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Job Design The jobs that yield the highest productivity levels are the ones that appear to generate the greatest amount of worker dissatisfaction, posing somewhat of a dilemma for job designers. Lean production(thin/slim) puts added stress on workers. Managers should be aware of this, and try to minimi e negative effect. !n this chapter we will talk about job design, work measurement, establishment of time standards and worker compensation.

!n written form, which can serve a basis for referral if 'uestion arise about it.

*nderstood and agreed to by both management and employees Ergonomics

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&rgonomics in an important part of job design. &rgonomics is the incorporation of HUMAN FACTORS in the design of the workplace.

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Job design involves specifying the content and methods of job, practically speaking job designers are concerned with

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#hat will be done$

#ho will do the job $

%ow the job will be done $

#here the job will be done $

&rgonomics Job Design Success

The objectives of job design include productivity, safety, and e'uality of work life. Successful Job Design must be:

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(arried out by e)perienced personnel with the necessary training and background

#ithout a good background in job design is likely to overlook important aspects of it. #orkers and managers should both be consulted to take advantage of their knowledge.

(onsistent with the goals of the organi ation

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!t relates to design of equipment, design of work met ods ! o"era## design of the work environment.

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&fficiency approach may not be appropriate in every instance.

&rgonomics seeks to prevent common workplace in$uries such as %a&k in$uries and repetitive + motion injuries by taking into account the fact that people vary in their physical dimensions and capabilities. Design of Work Systems

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'e a"iora# s& oo# of t oug t

&mphasi es satisfaction of wants and needs.

!t reminds managers of comple)ity of human beings.

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'asi& S& oo#s of t oug t of (o% )esigners

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The basic issue seemed to be the degree of speciali ation associated with jobs.

Spe&ia#i*ation

%igh speciali ation appeared to generate the most dis/ satisfaction

Teams

Moti"ation and Trust

Met ods Ana#+sis

Motions Stud+

,orking &onditions Basic Schools of thought of Job Designers

-ffi&ien&+ s& oo# of t oug t.

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!t,s a refinement of -rederick #inslow Taylors scientific management concepts

&mphasi es a systematic logical approach to job design.

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Disadvantages !t is noted that speciali ation is a primary issue of disagreement between the efficiency and behavioral approaches. Ad"antages Behavioral Approaches to Job Design Automation

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(o% -n#argement

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The job that are more susceptible to automation are those that are repetitive, boring, and monotonous. %ence the jobs that are least desirable from a human stand point. 3ften lend themselves to automation.

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0iving a worker a larger portion of the total task by hori ontal loading

1utomation yields a highly 'uality compared to human/generated output.

(o% Rotation

#orkers periodically e)change jobs

(o% -nri& ment

!ncreasing responsibility for planning and coordination tasks, by vertical loading Specialization

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This term has got a very narrow scope e.g. e)amples range from assembly line to medical specialists.

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(ollege professors often speciali e in teaching certain courses.

1uto mechanics speciali e in transmission repair.

2ome bakeries speciali e in wedding cake.

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The workers who choose certain specialty are not unhappy with their jobs. (this seems to be especially true in professions like (doctors, lawyers, professors etc)

2pecialists yield high productivity and low unit costs Specialization in Business: Advantages

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The rate of output generally e)ceeds human capabilities.

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!t also contributes to the work environment

%uman conflicts are avoided. Automation

8eople work for variety of reasons. compensation is often the leading reasons. it is not the only reason. other reasons include

)isad"antages

2ociali ation

2ometimes automation results in more jobs rather than less, although, it replaces humans. The jobs created are more interesting than those lost.

2elf/actuali ation

The fact that the workers must be retained, which adds to the cost. Moreover, workers often tend resist any sort of change.

2tatus, the physiological aspects of work, and as sense of purpose and accomplishment.

1utomated systems often involve substantial costs, and this usually means that a fairly high volume of output is needed to make the system economical

1utomated system can be infle)ible, t e+ are often restri&ted %+ design to a narrow range of tasks/ ase Study

4apanese are much greater users of automated processing compared to 1mericans in 1utomobile and steel industries. 5ut they are considerably less/automated in agriculture. There are some reasons why in these countries the managers of different firms still reluctant in using automated process. 6easons are7

Resistan&e of La%our unions

-normous &ost in"o#"ed &oup#es wit a #ong period of time %efore pa+offs &an %e rea#i*ed

0ro%#ems asso&iated wit integrated automated s+stems into &urrent operations #ike &osts, te& no#og+. !otivation and "rust

!t influences 'uality and productivity.

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"#$S" Anot er fa&tor t at inf#uen&es produ&ti"it+ and emp#o+ee management re#ations is TRUST

Ana#+*ing ow a $o% gets done

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'egins wit o"era## ana#+sis

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Mo"es to genera#s to spe&ifi& detai#s of $o%s/ Con&entrating on arrangement of t e workp#a&e and mo"ements of t e worker and2or materia#s/

!n an ideal work environment, there is a high level of trust between workers and managers.

#hen manager trust employees, there is a greater tendency to give employees added responsibilities.

Met od ana#+sis &an %e a good sour&e of produ&ti"it+ impro"ements/

#hen employees trust management, they are more likely to respond positively. (onversely, when they do not trust management, they are more likely to respond in less desirable ways.

"eams

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The efforts of business organi ations to become more productive,

competitive and customer/oriented have caused them to form teams.

Benefits of teams7

%igher 'uality/%igher productivity/0reater worker satisfaction,

higher level of worker satisfaction can result in less turnover, 9 absenteeism resulting in lower cost to train new worker

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Self-directed teams also called self managed Teams are designed to

achieve a higher level of team work 9 employee involvement

0roups of empowered to make certain changes in their work

process, fewer managers, one manager can handle several teams, improved responsiveness to problems !ethods Analysis

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Met ods ana#+sis fo&uses on1

!ethods Analysis

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, + is t ere a de#a+ or storage at t is point9

(hanges in tools and e'uipment

How &an tra"e# distan&es %e s ortened or a"oided9

(hanges in product design or new products

Can materia#s and#ing %e redu&ed9

(hanges in materials or procedures

3ther factors (e.g. accidents, 'uality problems) !ethods Analysis% Basic &rocedure

Met ods ana#+sis is done %ot for e3isting $o%s and $o%s t at a"e not +et %een performed/

!dentify the operation to be studied

0et employee input

2tudy and document current method

1naly e the job

8ropose new methods

!nstall new methods

-ollow/up to ensure improvements have been achieved Analyzing the Job% ' &reparing ne( !ethods

(o% ana#+sis requires &arefu# t oug t a%out t e 4,5s of t e $o%/ 5y encouraging the analyst to take a :&;!<2,s advocate attitude towards both present and proposed methods. 1naly ing and improving methods is facilitated by the use of various charts such as flow process charts and worker machine charts. -3perien&ed ana#+sts usua##+ de"e#op a CH-C6L7ST of questions t e+ ask t emse#"es to generate ideas for impro"ements some representati"e questions are18

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T ere are num%er of Te& niques t at motion stud+ ana#+st &an use to de"e#op effi&ient pro&edures/ ,ou#d a rearrangement of workp#a&e resu#t in greater effi&ien&+9

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"otion study is t e s+stemati& stud+ of t e uman motions used to perform an operation/

Can simi#ar a&ti"ities %e grouped9

#nalysis of therbligs

,ou#d t e use of additiona# or impro"ed equipment %e e#pfu#9

"icromotion study

)oes t e worker a"e an+ ideas for impro"ements9 Process Flow Charts

$harts

F#ow pro&ess & art

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(hart used to e)amine the overall se'uence of an operation by focusing on movements of the operator or flow of materials. These charts are helpful in identifying non/productive parts of the process (e.g., delays, temporary storages, distances travelled. (The figure on the next slide describes the symbols used in the constructing a flow process charts, and figure 7. illustrates a flow process chart.!

The uses of flow process charts include studying the flow of material through a department.

2tudying the se'uence that documents or forms take

1naly ing movement

)ig* +*, Symbols used in !ethod Analysis

)-.* +*/ Worker !achine hart !otion Study

!otion Study "echni0ues

MICROMOTION STUDY

"otion study principles 8 guidelines for designing motion/efficient work -rank 0ilbreth and his wife, <illian, an industrial 8sychologist, were also procedures. The guidelines are divided into three categories7 responsible for introducing motion pictures and slow motions to study motions that otherwise would be too rapid to analy e is called Micromotion study. This approach is applied not only in industry but in many other areas of %uman &ndeavor, such as sports and health care. *se of camera and slow motion replay enable analyst to study motions that would otherwise be too rapid to see. 8rinciples for use of the body.

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1dditionally these films can also provide a permanent record that can be referred to, not only for training workers and analysts but also for settling job disputes involving work methods. 8rinciples for arrangement of workplace.

8rinciples for the design of tools and e'uipment.

Developing Work !ethods !n developing work methods that are motion efficient, the analyst tries to7

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&liminate unnecessary motions.

(ombine activities.

6educe fatigue.

!mprove the arrangement of the workplace.

!mprove the design of tools and e'uipment

THERBLIGS #nalysis of therbligs 8 basic elemental motions into which a job can be broken down. The idea behind the development of therbligs is to break jobs down into minute elements and base improvements on an analysis of the basic elements by eliminating, combining, or rearranging them. 1 complete description of therbligs is outside the scope of this te)t. a list of some common ones will illustrate the nature of these basic elemental motions./ 2earch, 2elect, 0rasp, %old, Transport load, 6elease load, !nspection position, plan, rest, and delay.

CHARTS

VENTILATION & ILLUMINATION B. ;entilation unpleasant and no)ious odors 3B level.

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$harts % can be used to study simultaneous motions of the hands

D. !llumination depends upon the type of work being performed.

Motion study analyst often use (harts such as those described earlier can be 'uite helpful. !n addition, analysts may use a 2imo/(hart to study simultaneous motion of the hands. Working Conditions WORKING CONDITIONS

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More detailed work.

Mental work

,orking Conditions are an important aspect of job design, physical factors such as temperature, humidity, ventilation, illumination, color and noise can have a significant impact on worker performance in terms of productivity, 'uality of output and accidents.

:/ Temperature and Humidit+1

1lthough human beings can work under a family wide range of temperatures. There is a very narrow =(omfort 5and>.

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3ffice workers and other who e)ert little physical effort perform

best when temperatures are between ?@o- + ABo-.

2trenuous activities and other who e)ert little physical effort

perform best when temperatures are between @@o- + ?@o- are best.

%eating or cooling are less of a problem in offices than they are in

factories and other work environments.

%umidity is also an important factor in maintaining a comfortable

working environment. @C to DCE humidity is comfortable. -or cooling, less humidity is desired than high humidity. for heating on a cold day, less heating is re'uired for a warm day for high humid environment.

Working Conditions (contd)

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-rom safety standpoint. good lighting in stairways, hall, gates entrances etc. 4. COLOUR

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6ed7 used for fire protection e'uipment, gasoline strong tanks, danger signs, emergency warning lights and hot pipes.

There are two features of color that are important from job design7

Fellow7 indicates caution. *sed to designate walkways, edges of stairs, corners, and ends of loading docks, school buses, heavy e'uipment and forklifts because of its high visibility.

3ne is the ability of colors to affect moods and feelings.

5lue7 used to mark control devices, water pipes and valves.

3ther is the visual discriminations it permits

(olor produces emotional and psychological effects in many situations. 2ome of the effects of the various colors are7

0reen7 designate safety areas or e'uipment.

6ed7 conveys warmth, action, and stimulation. !t is a high visibility color.

4. COLOUR

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Fellow7 is also a high visibility color. !t can give the impression of cheerfulness and freshness.

5lue7 is a low visibility color. !t may convey coolness and may promote thoughtfulness or depression.

0reen7 is a low visibility color. !t may convey calm and restfulness.

5rown7 is a natural and low visibility color. 0ives peaceful feeling.

3range7 high visibility color and attracts the attention more than any other color and imparts the feelings of warmth and stimulation. 121#S A#E A2S1 $SED "1 DES-.3A"E SA)E A3D 4A5A#D1$S A#EAS 1# 13D-"-13S:

2ome of the common uses are7

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8urple7 6adiation ha ards. Working onditions 3range7 :angerous parts of e'uipment and safety starting buttons and switches. 6* 31-SE A3D 7-B#A"-13 i) SA)E"8 &fficiency generally declines as the day wears on, but it also shows

ii) %ow breaks for lunch and rest can cause an upward shift in efficiency

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Goise is unwanted sound. can be annoying or distracting, leading to errors and accidents. can also damage or impair hearing if it is loud enough.

!t is caused by vibrations of machines or e'uipment as well as by humans.

!n a new operation, selection and placement of e'uipment can eliminate or reduce many potential problems.

!n an e)isting e'uipment, it may be possible to redesign the e'uipment or substitute other e'uipment. 6* 31-SE A3D 7-B#A"-13

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!n some cases the source of noise can be isolated from other work areas. !f that is not feasible, acoustical walls and ceilings or baffles that deflect sound waves may prove useful.

2ometimes only protective devices for those working in the immediate vicinity are feasible (e.g. personnel who guide jet aircraft into landing gates wear protective devices over their ears).

Working onditions 7ibration ;i%ration on#+ &an %e a fa&tor in $o% design e"en wit out a noise &omponent, so mere#+ e#iminating sound ma+ not %e suffi&ient in e"er+ &ase/ ;i%rations &an &ome from too#s, ma& ines, "e i&#es, uman a&ti"it+, air &onditioning s+stems, pumps and ot er sour&es/ Corre&ti"e measures in&#ude, padding, sta%i#i*ers, s o&k o%ser"ers, &us ioning and ru%%er mounting/ <= ,ork %reaks1 The fre'uency, length and time of work breaks can have a significant impact on both productivity and 'uality of output. 3ne indication of the relationship between worker efficiency and work breaks is shown in figure on ne)t slide. !t shows7

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The factors which effect the efficiency is the amount of physical and/or mental re'uirements of the job. 2teel workers, for instance, may need rest breaks of H@ minutes per hour due to heavy/strenuous nature of their job. #orking on (6Ts, moreover, you have undoubtedly e)perienced the benefits of study breaks. SA)E"8

>= Safet+ is perhaps one of the most basic issues in job designs.

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!n many instances, these cannot be detected without special e'uipment, so they would not be obvious to workers or emergency personnel.

This is the area that needs constant attention from management, employees and designers.

8rotection against ha ards involves7

-rom an employer standpoint, accidents are undesirable because they are e)pensive (insurance and compensation). they usually involve damage to e'uipment and/or product. They re'uire hiring, training and make/up work and generally interrupts work.

*se of proper lighting.

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SA)E"8

(learly marking danger ones.

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*se of protective e'uipment (e.g. hard hats, gloves, goggles, ear muffs, heavy shoes and clothing).

-rom worker standpoint, accidents mean physical suffering, mental anguish, potential loss of earnings, and disruption of work routine.

There are two basic causes of accidents7

#orker carelessness7 rash driving, drinking and driving, failure to use protective e'uipment, overriding safety controls.

1ccident ha ards7 disregarding safety procedure, improper use of tools and e'uipments (e.g. running, throwing objects, cutting through, failure to observe one way signs).

-ailure to use reasonable caution in danger areas ( ones).

*nsafe conditions include unprotected pulleys, chains, material handling e'uipment, machinery and so on.

1lso poorly lighted walkways, stairs, and loading docks constitute ha ards.

To)ic wastes, gases and vapors and radiation ha ards must be contained.

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2afety devices (e.g. machine guards, dual control switches, that re'uire an operator to use both hands). 21S"9"-!E A -DE3"S

&mergency e'uipment (e.g. emergency showers, fire e)tinguishers, fire escapes).

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1ccidents that cause serious injury and loss of work time beyond the day of the injury are called lost/time accidents

Thorough instruction in safety procedures.

1lthough minor accidents can serve as a warning of impending major accidents. -6&I*&G(F, 2&6!3*2G&22 are defined as follows7 2&;&6!TF, and

*se of regular and emergency e'uipment.

%ouse keeping (clean floors, open aisles, waste removal etc.) is another important safety factor.

Safety

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#orker must stay vigilant and point out to the management

Management must enforce safety procedure and use of safety e'uipment

%owever, accidents cannot be completely eliminated and a freak accident may seriously affect worker morale and might even contribute to additional accidents.

8osters can be very effective, particularly if they communicate in specific terms

?How to a"oid A&&idents@ e/g/, ?'e Carefu#@ ?,ear Hard ats@ ?,a#k don5t run@ ?Ho#d on to rai# and so on@

-re'uency J Go. of lost/time accidents/million labour/hours worked 2everity J Go. of days lost/million labour hours worked 1verage 2eriousness J 2everity / -re'uency (avoids the need to determine the no. of hours worked) Work Measurement

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2topwatch time study

%istorical times,

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2tandard time

8redetermined data HKLC MTM

2topwatch time study

#ork sampling <.%.(. Tippett HKDL

%istorical times

8redetermined data

#ork 2ampling Work !easurement

#ork measurement is concerned with determining the =length of time> it should take to complete the job

4ob times are vital inputs for manpower planning, estimating labour cost, scheduling, budgeting and designing incentive systems

-rom worker,s standpoint, time standard provide an indication of e)pected output

Time standards reflect the amount of time it should take an average worker to do a given job working under typical conditions. More formally, 2T1G:16: time is the amount of time it should take a 'ualified worker to complete a specified task working at a sustainable rate, using given methods, tools and e'uipment, raw material inputs, and workplace arrangement.

Work !easurement T e most &ommon#+ used met ods of work measurement are1

Stopwat& time stud+

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3ne is that some elements are not done in every cycle

!ntroduced by -rederick #inslow Taylor in late HKth century

5reakdown enables that analyst to get a better perspective on them.

Today it is the most widely used method of work measurement.

!t is important to inform the worker to avoid suspicion or misunderstanding. #orkers sometime feel uneasy about being studied, and they may fear changes that might result.

!t is especially appropriate for short, repetitive tasks.

!t involves developing a time standard based on observation of one worker taken over a number of cycles. 3nce established, it is then applied to the work of all others in the organi ation who perform the same task.

Work !easurement T e %asi& steps in a time stud+ are18

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:efine the task to be studied and inform the worker who will be studied

:etermine the Go. of cycles to observe

Time the job and rate the worker,s performance.

(ompute the standard time.

#orkers might attempt to include e)tra motions during study in the hope of gaining as standard that allows more time per piece (i.e. the worker will be able to work at a slower pace and still meet the standard)

The analyst who will study the job should be thoroughly familiar with it. Work !easurement

2ometime an analyst will want to break all but very short jobs down into basic elemental motions (e.g, reach grasp) and obtain times for each element.

T ere are se"era# reasons for t is18

Work !easurement

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!nitially small Go. of sample si e are taken, then compute the value of 9 2 and find n. 1t the end the analyst may want to recomputed n based on increased data available.

The Go. of cycles that must be timed is a function of D things.

;ariability of observed times

-3amp#e 1 time study analyst wants to estimate the time re'uired to perform a certain job. 1 preliminary study yielded a mean of ?.L mins. 9 2 of B.H mins. The desired confidence is K@E. %ow many observations will be needed (including those already taken) if the desired ma)imum error in (a) MHC E of the sample mean$ (b) one half minute$

:esired accuracy

Work !easurement :esired level of confidence for the estimated job time. ;ery often desired accuracy is e)pressed as a E of the mean observed times. e.g7 the goal of a time study may be to achieve as estimate that in within M HCE of the actual mean.

The sample si e that will be needed to achieve that goal can be determined using this formula7 nJ

Work !easurement , ere NJ Go. of normal st.devi. needed for desired confidence. 2 J is sample standard deviation

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nA

Typical values of N used in this computation are7 Work !easurement

1n alternative formula that is used when the desired accuracy is stated as an amount (e.g. within H minute of the true mean) instead of a E age is.

where e is accuracy or ma)imum error desired

(a) s J B.H Mins. NJ H.K?. (from table) a J HCE nJ J LH.D? J rounded to LB

J ?.L Mins.

(b) eJ C.@. nJ ?A.AA J rounded to ?O

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Gormal time is the length of time a worker should take to perform a job if there are no delays or interruptions. !t does not take into account such factor, as personal delays (getting a drink of % B3 or going to the restroom) or unavoidable delays i.e machine adjustment and repairs, talking to a supervisor, waiting for materials or rest breaks.

s can be found either of the two formulas Work !easurement

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:evelopment of a time standard involved computation of three times.

The observed time (3T) is simply the average of the observed time

OT A B 3i 2 n

Gormal time (GT)

9 the standard time (2T)

Gormal time is the observed time adjusted for worker performance.

GT J 3T ) 86 (performance rating J adjustment factor is used that either the worker is trying to slow the pace or because of the worker nature abilities differ from the normal

GT J P ()j . 86j). if 86 is C.K indicates a pace that is KCE of normal while H.C@ indicates pace that is slightly faster than normal.

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2T J GT ) 1- (allowance factor)

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:ue to subjective nature of =8erformance 6ating> created innumerable conflict between labor and management in some companies is a continual sore spot.

1llowance factor can be computed is one of two ways, depending on how allowances are specified. !f allowances are based on 435 T!M&, 1- must be computed using the formula7 1-job J H Q1 1llowance E based on job time.

C/ !f allowance are based on a E of the time worked (i.e the workday). the formula is7 1-dayJ H/(H/1) (1llowance E based on workday)

2ome typical allowance E ages (1) are listed in Table7 O.D -3amp#e 18 Compute t e a##owan&e fa&tor for t ese two &ases1 (a)/ The allowance is BC E of 4ob time. (b)/ The allowance is BC E of #ork time. 2olution (a) 1- J HQ1 J H.BC or HBCE (b) 1- J H/H/1 J H/H.C.B J H.B@ or HB@E

E:ample -3amp#e1 1 time study of an assembly operation yielded the observed times shown below, for which the analyst gave a performance rating of H.HC. *sing an allowance of H@E of job time, determine the appropriate standard time for this operation.

2imitation of time study

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3nly those jobs that can be observed can be studied. This eliminates most manageable and creative jobs that involve mental as well as physical aspects.

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!nterpolate between values on file to obtain the desired time estimate e.g7 move the tool D cm and K cm while the task in 'uestion involves a move of ? cm. Standard Elemental "imes

!t also rules out its use for irregular operations and infre'uently occurring Main :isadvantage7 The times may not e)ist for enough standard elements to make it worthwhile and the file times may be biased or inaccurate. jobs 1dvantage7

-inally, it disrupts the normal work routine, and workers resent it in many cases.

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8otential advantage is savings in cost and effort created by not having to conduct a complete time study for each job

<ess disruption of work, again the analyst does not have to time the worker.

Standard Elemental "imes

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2tandard &lemental Times are derived from a firms own historical time study data.

3ver the years a time study department can accumulate a file of elemental times that are common to may jobs.

1fter the certain point, many such times can be taken from the file instead of having to go through a complete time study to get them, although others may re'uired actual timing.

Standard Elemental "imes 8rocedure for using standard elemental times consists of the following steps7

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1naly e the job to identify the standard elements

(heck the file to see which elements have historical times and record them use time study to obtain others, if necessary

Modify the file times if necessary and factor in allowances to obtain the standard time.

!n some cases the file times may not pertain e)actly to a specific task.

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8erformance rating do not have to be done, they are generally arranged in the file times.

&redetermined time standards The following methods avoid some of these problems. &redetermined time standards

0redetermined time standards !nvolve the use of published data on standard Ad"antages of predetermined time standards18 elemental times.

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1 commonly used system in MTM (method time measurement) was developed in HKLCs by the Methods &ngineering (ouncil.

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5ased on large numbers of workers under controlled conditions

MTM tables are based on e)tensive research on basic elemental motions and times.

!n order to use this approach, the analyst is re'uired to divide the job into its basic elements (reach, move, turn, disengage), measure the distances involved (if applicable), rate the difficulty of the element, and then refer to the appropriate table of data to obtain the time for that element.

Time measurement units (TMUs) T e standard time for t e $o% is o%tained %+ adding t e times for a## of t e %asi& e#ements/

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Times of the basic elements are measured in time measurement

units (TM*s) and H TM* J C.CCC? minutes.

3ne minute of work may involve HCC or more basic elements, and

a typical job may involve several hundreds or more these basic elements.

6e'uires considerable amount of skill on the part of the analyst.

1 few MTM tables are presented in table (O.@) to give the idea of

the kind of information they provide.

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1nalyst is not re'uired to rate performance in conditions developing the standard

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1lthough work sampling is occasionally used to set time standards,

!T2 T#3 86!M16F *2&2 16&.

There is no disruption of the operation

6atio/delay studies, which concern the E age of a worker,s time

that involves unavoidable delays or the proportion of time a machine is idle

2tandard can be established even before a job is done

!n a 6atio/:elay study, a hospital administrator, e.g. might want to

T is approa& pro"ides mu& %etter a&&ura&+ t an stopwat&

estimate the Eage of time that a certain piece of R/6ay e'uipment is not in use.

Ana#+sis of non/repetiti"e $o%s/

!n a non/repetitive job such as secretarial work, maintenance and

others, it can be important to establish the E age of time an employee spends doing various tasks. Work sampling

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,ork samp#ing (introduced by <.%.(.Tippet in HKDL in the te)tile industry), is a techni'ue for estimating the proportion of time that a worker or machine spends on various activities. !t is widely now used to study work activities. *nlike time study work sampling does not re'uire timing an activity

!n fact, it does not even involve continuous observations of the activity

!nstead, an observer is re'uired to make brief observation of a worker or machine at random intervals over a period of time and simply note the nature of the activity. e/g. a ma& ine ma+ %e ?'us+@ or ?7d#e@ a se&retar+ ma+ %e t+ping, fi##ing, ta#king on t e p one, and so on. and a &arpenter ma+ %e &arr+ing supp#ies, taking measurements, &utting wood, and so on/

Work sampling

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The resulting data are =(3*GT2> of the number of times each

category of activity or non/activity was observed.

3on9repetitive ;obs

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Non8repetiti"e $o%s typically involve a broader range of skills then repetitive jobs, and workers in these jobs are often paid on the basis of the highest skill involved.

Work sampling

"

For #arge samp#es t e ma3imum error, e, &an %e &omputed using t e formu#a1

#ork sampling verify those Eage that secretary is typing, taking shorthand, or filing or receiving phone calls.

#ork sampling estimate include some degree of error. therefore, N J Go of standard time deviations needed to achieve desired confidence sampling should be done at different times of the day and different days (mostly given by the management) also the amount of allowable error. of a week. S8 J sample proportion n J sample si e

%ence

it

is

important

to

treat

work

sampling

estimates

as

=1ppro)imations> of actual proportion of time devoted to any given activity.

Work sampling

" " " " "

The goal of work sampling is to obtain an estimate t at pro"ides

a spe&ified &onfiden&e of not differing from t e true "a#ue %+ more t an a spe&ified error.

e.g. a hospital administration might re'uest an estimate of )/ray

idle time that will provide a K@E confidence of being within LE of the actual Eage.

%ence, work sampling is designed to produce a value, S8 which

estimates the true proportion, S8 within some allowable error, e. S8 M e.

The variability associated with sample estimates of S8 tends to be

appro)imately normal for large sample si es. -ig (O.O) 1 confidence interval for the estimate of the true proportion is based on a normal distribution

The amount of ma)imum probable error is a function of both the

sample si e and the desired level of confidence.

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1nalyst is re'uired to determine =n> that will be sufficient to determine those results.

"

3verall work sampling is less formal, less detail approach to determine job times and that work sampling is best suited to non/repetitive jobs.

AD7A3"A.ES ' D-SAD7A3"A.ES 1) W1#< SA!&2-3. 1!&A#ED "1 S"1&WA" 4 "-!E S"$D8 Ad"antages1 H) 3bservations are spread out over a period of time, making results less susceptible to short/term fluctuations. There is little or no disruption of work. #orkers are less resentful. 2tudies are less costly and less time consuming and the skill re'uirements of the analyst are much less. The study can be interrupted without affecting the results. Many different studies can be conducted simultaneously. Go timing device is re'uired. <ends itself to non/repetitive tasks. Work sampling

B) D) L)

@) ?) A) O)

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)isad"antages1

There is much less detail on the elements of a job.

#orkers may alter their work patterns when they spot the observer, thereby invalidating the results.

!n many cases there is no record of the method used by the worker.

3bservation may fail to adhere to a random schedule of observations.

!t is not well/suited for short, repetitive tasks.

Much time may be re'uired to move from one workplace to another and back to satisfy the randomness re'uirements.

ompensation Compensation1

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1lso in the case of assembly lines, the use of individual incentives would disrupt the even flow of work. (%owever, group incentives are sometimes used successfully in such cases).

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3rgani ations use two basic systems for compensating employees7

:/ Time %ased s+stems2hourly and measured day work system. (ompensates the worker for the time the employee has worked during a pay period.

-inally Iuality considerations may be more important than Iuantity e.g. in health care, greater emphasis is generally placed on the 'uality of patient,s care than on the number of patients processesed. Compensation

2alaried workers also represent a form of time based compensation. A);ANTAD- OF 7NC-NT7;- R-,AR)1

Time based systems are more widely used than incentive systems. particularly for office, administrative and managerial employees, but also for blue/collar workers.

2ome workers increase their output.

C/ Output %ased s+stems/!ncentive according to the amount of output they produce during a pay period, thereby tying pay directly to performance. #easons for using time based compensation

" " " "

(omputation of wages is straight forward and managers can readily estimate labor costs for a given manpower level.

&mployee also often prefer because the pay is steady and they know how much they will receive for each pay period.

!n addition, the employees may resent the pressures associated with an output based system.

4obs that re'uire creative or mental work cannot be easily measured on an output basis.

Compensation

"

2ome jobs may include irregular activities or have so many different forms of output that measuring output and determining pay is fairly comple).

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system.

(ertain (fi)ed) costs do not vary with increase in output, so the

" " " " "

*nder this plan, a worker,s pay is direct linear function of his or her output.

overall cost per unit decreases if output increases. Compensation1

!n the past, piecework plans were fairly popular.

(ompensation is a significant issue related to the design of work

" "

Gow minimum wage legislation makes them somewhat impractical.

!f the wages are too low, organi ations may find it difficult to

attract and hold competent workers and managers.

This protects workers from pay loss due to delays, breakdowns, and similar problems.

(onversely, if wages are too high, the increased costs may result in

lower profits or force the organi ation,s to increase its prices, which might adversely affect demand for the organi ation,s products or services. 3ne negative side of incentive system involve a considerable amount of paperwork, computation of wages is more difficult than under time based systems.

!n most cases, incentives are paid for output above standard, and the pay is referred to as a =5onus>.

!n order to obtain the ma)imum benefit from an incentive plan, the plan should be7

" " " " "

1ccurate.

&asy to apply.

(onsistent.

&asy to understand.

-air are %eing fo##owed and t e+ are

T ere a"e different s& eme w i& e3p#ained ne3t1

Form of ncenti!e Plan 7ndi"idua# 7n&enti"e 0#an1

"
Droup 7n&enti"e 0#ans1

The plan uses a combination of premium wage levels and an annual bonus related to company profits instead of more traditional incentives.

" "

#hich stress on sharing of productivity gains with employees. 6now#edge8'ased 0a+ S+stems1 !t is a portion of a worker,s pay that is based on the knowledge and skill that the worker possesses. Tnowledge based pay has three dimensions7

The following four plans reflect the main features of most of the plans currently in operation. :/ S&an#on 0#an1

" " " "

The late 4oseph 2canlon developed this plan during HKDCs in cooperation with the management of a machine tool company that was on the brink of bankruptcy.

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%ori ontal 2kills7 reflect the variety of tasks the worker is capable of performing.

;ertical 2kills7 reflect the variety of tasks the worker is capable of and

The main feature of the plan is to encourage reductions in labor costs, by allowing workers to share in any reductions achieved.

:epth 2kills7 reflect 'uality and productivity results.

The plan involves formation of worker committees to actively Management Compensation1 seek out areas for improvement. Man+ organi*ations t at1

C/ 6aiser 0#an1 Traditionally rewarded managers and senior e)ecutives on the basis of 3*T8*T, but now this approach is being replaced. Gow they are being rewarded on the basis of7 !n HK?Cs <ike 2canlon 8lan, it involves the use of committees to suggest ways of reducing costs, with savings shared by employees.

" "

(ustomer 2ervice.

Iuality

E/ Lin&o#n 0#an1

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The <incoln &lectric (ompany in (leveland, 3hio, developed this plan over a period of BC years (HKHL/HKDL). !t involves7

8rofit sharing.

"

Their pay is now a days is tied up with the company,s success. compared previously, workersU were being laid off whereas managers pay use to rise and company was losing large amounts of moneyV

8articipative management.

4ob enlargement

F/ 6odak 0#an1