your socializing, and to use technology effectively.
• Writing for work. Writing is an essential part of any pro-
fessional career. When you write for work you must
know your audience and your purpose. You also need to
know that writing well requires editing and revising, and
don’t forget that neatness counts. Every type of work-
place document has a particular format. Follow the for-
mat and the conventions for each type of document.
Finally, work on improving the clarity and style of writ-
ing. The topics covered in Chapter 2 will help you write
with confidence and style.
• Communicating at work. Like writing, communicating at
work starts with knowing your audience and knowing
your purpose—whom you’re talking to and what you are
trying to say. When speaking, you also need to consider
the perceptions of your audience. Good communicators
have mastered several important skills: They know how
to create a good first impression; they know how to use
language, their voice, and body language effectively; and
they know how to listen. Finally, the advice in Chapter 3
has prepared you to conquer your nervousness and make
a well-organized, effective speech. You have also learned
how to make the most of those meetings—both as a
leader and a participant.
P UT TI N G I T A L L T O G E TH E R 163
• Research. Business research ranges from finding the best

place to order lunch for a meeting to finding out how
your company’s corporate catering service can attract
new clients. If you have studied Chapter 4, you have the
research skills to find what you need to know. First you
need to determine the purpose of your research, then
select your research method, and finally establish a
timetable. There are many places to find information: the
library, the Internet, and through interviews, surveys,
and focus groups.
• Getting along at work. This is one of the most important
skills in today’s workplace. Work has become more col-
laborative and less hierarchical, so working well with
others is more important than ever. Knowing proper eti-
quette—such as what to wear and how to handle office
relationships—is essential. Even though you might be
working in a collaborative office, you probably still have a
boss. Following this book’s tips for earning your boss’s
respect will make your job easier and more rewarding.
Finally, you’ll probably have to work on some team pro-
jects and what you’ve learned about team dynamics will
make this a much more productive experience.
• Getting ahead. One likely reason that you’ve been read-
ing The Complete Professional is to advance your career. As
you’ve learned, problem solving and networking are two
important skills that will help you get ahead. Problem
solving involves first getting in a problem solving frame
of mind—igniting your curiosity and boosting your cre-
ativity. Then, like many other skills we’ve covered, you
need to define the problem and set a goal. Finding a solu-
tion to your problem involves brainstorming and evalu-
ating your solution for flaws in your reasoning.
Networking is the ongoing process of identifying and
building connections and relationships. As you’ve
learned, it’s a two-way street that’s as much about helping

others as it is about getting help. These are the skills that
will get you noticed when you apply what you’ve learned
about how to negotiate a promotion or look for a job
while you’re working. These tips will help you capitalize
on what you’ve learned and take your career to the next
level.
As we’ve said, you’ve not only learned specific skills, but you’ve
also learned some general tools and ways to approach any prob-
lem that will be invaluable to you. When you think about your
career you can apply these skills to move your career in the right
direction. First, define your career goals. Before you forge ahead,
take some time to analyze your current job. What aspects of
your job do you like and what don’t you like? Think about your
interests, both at work and outside. When you have identified
your likes and dislikes, you can start looking for ways to match
your career with what really interests you.
You also need to think about where you want your career to
take you. In five years, where would you like to be? Do you want
to be running your own business? Do you want to be the head
of your department? You should also think about your long-
term personal goals. Do you want to buy a house, and if so when
and where? How do you want to balance your family life with
work? At what age do you plan to retire? The answers to these
questions can help you think such issues as about how aggres-
sively you want to pursue your career goals and how important
salary is to you.
Of course these are just some general thoughts about defining
your career goals. The resource section of this book will point
you to some excellent books and websites that will help you dis-
cover the job that’s right for you. The point is that you need to
think about where you want to be and what you want to be doing
in order to get your career moving in the right direction.
P UT TI N G I T A L L T O G E TH E R 165
We all have the ability to find a job that we find satisfying and
challenging and to be our best in that job. When you are in a job
that matches your interests and that is helping you meet your
life goals, you will find that you are eager to do the job as well as
you can. The skills that you’ve learned in The Complete
Professional will help you maximize your potential. Knowing that
you have these skills will give you confidence, and confidence is
a quality that marks every successful professional.
When you approach your job with the confidence that you
can do it well, you will find that confidence breeds success. The
complete professional knows that with careful planning, deter-
mination, and good attitude any problem that he or she faces in
the workplace can be solved. The complete professional knows
how to negotiate the challenges of today’s workplace and is pre-
pared to maximize his or her potential. We hope that reading
and studying this book has prepared you to be a complete pro-
fessional with all the skills you need to achieve your career goals
and to make your work a satisfying and successful experience.
RESOURCES
GENERAL
101 Creative Problem Solving Techniques: The Handbook of New Ideas

for Business, by James M. Higgins (New Management, 1994).
101 Ways to Have a Great Day at Work, by Stephanie Goddard
Davidson (Sourcebooks, 1998).
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in Personal
Change, by Stephan R. Covey (Fireside, 1990).
The 13 Secrets of Power Performance, by Roger Dawson (Prentice
Hall, 1997).
The One Minute Manager, by Spencer Johnson (Berkley, 1993).
Practical Solutions for Everyday Work Problems, by Elizabeth Chesla
(Learning Express, 2000).
Successful Teamwork, by Erik Chesla (Learning Express, 2000).
Value-Added Employee: 31 Skills to Make Yourself Irresistible to Any

Company, by Edward J. Cripe (Gulf Publishing, 1999).
ORGANIZATION
Getting Organized at Work, by Dawn B. Sova (Learning Express,

1998).
Keeping Work Simple, Solutions for a Saner Workplace, by Don
Aslett (Storey Books, 1997).
WRITING
The 100 Most Difficult Business Letters You’ll Ever Have to Write,
Fax, or E-mail, by Bernard Heller (HarperBusiness, 1994).
American Business English, by Karen H. Bartell (University of
Michigan, 1995).
Basics of Business Writing (Worksmart Series), by Marty Stuckey
(AMACOM, 1992).
Better Letters: A Handbook of Business and Personal Correspondence,
by Jan Venolia (Ten Speed, 1995).
Effective Business Writing: A Guide for Those Who Write on the Job,
by Maryann V. Piotrwoski (HarperCollins, 1996).
Improve Your Writing for Work, 2nd edition, by Elizabeth Chesla
(Learning Express, 2000).
RESOURCES 169
COMMUNICATION
50 One-Minute Tips to Better Communication: A Wealth of Business

Communication Ideas (Fifty-Minute Series Book), by Phillip E.
Bozek (Crisp, 1997).
101 Secrets of Highly Effective Speakers: Controlling Fear,
Commanding Attention, by Caryl Rae (Impact, 1998).
101 Ways to Improve Your Communication Skills Instantly, by Jo
Condrill (Goalminds, 1998).
Effective Business Speaking, by Judith A. McManus (Learning
Express, 1999).
Get Your Message Across: The Professional Communication Skills
Everyone Needs, by Jacqui Ewart (Allen & Unwin, 1998).
RESEARCH
10 Minute Guide to Business Research on the Net, by Thomas Pack

(Que Corporation, 1997).
Advanced Internet Research One-Day Course, by Curt Robbins
(DDC, 1999).
Search Smart and Get Ahead, by Susan Shelly (Learning Express,
2000).
ETIQUETTE AND LEADERSHIP
101 Biggest Mistakes Managers Make and How to Avoid Them by

Mary Albright (Prentice Hall, 1997).
1001 Ways to Take Initiative at Work, by Bob Nelson (Workman, 1999).
The Etiquette Advantage in Business: Personal Skills for Professional
Success, by Peggy Post (Harper Resource 1999).
Office Etiquette & Protocol, by Grace Fox (Learning Express, 1998).
GETTING AHEAD
50 Ways to Get Promoted, by Nathan G. Jensen (PSI Research,

1999).
101 Ways to Promote Yourself: Tricks of the Trade for Taking Charge of
Your Own Success, by Raleigh Pinskey (Avon, 1999).
1001 Ways to Get Promoted, by David E. Rye (Career Press, 2000).
Great Interview, by Vivian. V. Eyre (Learning Express, 2000).
Great Resume, by Jason R. Rich (Learning Express, 2000).
How to Become CEO: The Rules for Rising to the Top of Any
Organization, by Jeffrey J. Fox (1998).
Networking for Novices, by Susan Shelly (Learning Express, 1998).
The Pathfinder: How to Choose or Change Your Career for a Lifetime
of Satisfaction and Success, by Nicholas Lore (Fireside, 1998).
SOFTWARE
Calendar Creator 7.0 Standard, ($29.99) Calendar Creator allows

you to customize a calendar to fit your needs. This is a great
way to stay organized at work.
Franklin Planner Software, by Franklin Covey ($75.99) This soft-
ware is a great companion to The 7 Habits of Highly Effective
People. It allows you to manage your time, your duties, and
your contacts in the most effective way.
Great Business Graphs Charts Made E-Z, E-Z Software ($14.99)
Make any presentation better with this software. This pro-
gram allows you to create effective charts and graphs that are
custom-made for your work.
RESOURCES 171
Office Letters 2000 1.0, Streetwise Software ($25.99) This soft-

ware offers an entire library of sample business correspon-
dence. Tips and tools allow you to improve your writing.
Professor Teaches Office 2000 Plus, Individual Software ($40.99)
This is a tutorial that allows you to practice using Office 2000
with easy-to-follow instruction and narration,
Sidekick ’99, Starfish Software ($41.99) Sidekick ’99 is great for
keeping your correspondence organized. You can use the cal-
endar, or you can track contact information. You can even use
your contact file to print mailing labels.
INDEX
A resources for, 90-104

accuracy, writing, 33-34 setting a timetable, 89-90
analyzing the problem 139-141 surveys, 96-100
audience, writing for 29-32
C
B clothing, choosing your
body language, 66-67 wardrobe, 108-110
bookmarks, websites, 26 co-workers, socializing with
boss, working with your boss, 113-118 co-workers, 20-22
brainstorming techniques, 143-144 communication, 162
building your network, 148-150 body language, 66-67
business letters, 35-38 effective communication
sample business letter, 39 in teams, 123-125
business research, 163 first impressions, 61-62
choosing the right method, 86-89 knowing your audience, 56-57
determining your objectives, 84-86 listening, 68-70
focus groups, 100-104 making speeches, 70-77
internet, 92-94 and meetings, 77-81
interviews, 95-96 purpose of, 58-59
libraries, 90-92 resolving team conflicts, 125-127
tag questions, 63 brainstorming techniques, 143-144

understanding perception, 59-60 developing your problem-solving
using precise language, 62-64 disposition, 141-142
vocal qualities, 64-66 evaluating your solution, 144-145
compromiser, 120 finding a solution, 143-144
counselor, 121 implementing and presenting
cover letters, 154-155 your solution, 145-146
criticism, and working problem solving, 136-146
relationships, 116-118 goal statements, 5-6
goals, setting goals, 4-6, 136-138
D
defining the problems, 136-138 H
desk space, 6-9 honesty, and resumes, 153
detractor, 121
developing your problem-solving I
disposition, 141-142 improving your writing, 50-53
digresser, 121 initiator, 119
documents instigator, 122
letters, 35-38 Internet, 24-27
memos, 40-43 bookmarks, 26
proposals, 47-50 and business research, 92-94
reports, 44-47 services offered, 26
types of, 35-50 websites, 25
dominator, 121 interviews, 95-96
dress codes, choosing your investigator, 119
wardrobe, 108-110 itinerary, 14-17
E J
e-mail, 24 jargon, 50
editing and revising, 32-33 job searches, 151-157
etiquette, 107-112
eye contact, 66 K
knowing your audience, 56-57
F
facilitator, 120 L
fax machines, 23 labeler, 122
files, assessing the file system language, work communication, 62-64
in place, 9-12 leadership qualities, 128-132
flextime, 13 leading a meeting, 78-79
focus groups, 100-104 letters, 35-38
professional moderators, 101-104 sample business letter, 39
free rider, 121 libraries, 90-92
Library of Congress, web sites, 94
G Library Spot, web sites, 94
getting ahead, 163 listening, 68-70
analyzing the problem, 139-141
INDEX 175
M implementing and presenting

meetings your solution, 145-146
communication and, 77-81 setting goals, 136-138
leading a meeting, 78-79 producer, 120
participating in, 80-81 professional moderators, 101-104
memos, 40-43 promotions, 151-157, 163
moderators, 101-104 job searches, 151-157
moving up, see promotions looking for a new job, 151-157
proposals, 47-50
N
naysayer, 121 R
neatness, writing, 33-34 rating you work efficiency, 2-4
nervousness, making speeches, 70-73 references, 154-156
networking, 158, 163 relationships, 107
building your network, 148-150 working with your boss, 113-118
networking, 146-151 reports, 44-47
nonverbal communication, 66-67 research, 163
“norm”inator, 120 choosing the right method, 86-89
determining your objectives, 84-86
O focus groups, 100-104
office relationships, 110-112 internet, 92-94
organization, 1, 161-162 interviews, 95-96
creating an itinerary, 14-17 libraries, 90-92
desk space, 6-9 resources for, 90-104
files, 9-12 setting a timetable, 89-90
goal statements, 5-6 surveys, 96-100
rating you work efficiency, 2-4 resolving team conflicts, 125-127
setting your goals, 4-6 resumes, 153-156
socializing with co-workers, 20-22 revising your writing, 32-33
and technology, 22-27
telephone and time S
management, 17-20 salary requirements, 154
time, 12-22 sample business letter, 39
schmoozer, 122
P search engines, 25
pawn, 119 socializing with co-workers, 20-22
peacemaker, 120 speeches
personal digital assistant (PDA), 17 organization of, 73-76
problem solving, 136-146 overcoming nervousness, 70-73
analyzing the problem, 139-141 supporting your opinion, 76-77
brainstorming techniques, 143-144 stress, 1
defining the problems, 136-138 supporter, 120
developing your problem-solving surveys, 96-100
disposition, 141-142 methodology for, 98
evaluating your solution, 144-145 telephone surveys, 99
finding a solution, 143-144 synthesizer, 119
T vocal qualities, 64-66

tag questions, 63 working relationships, 163
team leadership, 129-132 and criticism, 116-118
team roles, 119-122 choosing your wardrobe, 108-110
teamwork, 118-127 effective communication
effective communication in teams, 123-125
in teams, 123-125 etiquette, 107-112
leadership qualities, 128-132 leadership qualities, 128-132
resolving team conflicts, 125-127 office relationships, 110-112
team leadership, 129-132 resolving team conflicts, 125-127
team roles, 119-122 team leadership, 129-132
technology team roles, 119-122
e-mail, 24 teamwork, 118-127
fax machines, 23 working with your boss, 113-118
Internet, 24-27 writing, 162
technology, 22-27 active voice, 52
telephone and time management, 17-20 editing and revising, 32-33
telephone surveys, 99 improving your writing, 50-53
time jargon, 50
creating an itinerary, 14-17 knowing your audience, 29-32
organization, 12-22 letters, 35-38
socializing with co-workers, 20-22 memos, 40-43
telephone and time neatness and accuracy, 33-34
management, 17-20 proposals, 47-50
timetables, research, 89-90 reports, 44-47
sample business letter, 39
V style of, 52-53
vocal qualities, 64-66 types of documents, 35-50
W
websites, 25
bookmarks, 26
and business research, 93-94
Library of Congress, 94
Library Spot, 94
work communication
body language, 66-67
first impressions, 61-62
knowing your audience, 56-57
listening, 68-70
making speeches, 70-77
and meetings, 77-81
purpose of, 58-59
tag questions, 63
understanding perception, 59-60
using precise language, 62-64

The Complete Professional, All Skills You Need

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

The Complete Professional, All Skills You Need

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

THE COMPLETE

L EARNING E XPRESS • N EW Y ORK

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The complete professional/edited by Brigit Dermott.

HF5381 .C6853 2000

Printed in the United States of America

For Further Information

Visit our website at www.LearnX.com

CHAPTER 1: GETTING ORGANIZED 1

CHAPTER 2: WRITING FOR WORK 29

CHAPTER 3: COMMUNICATING AT WORK 55

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCHING AT WORK 83

CHAPTER 5: GETTING ALONG AT WORK 107

CHAPTER 6: GETTING AHEAD AT WORK 135

CONCLUSION: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 161

Is your work life as rewarding as it could be or are you only work-

WHO SHOULD READ THIS BOOK?

performance at work and advance their career. If you are an entry-

ABOUT THIS BOOK

important to be able to communicate effectively whether you are

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK TO YOUR BEST

As we mentioned, this book has something for every professional.

because, no matter how qualified and capable you are, other

1. You forgot about or failed to meet a deadline. _____

So what is your score? Let’s be blunt about your situation. Any

I almost lost my job because I lost one piece of paper—my boss’s

—KAREN, ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT

If your score is between four and eight, your level of disorga-

If your score is eight or above, your situation is critical and

S ET TI N G YO U R G OALS TO GET ORGANIZED

Now that you know how disorganized you are—whether you

Are you more likely to miss meetings or appointments?

As you review your answers, do you see a pattern emerging?

strengths. Now, identify the three areas in which you seem to

G OAL STATEM ENTS

ORGANIZING YOUR DESK SPACE

Do I need this item to complete tasks?

As you carefully make your decisions, return necessary

ORGANIZING YOUR FILES

ASSESS THE F I L E SYSTE M IN PL ACE

Filing is a key activity in any system of business organization.

maneuver through the files and continue to maintain order in a

• Working files that must be kept close at hand.

Working files are active files that contain information that

that remains from completed projects or accounts that are no

The following guidelines will provide long-term benefits in

No matter what organizational approach you use, you should

ORGANIZING YOUR TIME

Most of us could benefit from having more minutes in an hour

WHERE DOES THE TIM E GO?

Some companies allow employees to take advantage of flextime. These

To get organized at work, you have to use time efficiently.

1. Identify your periods of peak performance. According

appointments, and telephone calls made early in the

you use new equipment or become more adept at com-

includes the use of specific files, forms, or other

THE TELEPHONE AND TI M E MANAG E M E NT

The telephone can be a major obstacle to getting organized at

for making a person-to-person contact when we can’t meet face-

1. Create a directory of the most important telephone

ent know that you are responding through one of these

while speaking on the telephone. Instead of twisting

—DUNCAN, E DITORIAL ASSISTANT