Curs III Iris 2013 Eng

COURSE 3
Interaction of Ionizing Radiations with Substance

Generation mechanisms of positrons
The positron is the electrons antiparticle.
Positrons can result from:
(1)
+
disintegration of radioactive nuclides
(2) electron-positron pair generation.
+
disintegration is explained by the transform of a proton into a
neutron,
(1)
This process takes place only inside of the nucleus.
Oct. 14-th, 2013 IIRS - Course 3
2
e
p n e
+
+ +
Generation mechanisms of positrons
The electron-positron pair generation process,
(2)
can not take place in vacuum (the momentum conservation law
would be violated).
The process occurs in the electrostatic field of a nucleus or of an
atomic electron. The photon energy muss exceed a certain
threshold energy.
The threshold energy values range from1,022 MeV, when the
process occurs in the field of a heavy particle (nucleus) and
2,044 MeV when it occurs in the field of an atomic electron.
Positrons can exist only in motion (property of any antiparticle).
Once at rest, they annihilate with the first electron it meets.
3
( ) ( ) N e e N
+
+ + +
Generation mechanisms of neutrons
4
Beside protons, neutrons are the nucleus constituents.
Neutrons occurs in nuclear reactions of the following types: (p, n), (d,
n), (, n), (, n) or after fission reactions.
An important neutron source is the nuclear fission reactor.
Neutrons were discovered by Chadwick (1932) in the nuclear
reaction
4 9 1 12
2 4 0 6
Be n C + +
Generation mechanism of protons and
deuterons
5
Protons
Protons beams can be obtained by ionizing hydrogen atoms or by
nuclear reactions (particle, proton).
Accelerators can be used for obtaining proton beams of high
energy.
Deuterons
Deuterons are the nuclei of deuterium atoms (one of the stable
isotopes of hydrogen);
Deuterons are obtained in nuclear reactions and can be
accelerated to high energies by particle accelerators.
Generation mechanisms of alpha
particles
6
radiations
- particles (helium nuclei, helions).
- are obtained in nuclear reactions
or emitted by radioactive nuclei,
with energies ranging to some MeV.
Alpha spectrum is discrete and
usually has a fine structure.
For higher energies one may use
particle accelerators (ciclotrons).
A A 4 4
Z Z 2 2
X Y
+
Figure 3.1. Disintegration
schema of Am-241
Radionuclides as sources of ionizing
radiations
7
At the beginning of the study of radiation emission
phenomena (as associated with nuclei disintegrations)
observations were made only on natural radionuclides.
The main part corresponds to elements a the end of the
periodic table, with high atomic mass (A>92).
Some natural radionuclides have smaller mass (
40
K).
Physical properties of radioactive
nuclides
8
Unstable nuclides disintegrate, being called as
"radionuclides".
Disintegration is spontaneous, the nucleus loses the
mass/energy excess by emitting particles and/or photons.
The phenomena was discovered by Becquerel in February
1896.
the term radioactivity was introduced by Marie Curie who
succeeded the separation of the first radioactive elements:
polonium (Po) in 1898 and radium (Ra) in 1902.
nuclides
9
Rutherford and Soddy made the first experiments for
determining the activity of a radioactive source (denoted
by ).
The graphical representation of measurements made at
equal time intervals led to the dependencies shown in
figure 3.2.
The semi-logarithmic representation in figure 3.2.b shows that
the decreasing of the source activity is exponential:
0
( )
t
t e

=
nuclides
10
Fig. 3.2 a Fig. 3.2.b
Properties of the disintegration process
11
1. The disintegration process is statistical.
Given an unstable nucleus, there is no way to establish the
time moment when it disintegrates. one may speak about the
probability of disintegration in the time unit.
2. The disintegration of a nucleus from a source is
independent of the other nuclei in the source.
Disintegration constant
12
The second conclusion allows establishing a proportionality
relation between the activity of the source () and the number
of nuclei (N) from a source:
N
0
represents the number of nuclei from the source at the initial time
N(t) represents the number of remaining nuclei after the time t.
The radioactive constant () represents the probability of
disintegration of a single unstable nucleus in the time unit.
0
( )
t
N t N e

=
0
t
dN
N e N
dt

= =
Activity of a source
13
Given that the disintegration process of a nucleus is
independent of its neighbors, the product N represents
the probability of disintegration of N nuclei in the time
unit.
This is actually equal to the number of nuclei which
disintegrate in the time unit, known as activity of the
radiation source.
The activity of source () represents the number of nuclei
form the source which disintegrate in the time unit.
The measurement unit in I.S. for the activity is called
Becquerel (Bq).
Half-time
14
The half-life of a radionuclide is the time after which the
number of radioactive nuclei from a source halved in the
process of disintegration.
Since the activity of a source is proportional to the number
of radioactive nuclei in the source, the relationship can write:
From this relationship it results that:
1/2
0
1/2 0
( )
2
T N
N T N e

= =
1/2
1/2 0
( )
T
T e

=
1/2
1
ln2 T
=
Natural radionuclides
15
Natural radionuclides are radioactive nuclides naturally
occurring on earth.
The Earth is about 10
10
years, so any radionuclide
created during the planet formation is found today only
if its half-life time has the same order of magnitude.
Several dozen of these radionuclides have half-
life T
1/2
of the order of the estimated age of the earth,
so that is supposed to be a so-called "dowry" primary.
16
These radionuclides can be classified in two groups:
1. radionuclides from radioactive series
2. radionuclides which are not part of radioactive series;
these nuclides disintegrate into a stable nuclide.
There are 3 natural radioactive series: thoriums (Th),
uraniums (U) and actiniums (Ac) series, and also an
artificial series, the neptuniums (Np).
17
Radium (Ra) is part of the uranium series and is one of the
radioactive elements which or firstly separated by Curie
in the early twentieth century.
Since radium emits and radiation, it has been used a
long period as a source of radiations in various
applications, including medical ones.
After World War II the scientific community realized the
risks involved by the radiation exposure to radium sources
and also its toxicity (one of its descendants is the radon,
a radioactive noble gas).
18
Another isotope of interest is
234
Th, which can be
chemically separated form the uranium series. This
radionuclide has a half-time of 24 days and emits only
and low energy rays, being used in nuclear medicine.
Radioactive gases are also isotopes from radioactive
series. The best known is radon, which has a radioactive
isotope (
222
Rn) and three stable isotopes (
219
Rn,
220
Rn,
221
Rn). Isotope
222
Rn is produced by
226
Ra decay, being
part of the uranium series.
Natural radionuclides which are not
part of radioactive series
19
The most important isotopes in this category are
40
K
and
87
Rb.
Radionuclide
40
K is basically active ( 87%) and
active (10, 67%)
it contributes both to external and internal irradiation of the
body (following intake).
fond in nature as constant fraction (0,017%) of the natural
potassium.
Isotope
87
Rb is pure active.
found in crystalline rocks, concentrations of about 0, 07Bq/g.
Cosmogenic radionuclides
20
Cosmogenic radionuclides form at the interaction of high
energy cosmic radiation with stable elements form the
atmosphere and the surface of earth.
All the geosphere, atmosphere and parts of the earth which
exchange matter with the atmosphere contain such
radionuclides.
The production rate at the interaction with cosmic radiation
with elements from the surface of the earth is small because
the high energy particles are attenuated by the atmosphere.
The most important radionuclide is the carbon isotope with the
atomic mass 14 (
14
C). Other isotopes which may occur are
tritium (
3
H),
23
Na or
7
Be.
Artificial radionuclides
21
are obtained by artificially produced nuclear reactions.
are more often used in applications because they can
be 'manufactured' in order to satisfy certain requirements.
can be obtained from virtually any element and in a pure
isotopic sate, that is to contain a single radioelement.
there is possibility to choose between various half-times, specific activities
and chemical properties.
may be easily incorporated in various materials, including those
used as biological or chemical tracers.
accidentally, it may be dispersed into atmosphere and
contribute to the radiation background.
Artificial radionuclides
22
Artificial radionuclides are created for their use in
various applications in domains such as industry,
medicine, agriculture etc.
In the case of medical applications, the radionuclides
can be used as:
Radioactive tracers (labeled chemical compounds) in nuclear
medicine (
123
I,
131
I,
99m
Tc,
18
F etc.)
Implants in brachyterapy (
192
Ir,
198
Au,
137
Cs etc.)
External radiation sources in external radiotherapy with
rays (
137
Cs,
60
Co).
Artificial radionuclides used in nuclear
medicine
23
Iodine isotope with mass number123 (
123
I) is an gamma
emitter, with energy of about 159KeV;
it also emits X-rays and beta radiations.
The target organ is the thyroid.
Iodine 123 is obtained after bombarding a
123
Xe target with
protons accelerated in a cyclotron.
Having a short half-time (13h),
123
I is preferred because the
radiation dose received by the other organs of the patient is
low.
medicine
24
Iodine 131 (
131
I) was one of the first radionuclides used in
medicine.
It is a fission product, obtained in the nuclear reactor.
Iodine 131 emits and rays.
The target organ is thyroid.
With a half-time of about 8 days, it is used in treatment of
thyroid cancer or other diseases of this gland.
medicine
25
Technetium 99m (
99m
Tc) is a gamma active isotope, with
energy of 141KeV.
Target organ thyroid and superior intestinal tract.
It has a short half-time (6h), ensuring a small radiation dose at
the patient.
Another great advantage is the capacity of forming chemical
compounds with tracers with will fix it in other target organs.
Technetium is obtained in a generator following the
disintegration of
99m
Mb (T
1/2
= 66h) from which is extracted
as a saline solution before use.
medicine
26
Fluorine 18 (
18
F) is a positron emitting isotope.
It is obtained after bombarding a target containing
17
O with
protons accelerated in a cyclotron.
The half-time is very short (109 min) and is used in combination
with tracers which transport it to various target organs.
The positron annihilation is followed by the emission of two
gamma rays in opposite directions, having 511MeV each. The
detection of the gamma rays is used for superior imaging of
organs, technique called Positron Emission Spectroscopy (PET).
Artificial radionuclides used in
brachytherapy
Iridium 192 (
192
Ir) is furnished as wires which are introduced
through catheters in the affected organ (containing tumors).
192
Ir emits both and radiations
It is a product of the nuclear reactor.
It is the most used radioisotope in brachytherapy, because the beta
radiation is rapidly absorbed in the vicinity of the source; the risk of
irradiating the surrounding tissues is very low.
Iodine 125 (
125
I) is an isotope emitting low energy photons
(27KeV).
the emitted photons have lower penetration power than high energy
ones, therefore the risk of irradiating other organs is low.
It is a product of the nuclear reactor.
27
Artificial nuclides used in teletherapy
The most used nuclide is the isotope 60 of Cobalt (
60
Co).
It is obtained by irradiating the stable isotope
59
Co with
neutrons.
The obtained isotope is disintegrating in excited states of
60
Ni,
following emission of two rays, with energies of 1,17Mev
and 1,33 MeV.
The isotope is processed by specialized organizations and is
placed into devices projected for medical purposes
(radiotherapy or cobaltotherapy).
28
Iradiation head of a teletherapy
device
29
Fig. 3.3
Radiation field. Radiometric quantities
Field of ionizing radiations (RF) a region in vacuum or
in a substance which is crossed by radiations
generated by concentrated or distributed sources.
As any physical field, it is described by a series of
quantities (scalar or vectorial) which are depending
on the position (i.e. coordinates in a reference
system) and time.
30
Radiation field. Radiometric quantities
RF represents the agent (cause) of phenomena taking place
in the irradiated substance.
RF has a quantified structure, consisting of:
corpusclar particles (e-, e+, p, , n, ions, etc.),
quanta of the electromagnetic field (X or photons).
The quantum structure of the RF determines its statistical
behavior at microscopic scale, resulting the need to
describe RF by stochastic quantities (i.e. quantities which
can vary randomly from point to point).
31
RF may be described by stochastic and
nonstochastic quantities
32
At macroscopic scale, RF
may be described by
nonstochastic quantities.
At microscopic scale, RF
must be described by
stochastic quantities.
Fig. 3.4.
Nonstochastic quantities
In the physics of ionizing radiations, the nonstochastic
quantities are defined using the mean value of a
fundamental stochastic quantity.
It is about the number of radiations N passing near the
interest point P (through the volume dv) (Fig. 3. 5).
The mean value (for a very large number of
measurements) is considered to be N
e
the expected
value:
33
N
( )
lim
e
n
N N
=
Nonstochastic quantities
34
Fig. 3.5: The elementary volume
centered in the interest point P
used for defining the quantities
characterizing the radiation field
(radiometric quantities).
Using a sphere gives the
advantage that the same
transversal surface (da) is crossed
by all radiations, whatever their
direction is.
Describing the radiation field by
The RF model operates with average values. It may be
described by continuous functions depending on
coordinates and time. For this purpose, the time intervals
and spatial regions taken into consideration must fulfill
two conditions:
(1) They are large enough for determining that the statistical
fluctuations of RF quantities not to be predominant.
(2) They are small enough so that the values of these quantities
to be determined (must be considered punctual and
instantaneous).
35
Describing the radiation field by
A complete characterization of the RF must specify:
The particles nature (photons, electrons etc.),
The spatial distribution of particles,
The energy of particles,
The direction of propagation of particles.
36
Radiometric quantities based on the
number of particles
Let N
e
be the expected value of the number of radiations
passing through the sphere S centered in P in a time
interval t = t
1
t
0
.
(1) The flux of particles represents the number of particles
entering the sphere S (of a volume dv) in the time unit:
37
e
dN
N
dt
1
SI
N s
( =


number of particles
Knowing one can calculate N
e
. Therefore, from the defining
relation of the flux of particles it results .
If is constant, one obtains:
If is not constant in time, therefore
And one must know the function (variation in time of the flux
of particles).
38
N
e
dN Ndt =

( )
1 0 e e
dN N N dt N t t N t = = = =

( )
e
N N t dt =

N
( ) N t

number of particles
(2) Fluence of particles number of particles traversing in the
time unit, from any direction, the sphere having the area of its
diametrically section da, any particle having the trajectory
perpendicular to a diametrically section (see Fig. 3.5):
For a target with the area A and = constant, N
e
can be
calculated as:
39
e
dN
da
| |
2
SI
m
=
0
A
e
N da A = =

number of particles
(3) Fluence rate (or flux density)
Knowing the flux density of particles one can calculate the
particle fluence in a certain time interval t:
40
e e e
dN dN dN d d d
dt dt da da dt da

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .

| |
2 1
SI
m s

=
( ) ( )
1
0
0 1
,
t
t
t t t dt =

( ) ( )
0 1 1 0
, t t t t t = =
Radiometric quantities based on
particles energy
Let E be the energy of a particle (for corpuscular radiations,
only kinetic energy). The e index will not be used in the
following, but N still represents the expected value N
e.
The total radiant energy of the N particles is denoted by R.
(1) The energy flux is defined as:
41
dR
R
dt
SI
J
R
s
( =


particles energy
(2) Energy fluence is defined in a time interval t as:
In the special case when all N particles have energy E, it
results
and
42
dR
da

| |
2
SI
J
m
=
R E N =
( )
d dN
E N E E
da da
= = =
particles energy
(3) Rate of energy fluence (density of energy flux)
By definition:
For mono-energetic radiations,
43
d d dR d dR dR
dt dt da da dt da

| | | |
= = = =
| |
\ . \ .

| |
2
SI
J
m s
=
( )
d d d
E E E
dt dt dt

= = = =
particles energy
(3) Rate of energy fluence (density of energy flux)
By integrating it results:
And for = constant, it results
44
( )
1
0
t
t
t dt =

( ) t
( )
1 0
t t t = =

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COURSE 3

Interaction of Ionizing Radiations with Substance

Radiometric quantities based on the

Radiometric quantities based on the

Radiometric quantities based on the

Radiometric quantities based on

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