LA 46 (1996) 9-32

SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH

A. Niccacci
As in other similar studies, I have established three levels of the narrative text:
main narrative line, secondary line (antecedent information, or setting of the
story), and direct speech.
1
Main-line verb forms are placed on the right mar-
gin of the page. Background constructions, i.e. secondary-line constructions
connected with a preceding wayyiqtol, are also placed on the right margin and
are marked with an arrow (). Antecedent (setting) constructions, i.e. those
connected with a following wayyiqtol, are indented to the left. Direct speech
is further indented to the left.
1. The Narrative Text
Main narrative line
Secondary line (antecedent information)
Direct speech
1:1
(a) Afterwards the word of the Lord came : ::: : :
to Jonah the son of Amittai, saying,
1:2
(a) Arise, c ;
(b) go to Nineveh, that great city, : : : : j
(c) and call upon her, : ;
(d) for their wickedness has come up :c c:: :::
before me.
1. I have presented my theory on the Biblical Hebrew verb system in The Syntax of the Verb
in Classical Hebrew Prose, Sheffield 1990. An application of the theory to complete texts is
found in Lettura sintattica della prosa ebraico-biblica. Principi e applicazioni, Jerusalem
1991, as well as in later studies: Diluvio, sintassi e metodo, LA 44 (1994) 9-46; Analysis
of Biblical Narrative, in: R.D. Bergen (ed.), Biblical Hebrew and Discourse Linguistics,
Dallas 1994, 175-198; Syntactic Analysis of Ruth, LA 45 (1995) 69-106; and Narrative
Syntax of Exodus 19-24 (to be published by E.J. Brill in the Biblical Interpretation Series
in late 1997).
A. NICCACCI 10
1:3
(a) But Jonah rose to flee to Tarshish from the :c: ::: : : c;
presence of the Lord.
(b) He went down to Joppa c
(c) and found a ship going to Tarshish. ::: : : ::
(d) He paid the fare for it :: :
(e) and went on board, to go with :c: ::: c:: : :
them to Tarshish, away from the presence of the Lord;
1:4
(a) but soon after the Lord hurled a great wind c : c
upon the sea.
(b) Thus, there came a mighty tempest on the sea, c: ::c
(c) so that the ship threatened to break up. :: :: :
1:5
(a) Then the mariners were afraid, c:
(b) and cried each one to his god. : ;:
(c) They threw the wares c:: ; c :: : c:: c
that were in the ship into the sea, to lighten it for them,
(d) while Jonah went down into the inner part of :cc :: :
the ship.
(e) He laid down :::
(f) and fall asleep. c
1:6
(a) So the captain approached him : : :;
(b) and said to him, :
(c) What are you doing asleep? c: j:
(d) Arise, c ;
(e) call upon your god! j ;
(f) Perhaps the god will give a thought to us, : c ::::
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 11
(g) so that we will not perish. ::
1:7
(a) And they said to one another, : : :
(b) Come, :
(c) let us cast lots, :: c:
(d) that we may know ::
(e) on whose account this evil has come : : : :::
upon us.
(f) So they cast lots, :: c
(g) and the lot fell upon Jonah. :: : c
1:8
(a) Then they said to him, :
(b) Tell us, : ::
(c) on whose account this evil has come : : :: ::
upon us?
(d) What is your occupation? j::::
(e) And whence do you come? : : :
(f) What is your country? j: :
(g) And of what people are you? : c: :
1:9
(a) He said to them, c :
(b) I am a Hebrew; : : : :
(c) and it is the Lord, the God of : c:: :
heaven, that I fear,
(d) who made the sea and the dry land. ::: c: :::
1:10
(a) Then the men were exceedingly afraid, : c::
(b) and said to him, :
(c) Why have you done this? ::: ::
A. NICCACCI 12
(d) For the men knew c:: ::
(e) that from the presence of the Lord he was fleeing, : :c::
(f) because he had told them. c : :
1:11
(a) Then they said to him, :
(b) What shall we do to you, j ::::
(c) that the sea may quiet down for us? ::: c ;::
(d) For the sea grew more and more tempestuous. :c j c :
1:12
(a) He said to them, c :
(b) Take me up ::
(c) and throw me into the sea, c : c
(d) that the sea will quiet down for you; c::: c ;::
(e) for I know : : :
(f) that it is because of me that this c:: : :c :: :
great tempest has come upon you.
1:13
(a) Nevertheless the men rowed hard to return :: :: c:: :
back to land,
(b) but they could not, :
(c) for the sea grew more and more tempestuous c: :c j c :
against them.
1:14
(a) Therefore they cried to the Lord, ;
(b) and said, :
(c) We beseech you, o Lord, :
(d) let us not perish for this mans life, : :c:: :: :
(e) and lay not on us innocent blood; ;: c :: ::
(f) for you, o Lord, ::
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 13
(g) as it pleased you, : : c : :
(h) you have done. :::
1:15
(a) So they took up Jonah :: :
(b) and threw him into the sea; c c
(c) and the sea ceased from its raging. c : : c : :
1:16
(a) Then the men feared the Lord exceedingly, : : c::
(b) and they offered a sacrifice to the Lord ::
(c) and made vows. c:
2:1=1:17 RSV
(a) Then the Lord appointed a great fish to :: :: : : :
swallow up Jonah;
(b) and Jonah was in the belly of : :: c: :: : ::: :
the fish three days and three nights.
2:2=2:1 RSV
(a) Then Jonah prayed to the Lord his : ::: : c:
God from the belly of the fish,
2:3=2:2 RSV
(a) and said () :
2:3-10 = 2:2-9 RSV is poetry, see 3 below
2:11=2:10 RSV
(a) The Lord then spoke to the fish, : :
(b) and it vomited out Jonah toward the dry land. :: :: ;
3:1
(a) Then the word of the Lord came to Jonah : ::: : :
the second time, saying,
A. NICCACCI 14
3:2
(a) Arise, c ;
(b) go to Nineveh, that great city, : : : : j
(c) and proclaim to it the message ;: ;
(d) that I will tell you. j : :: :
3:3
(a) So Jonah arose : c;
(b) and went to Nineveh, according to the word of the Lord. :: :: j
(c) Now Nineveh was a c: ::: j: c :: : ::
city great to God the breadth of three days journey.
3:4
(a) Jonah began to go into the city for a c j: :: : :
days journey.
(b) He cried, ;
(c) and said, :
(d) In yet forty days, c c:: :
(e) Nineveh shall be overthrown! ::c: ::
3:5
(a) And the people of Nineveh believed God; c: :: :: ::
(b) they proclaimed a fast, c:;
(c) and put on sackcloth, from the greatest of them c:c;: c:: c;: ::
to the smallest of them.
3:6
(a) Then the news reached the king of Nineveh. :: j: : ::
(b) He arose from his throne, c:: c;
(c) removed his robe, :: : ::
(d) covered himself with sackcloth, ;: c:
(e) and sat in ashes. c : : :
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 15
3:7
(a) And he made proclamation ; :
(b) and said through Nineveh by the : : j: c:c: ::: :
decree of the king and his nobles saying,
(c) Man or beast, herd or flock, : ;: :: c
(d) let them not taste anything; : : : : c
(e) let them not graze, :
(f) as well as let them not drink water, :: c:
3:8
(a) but let them be covered with sackcloth, :: c c;: c::
both man and beast,
(b) and let them cry mightily to God; ; : c ;
(c) yea, let every one turn from his evil way : :: : ::
(d) and from the violence which is in his hands. cc:: : c::
3:9
(a) Who knows, he will again :: ::
(b) repent, God, c c:
(c) and he will turn from his fierce anger, c : ::
(d) so that we will not perish? ::
3:10
(a) Thus God saw their deeds, c:::: c
(b) that they turned from their evil way, : c:: :::
(c) and God repented of the evil :: c c:
(d) which he had said he would do to them, c::: ::
(e) and he did not do. ::
4:1
(a) But it displeased Jonah exceedingly, : : : :
(b) and he was angry.
A. NICCACCI 16
4:2
(a) He prayed to the Lord c :
(b) and said, :
(c) I pray you, Lord, :
(d) is not this my word when I was ::: :: :
yet in my country?
(e) That is why I made haste to flee to ::: : ::; ::
Tarshish;
(f) for I knew :: :
(g) that :: c: c: cc j c : : :
you are a gracious and merciful God, slow to anger and abounding in love, and one who re-
pents of evil.
4:3
(a) Therefore now, o Lord, ::
(b) take my life from me, I beseech you, ::: :c:: :;
(c) for it is better for me to die than to live. : :: :c :
4:4
(a) And the Lord said, :
(b) Did you rightly become angry? j :c
4:5
(a) Then Jonah went out of the city : : : :
(b) and sat to the east of the city, : c;: ::
(c) and made a booth for himself there. : c c : : :
(d) He sat under it in the shade, :: :: ::
(e) till he would see : :
(f) what would happen in the city. :: :
4:6
(a) And the Lord God appointed a plant, ;; c :
(b) and made it come up ::: : :: : : : :: :
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 17
over Jonah, that it might be a shade over his head, to save him from his distress.
(c) So Jonah was exceedingly glad because of : :: ;;: : ::
the plant.
4:7
But when dawn came up the next day, :: : ::: ::: c :
God appointed a worm;
it attacked the plant, ;;: j:
and it withered. : :
4:8
(a) But when the sun rose, ::: :
(b) God appointed a sultry east wind, :: c; c :
(c) and the sun beat upon the head of Jonah : :: ::: j:
(d) so that he was faint; j : :
(e) and he asked his soul to die, :: :c:: :
(f) and said, :
(g) It is better for me to die than to live. : :: :c
4:9
(a) But God said to Jonah, : c :
(b) Did you rightly become angry for the ;;: j :c
plant?
(c) And he said, :
(d) I rightly became angry unto death. ::: :c
4:10
(a) And the Lord said, :
(b) You felt pity for the plant, ;;: :c :
(c) for which you did not labor, : ::: :
(d) nor did you make it grow, ::
(e) which in a night came into being, : :
A. NICCACCI 18
(f) and in a night perished. : :
4:11
(a) And should not I pity : : ::: c :
Nineveh, that great city,
(b) in which there are more c : ::c::: : :: :
than a hundred and twenty thousand persons
(c) who do not know their : :: :: ::: : :
right hand from their left, and also much cattle?
2. Grammatical Analysis
1:1-5 The Jonah novella begins with narrative wayyiqtol (1:1a) and goes
on with a chain of selfsame verb forms that constitutes the main line, or the
backbone of the story (1:3a-e). The negative counterpart of narrative wayyiq-
tol is w
e
l + qatal (e.g. 1:13b).
In 1:1a way
e
h is full verb, in the sense that the following noun phrase
is its subject (as in 3:1a and 3:3c, differently from 4:8a; see below).
2
Sentence 1:4a is a waw-x-qatal construction different from wayyiqtol
and constituting a break in the narrative chain. Indeed, every construction
of the secondary level in historical narrative i.e. the non-verbal clause,
w
e
qatal, and waw-x-yiqtol besides waw-x-qatal needs to rely on the
main-line verb form, i.e. narrative wayyiqtol, and this narrative wayyiqtol
can precede or follow. In 1:4a, waw-x-qatal is probably connected with
the preceding wayyiqtol rather than with the following one.
3
This decision
2. In Organizzazione canonica della Bibbia ebraica. Tra sintassi e retorica, RivBiblIt 43
(1995) 9-29, esp. p. 19, I have interpreted the appearance of a wayyiqtol at the beginning of
several biblical books (Leviticus, Numbers, Joshua, Judges, 1Samuel, 2Samuel, 2Kings,
Ezekiel, Ruth, and Esther) as sign of a conscious canonical organization in the Hebrew Bible.
I suggested that because the Book of Jonah follows that of Obadiah both in the Hebrew and in
the Greek canon, the initial way
e
h connects the Book of Jonah precisely with that of Obadiah.
Now, the last words in Obadiah are as follows: and the kingdom shall be the Lords; the in-
tended meaning would be: precisely because he is the sovereign of all peoples, the Lord or-
dered Jonah to go and preach to the Ninevites to repent. Support for this interpretation may
come from the fact that the Minor Prophets traditionally formed a single book called The
Twelve.
3. The other possibility is to refer the waw-x-qatal to the following wayyiqtol. In this case,
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 19
is taken on semantic reasons. First, a link exists between the two sentences
1:3e and 1:4a, established by the divine name Yahweh. Second, a further
link is represented by the roots yrad to go down and l Hifil to hurl,
which appear both here and in 1:5 but in reverse order, i.e. in the tense
shifts wayyred waw-x + hl in 1:3e-4a, and wayyil waw-x +
yrad in 1:5c-d. From the point of view of aspect, the tense shift
wayyiqtol waw-x-qatal in 1:3e-4a expresses the immediateness of the
divine action.
4
As a rule, waw-x-qatal communicates an information as
background to wayyiqtol. The two sentences the one with wayyiqtol and
the one waw-x-qatal make up one indivisible grammatical unit composed
of foreground and background. Thus, the break produced in the narrative
main line by waw-x-qatal is definitely not significant;
5
it only represents a
pause in the flow of communication. This is a syntactical means available
to the biblical author to convey his information in a structured and mean-
ingful way. Note that the verb forms used are the basic means to achieve
this goal.
6
Two more waw-x-qatal constructions are present in 1:4c and 1:5d. Both
are connected with a preceding narrative wayyiqtol. We translate, therefore:
There came a mighty tempest on the sea, so that (or: and immediately) the
it would convey an antecedent information to the new episode of the story (see Syntax
15-18). Syntax does not provide criteria do decide. Literary interpretation and semantics
must help.
4. If we had another wayyiqtol instead of waw-x-qatal, the information would be simply suc-
cessive to the previous one: He went on board and then the Lord hurled a great wind In
other words, the grammatical construction suggests that the Lord intervened as soon as they
sailed on open sea. This interpretation accords with the fact that the sailors tried to bring the
ship back to land but did not succeed (1:13). Alternatively, one could interpret the divine in-
tervention as direct reaction to Jonahs flight: and as a consequence God hurled a great
wind The main issue is that this information is conveyed as dependent on the previous one
(i.e. background) while the exact relationship may vary from one context to the other and also
from one interpreter to the other.
5. That is, it does not constitute the beginning of a new text in the sense of the following defi-
nition by H. Weinrich: A text is a logical (i.e. intelligible and consistent) sequence of linguis-
tic signs, placed between two significant breaks in communication; see my Syntax of the Verb
in Classical Hebrew Prose, Sheffield 1990, 36, p. 56. The original definition is found in H.
Weinrich, Tempus. Besprochene und erzhlte Welt, 4th ed., Stuttgart 1985, 11.
6. Time and again I insisted on the necessity for the interpreters to try to understand and re-
spect the way an author shapes his information. We are not allowed to reshape it at our own
taste as is easily done by historical literary critics. This is to be understood as a cautionary re-
minder, not as a rejection of the historical-critical method as such. See my papers on the flood
narrative and on the Sinai pericope: Diluvio, sintassi e metodo, and Narrative Syntax of
Exodus 19-24, respectively.
A. NICCACCI 20
ship threatened to break up.
7
Then the mariners were afraid and cried They
threw while Jonah went down into the inner part of the ship.
8
1:6 Sentence (c) contains a participle without article, nirdm, which is
circumstantial to the previous pronominal suffix a usage similar to that of
the circumstantial participle in Greek.
9
In fact, in other cases the phrase mah-
ll
e
k is followed by an adverbial expression, either the adverb ph here
(What is your business here?: Judg. 18:3; 1Kgs. 19:9, 13) or a k + qatal
construction (What happened to you that you joined such a company?:
Judg. 18:23). Literally here, what have you, being asleep?
Sentences (d-e) are volitive i.e. two asyndetic imperatives (cf. 3:2)
while (f-g) are non-volitive, indicative constructions i.e. respectively, x-
yiqtol, and w
e
l + yiqtol, which is the negative counterpart of w
e
qatal, indi-
cating consequence: so that we will not perish.
1:7 Different volitive verb forms are found here: an imperative (b), and
two indirect jussive yiqtol forms, or w
e
yiqtol (c-d), coordinate to the impera-
tive.
10
In (e) b
e
ell
e
m (cf. 1:12f)
11
is the syntactic predicate and hr hazzt
ln is the syntactic subject. Note that the syntactic subject is a complete non-
7. Literally, the ship thought to be broken; on this peculiar expression, consult U. Simon,
Jona. Ein jdischer Kommentar, Stuttgart 1994, 81-82.
8. As noted earlier, the waw-x-qatal could also be connected to the following wayyiqtol as is
done, among others, by the RSV: But Jonah had gone down into the inner part of the ship.
The alternative possibility is preferable for the reason expressed above (see comment on 1:3b-
4). Thus, Jonahs behavior is related in contrast with the drastic measures taken by the sailors
to save their lives.
9. Scholars affirm that this construction, also present in Ezek. 18:2 (but here we find attem
m
e
lm, i.e. a non-verbal sentence with circumstantial function, not a simple participle; literally,
What do you have while you repeat the proverb) and Qoh. 6:8, and later in Mishnaic He-
brew, is characteristic of post-exilic language, in contradistinction from the old k + yiqtol con-
struction; see K. Almbladh, Studies in the Book of Jonah, Uppsala 1986, 20; Simon, Jona, 65.
10. In the imperative + w
e
yiqtol tense shift, the w
e
yiqtol is either coordinate or subordinate
to the imperative. This decision has to be taken on semantic grounds. Generally speaking, verb
forms of the same person are coordinate as is the case in 1:7b-d (even though the imperative
l
e
k is idiomatically in the second person plural), while when the verb forms are of different
persons, the w
e
yiqtol is normally dependent on the preceding imperative. See discussion in
Syntax 61. In case it is subordinate, w
e
yiqtol indicates the purpose of the command, i.e. do
this in order that Contradistinctively, in the tense shift imperative w
e
qatal does not
indicate the purpose but a mere consequence of the command. Consult Basic Facts and
Theory of the Biblical Hebrew Verb System in Prose (to be published by E.J. Brill in the
Biblical Interpretation Series in late 1997) 6.
11. The same as baer l
e
m (1:8c).
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 21
verbal clause, with hr hazzt as grammatical subject, and ln as gram-
matical predicate. The non-verbal clause is embedded in a superordinate
interrogative sentence.
12
Also note that this sentence is an indirect x-
question; syntactically, it is a cleft sentence.
13
1:8-9 The five interrogative sentences (c-g) show the same pattern syn-
tactic predicate - subject as 1:7e as follows:
2) SUBJECT 1) PREDICATE
(c) : : : : ::
I+
(d) j::: :
(e) : : :
I
(f) j : :
(g) : c: :
Note that the slot of the predicate is filled by interrogative pronouns
(c-d; f), adverb (e) and adjective (g), while the slot of the syntactical predi-
cate by different constructions. They are as follows: non-verbal clause (c),
noun (d; f), finite verb (e), and pronoun (g). For the principle of paradig-
matic substitution, both the noun and the finite verb form in the second
place of the sentence (waw-x-yiqtol in c) besides the non-verbal clause
play the same function of the syntactic subject. This proves that the sen-
tence type x - finite verb is functionally (i.e. syntactically) nominal al-
though it grammatically contains a finite verb. In other words, the finite
verb is (syntactically, not grammatically) nominalised as a consequence of
occupying the second position in the sentence, and the construction is
clefted (see 1:7e above).
Jonahs replies in 1:9 follows the same pattern syntactic predicate - sub-
ject of the questions of 1:8:
12. This is explained in my papers, Marked Syntactical Structures in Biblical Greek in Com-
parison with Biblical Hebrew, LA 43 (1993) 9-69, 3; and Basic Facts 8.
13. These interrogative sentences show the pattern syntactic predicate - subject because they
are x-questions. Indeed this particular interrogative sentence (as opposed to general inter-
rogative sentence with the verb in the first place, usually introduced by h-) is a cleft construc-
tion per se. On the general topic, consult T. Givn, Syntax. A Functional-Typological
Introduction, vol. II, Amsterdam - Philadelphia 1990, 18.4.2.4. More specifically, see
Marked Syntactical Structures 1-3; 5, where I have listed four types of the cleft sentence
in Biblical Hebrew, among which the x-questions, and the corresponding structures in Bibli-
cal Greek.
A. NICCACCI 22
2) SUBJECT 1) PREDICATE
(b) : : : :
(c) : c : : :
A distant reply to the question of 1:8c in 1:12e also follows the pattern
syntactic predicate - subject:
2) SUBJECT 1) PREDICATE
c:: : :c ::
These replies show, in the slot of the predicate, a universal term (ibr,
1:9b) and two complements with particular terms: the Lord (1:9c) and I
(1:12e). In the first case, the non-verbal sentence is predicative and plain: I
am a Hebrew;
16
in the other two cases, the sentence is marked and clefted:
it is the Lord that I fear; it is because of me that this great tempest has
come upon you.
17
1:10 The interrogative sentence (c) is again a x-question with the same
pattern as those in 1:8:
2) SUBJECT 1) PREDICATE
(c) ::: : :
14. Baer l
e
- is equivalent to b
e
ell
e
- (1:7e; 1:12f).
15. This use of yiqtol after mayin from where? may be idiomatic; it does not represent an
established function of that verb form in direct speech. In other occurrences of the same phrase,
yiqtol prevails (Jos. 9:8; Judg. 17:9; 19:17; 2Kgs. 20:14; Job 1:7), but qatal (Gen. 42:7) and a
simple pronoun (Gen. 42:7; Jos. 2:4) are also attested. Similarly, -mizzeh from which?
is followed by yiqtol (2Sam. 1:3; Job 2:2), qatal (Gen. 16:8) and a pronoun (1Sam. 25:11;
30:13; 2Sam. 1:13; 2Sam. 15:2). Note that in these cases, too, the finite verb is used with a
nominal function.
16. LXX: I am a servant of the Lord.
17. See my exposition in Simple Nominal Clause (SNC) or Verbless Clause in Biblical He-
brew Prose, ZAH 6 (1993) 216-227, esp. 216-219. The criterion of universal versus par-
ticular term is basic in non-verbal clauses just as the criterion of the position of the finite verb
is basic in sentences with finite verb forms. The situation in both types of sentence is parallel.
In other words, when the syntactic predicate is what is actually expected to be (i.e. a universal
term in the first type of sentence, and the finite verb in the second) the sentence is predicative
and plain; it conveys an information in general terms. When, on the contrary, the syntactic
predicate is what is not expected to be (i.e. a particular term in the first type, and a non-ver-
bal element in the second) the sentence is marked or clefted; it provides details of the informa-
tion: who, what, how, when, etc. depending on the grammatical quality of the syntactical
predicate. See my recent discussion in Basic Facts 8.
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 23
Literally (c), What is the-fact-that-you-have-done-this?; i.e. Why have
you done this? In other words, the syntactical subject is a complete clause,
with grammatical object and predicate, embedded in the superordinate in-
terrogative sentence (see 1:7e above).
Syntactically, sentences (d-f) convey background information to the pre-
ceding wayyiqtol (a). Semantically, they are not coordinate, but (e) and (f) are
subordinate to (d); more precisely, clause (e) is an object clause of verb yda
of (d), and (f) is a causal clause related to (d), which is itself a causal clause
related to (b). Further, (e) is a cleft sentence because of its word order (i.e. the
prepositional phrase millipn yhwh precedes the non-verbal sentence h
bra); literally, it was from the presence of the Lord that he was fleeing.
1:11-12 The interrogative sentence (1:11b) is similar to 1:10c. The dif-
ference is that the finite verb has no grammatical object and therefore the
interrogative pronoun coincides with it; literally, What is the-fact-that-we-
shall-do-(it)-to-you?
The w
e
yiqtol form (c) is an indirect jussive form with the function of a clause
of purpose: that the sea may quiet down for us. The same in 1:12: Throw me
into the sea, that the sea may quiet down for you (see note 10 above).
1:14 Sentences (d-e) are coordinate negative constructions; their positive
counterpart would be an imperative or a jussive yiqtol.
Sentences (g-h) constitute a double sentence with protasis (g) and apo-
dosis (h).
18
The preceding personal pronoun in (f) is a casus pendens and as such
it constitutes a sentence by itself; literally, because as for you, o Lord
19
2:11 Wayymer is not followed by direct speech; hence, it has the mean-
ing of spoke as in Gen. 4:8 and Exod. 19:25.
20
3:3 As in other cases (1:4c; 1:5d), the waw-x-qatal clause (c) conveys
background information connected to the preceding wayyiqtol.
3:4 In the light of Gen 40:13, 19, the direct speech (d-e) constitutes a
double sentence; the phrase arbm ym is casus pendens and functions
18. On the typology of the double sentence, also called the two-element syntactic construc-
tion, see Syntax, Ch. 8.
19. On the syntactic status of the casus pendens, consult Syntax 119-120; Lettura 4.4;
Finite Verb, 436-438.
20. See Narrative Syntax of Exodus 19-24 2.1.
A. NICCACCI 24
as the protasis, and d is used as an adverbial modifier, while waw + non-
verbal clause is the apodosis; literally, As for yet forty days (protasis),
Nineveh is going to be overthrown! (apodosis).
21
3:7-8 Noun phrase (3:7c) is a casus pendens
22
functioning as the protasis
as usual: As for man or beast, herd or flock. The apodosis is represented by
a series of volitive verb forms both negative al + yiqtol (3:7d-e) and positive
w
e
yiqtol (3:8a-c),
23
while the waw-x-al + yiqtol construction expresses back-
ground information to the preceding main-line al + yiqtol.
24
In 3:8a the subject of w
e
yitkass is specified with hdn w
e
habb
e
hm.
However, in a series of verb forms having the same subject, both before and
after 3:8a, the specification is not needed; in fact, it is not the subject but an
apposition to it.
25
21. Compare Gen 40:13, 16: b
e
d
e
let ymm (protasis) yi parh et-rek
(apodosis) within three days, Pharaoh will lift up your head. In the light of this text, arbm
ym in our passage is not the subject of the quasi-verb d (see below) but it is rather used
adverbially (adverbial accusative, Joon-Muraoka, II, 126), i.e. it is equivalent to the
prepositional phrase b
e
d
e
let ymm of Gen. 40:13, 16. The evidence shows that d is
used in two different ways. First, as a quasi-verb, i.e. it constitutes a sentence with the at-
tached suffix pronoun or with the following noun (e.g. Gen. 18:22; 29:9; 43:27, 28; 44:14;
45:26, 28, etc.); second, and more frequently, it is used adverbially, i.e. it modifies a complete
sentence either a sentence containing a finite verb (e.g. Gen. 4:25; 8:10, 12, etc.), or a non-
verbal sentence (e.g. Gen. 19:12; 29:7; 31:14; 43:6, 7; 45:3; 48:7), or even a prepositional
phrase, or a noun used as adverbial accusative, functioning as the protasis (e.g. Gen 40:13, 19
quoted above, and 7:4).
22. Since no clear criteria are present here to identify the casus pendens (such criteria are indi-
cated in Syntax 124-125), one could also interpret the construction as a x- (negated jussive)
yiqtol where x is the subject (3:7c). However, in cases where the subject is multiple, it is
usually split in Biblical Hebrew, i.e. the first subject is named together with its verb form, then
an (unnecessary) independent personal pronoun agreeing with the first subject is used in order
to attach to it the other subject(s) in apposition. E.g., wayyaal abrm mimmirayim h
w
e
it w
e
kol-er-l w
e
l imm hannegb So Abram went up from Egypt, he and his wife,
and all that he had, and Lot with him, into the Negeb (Gen. 13:1). The opposite case, where a
multiple subject is not split, is rare, e.g. Gen. 22:5; Num. 16:16; 18:7; Jos. 8:5 (in these ex-
amples two subjects are named).
23. LXX read wayyiqtol instead of w
e
yiqtol in 3:8a-c and have le gonte saying at the end
of the verse to introduce the direct speech of 3:9.
24. A string of volitive forms here begins with first-place (or sometimes with second-place
yiqtol, i.e. yiqtol or x-yiqtol, without any difference), goes on with w
e
yiqtol, which is the main-
line continuation form, not with a x-yiqtol; a x-yiqtol in the course of direct speech is a sec-
ondary-line construction. See Syntax 61-63. Syntactically, it is subordinate, not coordinate,
to w
e
yiqtol. Semantically, there may be different ways of rendering the syntactic subordina-
tion, e.g. in this case as well as suits the context.
25. Thus, we have in 3:8a the kind of construction illustrated in note 22. This construction
parallels the one found in 3:7c-d with a difference: the latter is a left dislocation while the
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 25
3:9 The yiqtol following m yda (a) is very likely an asyndetic object
clause (cf. 2Sam. 12:22;
26
Joel 2:14).
27
Syntactically, m is the predicate,
yda yb is the subject; grammatically, the subject is a noun phrase. I
translate: Who is one who knows (that / if) he will return. In other similar
passages m yda governs a noun object (Psa. 90:11; Prov. 24:22; Qoh. 8:1,
7) or an indirect interrogative expression (Qoh. 2:19; 6:12; Esth. 4:14). The
following w
e
qatals (b-c) are coordinated continuation forms while the w
e
l
+ yiqtol (d) is their negative counterpart. Further, the expression he will re-
turn and he will repent, God is idiomatic for he will again repent.
28
4:2 The non-verbal sentence (g) is presentative; it shows the pattern
grammatical subject (att) - predicate (i.e. the series of divine titles).
29
4:4 In sentence (b), the phrase hahb composed of the interrogative
particle h- and an infinitive absolute used adverbially is the predicate, and
r l
e
k is the subject (the finite verb constitutes a subject clause); literally:
Is it rightly that you have become angry? (cf. 4:9). This is a x-question
sentence where the predicate is an adverb (see 1:7e; 1:8-9 above).
4:5 The yiqtol (f) looks forward to the conclusion of the story (prospec-
tive yiqtol), a characteristic function of yiqtol in narrative.
30
4:8 Way
e
h is followed by a double sentence composed of a kaph + in-
finitive phrase functioning as the protasis (a), and a wayyiqtol sentence (b)
former is a right dislocation (for this terminology, see Givn, Syntax, II, 17.3.5-17.3.6).
Note that the Biblical Hebrew sentence, both with and without a finite verb, is basically a two-
slots structure (i.e. syntactical predicate - subject); see Simple Nominal Clause (SNC), esp.
pp. 223-227; and Marked Syntactical Structures 8. Just as the casus pendens (see 1:14g-h
above), it is likely that the apposition also constitutes a sentence by itself.
26. Ketiv y
e
onnn, Qere w
e
annan, a reading that is difficult to understand.
27. On m + yiqtol expressing a wish, consult S.R. Driver, A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses
in Hebrew and Some Other Syntactical Questions, 3 ed., Oxford 1892, p. 134 (m yda =
perhaps).
28. See, e.g. BDB s.v. b (8), p. 998. Some scholars, e.g. Simon, Jona, 118, interpret yb of
3:9a in its full meaning of return; however, the presence of w
e
b in 3:9c makes the mean-
ing again in 3:9a probable. Further, the fact that in 3:9a-b the subject is specified after the
second verb, hlhm is in apposition, or right dislocation (see note 25 above).
29. On the presentative sentence see Simple Nominal Clause (SNC), pp. 220-223; and
Marked Syntactical Structures 7.3.
30. See Syntax 88.
A. NICCACCI 26
functioning as apodosis. From the point of view of grammar, the double sen-
tence is complete without way
e
h; however, without it the double sentence
would interrupt the main line of narrative because it is a nominal construc-
tion. The function of wayeh is precisely to avoid this interruption.
31
4:9 Gods question (b) and Jonahs reply (d) follow the same pattern:
syntactic predicate (hb) - subject (r app) (cf. 4:4b).
4:10-11 The x-qatal sentence (4:10b) at the beginning of direct speech is
a main-line construction as if the verb was in the first place. On the contrary,
on the x-qatal clauses in the course of direct speech (4:10e-f) are secondary-
line constructions. Semantically, they are emphatic in the sense that a spe-
cial stress falls in the nominal x phrases preposed to the finite verbs;
literally: it is as a son of a night that it came into being, and it is as a son of
a night that it perished.
32
The shift from the axis of the past in 4:10b to that of the future happens in
4:11a with an indicative waw-x-yiqtol, a main-line construction in direct
speech.
33
3. The Poetic Section
2:3
(a) I called out of my distress, :: :;
(b) to the Lord and he answered me; : : :
31. Being a wayyiqtol form, way
e
h carries on the main line of narrative. Thus, it enhances the
textuality of the text. This connective function makes of way
e
h a major factor of
macrosyntactic connections inside the text. The w
e
qatal w
e
hy fulfills a comparable function
in discourse. Consult Syntax 28-36; Lettura 4.3; Sullo stato sintattico del verbo hy,
LA 40 (1990) 9-23, esp. 6.
32. On qatal (or x-qatal) at the beginning of an oral report, se Syntax 22-23. In the course of
direct speech, x-qatal is a secondary-line verb form in direct speech as in historical narrative;
see narrative discourse in Syntax 74-77.
33. Indicative yiqtol is a second-place verb form as opposed to jussive yiqtol, which is a first-
place verb form but can also take the second place without any difference. This applies to the
beginning of direct speech (4:11a is not found right at the beginning of the direct speech but is
initial in the sense that it introduces the axis of the future after that of the past). In the course
of direct speech, an x-yiqtol construction, both indicative and jussive, marks a secondary line
of communication because the continuation main-line forms are w
e
qatal for the indicative and
w
e
yiqtol or the jussive. See Syntax 61-65; A Neglected Point of Hebrew Syntax: Yiqtol
and Position in the Sentence, LA 37 (1987) 7-19, esp. 1.
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 27
(c) out of the belly of Sheol I cried, ::: : c::
(d) and you heard my voice. ; ::::
2:4
(a) You cast me into the deep, : : : : : :
(b) into the heart of the seas,
34
c : : : :
(c) while the flood was round about me;
35
:::c :
(d) all your waves and your billows j: j::::
(e) passed over me. : : :
2:5
(a) And I said, :: :
(b) I am cast out from your presence; j:: ::: ::::
(c) still I will gaze again c : j c j
(d) upon your holy temple.
36
j:; :
34. In the parallel pair m
e
l // bilbab yammm either the preposition of the second term also
governs the first (the so-called double-duty preposition, see M. Dahood, Psalms I: 1-50,
Garden City 1966, 201-202 (on Psa. 33:7), or the first term is an adverbial accusative (see note
21 above).
35. Compare F.M. Cross, Studies in the Structure of Hebrew Verse: The Prosody of the Psalm
of Jonah, in: H.B. Huffmon - F.A. Spina - A.R.W. Green (ed.), The Quest for the Kingdom of
God. Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall, Winona Lake 1983, 159-167. According to
his (and D.N. Freedmans) custom, Cross prunes away conjunctions and other particles con-
sidered to be superfluous in poetry. Specifically, in v. 4 he leaves out the conjunctive waw
in wattalkn (although it is the so-called inversive waw), but he keeps it in wattaal in v.
7c. He comments: The prefix conjugation (without waw), used in the past narrative sense, is
found in v. 4 (ysbbny parallel to brw), and v. 6 (ysbbny parallel to ppwny) (p. 161). He also
claims that vv. 3-7, in contrast to vv. 8-10, are old because they reflect ancient Canaanite style
and show few prosaic features. However, his criteria seem to be rather speculative (see Syn-
tax, 195). Further, a rather peculiar study on the poetics of the whole Book of Jonah is to be
mentioned: D.L. Christensen, Narrative Poetics and the Interpretation of the Book of Jonah,
in: E.R. Follis (ed.), Directions in Biblical Poetry, Sheffield 1987, 29-49. According to
Christensen, the Book of Jonah is a narrative poem and the psalm of Jonah is an integral
part of the structural design of the book of Jonah as a whole and not a secondary insertion, as
is often claimed (p. 45).
36. H.-P. Mathys, Dichter und Beter. Theologen aus sptalttestamentlicher Zeit, Gttingen
1994, 218, reflects the common view when he translates: Wie werde ich je wieder schauen
deinen heiligen Tempel? One finds support for this reading of ak as k in Theodotion, who
has pw how? However, the MT is understandable as a firm promise by Jonah of seeking
the Lord in his temple (similar to Davids desire in Psa. 63:3 as analysed by M. Dahood,
A. NICCACCI 28
2:6
(a) The waters surrounded me up to my neck,
37
:c:: c: :cc
(b) while the deep was round about me, :::c c:
(c) weeds
38
were wrapped about my head. : :: jc
2:7
(a) To the roots of the mountains
39
I went down, : c : : ;
(b) while the Netherworld its bars were behind me for ever;
40
c: :: :
(c) yet you brought up my life from the Pit, ::: ::
(d) o Lord my God.
2:8
(a) When my soul fainted within me, :c: : jc:::
Psalms II: 51-100, Garden City 1968, 65; 67). A similar opinion has been expressed by A.S.
van der Woude, Bemerkungen zu einigen umstrittenen Stellen im Zwlfprophetenbuch, in:
A. Caquot - M. Delcor (ed.), Mlanges bibliques et orientaux en lhonneur de M. Henri
Cazelles, Kevelaer - Neukirchen-Vluyn 1981, 483-499, p. 490. As van der Woude points out,
the motives of distress (Not) and deliverance (Rettung) are not treated one after the other
but jointly in the psalm of Jonah; see vv. 4-5a.5b; 6-7a-b.7c; 8a.8b-d. Also compare the trans-
lation by Simon, Jona: aber ich werde weiter schauen zur Halle deines Heiligtums (p. 91).
Simon refers to Psa. 31:23 for a similar opposition between human despair and divine provi-
dence (p. 100), and quotes Psa. 27:4 as a parallel for the desire of seeing the temple (p. 101).
37. On nepe throat, neck, gullet, see M. Dahood, Psalms III: 101-150, Garden City 1970,
56 (on Psa. 105:18).
38. The Hebrew sp (from the ancient Egyptian wfy = papyrus reed) is reminiscent of the
story of Moses in Exod. 2:3; consult my paper, Sullo sfondo egiziano di Esodo 1-15, LA 36
(1986) 7-43, pp. 12-14. Many authors discover in the Book of Jonah subtle allusions to many
passages of the Bible and try to evaluate their import; see, among others, J. Magonet, Form
and Meaning. Studies in Literary Techniques in the Book of Jonah, 2 ed., Sheffield 1983. On
the different ways of translating sp in the ancient versions, consult Almbladh, Studies, 28.
39. Consult Simon, Jona, 101-102, who quotes the same expression in Sir. 16:23 (or 17, or 19,
according to different numbering of the verse) where it is parallel to yswdy tbl the founda-
tions o the world. He also notes the connection between the roots of the mountains and the
realm of death.
40. This passage is normally analysed in a different way; compare e.g. the RSV: weeds were
wrapped about my head at the roots of the mountains. I went down to the land whose bars
closed upon me for ever (2:5-6). A correct scansion and analysis of these verses is found by
Simon, Jona: die Welt, ihre Riegel auf ewig vor mir (but bad actually means behind
me!). For ere netherworld, see Dahood, Psalms III, 27-28 (on Psa. 103:11). The
Netherworld was conceived as a city having walls and gates (ibid., 85, on Psa. 107:18). As it is
well known, Israelite and Canaanite mentalities viewed particularly dangerous situations in life
in mythological terms and associated them with the realm of death.
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 29
41. I.e. idols; consult Simon, Jona, 103-104.
42. I.e. Gods mercy on them, though there is considerable discussion among scholars on this
term; see Magonet, Form, 46; and Simon, Jona, 104.
43. See Syntax, Ch. 10. The different use of the verb forms may be due to the different nature
of poetry versus prose, i.e. segmented versus linear communication; see my paper, Analysing
Biblical Hebrew Poetry (to be published in JSOT 1997) 1.
44. Together with E. Cortese, Lattesa dei poveri non sar vana. Il Sal 9/10 attualizzato (to
be published in a miscellany of studies in memory of Prof. F. Vattioni).
(b) I invoked the Lord, :: :
(c) and my prayer came to you, :c: j ::
(d) to your holy temple. j:; :
2:9
(a) Those who pay regard to void vanities,
41
:: c:::
(b) they will forsake their mercy.
42
: : c c
2:10
(a) But I with the voice of thanksgiving will sacrifice to you; j: : ;: :
(b) what I have vowed I will pay. :: :: :
(c) Deliverance belongs to the Lord. :::
Poetry still poses a challenge to our understanding of the Biblical Hebrew
verb system. As a methodological choice, I decided from the very beginning
to leave poetry aside and concentrate on good prose. The reason was that one
could easily suppose that poetry employed the verb forms in a somehow dif-
ferent way from prose. This supposition was strengthened by the fact that if
one considered poetry together with prose, one would get nowhere as the tra-
ditional approach abundantly showed.
43
As in my first attempt to analyse a poetic text (Psa. 9/10), I will try to
analyse Jonah 2:3-10 according to the rules of the prose.
44
In principle, one is
justified in abandoning these rules only when demonstrably they do not ap-
ply. With the help of the verb forms used, I will try to understand the exact
perspective of the text.
In Jonah 2:3-10 (Engl. 2:2-9) the axis of the past is much used. It is indi-
cated by the following verb forms: initial qatal (2:3a.d; 2:6a), (waw) x-qatal
(2:3c; 2:4d-e; 2:5a; 2:7a) and continuation wayyiqtol (2:3b; 2:4a; 2:7c). These
three verb forms are interchangeable because they all indicate the main line
A. NICCACCI 30
of communication, except for the fact that wayyiqtol is a continuation form.
The reason is that in poetry we do not find a linear development of a story as
we find in prose. Actually, Jonah 2:3 mentions the prophets prayer to God,
2:4 describes his misfortune, 2:5 the prayer, 2:6-7 the misfortune, and 2:8-10
the prayer again. As a consequence, the alternation of first-place and second-
place verb forms, e.g. qatal - x (x being any non-verbal element) and x -
qatal, seems motivated by style or prosody, not by syntax as in prose.
Besides these main-line constructions, we find (waw-) x-yiqtol (2:4c;
2:6b) and the non-verbal clause (2:6c; 2:7b), both with the function of ex-
pressing a secondary line (i.e. aspect) in the axis of the past. In other words, I
take the x-yiqtol as circumstantial to the main-line constructions instead of
assuming the poetic use of yiqtol for past tense.
45
The non-verbal clause is
also circumstantial.
Besides the axis of the past, that of the future is also represented. It is
expressed by yiqtol, indicating the main line of communication. This yiqtol
is probably jussive (called cohortative in the first person) in 2:5c and 2:10a-
b; it is indicative in 2:9b, where it is the apodosis of a double sentence while
the casus pendens (2:9a) is the protasis. Another case of a double sentence is
2:7b, where w
e
hre is the protasis and the rest of the line the apodosis. In
2:7b the double sentence is related to the axis of the past.
The axis of the present is only represented in the final sentence 2:10c,
which is a short proclamation of faith.
The axis of the past poetically describes Jonahs experience in the sea;
that of the future his intention of thanking God and offering sacrifices to him.
Already in 2:5c Jonah proclaims his firm intention of seeking God in the
temple, at the same time as he complains of having been cast out from Gods
presence (2:5b).
The verb forms and constructions used suggest, therefore, that the per-
spective of the psalm is that of after the deliverance. It was composed in or-
der to be recited before an assembly during the cult. It can be easily assumed
that the prophets actual prayer during the trial had a different perspective.
46
From the point of view of poetic style, there is a repeated shift from the
third to the second person in reference to God. The prayer begins in the third
45. For this use of yiqtol in poetry, scholars normally refer to the Northwest Semitic past tense
yaqtul; see exposition in Syntax 171-172. Specifically for the psalm of Jonah, compare
Cross (see note 35 above).
46. Alternatively, the psalm was not written for the book but the author quoted a psalm that
was used in the cult, as suggested by Almbladh, Studies, 26. On the difficulties felt in the
ancient versions because of the peculiar perspective of the psalm, see ibid., 29 (on 2:7).
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF JONAH 31
person (2:3b) and abruptly shifts to the second (2:3d); it continues in the sec-
ond (2:4-7), then it shifts to the third (2:8b) and again to the second (2:8c)
until the last line, where it shifts again to the third person (2:10c).
4. Text-Linguistic Analysis
The Book of Jonah begins and ends in the main line of narrative, i.e. with
wayyiqtol. It flows straight with a chain of narrative wayyiqtols from the ini-
tial word of God to the prophet down to the final one, with no real break in
main line. In fact, the constructions of the secondary line in historical narra-
tive, i.e. all the verb forms and constructions different from wayyiqtol, are
related to preceding wayyiqtols. The result is, in each case, a syntactic unit
made of foreground and background. Therefore, the constructions of the
secondary line constitute a pause, not a real break, in the narrative a pause
to convey a comment, or a circumstantial, qualifying or explanatory informa-
tion.
The novella begins right in medias res, with no antecedent information
or setting. Further, the fact that the narrative chain of wayyiqtols is never bro-
ken makes the novella a compact story, even a single episode progressing
with maximun speed from beginning to end.
Shifts from foreground to background information are present in places
where the writer wishes to show how different pieces of information relate
one to another. He indicates, for instance, that as soon as Jonah flees away
from God, God pursues him with his wind even in the sea (1:3-4), and the
sailors are in disarray while Jonah sleeps in the inner part of the ship (1:5).
Background verb forms also serve to disclose to the reader a knowledge of
the sailors as the reason for saying what they say (1:10). In two places an in-
formation about the growing threat of the sea constitutes the background of
the dramatic exchange between the sailors and Jonah (1:11d, 13c).
Direct speeches are of great theological importance, especially the divine
speech at the end of the novella (4:10-11). On the one side, the readiness of
the Ninevites to accept the words of an unknown preacher contrasts the re-
luctance on the part of Jonah to carry out the order of his own God Yahweh.
On the other side, Yahwehs mercy towards the Ninevites both men and ani-
mals stays in strong contrast to Jonahs harshness (4:2, 10).
The main line of the narrative is strongly governed by God. Decisive steps
in the story are initiated by his command, first resisted (1:1-3), finally ex-
ecuted (3:1-3). God is the agent towards Jonah as Jonah is the agent towards
the Ninevites. Gods providence is underlined by a fourfold repetition of the
A. NICCACCI 32
verb form way
e
man he appointed a big fish to swallow Jonah (2:1),
47
a
plant to give shade over him (4:6), a worm to make it wither (4:7), and a east
wind to make Jonah faint under an unrelenting sun (4:8).
The poetic section is kept in the main line of the narrative by its introduc-
tion, which is in the wayyiqtol: wayyitpalll wayymer (2:2-3).
If, as is usually assumed, the Book of Jonah is a late composition imitat-
ing the language of the 8th century prophet whose name it bears, one has to
say that the imitation is superb from the point of view of syntax.
48
Thus, Jonah is a well-formed novella with a splendid narrativity.
49
It flows
without break from beginning to end. It stops with an unanswered question,
and therefore, so to speak, still in medias res, with no explicit conclusion.
50
This is one of the many reasons why its interpretation remains so elusive and
fascinating.
51
Alviero Niccacci, ofm
Studium Biblicum Franciscanum
47. It is obvious that it [i.e. the fish] was appointed for his [i.e. Jonahs] benefit to save him
from drowning (Almbladh, Studies, 25). Because the news of the appointment of the fish is
given in the wayyiqtol, following the cultic actions of the sailors (1:16-17), one can suggest
that it came as Gods response to them. In other words, the text seems to suggest that Jonahs
deliverance was a consequence of the sailors conversion which, on its turn, was the conse-
quence of Jonahs open proclamation of faith (1:10, 14). Indeed, the Book of Jonah is rich in
such subtle links.
48. On the date of the book, consult, e.g., Almbladh, Studies, 45-46, and Simon, Jona, 67-68.
As Almbladh observes, The language of poetry was traditional, deeply rooted in ancient
Canaanite tradition, and thus the old forms and modes of expression were used also in very
late compositions (ibid., 46).
49. The number of studies from a literary or discourse-analysis perspective is increasing. I only
mention C.L. Collins, From Literary Analysis to Theological Exposition: The Book of
Jonah, JOTT 7 (1995) 28-44.
50. According to Collins, From Literary Analysis, the text appeals to the reader: You are
Jonahwhat is your answer? (p. 37). Compare W.B. Croach, To Question an End, to End a
Question: Opening the Closure of the Book of Jonah, JSOT 62 (1994) 101-112.
51. Among the latest attempts to unravel the theological message of the book, see R. Lux,
Jona, Prophet zwischen Verweigerung und Gehorsam, Gttingen 1994, where the impor-
tance of the creation theology is rightly stressed; and J. Kraovec, Salvation of the Rebellious
Prophet Jonah and of the Penitent Heathen Sinners, SE 61 (1996) 53-75.