CHAPETER- 2

APPARENT IMPEDANCE CALCULATIONS

2.1 Introduction
UHV/EHV transmission lines are vital to power systems as they constitute power
systems backbone, and are intended to transmit large amount of electric power over long
distance !istance relays are widely used as primary or backup protection for UHV/EHV
lines, as they are independent of communication channels, and their reaches are insensitive to
system condition " distance relay operates by measuring the electrical circuit distance
between the relay location and the point of fault #apparent impedance$ to determine if a fault
is in its protection %one &t is apparent that the protection %ones need to be set accurately to
avoid overreaching or underreaching, and ensure the reliability and selectivity 'ormally the
protection %ones can be set without considering the distributed capacitance, as the impedance
of the distributed capacitance is too big compared with the line impedance (ith the
transmission distance increasing, however, the distributed capacitance of the whole line
increases correspondingly )eanwhile, to improve the economical and transmission
efficiency over long distance, higher voltage levels are adopted, which brings higher
distributed capacitance per unit of transmission lines *he impedance of the distributed
capacitance is comparable with the line impedance, thus its effects on the distance relay need
to be considered, to ensure the distance relays reliable operation
2.2 Apparent ipedance !it"out con#iderin$ o% &ine capacitance
&n the case of %ero fault resistance, the measured impedance by distance relay is the
e+act impedance of the line section between the fault and the relaying points "ccording to
fig,- *his impedance is e.ual to d/
-0
, where d is per unit length of the line section between
the fault and the relaying points, and /
-0
is the line positive se.uence impedance in ohms
1or a non2%ero fault resistance, the measured impedance at the relaying point is not e.ual to
the mentioned magnitude &n this case, the structural and operational conditions of the power
system affect the measured impedance *he operational conditions prior to the fault instances
can be represented by the load angle of the line 3 and the voltage magnitude ratio at the line
-4
ends h or in general E
'
/ E
)
5 he
263
*he structural conditions are evaluated by the short
circuit levels at the line ends /
-7)
and /
-7'
are the source impedances of sources E
)
and E
'
respectively

'i$.2.1 &ine dia$ra %or p"a#e-to-$round %au&t !it"out con#ideration
o% &ine capacitance
"pplying superposition theorem for network given in fig,-, current supplied by
source E
)
is given by &
)
"nd current supplied by source E
'
is given by &
'

)
)
-) -'
E
& 5
/ 8/
2222222 #,-$
'
'
-) -'
E
& 5
/ 8/
2222222 #,,$
1rom e.ns #,-$ 9 #,,$ the pre fault line current at relay is given by

) ' :;E
& 5& 2& 2222222 #,<$

' )
-) -' -) -'
:;E
E E
& 5 2
/ 8/ / 8/
2222222 #,=$

2>3
)
:;E
-) -'
E #-2he $
&
/ 8/
2222222 #,?$
-@
(here

'
)
E
h5
E
A
' )
2>3
E 5E he 2222222 #,4$
3 5 "ngle b/w bus )9'
*he measured impedance at relaying point can be e+pressed as

-) -7) -0
/ 5/ 8d/ A
-' -7' -0
/ 5/ 8#-2d$/
2222222 #,@$
*he pre fault voltage at fault point is given by

:;E ) :;E -)
V 5E 2& / 2222222 #,B$

'i$.2.2 Se(uence dia$ra %or A-p"a#e-to-$round %au&t !it"out
con#ideration o% &ine capacitance
-B
1rom fig,,, the single line to ground fault in phase " :ositive, 'egative and %ero
se.uence currents through fault resistance
1
; are


:;E
-1 ,1 C1
D 1
V
& 5& 5& 5
/ 8<;
2222222 #,E$
-) -' ,) ,' C) C'
-) -' ,) ,' C) C'
/ / / / / /
/ 5 8 8
/ 8/ / 8/ / 8/

22222 #,-C$
8Ve 7e.uence impedance 5 2Ve se.uence impedance
*hen the e.n #,-C$ becomes to

-) -' C) C'
D
-) -' C) C'
/ / / /
/ 5, 8
/ 8/ / 8/
_ _

, ,
22222 #,--$
*hus se.uence current from ) to 1 are e+pression as

:;E
-)1 ,)1 - -1 -
D 1
V
& 5& 5F & 5F
/ 8<;
22222 #,-,$

:;E
C)1 C C1 C
D 1
V
& 5F & 5F
/ 8<;
22222 #,-<$
(here F
-
and F
C
are 8Ve and %ero se.uence current distribution factors defined by

-' C'
-) -' C) C'
- C
/ /
/ / / /
F 5 AF 5
8 8
22222 #,-=$
*herefore the phase " fault current &
")

measured by relay at )

") :;E -)1 ,)1 C)1
& 5& 8#& 8& 8& $ 22222 #,-?$
-E
*he :hase " Voltage at relay point ) may be obtained from

") :;E -)1 -0) ,)1 -0) C)1 C0) -1 ,1 C1 1
V 5#& 8& 8& $; #& 8& $/ 8& / 8& / 8 22222 #,-4$
0et us consider

-0) C0) -0 C0
/ 5d/ A/ 5d/ 22222 #,-@$
*he apparent impedance of phase " measured at relay ) is given by

")
"::
") C0 C1
V
/ 5
& 8G &
22222 #,-B$
(here
C0
G
is %ero se.uence compensation factors


C0 -0
C0
-0
/ 2/
G 5
/
22222 #,-E$
-0
/ 9
C0
/ are 8 Ve 9 %ero se.uence impedance of protectected line 7ubstituting all the
values and rewriting e.n #,-B$, we get the measured impedance at the relaying point can be
e+pressed as
( )
1
":: -0
1 - C C0
<;
/ 5d/ 8
/ 8<; G 8,F 8F #-8G $

22222 #,,C$
0et us consider

2>3
3 2>3
-' -)
-2he
G 5
/ 8/ he
22222 #,,-$
"nd from e.ns #,--$ 9 #,-=$

-) -' C) C'
-) -' C) C'
,/ / / /
/ 5 8
/ 8/ / 8/

9
-'
-
-) -'
/
F 5
/ 8/
A
C'
C
C) C'
/
F 5
/ 8/
&t can be seen that for %ero fault resistance, the measured impedance at the relaying
point is e.ual to the impedance of the line section located between the relaying and the fault
,C
points "s it can be seen from e.n #,,C$, the power system conditions only affect the
measured impedance in the presence of fault resistance &n the previous analysis, line
capacitance is not considered to the transmission line
2.) Apparent ipedance at re&a*in$ point !it" con#ideration o% &ine
capacitance
0ong EHV/UHV transmission lines are highly affected by the line capacitance
influences &f line capacitance influence for a fault with considerable value of fault resistance
is ignored, then there is a substantial error in the impedance seen by a relay )odel including
the line capacitance influences for the transmission line is shown in fig,< &n this proposed
method double H model is utili%ed for considering the transmission line capacitance with
fault resistance as shown in fig,= *he system of fig,= includes four additional shunt
branchesA compared to fig,<, the fault point divides the line into two H sections Each line
section is modeled by a H model

'i$.2.) Mode& inc&udin$ t"e #"unt capacitance in%&uence# %or t"e tran#i##ion &ine
;eferring to fig ,<, applying 7uperposition theorem for network consider 7ource I)J
Furrent flows through by I)J is given by
[ ]
)
-7)
-7' -F' -0 -F) -7)
E
& 5
###/ /// $8/ $$/// $$$8/ $
22222 #,,,$

,-

[ ] [ ]
) -7' -F' -0 -F) -7' -F'
-7)
-7) -0 -F) -7' -F' -F' -7' -F) -7' -F' -0 -7' -F'
E ##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $
& 5
/ #/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / 8/ / / 8/ #/ 8/ $
22222 #,,<$
0et us consider
[ ] [ ]
- -7) -0 -F) -7' -F' -F' -7' -F) -7' -F' -0 -7' -F'
G 5/ #/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / 8/ / / 8/ #/ 8/ $
22222 #,,=$

, -7' -F' -0 -F) -7' -F'
G 5##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $
22222 #,,?$
*hen e.n #,,<$ becomes to

) ,
-7) )
- -
,
E G
& 5 5 E
G G
G
_

_
,

,
22222 #,,4$
Furrent flows through &
-0)

is

-F)
-0) -7)
-F) -7' -F' -0
/
& 5&
##/ 8#/ /// $$8/
22222 #,,@$

-F) -7' -F'
-0) -7)
-0 -F) -7' -F' -7' -F'
/ #/ 8/ $
& 5&
##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $$
22222 #,,B$
0et us considered from e.n #,,4$

,
-7) )
-
G
& 5E
G
_

,
7ubstitute e.n #,,4$ in e.n #,,B$, then we get

-F) -7' -F'
-0) )
-
/ #/ 8/ $
& 5E
G
22222 #,,E$
0et us consider

< -F) -7' -F'
G 5/ #/ 8/ $
22222 #,<C$
*hen e.n #,,E$ becomes
,,

<
-0) )
-
G
& 5E
G
_

,
22222 #,<-$
;eferring from fig ,<, applying 7uperposition theorem for network consider 7ource
I'J Furrent flows through by I'J is given by

[ ]
'
-7'
-7) -F) -0 -F' -7'
E
& 5
###/ /// $8/ $$/// $$$8/ $
22222 #,<,$
[ ] [ ]
' -7) -F) -0 -F' -7) -F)
-7'
-7' -0 -F' -7) -F) -F) -7) -F' -7) -F) -0 -7) -F)
E ##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $
& 5
/ ##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $ 8/ / / 8/ #/ 8/ $
22222 #,<<$
0et us consider from e.n #,<<$
[ ] [ ]
= -7' -0 -F' -7) -F) -F) -7) -F' -7) -F) -0 -7) -F)
G 5/ ##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $ 8/ / / 8/ #/ 8/ $
22222 #,<=$
? -7) -F) -0 -F' -7) -F)
G ##/ 8/ $#/ 8/ $8/ / $
22222 #,<?$
*hen e.n #,<<$ becomes

?
-7' '
=
G
& 5E
G
_

,
22222 #,<4$
Furrent flow through &
-0'
is

-F'
-0' -7'
-F' -7) -F) -0
/
& 5&
##/ 8#/ /// $$8/
22222 #,<@$


-F' -7) -F)
-0' -7'
?
/ #/ 8/ $
& 5&
G
22222 #,<B$
1rom e.n #,<4$

?
-7' '
=
G
& 5E
G
_

,

7ubstitute in e.n #,<4$ in to e.n #,<B$ then we get
,<

-F' -7) -F)
-0' '
=
/ #/ 8/ $
& 5E
G
22222 #,<E$
0et us consider
4 -F' -7) -F)
G 5/ #/ 8/ $
22222 #,=C$
*hen e.n #,<E$ becomes to

4
-0' '
=
G
& 5E
G
_

,
22222 #,=-$

Furrent flows through &
-')
is

-F)
-') -0'
-F) -7)
/
& 5&
#/ 8/ $
22222 #,=,$
(here
?
-7' '
=
G
& 5E
G
_

,
9
-F' -7) -F)
-0' -7'
?
/ #/ 8/ $
& 5&
G
from e.n #,<4$ 9 #,<B$ substitute
&
-0'
in e.n #,=,$ then we get

-F) -F'
-') '
=
/ /
& 5E
G
22222 #,=<$
0et us consider
@ -F) -F'
G 5/ /
22222 #,==$
*hen e.n #,=<$ becomes to

@
-') '
=
k
& 5E
G
_

,
22222 #,=?$
1rom e.ns #,,4$, #,=?$, #,<-$, #,=-$ 9 #,<4$ then the &
:;E
and &
-0
are
&
:;E
5 &
-7)
2&
-')
22222 #,=4$
&
-0
5 &
-0)
2&
-0'
22222 #,=@$
*hen the e.ns #,=4$, #,=@$ becomes to
,=

2>3 @ ,
:;E )
- =
G G
& 5E 2 he
G G
1
1
]
22222 #,=B$

2>3 < 4
-0 )
- =
G G
& 5E 2 he
G G
1
1
]
22222 #,=E$

0et us consider from e.n #,4$

'
)
E
h5
E
A
' )
2>3
E 5E he

3 is angle b/w bus )9'
e.ns #,=B$, #,=E$ may be written as

:;E ) *-
& 5E /
22222 #,?C$

-0 ) *,
& 5E /
22222 #,?-$
0et us consider

263 @ ,
*-
- =
G G
/ 5 2 he
G G
1
1
]
A
263 < 4
*,
- =
G G
/ 5 2 he
G G
1
1
]
22222 #,?,$

'i$.2.+ Line dia$ra %or p"a#e-to-$round %au&t !it" con#ideration
o% &ine capacitance
&f shunt capacitance influence for a fault with considerable value of fault resistance is
ignored, then there is a substantial error in the impedance seen by a relay /
-F)
5-/
,?
#>K(K:KF
-
/,$A /
-F'
5-/ #>K(K:KF
-
/,$ then L
-F)
5-//
-F)
A L
-F'
5-//
-F'
&n this proposed
method double H model is utili%ed for considering the transmission line capacitance with
fault resistance as shown in fig,= *he system of fig,= includes four additional shunt
branches compared to fig,< the fault point divides the line into two H sections Each line
section is modeled by a H model *he admittance of the shunt branches is e.ual to L
-F)-
5
C?dL
-F)
, L
-F'-
5C?#-2d$L
-F'
, /
-F)-
5-/
L-F)-
, /
-F'-
5-/L
-F'-
and similarly /
CF)-
5-/L
CF)-
A
/
CF'-
5-/L
CF'-

'i$.2.,. Se(uence dia$ra %or p"a#e-A-$round %au&t !it" con#ideration
o% &ine capacitance
*he pre fault voltage at fault point is given by

:;E ) :;E -7) -0 -0
V 5 E 2 & / 2 & d/
22222 #,?<$

:;E ) *- -7) *, -0
V 5 E #- 2 / / 2 / d/ $
22222 #,?=$
(here
:;E ) *-
& 5E /
A
-0 ) *,
& 5E /
from e.ns #,?C$ 9 #,?-$
,4
1rom fig,? shows 7e.uence diagram for phase2"2ground fault with consideration of
line capacitance then the 8Ve,2Ve and %ero se.uence e.ualent impedances from se.uence
diagram

-7) -F)- -0 -7) -F)- -F)-
-)e.
-7) -F)- -7) -F)- -0 -F)-
#/ / 8d / #/ 8/ $$/
/ 5
/ / 8#/ 8/ $ #d / 8/ $
22222 #,??$

C7) CF)- C0 C7) CF)- CF)-
C)e.
C7) CF)- C7) CF)- C0 CF)-
#/ / 8d / #/ 8/ $$/
/ 5
/ / 8#/ 8/ $ #d / 8/ $
22222 -,?4$

-7' -F'- -0 -7' -F'- -F'-
-'e.
-7' -F'- -7' -F'- -0 -F'-
#/ / 8 #-2d$ / #/ 8/ $$/
/ 5
/ / 8#/ 8/ $ ##-2d$ / 8/ $
22222 #,?@$

C7' CF'- C0 C7' CF'- CF'-
C'e.
C7' CF'- C7' CF'- C0 CF'-
#/ / 8 #-2d$ / #/ 8/ $$/
/ 5
/ / 8#/ 8/ $ ##-2d$ / 8/ $
22222 #,?B$

-)e. -'e. C)e. C'e.
-)e. -'e. C)e. C'e.
,/ / / /
/ 5 8
/ 8/ / 8/

22222 #,?E$
!uring single line to ground fault in phase " the :ositive, 'egative and %ero
se.uence currents through the fault resistance ;
1
are

:;E
-1 ,1 C1
1
V
& 5& 5& 5
/ 8<;

22222 #,4C$
*hus the se.uence currents from M to 1 are e+pressed as

:;E
-M1 ,M1 -- -1
D 1
V
& 5& 5F & 5
/ 8<;
22222 #,4-$

:;E
CM1 C- C1
D 1
V
& 5F & 5
/ 8<;
22222 #,4,$
0et us consider
-- C-
F and F
are the :ositive and /ero se.uence current !istribution factors
defined as
,@

-'e.
--
-)e. -'e.
/
F 5
/ 8/
.
C'e.
-C
C)e. C'e.
/
F 5
/ 8/
22222 #,4<$
*hus the se.uence currents from : to M are e+pressed as

:;E
-:M ,:M -, -1 -,
D 1
V
& 5& 5F & 5F
/ 8<;
22222 #,4=$

:;E
C:M C, C1 C,
D 1
V
& 5F & 5F
/ 8<;
22222 #,4?$
0et us consider
-, C,
F andF are the :ositive and /ero se.uence current !istribution factors
defined as

-F)- -F)- -7)
-,
-F)- -7) -7) -F)- -F)- -0
/ #/ 8/ $
F 5
#/ / 8#/ 8/ $#/ 8d/ $
22222 #,44$

CF)- NF)- N7)
C,
NF)- N7) N7) NF)- CF)- C0
/ #/ 8/ $
F 5
#/ / 8#/ 8/ $#/ 8d/ $
22222 #,4@$
*hus the se.uence currents from ) to : are e+pressed as

:;E
-): ,): -< -1 -<
D 1
V
& 5& 5F & 5F
/ 8<;
22222 #,4B$

:;E
C): C< C1 C<
D 1
V
& 5F & 5F
/ 8<;
22222 #,4E$
0et us consider
-< C<
F andF
are the 8Ve and %ero se.uence current distribution factors
defined as

-F)-
-<
-7) -F)-
/
F 5
#/ 8/ $
22222 #,@C$
,B

CF)-
C<
C7) CF)-
/
F 5
#/ 8/ $
22222 #,@-$
*he apparent impedance of phase " measured at relay point ) is given by

")
"::
") C0 C1
V
/ 5
& 8G &
22222 #,@,$
(here
C0
G is %ero se.uence compensation factors

C0 -0
C0
-0
/ 2/
G 5
/
22222 #,@<$
*herefore the phase " fault current &
")
fault current )easured by relay at )

") :;E -)1 ,)1 C)1
& 5& 8#& 8& 8& $ 22222 #,@=$

1 1
:;E :;E
") :;E -- -, -< C- C, C<
V V
& 5 & 8 ,F F F 8 F F F
/ 8<; / 8<;

22222 #,@?$

1 1
:;E :;E
") C0 C1 :;E -- -, -< C- C, C< C0
V V
& 8G & 5 & 8 ,F F F 8 F F F #-8G $
/ 8<; / 8<;

22222 #,@4$
*he :hase " Voltage at relay point ) is obtained as

") -0) -1 ,1 C1 1 -0 -M1 -:M -0) ,M1 ,:M ,0) C:M C0)
V 5#& 8& 8& $; & / 8& & / 8& & 8& / 8 /
22222 #,@@$

") -0 -1 ,1 C1 1 -0 -M1 -:M -0 C:M C0
V 5#& 8& 8& $; & d/ 8,& & d/ 8& d/ 8
22222 #,@B$

") -0
:;E :;E :;E
1 -0 -- -, -0 C- C, C0
1 1 1
V 5<; & d/ 8,F F d/ 8F F d/
V V V
8
/ 8<; / 8<; / 8<;

22222 #,@E$
0et us consider from e.n #,-@$

-0) C0) -0 C0
/ 5d/ A / 5d/
,E
7ubstituting all the values and rewriting e.n #,@,$, we get the measured impedance at the
relaying point can be e+pressed as

1
-0 -0 1 -- -, -0 C- C, C0
:;E
"::
1
:;E -- -, -< C- C, C< C0
:;E
/ 8<;
& d/ 8<; 8,F F d/ 8F F d/
V
/ 5
/ 8<;
& 8,F F F 8F F F #-8G $
V

_

,
_

,
22222 #,BC$
0et us consider from e.uation #,BC$

1
:;E0- -0
:;E
/ 8<;
& 5 &
V

_

,
22222 #,B-$

1
:;E0, :;E
:;E
/ 8<;
& 5&
V

_

,
22222 #,B,$

:;E0- -0 -- -, -0 C- C, C0
GF-5& d/ 8,F F d/ 8F F d/
22222 #,B<$

:;E0, -- -, -< C- C, C< C0
GF,5& 8,F F F 8F F F #-8G $
22222 #,B=$
*hen apparent impedance of phase " measured at relay ) is given by from e.uation
#,BC$ becomes to


1
"::
<; 8GF-
/ 5
GF,
22222 #,B?$
&t can bee seen from e.n #,BC$, that the fault resistance is not only the factor causing the
measured impedance deviation, but also the line capacitance *he /
"::
is also dependent on
power system conditions and line length
<C
2.+ Conc&u#ion
*he measured impedance at the relaying point is the basis of the distance protection
operation *here are several factors affecting the measured impedance at the relaying point
7ome of these factors are related to the power system parameters prior to the fault instance,
which can be categori%ed into two groups 1irst group is the structural conditions,
represented by the short circuit levels at the transmission line ends, whereas the second group
is the operational conditions, represented by the line load angle and the voltage magnitude
ratio at the line ends &n addition to the power system parameters, the fault resistance could
greatly influence the measured impedance, in such a way that for %ero fault resistance, the
power system parameters do not affect the measured impedance &n other words, power
system parameters affect the measured impedance only in the presence of the fault resistance,
and as the fault resistance increases, the impact of power system parameters becomes more
severe &n this case measured impedance at relay point with considering line capacitance
<-