Episode 228: The Young modulus

The Young modulus is often regarded as the quintessential material property, and students can learn to measure it. It is a measure of the stiffness of a material; however, in practice, other properties of materials, scientists and engineers are often interested in, such as yield stress, have more influence on the selection of materials for a particular purpose.

Summary
Discussion: Defining the Young modulus. (20 minutes) Student acti ity: Studying data. (20 minutes) Student e!periment: "easuring the Young modulus. (#0 minutes) Student e!periment: $n alternati e approach using a cantile er. (%0 minutes) Discussion: &omparing e!perimental approaches. ('0 minutes) Student (uestions: )n ol ing the Young modulus. (%0 minutes)

Discussion: Defining the Young modulus

A typical value of k might be 6 ! m"#. $hat does this mean% &6 ! will stretch the sample # m.' $hat would happen in practice if you did stretch a sample by #m% &It will probably snap(' A measure of stiffness that is independent of the particular sample of a substance is the Young modulus E. )ecall other e*amples you have already met of +sample independent, properties that only depend upon the substance itself density . mass / volume electrical resistivity . &resistance area' / length specific heating capacity . thermal energy / &mass temperature change' thermal conductivity . &thermal power length' / &area temperature difference'

$e need to +correct, k for sample shape and si0e &i.e. length and surface area'. TA1 223"#- The Young modulus !ote the quantities, symbols and units used4uantity 6tress 6train Young 8odulus 5efinition tension/area . F / A e*tension per original length . x / x stress/strain 6ymbol &sigma' (epsilon) 7nits ! m"2 . 1a no units &because it,s a ratio of two lengths' ! m"2 . 1a

6trains can be quoted in several ways- as a 9, or decimal. :.g. a ;9 strain . . ;.

TA1 223"2- <oo=e>s law and the Young modulus

Student acti ity: Studying data

It is helpful if students can learn to find their way around tables of material properties. ?ive your students a table and as= them to find values of the Young modulus. !ote that values are often given in ?1a &. # @ 1a'.

Some interesting alues of E

5!A spaghetti &dry' cotton thread plant cell walls carbon fullerene nanotubes A# A# A# A# A#
3 @ # ## #2

1a 1a 1a 1a 1a

TA1 223"B- 8aterials database

Student e!periment: "easuring the Young modulus

You can ma=e measuring the Young modulus E a more interesting lab e*ercise than one which simply follows a recipe. As= students to identify the quantities to be measured, how they might be measured, and so on. At the end, you could show the standard version of this e*periment &with Cernier scale etc.' and point out how the problems have been minimi0ed. $hat needs to be measured% Doo= at the definition- we need to measure load &easy', cross"sectional area A, original length x &so ma=e it reasonably long', and e*tension x. 1roblems% Eriginal length F what does this correspond to for a particular e*perimental set up% Gross"sectional area- introduce the use of micrometer and/or vernier callipers. Is the sample uniform% If sample gets longer, won,t it get thinner% :*tension F won,t it be quite small% 6hould the sample be arranged vertically or hori0ontally% 5ivide the class up into pairs and brainstorm possible methods of measuring the quantities above, including the pros and cons of their methods.

Some possi*ilities for measuring x:

2

8ethod attach a pointers to the wire attach a pointer to the load attach a pulley wheel attach a pointer to the pulley wheel e*ploit an optical level illuminate the pointer etc to produce a magnified shadow of the movement use a lever system to amplify or diminish the load and provide a pointer

1ros measures x directly measures x directly, does not effect the sample +amplifies, the x

Gons may affect the sample; only moves a small distance only moves a small distance need to convert angular measure to linear measure, introduces friction need to convert angular measure to linear measure, introduces friction need to convert angular measure to linear measure, more tric=y to setup% !eed to calculate magnification. Gan be =noc=ed out of place. fi*ing the sample so it doesn,t +slip,, need to convert angular measure to linear measure

+amplifies, the x even more a +frictionless, pointer, +amplifies, the x even more :asy to see movement useful for more delicate or stiff samples; can use smaller loads

5ifferent groups could try the different ideas they come up with. 5epending upon the time available, it may be worth having some of the ideas already set up. ?ive different groups different materials, cut to different si0es, for e*ample- metal wires &copper, manganin, constantan etc', nylon &fishing line', human hair &attach in a loop using 6ellotape', rubber.

&resourcefulphysics.org'

!ote that in the set up above, the sample is at an angle to the ruler F a source of systematic error.

Safety
6tudents should wear eye protection, provide safe landing for the load should sample brea=, e.g. a bo* containing old cloth. Hor the hori0ontal set up- +bridges, over the sample to trap the flying ends, should the sample snap. ?ood e*perimental practice- measure e*tension when adding to the load and when unloading, to chec= for any plastic behaviour.

&resourcefulphysics.org'

TA1 223"I- 8easuring the stiffness of a material TA1 223";- 6tressFstrain graph for mild steel Information about the use of precision instruments &micrometer screw gauge, Cernier callipers and Cernier microscope'. TA1 223"6- 8easure for measure

Student e!periment: $n alternati e approach using a cantile er

An alternative approach to measuring the Young modulus is to bend a cantilever. &1otential engineering students will benefit greatly from this.' Hor samples too stiff to e*tend easily &e.g. wooden or plastic rulers, spaghetti, glass fibres' the deflection y of a cantilever is often quite easy to measure and is directly related to its Young modulus E. If the weight of the cantilever itself is mg, and the added load is Mg and L is the length of the cantilever &the distance from where the cantilever is supported to where the load is applied'Hor a rectangular cross section, dimension in the direction of the load . d, other dimension .b y . I &Mg J 5mg/#6' LB : b dB &for square cross"section d . b'

Hor a circular cross"section radius r y . I &Mg J 5mg/#6' LB B rI E

Discussion: &omparing e!perimental approaches

Hinish with a short plenary session to compare the pros and cons of the different e*perimental approaches.

Student (uestions: )n ol ing the Young modulus

4uestions involving stress, strain and the Young modulus, including data"handling. TA1 223"K- Galculations on stress, strain and the Young modulus TA1 223"3- 6tress, strain and the Young modulus

T$, 228- ': The Young modulus

The Young modulus tells us how a material behaves under stress.

The Young modulus '

8any materials stretch in a uniform way. Increase the stretching force in equal steps, and the e*tension increases in equal steps too, in proportion. That is, the strain is proportional to the stress producing it. This is the same as <oo=e>s law F the stretching of a spring is proportional to the stretching force you apply.

BF stress 2F F .F A

stress

strain e*tension x 2x Bx strain . x L

strain stress ..................... graph is straight line ratio stress is constant strain Young modulus . stress strain E.

The Young modulus 2

large strain for little stress L material is fle*ible, easy to stretch

little strain for large stress L material is stiff, hard to stretch

strain e.g. polymer

strain e.g. diamond, steel

The Young modulus is large for a stiff material &large stress, small strain'. ?raph is steep.

The Young modulus is a property of the material not the specimen. 7nits of the Young modulus 8! mF2 or 81a; for stiff materials ?! mF2 or ?1a. 6ame as units of stress, because strain is a ratio of two lengths, e.g. e*tension is #9 of length

,ractical ad ice
This physics bo* could be used as an E<T for discussion.

$lternati e approaches
The page could be printed out for students to add to their notes for revision.

E!ternal references
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, ; E

T$, 228- 2: .oo/e0s la1 and the Young modulus

,urpose
The Young modulus tells you about what happens when a material is stretched F how stiff is it% You have probably done an e*periment to see how stiff a spring is. This reading e*plains how these two ideas are related.

2elating stretching materials to stretching springs

# !

2 !

B !

You have probably done an e*periment li=e the one shown here; use a load to stretch a spring, and the increase in length &e*tension' of the spring is proportional to the load. If a spring &or anything else' behaves li=e this, with e*tension proportional to load, we say that it obeys <oo=e>s law. At first, if you remove the load, the spring returns to its original length. This is elastic behaviour. :ventually, the load is so great that the spring becomes permanently deformed. You have passed the elastic limit.

elastic limit

load / !

A graph is a good way to show this behaviour, one way is above, but it>s usual to plot load on the y"a*is and e*tension on the *"a*is so that the spring constant = is measured in !m "# is the slope of the graph. &Hor the reason see- TA1 22K"2- Tension and e*tension' The initial straight"line part of the graph shows that the e*tension is proportional to the load. After the elastic limit, the graph is no longer linear. )emove the load, and the spring is permanently stretched. The initial slope of the load vs. e*tension graph shows how stiff the spring is F how many !ewtons are needed to produce each centimetre &or metre' of e*tension. This is sometimes called the spring>s stiffness or spring constant =. !ow compare this with the stressFstrain graph for a copper wire.

yield point

y.

stress strain

stress strain

strain / 9

The initial straight"line part of the graph shows that the strain is proportional to the stress. After the elastic limit or yield point, the graph is no longer linear. )emove the load, and the wire is permanently stretched. Hrom the initial slope of the graph, we can deduce the Young modulus. The graph will bend the same way to the <oo=e>s law graph if Tension is on the y"a*is and e*tension on the *"a*is. Hrom the definitions of stress and strain, you should see that stress corresponds to load strain corresponds to e*tension

##

,ractical ad ice
At pre"#6 level &or earlier', most students will have carried out a spring"stretching e*periment. They may not be familiar with the formal term ><oo=e>s law>. This reading relates the measurement of the Young modulus to <oo=e>s law; students may need help with the idea of proportionality, and how this can be deduced from a graph. The reading also considers the non"linear part of the graph. Gonventionally, the a*es are reversed for the Young modulus graph.

Social and human conte!t

)obert <oo=e and Thomas Young are both interesting characters who have far more to them than this relationship.

E!ternal references
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, reading I 6

#2

T$, 228- %: "aterials data*ase

<ere are data for about a do0en properties of some ; materials in :*cel spreadsheet format. You can create lists ordered by property, search for materials with properties in certain ranges, etc. To compare pairs of properties, it is best to use the selection charts. If you double clic= on the chart below it will open as an :*cel spreadsheet that can be copied and used.
5ensity The Young / =g m"B 8odulus / ?1a Toughness :lastic Dimit :nergy Gontent / 81a / M m"2 / 8M =g"#

Gotton Deather 6il= $ool Al Alloy Austenitic 6tainless 6teel Nrass Gast Iron Gopper ?old <igh Alloy 6teel Dead Dow Alloy 6teel 8g Alloy

#;I @2 #B #B 2K K3 32 KI 3@B; #@B 3B ##B; K3; #3

; .22 3.K I.; KK 2 ## #B #B K3 2I #I 2# IB

I 6K 2B II @B 3@ 2I BI B2 I6 2 ;I #I ;

#@ B.2 B; 3@ #2 I# #@ 2B #2 23 #6 6.@ KI #K

;.K #I K.K K.K 23 # ## ;# ## ;3 66 I K# I

,ossi*le uses of the spreadsheet:

#. 6imple reference source for materials data F e.g. to solve quantitative problems involving materials selection, e.g. perhaps calculate the necessary thic=ness for required thic=ness or strength of a cantilever. 6ort by property, e.g. which are the ten toughest materials in the database% 6earch with logical operators, e.g. find all materials in the database stiffer than O, stronger than Y, less dense than P. Try doing this by reading the information from a couple of charts. :*plore combinations of material properties not provided as selection charts F e.g. plot modulus against strength. !ote that single >typical> values are provided in the database rather than the full range, so this does give a true selection chart, but can identify interesting trends. 5esign problems often lead to combinations of properties for which high or low values are required. A common e*ample is >specific stiffness> &the Young modulus divided by density', which gives an indication of materials which are light and stiff. 6pecific stiffness and strength are shown in one of the selection charts. Ether compound properties for particular design problems could be calculated and plotted using the spreadsheet.

2. B.

I.

;.

#B

Also provided, below is a data that provides definitions of the materials in the database, and summarises their strengths and wea=nesses in engineering design, typical applications and environmental notes. This is a useful reference source for materials. !ot all will be needed.

"aterials information
5ouble clic= on the icon below to access a materials database. This is an html document and will activate internet e*plorer. It has been virus chec=ed.

K6f#.htm

#I

,ractical ad ice
This database has many potential uses e.g. comparison of e*perimental values.

$lternati e approaches
5ata boo=s may be used to augment the information provided here. It has been deliberately provided in an open format.

Social and human conte!t

The ability to search, sort and calculate adds value to raw data.

E!ternal 2eferences
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, file # 5

#;

T$, 228- 3: "easuring the stiffness of a material

Stress4strain cur es are used to measure stiffness
In this e*periment, you will load a wire and record its e*tension for each load, plotting a graph of the results. Hrom this, you will be able to calculate the Young modulus for the material of the wire. The Young modulus is given by the slope of your graph, and is a measure of the stiffness of the material F for the steeper the gradient, the stiffer &harder to e*tend' the material.

&ollect these to start

? clamp, # cm Qaw 2 wooden bloc=s single pulley on a bench clamp metre rule adhesive tape to ma=e mar=er cardboard bridges mass hanger with slotted masses, # g

wire samples- . 3 mm stainless steel, .23 mm copper, .2 mm iron nylon monofilament, 2 =g brea=ing strain safety spectacles

Safety
The load should not be too high off the floor, and there should be a suitable soft +landing platform, &not your feet(' if &when' the sample brea=s. 7se eye protection Fbeware of the fibre +whipping bac=, if it brea=s. 5o not lean over the stretched fibre. 6trained wires store lots of energy. $hen they brea=, this is released over a very short time period. It is very important that safety spectacles are worn and that the cardboard bridges are fitted. The cardboard bridges are heavy angled pieces of corrugated cardboard which sit over the wire to prevent it flying bac=. If cardboard of large mass per square metre is not available then glue wooden bloc=s to the bottom of less massive card angles and thread the wire through the resulting triangles.

,rocedure
This e*periment requires you to measure small lengths and small changes in position. Enly the simplest technique is given here F you should be able to modify the e*periment to produce more valid results. #. 6tretch the wire and fi* it hori0ontally along the bench as shown in the diagram.

#6

wooden bloc=s cardboard bridges mar=er

wire

rule

load

2.

8a=e a mar=er from adhesive tape and attach it to the wire so that it is at least 2 m from the clamp and about ; cm from the pulley. The mar=er should line up with the metre rule, so it can be used to measure the e*tension of the wire. 8a=e a loop in the end of the wire to be loaded, to hang the weights from &a =not will wea=en it'. 8easure and record the original length from the clamp to the mar=er, with a small &# !' load to stretch out the wire. Increase the load gradually in steps of # ! until the wire snaps. )ecord the load and the corresponding e*tension in each case.

B. I.

&alculating the Young modulus

#. Gonvert your readings of load into stress- &# mm . #
2 F6

m'

Gonvert the readings of e*tension into strain- both e*tension and original length being measured in the same units. 2. B. !ow plot stress &y a*is' against strain &x a*is'. Hind the slope of your graph to obtain a value for the Young modulus. Gompare it to the value given in the database. TA1 223"B- 8aterials database

#K

,ractical ad ice
This version of the tensile testing could be e*tended to materials such as cotton thread or hair if the diameter could be estimated or measured using a micrometer. 1oint out features such as nec=ing F the localised narrowing of the wire before fracture F and if time permits, e*amine the fracture surfaces with a magnifying glass.

Safety
The load should not be too high off the floor, and there should be a suitable soft +landing platform, &not your feet(' if &when' the sample brea=s. 7se eye protection Fbeware of the fibre +whipping bac=, if it brea=s. 5o not lean over the stretched fibre. 6trained wires store lots of energy. $hen they brea= this is released over a very short time period. It is very important that safety spectacles are worn and that the cardboard bridges are fitted. The cardboard bridges are heavy angled pieces of corrugated cardboard which sit over the wire to prevent it flying bac=. If cardboard of large mass per square metre is not available then glue wooden bloc=s to the bottom of less massive card angles and thread the wire through the resulting triangles.

E!ternal references
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, #; :

#3

T$, 228- 5: Stress4strain graph for mild steel

The graph shows how the behaviour of steel changes as the stress increases.

elastic region I

plastic region, e*tension uniform along length

plastic region, nec=ing has begun

J fracture
#

.#

.2

.B

.I

.; .6 strain /9

.K

B@.

B@.#

B@.2

,ractical ad ice
This version could have information added during discussion, for e*ample- " 8ild steel showing elastic behaviour for small e*tensions, &<oo=e,s law region', elastic limit, si0e of strain when fractures &about I 9'

$lternati e approaches
The students could have a hard copy of the graph and add the captions for revision of interpreting stressFstrain graphs

E!ternal references
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, 6 E

#@

T$, 228- #: "easure for measure

This sheet shows you how to use some precision measuring instruments. The diagram below shows a micrometer screw gauge, which enables you to measure small thic=nesses to a high degree of precision.

Above- " 8icrometer screw gauge and &right' an e*ample reading The gauge consists of a very accurately threaded screw which, when the thimble is rotated, opens the micrometer>s Qaws by a precisely =nown distance. $ith the most common type, a rotation of the thimble through one revolution opens the Qaws by .; mm. The thimble is divided into ; equal divisions, and so each division represents .; mm/; or . # mm. The barrel has a datum line graduated in whole millimetres along the top &and some also have half millimetre intervals along the bottom'. Initially screw up the micrometer using its ratchet until its Qaws are fully closed. !ote the reading on the thimble at the datum line R usually this will be 0ero. If there is a reading apart from 0ero, then this is the 0ero error and needs to be recorded and allowed for. Pero errors are noted as J if they are above 0ero and " if they are below . They need to be subtracted from or added to the measured reading.

Ta/ing a reading
6ee the diagram on the right above. )eading/mm <ighest number along the datum line the ne*t line along datum line is not yet uncovered so the final reading is less than ## mm )eading on thimble 7ncorrected reading Pero error &below 0ero' Gorrected reading &add 0ero error' "2 #6 .#6 # .#6 . 2 # .#3 # # .

6ernier callipers
The diagram shows callipers that can measure up to several centimetres to the nearest .# mm by ma=ing use of a vernier scale. The upper Qaws are used to measure distances internally, e.g. the internal bores of pipes. The lower Qaws are used to measure distances e*ternally, e.g. diameters of ball bearings.

$hen the 0ero of the vernier scale is e*actly opposite one of the mm mar=s on the main scale, only its 0ero mar= lines up with a mar= on the main scale, and all the others are Sout of =ilter>. If the vernier is advanced by e*actly .# mm, then the first vernier mar= is aligned with a mar= on the main scale. If it is advanced by .2 mm, then the second vernier mar= is aligned, and so on. The vernier scale thus effectively subdivides the main scale into .# mm divisions.

En the part of the scale shown above the 0ero on the vernier is Qust beyond the 22 mm mar=, so the reading must be Stwenty two point something>. The line of the vernier that e*actly matches a graduation on the main scale is the 6, so the vernier must be .6 mm beyond the 22 mm mar=. <ence the reading is 22.6 mm. Initially you should close the Qaws right up in order to note any 0ero error that needs to be accounted for. If it reads greater than at this stage, then the reading needs to be subtracted from the final one and vice versa. There are other types of callipers &below' having dial and digital DG5 and D:5 displays which are, li=e the digital micrometer, very straightforward to use.

An applet simulation for vernier callipers is available at http-//www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/Qava/ruler/vernier.html &This was available in August 2

;'

2#

6ernier microscope

A vernier microscope, which can be used to measure distances to the nearest . # mm. The vernier scale is identical to that of the vernier callipers e*cept that the divisions are . #mm instead of .#mm and you need to use a magnifying lens to read it. Ene use for a vernier microscope is in measuring the internal bore of glass tubing. This is done by moving the microscope carriage on its rac="and"pinion drive by turning the adQusting screw and aligning the cross"wires first on one internal edge of the tube &below' and then on the opposite edge. The bore of the tube is found from the difference between the two readings.

22

,ractical ad ice
It is useful for students to be able to use a micrometer and a vernier scale. You may choose to show this as part of an activity or have a lesson on use of these devices where the materials for the coming activity are measured.

E!ternal references
This activity is ta=en from 6alters <orners Advanced 1hysics, 6ection ?:T:, Additional 6heet 3

2B

T$, 228- 7: &alculations on stress8 strain and the Young modulus

,ractice (uestions
These are provided so that you become more confident with the quantities involved, and with the large and small numbers.

Try these
A strip of rubber originally K; mm long is stretched until it is # #. $hat is the tensile strain% mm long.

2.

$hy has the answer no units%

B.

The greatest tensile stress which steel of a particular sort can withstand without brea=ing @ "2 2 is about # ! m . A wire of cross"sectional area . # mm is made of this steel. $hat is the greatest force that it can withstand%

I.

Hind the minimum diameter of an alloy cable, tensile strength K; 81a, needed to support a load of #; =!.

;.

Galculate the tensile stress in a suspension bridge supporting cable, of diameter of ; mm, which pulls up on the roadway with a force of I =!.

6.

Galculate the tensile stress in a nylon fishing line of diameter .B6 mm which a fish is pulling with a force of 2 !

2I

K.

A large crane has a steel lifting cable of diameter B6 mm. The steel used has a Young modulus of 2 ?1a. $hen the crane is used to lift 2 =!, the unstretched cable length is 2;. m. Galculate the e*tension of the cable.

,ractical $d ice
The correct use of quantity algebra will help to remind students to convert mm to m, and similar traps.

$ns1ers and 1or/ed solutions

#.
strain = e*tension original length

2; mm K; mm

6train . .BB This is sometimes e*pressed as a strain of BB9. 2. B. 6train has mm/mm. These cancel out to give a quantity with no units.

stress =

force area

so F . stress * A =# I. @ F2 F3 2 ! m * T# m

F.# !

stress =
so

force area

area =

force stress

#; =! K; 8! m F 2
FI m 2

Area . 2 * #

A=

d 2 I

2;

so

d=
d =

d 2 I
I 2 # I m 2 B.#I

d . #.6 * # ;.

F2

m or #.6 cm

A=

d 2 I
B

B.#I &; # I
FB 2 m

m' 2

.#.@6 * #

stress =

force area
"B

I =! #.@6 # m2
6 F2 ! m or 2. 81a

6tress . 2. * # 6.

A=

d 2 I
B

B.#I & .B6 # I

"K

m' 2

. #. #K * #

m2

stress =

force area

20 N 1.017 10 7 m 2
81a

6tress . 2 K.

A=

d 2 I

3.14 (3.6 10 2 m) 2 4
FB 2 m

.#. 2 * #

26

E =

F A l l

so

l =

F l AE

20 10 3 N 25 m 1.02 10 3 m 2 2 1011 N m 2
"#

ecf answer should be 2.; *# I ma=e 2;mm l . 2.; * # FB m or 2.; mm

m or 2; cm

E!ternal 2eferences
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, I;6

2K

T$, 228- 8: Stress8 strain and the Young modulus

#. A long strip of rubber whose cross section measures #2 mm by .2; mm is pulled with a force of B. !. $hat is the tensile stress in the rubber%

2.

Another strip of rubber originally @ mm long is stretched until it is #2 mm long. $hat is the tensile strain%

The marble column in a temple has dimensions #I mm by #3 mm. B. 2 $hat is its cross"sectional area in mm %

I.

!ow change each of the initial dimensions to metres F what is the cross"sectional area in m %
2

;.

If the temple column supports a load of # =!, what is the compressive stress, in ! m

F2

6.

The column is ;. m tall, and is compressed by .# mm. $hat is the compressive strain when this happens%

K.

7se your answers to parts ; and 6 to calculate the Young modulus for marble.

A B. m length of copper wire of diameter .I mm is suspended from the ceiling. $hen a .; =g mass is suspended from the bottom of the wire it e*tends by .@ mm.

23

3.

Galculate the strain of the wire.

@.

Galculate the stress in the wire.

# .

Galculate the value of the Young modulus for copper.

,ractical ad ice
Initially students will need help converting from square mm to square m. They should do simple calculations of stress and strain before attempting to directly calculate the Young modulus of a material. You might find it useful to as= students to solve problems involving rectangular dimensions or given cross sections before they attempt circular cross sections which have the added ha0ard of remembering to convert diameters to radii.

Social and human conte!t

You can ma=e up your own questions, using interesting conte*ts, by consulting a table of values for the Young modulus.

$ns1ers and 1or/ed solutions

#.
stress = load = A #2 # B!
B

mm .2; #

mm

= # #

1a

2. strain = B. I. e*tension #2 mm @ mm = = .BB length @ mm mm2

#I mm * #3 mm . 2;2

.#I m * .#3 m . . 2;2 m2

2@

;. # =! . 2; m 2 6.
## I m = 2. # ;. m
;

= I. #

! m 2

&the units cancel out'

K. E= 3. strain = @. stress = load ;. ! = = I. # cross sectional area .2 # B m 2 e*tension .@ # B m = = B. # length B. m

I

stress I. # ; 1a = = 2 # strain 2. # ;

1a

1a

# .

E=

stress I. # K 1a = = # .B # strain B. # I

##

1a

E!ternal 2eferences
This activity is ta=en from Advancing 1hysics Ghapter I, ; 5