AMITY

JOURNAL OF MEDIA AND

COMMUNICATION STUDIES
Volume-1, Number 1, January, 2011
ISSN 2231 - 1033
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Digital Media Vs Traditional Media
Digital Media: Scope & Challenges
Media and Democracy
Digital Media and Ethics
Digital Media and Governance
Digital Media vis--vis Laws &
Regulations
Digital Media as Community Media
Digital Media and Contemporary
Cinema
Changing Paradigms of
Media Landscape
In The Digital Age: Issue and Perspectives
(Rise of Social Media)
www.amity.edu/jaipur
AMITY SCHOOL
of COMMUNICATION
AMl1 jOUkNAl Ol MlDlA COMMUNlCA1lON S1UDllS
VoI. 1, Nunlei 1, }anuaiy - }uIy 2O11
i-annuaI }ouinaI of lhe Anily SchooI of Connunicalion
ISSN : 2231 - 1O33
Chief Patron
MR. A5EEM CHAUHAN
Patron
PROF. RAJ 5INGH
Editor
PROF. MANI5H VERMA
Editorial Board
PROF. B. K. KUTHIALA
PROF. 5TEPHEN QUINN
PROF. VEPA RAO
PROF. 5ANJEEV BHANAWAT
PROF. BRADLEY CLARK
PROF. HAMID ABDOLLAHYAN
DR. 5ARAH BARROW
M5. RUCHI JAGGI
Copyiighl2O11 ly lhe Anily SchooI of Connunicalion.
AII iighls ieseived.
The vievs expiessed in lhe ailicIes aie lhose of lhe conliilulois and nol necessaiiIy of lhe LdiloiiaI oaid
oi lhe Inslilule.
The LdiloiiaI oaid inviles oiiginaI, unpulIished conliilulions in lhe foin of ieseaich papeis, ailicIes
look ievievs and case sludies.
No pail of lhis pulIicalion nay le iepioduced oi liansnilled in any foin oi ly any neans, oi sloied in
any pievaI syslen of any naluie vilhoul piioi viillen peinission. AppIicalion foi peinission foi olhei
use of copyiighl naleiiaI incIuding peinission lo iepioduce exliacls in olhei pulIished voiks shaII le
nade lo lhe pulIisheis. IuII acknovIedgenenl of aulhoi, pulIisheis and souice nusl le given.
VOLUML 1 NUMLR 1 }AN-}UNL 2O11
A Suivey AnaIysis of DigilaI Lileiacy anong undeigiaduale Sludenls of lhe Univeisily of Tehian
Hanid Aodc||anqan and Mcnannad Annadi 1
Iion Disney lo Doiaenon. }apanese Anine sulslilule Aneiican Aninalion on Indian ChiIdien's
TeIevision: A liend sludy
Rucni ]aggi 7
DigilaI TechnoIogy and The ChaIIenges of Media Lileiacy in A DeveIoping Nalion
Ycni O|ugocdi 13
Aclivisl Living: IiofessionaI and Lcononic RenevaI foi }ouinaIisn in lhe Age of DigilaI Media
8rad|cq C|ar| 17
Doninance of DigilaI Media ovei TiadilionaI Media . A ciilicaI sludy
8.K.Rati 23
Iaclois InfIuencing IioIifeialion of DigilaI Media in a IoinaI Cioup . A Dynanic Ieispeclive
Ranu| Tna|ur|a 34
Inleinel and IoIilicaI Change in Iian : Naluie oi Conlenl`
|nsan Snagnascni and Tioa 8cnqad 41
Lxeculive Iogging : Whal Do Indian Coipoiale Heads Iog Aloul and Why`
Sncc|a Misnra 46
Media ReguIalion Vs Denocialic VaIues In India
Pa||ati Majundar 58
Connunicalion foi AffiIialion . An Indicalive Appioach lo Undeisland Iogging
Vi|as Dcgra and Manisn Vcrna 63
U.S. usiness . Toil LialiIily foi lhe TiansnalionaI RepulIishei of Leaked Coipoiale Seciels
Ricnard ]. Pc||z 68
MoliIe }ouinaIisn (MO}O) : Oiigin and Spiead Aiound lhe WoiId
S|cpncn Quinn 75
UCC in lhe Aneiican and Aial Media Welsiles
||saqcd oc|ni| 82
ook Reviev
- Iiivale Spheie: Denociacy in a DigilaI Age (DigilaI Media and Sociely)
]aqa|i M. Snarna 88
- Media in lhe DigilaI Age
Tanusnrcc Mu|ncrjcc 89
AMl1 jOUkNAl Ol MlDlA AND COMMUNlCA1lON S1UDllS
l|om the Le| ol the ld|to|
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
The 21sl cenluiy nedia vilh ils coIossaI
deIiveiy of nevs and infoinalion conlenl is
ieaching oul lo eveiy coinei of lhe voiId in lhe
puisuil of confionling nev chaIIenges eveiy day.
Ieihaps, al no line in hisloiy have nedia and
infoinalion lechnoIogies leen noie inpoilanl in
lhe pulIic nind, noi noie significanl lo poIicy
naking and leaching in coIIeges and univeisilies.
The nedia and enleilainnenl indusliies have
conveiged IocaIIy, nalionaIIy, and gIolaIIy, vilh
even giealei conveigence ceilain lo lake pIace in lhe
yeais ahead. The gIolaIizalion of nedia conlenl is
lIalanlIy evidenl. Aneiican TV piogiannes aie
vieved lhe voiId ovei, even in a dulled veision in
non LngIish speaking counliies. A Iol olhei
counliies incIuding India have laken lhe adaplalion
ioule, ly ienixing lhe sane concepls in lheii socio-
cuIluiaI fianevoiks. WhiIe lheie is a nassive
delale on lhe consequenl cuIluiaI invasion lecause
of lhese piaclices, lhe paiaIIeI phenonenonof a neo-
gIolaI idenlily is nolevoilhy. Theie is hovevei a
seiious concein acioss lhe voiId aloul nedia
conlenl lecause of lhe povei lhal il exudes on
pulIic opinion. Media piofessionaIs and nedia
educalois have a iesponsiliIily lovaids naking a
fianevoik lo ensuie lhe quaIily of nedia conlenl.
The inpacl of nedia conlenl in conlenpoiaiy
sociely needs lo le evaIualed, lheiefoie nedia
educalion as veII as nedia ieseaich shouId
essenliaIIy voik lovaids lhe deveIopnenl of an
infoined pulIic. Theie is an ulnosl need lo addiess
issues of pulIic concein vilh iefeience lo nedia
peifoinance and lo liing lhese ciilicaI issues lo lhe
foie.
In lhis quesl of enhancing pulIic and
slakehoIdeis' undeislanding of nedia and ils
dynanic conlexls and coIIaloiale lovaids a geneiaI
lody of ieseaich, ve have Iaunched lhe fiisl issue of
'Anily }ouinaI of Media & Connunicalion Sludies
(A}MCS)''. The lhene of lhe fiisl issue 'Changing
Media Landscape in lhe DigilaI Age' is veiy
appiopiiale as lhis lopic is of ulnosl inpoilance in
lhe piesenl scenaiio vhen lheie is an inpeialive
need lo undeisland hov veII ve can use lhese
lechnoIogicaI advances lo oui lenefil, vilhoul
Iosing essence of lhe nedia nessage. We need lo
undeisland lhe chaIIenges lhal lhese advances
conslanlIy liing in lhe aieas of - Nevs Media,
Cinena, Adveilising oi IulIic ReIalion. Il is
lhiough luiIding lhis undeislanding, and deIving
inlo lhe nuIlipIe dinensions of lhis phenonenon
lhal ve can luiId insighlfuI discouises lhal heIp us
lake a Ieap lovaids concepluaI cIaiily foi poIicy
deveIopnenl lhe ain of A}MCS.
This }ouinaI couId have nol leen possilIe
vilhoul lhe suppoil and guidance of oui chief
palion Mi.Aseen Chauhan, ChanceIIoi, Anily
Univeisily Rajaslhan and oui palion Iiof. Raj
Singh, Vice ChanceIIoi, Anily Univeisily. I vanl lo
lhank nenleis of advisoiy loaid and ediloiiaI
lean foi lheii assislance in ievieving inviled
papeis.
We honeslIy leIieve lhal oui ieadeis and
conliilulois viII pIay an essenliaI ioIe in
deveIoping lhis jouinaI. Youi vaIualIe suggeslions
and feedlack on lhe conlenl of lhe }ouinaI viII le
highIy appiecialed.
Prnf. ManIsh Vcrma
/ Su|ve /na|| ol L||ta| l|te|ac amon unde||aduate
Student ol the |n|ve||t ol Jeh|an
HamId Abdn!!ahyan Mnhammad AhmadI
Univeisily of Tehian, Iian Univeisily of Tehian, Iian
This ailicIe liies lo inlioduce lhe nelhodoIogy of sludying digilaI Iileiacy anong Univeisily of Tehian's Sludenls. Vaiious definilions
have leenoffeied foi digilaI Iileiacy lul ve found lhe one offeied ly Tessa }oIIs and LIizalelhThonanlole lheoielicaIIy noie pIausilIe
and nelhodoIogicaIIy noie voikalIe. Theii definilion conceins nedia Iileiacy piocess skiIIs and incIudes lhe aliIilies lo access,
anaIyze, evaIuale, cieale and pailicipale. In oidei lo sludy digilaI Iileiacy ve deveIoped a nev nelhod lased on lhe expeiiences of
olhei schoIais lul noie appIicalIe lo lhe case of Iian and acadenic giound of ieseaich. Oui sanpIe incIuded 376 undeigiaduale
sludenls. Sone of lhe findings of lhis suivey indicale lhal geneiaIIy sludenl's digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs aie nol desiialIe. AIso ve found a
diiecl and posilive ieIalion lelveen line spenl on inleinel and faniIiaiily vilh digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs. IinaIIy ve piesenled seveiaI
neasuies lhal vouId heIp us piedicl sludenl's digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs.
Kcqucrds. DigilaI Iileiacy, nev Iileiacies, nedia Iileiacy
This papei viII addiess lhe queslion of hov lo
sludy digilaI Iileiacy anong sludenls of Univeisily
of Tehian. We discuss lhal foi educalion, voik and
Iiving in knovIedge socielies (see: Depailnenl of
Lcononic and SociaI Affaiis of lhe Uniled Nalions,
2OO5) lhe neie aliIilies lo iead, viile and do sinpIe
aiilhnelic (ie. liadilionaI Iileiacy) aie nol enough
and ve need lo aquiie a nev sel of skiIIs. Thal is
lecause in knovIedge socielies uliIizalion of nedia
lechnoIogies has leen incieased and especiaIIy nev
nedia lechnoIogies have a gieal effecl on changing
cuIluiaI and sociaI lehaviois anong diffeienl
cuIluiaI gioups.
In iesponse lo afoienenlioned changes,
diffeienl concepls have leen inlioduced. We can
pul lhese concepls inlo a geneiaI calegoiy knovn as
Nev Lileiacy. Lachof lhese nev concepls incIudes a
sel of alliludes and skiIIs. Iion anong lhese nev
concepls ve lhink lhe concepl of digilaI Iileiacy is
noie apl lo oui puiposes. We piefeiied lhis concepl
lecause, noie oi Iess, il enconpasses olhei ieIaled
concepls Iike conpulei Iileiacy (nov a ialhei oId
concepl), inleinel Iileiacy (vhich conlains onIy
sone pail of lhe iequiied skiIIs), infoinalion
Iileiacy (vhich noslIy oiiginales fion Iiliaiy and
infoinalion sludies), visuaI Iileiacy (vhich is noie
used inails), elc.
Why DigitaI literacy is An lssue!
We iespond lo lhis queslion fion lvo diffeienl
aspecls:
1. Change in inleinel access: Iian is one of lhe
iapidIy gioving counliies in leins of access lo
nev lechnoIogies. Accoiding lo Inleinel WoiId
Slals (2O11) lhe cuiienl iale of inleinel
penelialioninIianis 43.2.
2. The piolIen of use gap and lhe nev skiIIs
needed foi knovIedge socielies: AIlhough in
lhe eaiIy yeais of lhe invenlionof lhe inleinel
digilaI gap vas lhe nain issue of concein (see:
Sassi, 2OO5, Yu, 2OO6, Cienshav and Rolison,
2OO6, Livingslone and HeIspei, 2OO7) lul loday
lheie is noie allenlionlovaids lhe vays peopIe
use lhe inleinel oi lhe use gap (CiIslei, 1997,
Haigillai, 2OO2, 2OO5, 2OO9, Lshel, 2OO2, Lshel,
Aviian, 2OO6, Lshel-AIkaIai, 2OO4, Lshel-
AIkaIai, and Chajul, 2OO8, Lshel-AIkaIi and
Anichai-Hanluigei, 2OO4, Ieiez Toieno,
2OO4a, 2OO4l, Tynei, 1998, Nev Media
Consoiliun, 2OO5, }enkins el aI, 2OO6, Dolson
and WiIIinsky, 2OO9, Livingslone and HeIspei,
2O1O). In olhei voids digilaI gap is aveiled fion
lhe issue of access lo lhe issue of uliIizalion.
IinaIIy lhe nosl inpoilanl issue loday is nol lo
have access oi nol lo have access lo nev nedia
lechnoIogies lul il is iecognizing lhe Iine
lelveeninfoinalionhaves and have-nols.
DigitaI literacy
In iecenl yeais iequiied skiIIs and aliIilies lo
use nev nedia lechnoIogies aie noie and noie
1
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 1-6
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
"AssoclateProfessor, Deartment of Communlcatlon,
|acu|t of Socla| Sclences, Unlterslt of Tehran,
lran.
"" MA graduate, Deartment of Communlcatlon,
|acu|tof Socla| Sclences, Unltersltof Tehran, lran.
piesenled undei Iileiacy sludies aIlhough giealIy
undei lhe effecls of nedia Iileiacy and nedia
educalion discussions (Livingslone and HeIspei,
2O1O, Tynei, 1998, Wainick, 2OO2).
Lileiacy and nedia ieseaicheis suggesled
diffeienl concepls and leins foi aliIilies and skiIIs
iequiied lo voik vilh nev nedia lechnoIogies. To
nane a fev, nev London Cioup (1999) suggeseled
MuIliIileiacies, Nev Media Consoiliun (2OO5) 21sl
cenluiy Iileiacy, }enkins el aI (2OO6) Nev Media
Lileiacy. AIso Conpulei Lileaicy (TidIine, 2OO2),
infoinalion Iileiacy (LIoyd, 2OO3, 2OO5, Iinlo and
SaIes, 2OO7, Iinlo, 2OO8, Wellei and }ohnslon, 2OOO),
nedia Iileiacy (}oIIs and Thonan, 2OO4, 2OO8, uin
and Duiian, 2OO7), ICT Iileiacy, lechnoIogicaI
Lileiacy, VisuaI Lileiacy, connunicalion Iileiacy
(Mailin and Ciudziecki, 2OO6), eIeclionic Iileiacy
(avden, 2OO8), nuIlipIe Iileiacies (KeIInei, 2OO2),
gIolaI Iileiacy (OIsson and Ldnan-SlIlianl, 2OO8),
siIicon Iileiacies (Snydei, 2OO2), and DigilaI Lileiacy
(Ieiez Toieno, 2OO4a, 2OO4l, Lshel, 2OO2, Lshel and
Aviian, 2OO6, Lshel-AIkaIai, 2OO4, Lshel-AIkaIai
and Chajul, 2OO8, Lshel-AIkaIi and Anichai-
Hanluigei, 2OO4, Dolson and WiIIinsky, 2OO9,
avden, 2OO8, Mailin and Ciudziecki, 2OO6,
RivoIleIIa, 2OO8) have leensuggesled.
We leIieve lhe concepl of digilaI Iileiacy coveis
a vide iange of olhei ieIaled concepls and is noie
usefuII in expIaining ciilicaI skiIIs and alliludes
necessaiy foi Iiving, educalion and voik in
knovIedge socielies. This concepl piinaiiIy has
leen inlioduced ly IauI CiIslei (1998). CiIslei's
concepl of digilaI Iileiacy sipnIy is leyond a fev
skiIIs lul il aIso incIudes alliludes and aIso a ceilain
vay of lhinking. CiilicaI and anaIylicaI
confionlalion vilh infoinalion is al lhe lase of his
idea aloul digilaI Iileiacy.
Anong diffeienl appioaches and definilions
lovaids nedia and digilaI Iileiacy ve found lhe one
offeied ly }oIIs and Thonan (2OO4, 2OO8) lo le
lheoielicaIIy noie pIausilIe and nelhodoIogicaIIy
noie voikalIe. In lheii discussions aloul nedia
Iileiacy lhey piesenl a sel of five piocess skiIIs lhal
aie necessaiy lo aquiie lo Iive, sludy and voik in a
voiId saluialed vilh (oId and nev) nedia
nessages. Theii definilion conceins nedia Iileiacy
piocess skiIIs and incIudes lhe aliIilies lo access,
anaIyze, evaIuale, cieale and pailicipale. In lhis
sense digilaI Iileiacy is nol sinpIy a sel of skiIIs lul a
fianevoik lo lhink and acl in nev nedia
enviionnenl.
Lshel-AIkaIai (2OO4) puls digilaI Iileiacy
definilions inlo lvo lioad calegoiies. Iiisl gioup
aie definilions lhal focus on lechnoIogicaI aspecls of
digilaI Iileiacy and second gioup aie definilions lhal
focus on cognilive, socioIogicaI and psychoIogicaI
aspecls of digilaI Iileiacy. Ofcouise oui
undeislanding of digilaI Iileiacy faIIs inlolhe Iallei.
Thus ve found }oIIs and Thonan's (2OO4, 2OO8)
sel of piocess skiIIs noie apl lo oui puipose of
neasuiing digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs and aliIilies of
univeisily sludenls inIian.
MethodoIogy
This sludy faIIs inlo calegoiy of usei-oiienled
sludies (Iinlo and SaIes, 2OO7). We conducled a
suivey of digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs and aliIilies anong
undeigiaduale sludenls of univeisily of Tehian. Ioi
oui suivey, ve designed a queslionnaiie lo coIIecl
dala on diffeienl skiIIs and aliIilies of sludenls of
univeisily of Tehian.
Organltlng the questlonnalre
ased on}oIIs and Thonan's (2OO4, 2OO8) definilions
of nedia Iileiacy piocess skiIIs and oui
undeislanding of digilaI Iileiacy accoiding lo lhe
needs of Iianian sludenls ve define five piocess
skiIIs of digilaI Iileiacy as foIIoved:
1. Access: useis' aliIily lo access lo infoinalion
and digilaI iesouices.
2. AnaIyze: useis aliIily lo anaIyse lhe nessages
and infoinalionlhey ieceive.
3. LvaIuale: useis aliIily lo judge and evaIuale lhe
ciediliIily of infoinalion.
4. Cieale: useis aliIily lo pioduce nev conlenls
and nol neieIy leing consuneis (leconing
IROSUMLRS)
5. Iailicipale: useis' aliIily lo pulIish digilaI
conlenls and inleiacl vilh olhei useis.
ased on each skiII ve piepaied a sel of sul-
skiIIs lo neasuie undeigiaduale univeisily of
Tehian's sludenls' digilaI Iileiacy aliIilies. Ioi
choosing diffeienl eIenenls in lhe queslionnaiie ve
consideied lhe educalionaI and piofessionaI
necessilies of univeisily sludenls in Iian. We pul
enphasis on infoinalion ieliieving skiIIs ialhei
lhan connunicalive skiIIs. AIso ve consideied vel
2.O ieIaled skiIIs ciilicaI foi sludenls.
SamIing
We choose univeisily of Tehian lecause il is lhe
fiisl eslalIished and one of lhe highesl ianking
univeisilies of Iian. AIso oui peisonaI expeiience
2
HAMID ADOLLAHYAN AND MOHAMMAD AHMADI
vas invoIved inlhis decision.
Ioi sanpIing, ve used piopoilionale slialified
sanpIing lechniques (see Ruane, 2OO5: 114-115).
Theiefoie ve cIassified sludenls lased on lheii
najois and univeisily facuIlies. Then ve seIecled
sanpIe eIenenls in piopoilion lo lheii acluaI
nunleis in lhe oveiaII popuIalion. ased on lhis
lechnique ve aiiived lo a sanpIe of 376 sludenls.
The lolaI nunlei of undeigiaduale sludenls vas
ieliieved fion lhe univeisily's cenlei foi Slalislics
and Infoinalics (N=17,31O).
Structure of questlonnalre
Oui queslionnaiie incIuded lhe foIIoving eIenenls:
1. CeneiaI peisonaI infoinalion such as gendei,
fieId of sludy, age, connencenenl dale of
educalion, and pIaces of access lo conpulei and
inleinel.
2. Iive-poinl seIf-iepoiled ialings of faniIiaiily
vilhlhe foIIoving digilaI Iileiacy ilens:
asic LngIish foi using conpuleis, fiIe
conpiession, ielool, piefeience sellings, lack
up, noden, save as, Miciosofl Woid,
Miciosofl IoveiIoinl, Miciosofl Access,
Miciosofl LxceI, }IW, IDI, }IC, iefiesh/ieIoad,
add lo favoiiles/looknaiking, span, CC in
enaiI, ooIean opeialois (oi, and), ISI, HTML,
seivei, fiievaII, .gov, .oig, .doc, Inleinel counliy
code lop-IeveI donain, inleinel ads., cookies,
niiioi velsiles, e-zines, dalalase, open access
jouinaIs, XML, Unicode, shaievaies, fiIleiing
soflvaies, vikis, feed, RSS, lIogging, podcasl
Oui inquiiy aIso invoIved lvo logus ilens
(foIIoving Haigillai, 2OO9), Iioxypod and }IV.
AIlhough lhese leins aie veiy siniIai lo ICT
leins lul lhey aie conpIeleIy vilhoul any
neaning. We used lhen lo ensuie lhal lhe
iespondenls did nol ansvei lhe queslionnaiie
ina haphazaid nannei.
3. Tine spenl on vel daiIy and Yeais using lhe
Inleinel
4. Respondenls veie asked lhe foIIoving queslion
lo neasuie lheii digilaI Iileiacy seIf-efficacy (foi
seIf-efficacy discussions see: anduia, 1977,
1994, anduia and Locke, 2OO3, anduia el aI,
2OO1 and foi digilaI Iileiacy seIf-efficacy see:
Haigillai, 2OO5, 2OO9, Livingslone and HeIspei,
2O1O):
Regaiding lo youi faniIiaiily vilh conpulei
and inleinel, hov do you evaIuale youi
aliIilies`
Respondenls had lo ansvei lhis queslion
neasuied on a five-poinl scaIe (nol al aII skiIIed,
nol veiy skiIIed, faiiIy skiIIed, skiIIed and veiy
skiIIed).
AnaIysis Of Data
Ioi dala anaIysis ve iesoil lo lolh desciiplive
and infeienliaI slalislics. Theiefoie ve used SISS 15
loanaIyze dala.
The denogiaphics of oui iespondenl aie as
foIIoved: 42.5 of iespondenls veie naIe and
57.5 veie fenaIe sludenls. 7O of iespondenls
veie lelveen 2O-22 yeais oId. 18 18-19 yeais oId
and aloul 12 veie alove 22. 18.1 veie fiisl yeai
sludenls and 26.9, 23.1, 31.9 veie conseculiveIy
second, lhiid and fouilhyeai sludenls.
74.2 used inleinel in onIy one pIace (hone,
univeisily oi voik pIace), 24.7 in lvo pIaces and
1.1 in lhiee pIaces. Moie lhan haIf of lhe
iespondenls (56.6) use inleinel Iess lhan an houi
daiIy. 31.4 use inleinel lvo lo lhiee houis a day
and aloul 13 use noie lhanlhiee houis daiIy.
Iuilheinoie, aloul haIf of lhe iespondenls
have leen voiking vilh inleinel lelveen foui lo
seven yeais. Aloul one fouilh slailed lo voik vilh
inleinel lelveensevenlolhiileenyeais agoand Iess
lhan a quailei slailed lo voik fion lhiee yeais lo
one yeai ago.
8ogus ltems
We found oul lhal lhe nean of lhe logus ilen
}IV anong 43 ilens vas lhe Iovesl one, and lhe
nean of Iioxypod vas onIy highei lhan RSS, Ieed,
XML, niiioi velsiles, podcasl and }IV. Thal is
piolalIy lecause lhis ilen nade in a vay lhal is
veiy siniIai lo olhei ICT leins. CeneiaIIy lhese
iesuIls nean lhal piolalIy iespondenls did nol
ansvei oui queslions in a haphazaid vay. Thal is,
lhey did nol cIain lhey aie faniIiai vilh ilens lhal
donol exisl.
To lesl lhe ieIialiIily of lhe neasuies ve used in
oui queslionnaiie ve conducled Cionlach's AIpha
lesl. Cionlach's aIpha foi 41 ilens (ve eIininaled
lvo logus ilens) vas O.97 vhich shovs a veiy high
ieIialiIily of neasuies.
We caIcuIaled aII lhe ilens and iepoil il undei
digilaI Iileiacy vaiialIe. We found lhal 62.2 of
iespondenls choose nol al aII faniIiai and veiy
IillIe faniIiai. 18.9 choose faiiIy faniIiai and
18.9 chose veII faniIiai and veiy veII faniIiai
scaIes.
3
AIso ve lesled lhe ieIalionship lelveen
diffeienl vaiialIes in oui sludy. We found oul lhal
lelveen gendei and faniIiaiily lo digilaI Iileiacy
skiIIs lheie is a posilive ieIalionship (Cianei's V =
O.16). Thal is naIe sludenls aie sIighlIy noie
faniIiai vilhdigilaI Iileiacy skiIIs.
AIsolheie is a posilive ieIalionship lelveenage
and faniIiaiily vilh digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs
(R=245,e=O.O1). Thal is eIdei sludenls iepoil noie
faniIiaiily vilh digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs ialhei lo
youngei ones. Thal is piolalIy lecause duiing
sludying in univeisilies lhey have noie
oppoilunilies loaquiie nev skiIIs and lohave access
lolioadland inleinel.
AIso fouilh and lhiid yeai sludenls iepoiled
noie faniIiaiily vilh digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs ialhei lo
second and fiisl yeai sludenls. We found lhal lheie
is a posilive ieIalionship lelveen lhe yeais sludenls
sludying al univeisilies and faniIiaiily vilh digilaI
Iileiacy skiIIs (KendaII's lau-c=O.2).
We found lhal lelveen ovning a IC oi a
Nolelook and digilaI Iileiacy aliIilies lheie is a
posilive, lhoughveak ieIalionship (i=O.22)
Theie is aIso a veak lul posilive ieIalionship
lelveen pIaces of access and faniIiaiily vilh digilaI
Iileiacy skiIIs. Thal is lhe sludenls vho have use
inleinel inlvooi lhiee pIaces (e.g. hone, univeisily,
doiniloiy, voik pIace, elc.) aie noie faniIiai vilh
digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs (aIso see Livingslon and
HeIspei, 2O1O).
AIso ve found a veiy sliong and posilive
ieIalionship lelveen Tine spenl on vel daiIy and
Yeais using lhe Inleinel and digilaI Iileiacy aliIilies.
Thal is sludenls vilh noie daiIy usage line veie
noie IikeIy lo iepoil noie faniIiaiily vilh digilaI
Iileiacy skiIIs (i=O.47). AIso sludenls vho slailed lo
use inleinel eaiIiei aie noie faniIiai vilh digilaI
Iileiacy skiIIs(i=O.47).
Iuilheinoie seIf-efficacy shovs a sliong
ieIalionship vilh ieaI skiIIs of sludenls (KendaII's
lau-l = O.53). Thal is sludenls lhal iepoil highei
digilaI skiIIs in lheii five-poinl scaIe seIf-efficacy
queslion aie noie faniIiai vilh digilaI Iileiacy
skiIIs.
Discussion of kesuIts
We cannov aigue lhal in oidei lo piedicl lhe digilaI
Iileiacy skiIIs of lhe univeisily sludenls, ve need lo
use lhe foIIoving nine neasuies:
1. Cendei: naIe sludenl iepoiled noie faniIiaiily
vilhdigilaI Iileiacy skiIIs lhanfenaIe sludenls.
2. Age: eIdei sludenls iepoiled noie faniIiaiily
vilh digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs, aIlhough il nighl nol
le liue oul of aneducalionaI enviionnenl.
3. Yeais sludying in univeisily: fouilh and lhiid
yeai sludenls iepoiled noie faniIiaiily vilh
digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs.
4. Ovning a IC oi a Nolelook
5. Nunlei of pIaces of access: lhe noie lhe
nunlei of pIaces of access of a sludenl, lhe noie
he is alIe lo use conpuleis and inleinel
effecliveIy.
6. Tine spenl on inleinel daiIy: useis vilh highei
daiIy usage lend lo iepoil noie faniIiaiily vilh
digilaI Iileiacy skiIIs.
7. Yeais using lhe Inleinel: sludenls vhon slailed
lo use inleinel eaiIiei lend lo iepoil noie
faniIiaiily vilhdigilaI Iileiacy skiIIs.
8. DigilaI Iileiacy seIf-efficacy: iespondenls vho
evaIuale lheii digilaI Iileiacy skiIIed as skiIIed
and veiy skiIIed in ansveiing lhe digilaI
Iileiacy seIf-efficacy queslion aie noie faniIiai
vilhdigilaI Iileiacy skiIIs.
9. Sel of digilaI Iileiacy neasuies: lhe sel of 41
digilaI Iileiacy neasuies, inlioduced and lesled
in lhis sludy give us lhe aliIily lo piedicl digilaI
Iileiacy skiIIs of univeisily sludenls.
ConcIusion
AIlhough il is geneiaIIy laken foi gianled lhal
youngei inleinel useis aie veiy skiIIed, lul oui
sludy shovs ve shouId nol necessaiiIy considei il
liue. In olhei voids nol necessaiiIy aII sludenls can
use ICTseivices effeclive and efficienl.
In iegaid lo educalionaIisl syslen's appioach
lovaid nev nedia lechnoIogies, in nany counliies
and in Iian, fundings and pIannings aie noie
focused on equipping educalionaI inslilules vilh
nev devices ialhei lhan heIping sludenls deveIop a
nev appioachlovaid nev nedia lechnoIogies.
IinaIIy lhe neasuies ve inlioduced and lesled
in lhis sludy aie deveIoped in an educalionaI
enviionnenl. We leIieve foi olhei enviionnenls,
age gioups oi foi specific piofessionaI puiposes ve
have lo nodify lhese skiIIs. NeedIess lo say as line
goes ly and in a iapidIy changing lechnoIogy
enviionnenl ve have lo considei nev changes in
fuluie sludies.
4
HAMID ADOLLAHYAN AND MOHAMMAD AHMADI
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6
HAMID ADOLLAHYAN AND MOHAMMAD AHMADI
7
l|om L|ne to Lo|aemon : apanee /n|me ubt|tute /me||can
/n|mat|on on lnd|an Ch||d|en' Je|ev||on: / J|end Stud
RuchI JaggI
Synliosis InleinalionaI Univeisily, Iune
LaiIy cailoonpiogianning onleIevisionieIied onshoil suljecls iniliaIIy exhililed innovie lhealeis. Inlhe US, foi exanpIe, lhe hisloiy
of cailoons pioduced foi leIevision legan in syndicalion, ialhei lhan nelvoik piogianning. Wilh cailoons Iike Ciusadei Rallil, The
Ruff and Reddy Shov, and The IIinlslones, lhe lIuepiinl foi lhe nade-foi-TVcailoonvas consoIidaled and lhe foinal vas divided inlo
foui chaiacleiislics- piogian sliucluie, naiialive sliucluie, Iiniled aninalion, and enphasis on diaIogue. WaIl Disney and Tuinei nol
onIy sel lhe Aneiican chiIdien's leIevision space, lul aIso suppIied Mickey Mouse, DonaId Duck and lheii Iikes lo lhe iesl of lhe voiId.
Aneiican cailoons gained gIolaI popuIaiily. Though Aneiican leIevision cailoons aInosl poIaiized lhe gIolaI aninalion indusliy al
one line, lhe spuil of }apanese aninalion chaIIenged lhis slalus quo. The genie of }apanese anine enjoys huge gIolaI popuIaiily loday.
The genie -- chaiacleiized ly iich, dynanic diavings, exaggeialed expiessions, and sci-fi and fanlasy lhenes -- slielches lack decades
and has evoIved so lhal il nov caleis lo jusl aloul aII ages and lasles. Anine is one of lhe nosl inpoilanl cuIluie pioducls of poslvai
}apan, and is loday one of lhe nosl ceIelialed gIolaI phenonena lhal affecls lhe coIIeclive inaginalion of nany peopIe lhioughoul lhe
voiId, especiaIIy youngsleis vilh lhe onsIaughl of saleIIile TVievoIulion in lhe eaiIy 9Os in India, chiIdien's piogianning aIso noved
on. Iion a coupIe of houis' segnenl on lhe veekend, il nelanoiphosed inlo daiIy noining and evening segnenls on saleIIile channeIs.
The yeai 1996 sav lhe enliy of lhe fiisl excIusive chiIdien's leIevision channeI - Cailoon Nelvoik. CuiienlIy, lheie aie aiound 15
chiIdien's channeIs on lhe Indian leIevision and lheie aie olheis in lhe pipeIine. Inpoiled conlenl has leen a key chaiacleiislic of
chiIdien's piogianning onIndianleIevision. Off Iale, lhe veighlage of lhis conlenl has seena suige lolhinquaIilalive and quanlilalive
leins. Though Aneiican aninalion has enjoyed huge popuIaiily in India, lhe liend has leen sleadiIy iepIaced ly lhe }apanese vave.
This papei expIoies lhis shifl. Il Iooks al lhe chaiacleiislics of }apanese anine lhal leII sloiies fion a chiId's peispeclive and don'l ieIy on
lhe sIapslick conedy lhal is used in Aneiican aninalion. Il anaIyzes lhe discouises on anolhei depailuie fion Aneiican aninalion,
vheie lhe Ieading chaiacleis aie nol aIvays supei heioes, lul lhey aie usuaIIy connon foIks sluck in ieaI Iife silualions. The papei viII
conducl conpiehensive Iileialuie ieviev lo sludy lhe foieign conlenl on chiIdien's leIevision in India. Il viII fuilhei use lhe discouise
anaIysis lechnique lo conpaie lhe }apanese and Aneiican genies and piovide insighl inlo lhe appiopiialion, ieinleipielalion,
adaplalionand adoplionof lhe foieignconlenl onIndianchiIdien's leIevision.
Kcqucrds. Aninalions, chiIdien, saleIIile leIevision, discouise anaIysis
lntroduction
Media aie souices of povei as veII as neanings
nedialed neanings can have poveifuI sociaI
consequences (}ensen, 2OO2). Hovevei, vhal is
nedialed and hov neanings aie given and laken
aIso foin lhe 'cuIluiaI peispeclive' of a nedia
nessage. This peispeclive nay eilhei oiiginale fion
a sociaI selling oi conliilule lo anolhei sel of sociaI
condilions. This ieIalionship has Ied lo lhe iise of a
dislinclive 'nedia cuIluie', vhich has given a nev
dinension lo lhe undeislanding of 'popuIai
cuIluie'. IopuIai cuIluie lianspiied ly leIevision
offeis innense scope lo le ieseaiched foi lhe Iaveis
of sul-cuIluies lhal il cieales.
ChiIdren and teIevision cartoons
Theie is a changing pIace of nedia in chiIdien's
Iives. The popuIai nedia have aIvays iegaided
chiIdien as a speciaI audience. The nosl connonIy
iepealed slalislic is lhal ly lhe line a chiId finishes
schooI loday, he oi she viII have spenl noie line in
fionl of lhe leIevision sel (17,OOO houis), lhan in a
foinaI cIassioon (11,OOO houis) (Schneidei, 1989).
Cy Schneidei inlhe look 'ChiIdien's TeIevision: The
Ail, The usiness and Hov Il Woiks' ieIales a fev
sludies as foIIovs. In a 1974 Scoll Waid's exlensive
sludy of chiIdien's leIevision vieving halils,
chiIdien indicaled lhal lheii favouiile aclivily vas
'pIaying vilh fiiends' oi 'going lo lhe novies'. Aflei
lhose 'valching TV' lecane lhe favouiile. Since
fiiends and novies aie nol aIvays avaiIalIe,
leIevision lecones lhe key aclivily. In 2OO7, akei
and Raney have delaiIed lhal sludies consislenlIy
denonsliale lhal aninaled piogians aie lhe
piefeiied foinal foi chiIdien slailing al 18 lo 24
nonlhs of age (e.g.,Hapkievicz, 1979). Accoiding lo
lhe deveIopnenlaI Iileialuie, chiIdien lefoie lhe
age of 1O yeais oflen have difficuIly consislenlIy
dislinguishing lelveen ieaIily and fanlasy (R. K.
akei & aII, 1969, easich, Leinoff, & Svan, 1992).
SpecificaIIy, easich, Leinoff, and Svan found lhal
8- and 9-yeai-oIds find lhe chaiacleis, silualions,
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 7-12
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
"Asslstant Professor Smblosls lnstltute of Medla
and Communlcatlon, Smblosls lnternatlona|
Unlterslt, Pune
and sloiy Iines in Saluiday noining aninaled
piogianning lo le ieaIislic. The significanl ioIe of
leIevisioninlhe sociaIizalionpiocess of chiIdienhas
leen consislenlIy denonslialed, exhausliveIy
anaIyzed, and is nov videIy accepled (e.g., eiiy &
Mi l cheI I - Keinan, 1982, Ceilnei, Cioss,
Moigan,SignoiieIIi, & Shananhan, 2OO2, Levinson,
1975).
This Iileialuie denonsliales chiIdien's sliong
Iiking foi leIevision cailoons. Il vouId le nany
yeais hovevei, lefoie cailoons as ve knov vouId
le ciealed specificaIIy foi leIevision. LaiIy cailoon
piogianning on leIevision ieIied inslead on shoil
suljecls iniliaIIy exhililed in novie lhealeis. In lhe
US, foi exanpIe, lhe hisloiy of cailoons pioduced
foi leIevision legan in syndicalion, ialhei lhan
nelvoik piogianning. Wilh cailoons Iike
Ciusadei Rallil, The Ruff and Reddy Shov, and
The IIinlslones, lhe lIuepiinl foi lhe nade-foi-TV
cailoon vas consoIidaled and lhe foinal vas
divided inlofoui chaiacleiislics- piogian sliucluie,
naiialive sliucluie, Iiniled aninalion, and
enphasis on diaIogue (ulIei, 2OO2). WaIl Disney
and Tuinei nol onIy sel lhe Aneiican chiIdien's
leIevision space, lul aIso suppIied Mickey Mouse,
DonaId Duck and lheii Iikes lo lhe iesl of lhe voiId.
Aneiican cailoons gained gIolaI popuIaiily.
Though Aneiican leIevision cailoons aInosl
poIaiized lhe gIolaI aninalion indusliy al one line,
lhe spuil of }apanese aninalion chaIIenged lhis
slalus quo. The genie of }apanese anine enjoys huge
gIolaI popuIaiily loday. The genie -- chaiacleiized
ly iich, dynanic diavings, exaggeialed
expiessions, and sci-fi and fanlasy lhenes --
slielches lack decades and has evoIved so lhal il
nov caleis lojusl aloul aII ages and lasles. Anine is
one of lhe nosl inpoilanl cuIluie pioducls of
poslvai }apan, and is loday one of lhe nosl
ceIelialed gIolaI phenonena lhal affecls lhe
coIIeclive inaginalion of nany peopIe lhioughoul
lhe voiId, especiaIIy youngsleis
jaanese Anime in the US
AIlhough aninalion is a nediun, aninalion in
Aneiica has seived as a sile of geneiic cIusleiing
and, lhus, has funclioned anong Aneiican
audiences Iike a genie. In his iecenl look Cenie and
TeIevision, }ason MilleII denonsliales lhal cuIluiaI
foices and econonic piessuies liansfoined lhe
geneiic discouise aiound Aneiican aninalion
lhioughoul lhe niddIe of lhe 2Olh cenluiy. A
cuIluiaI sink is a void lhal foins in a cuIluie as a
iesuIl of inliacuIluiaI oi lianscuIluiaI fIovs. In lhe
anine case, lhe cuIluiaI sink foined due lo a deailh
of sophislicaled aduIl aninaled piogianning in
Aneiica aflei a pionuIgaled ieailicuIalion of lhe
cailoongenie inlhe 196Os. (Leonaid, 2OO5).
An ApiiI 2OO2 ailicIe lilIed 'Lnpiie of Kilsch:
}apan as Repiesenled in Weslein Iop Media' ly
Roleil HaniIlon says Aneiican leIevision is sliII
doninaled ly U.S. pioduclions, lul nol quile as
excIusiveIy as il once vas. Ioieign aninalion,
hovevei, is aIvays dulled. Cailoons don'l suffei
fion lhe Iinilalions of Iive aclion piogians in lhal
lhey Iend lhenseIves quile veII lo liansIalion.
ecause of lhis advanlage, }apanese cailoons veie
sone of lhe fiisl non-Weslein piogians consuned
ly vide audiences in Noilh Aneiica. Yel, eaiIy
liansIalions of lhese piogians foi Aneiican TV
veie fai fion sliaighlfoivaid. Nol onIy vas
neaning liansIaled, lul specific }apanese cuIluiaI
iefeiences veie eilhei ienoved oi iepIaced. Since
lhe slyIized naluie of lhe aninaled faces doesn'l
dislinguish lelveen Asian and Caucasian fealuies,
lhe geneiaI assunplion ly Noilh Aneiican
audiences vas aIso lhal lhe heioes of shovs such as
Speed Racei and Aslioloy veie aII vhile
Aneiicans. The lendency lo disguise }apanese
aninalion as Aneiican has giaduaIIy faded
(aIlhough nol enliieIy disappeaied) since lhen. In
lhe Iale 197Os, Aneiica vas valching }apan's
Kagaku Ninja Tai Calchanan (Science Ninja Tean
'Calchanan') as allIe of lhe IIanels. In lhis iadicaI
ie-edil of lhe oiiginaI, aII ienovalIe signs of
}apanese oiigin veie gone. The nanes of lhe nain
hunan chaiacleis veie aIso geneiicaIIy Weslein:
Maik, }ason, Iiincess and Tiny. As I chiId, I valched
lhis shov eveiy day aflei schooI, and yel il nevei
occuiied lo ne lhal lhis vas nol a Noilh Aneiican
pioducl. The voices, nanes and iefeiences veie as
faniIiai lo ne as lhose in Scooly-Doo oi }uslice
League of Aneiica. In lhis vay, }apanese aninalion
enleied lhe coIIeclive consciousness of a geneialion,
lul onIy aflei having leen sliipped of ils oiigin. In
1988, a change look pIace vhen Kalsuhiio Olono's
Akiia vas ieIeased onAneiicannovie scieens. The
LngIish liansIalion of lhe aninaled science ficlion
fiIn ielained lhe oiiginaI }apanese nanes foi aII
chaiacleis, and look pIace in a dyslopian cily caIIed
"Neo-Tokyo". Il did ienaikalIy veII al lhe lox
office, and gaineied a sliong cuIl foIIoving anong
coIIege-age Aneiicans. Since aninalion vas one of
lhe fiisl foins of nedia lo piesenl conlenpoiaiy
}apan lo lhe Aneiican vieving pulIic, il is no
suipiise lhal ve can see iefeiences lo }apanese
cuIluie in Aneiican aninalion noie lhan in olhei
genies of WesleinleIevisionenleilainnenl.
In his 2OO3 look lilIed 'Anine expIosion: The
8
RUCHI }ACCI
Whal, Why & Wov of }apanese Aninalion' , Ialiick
Diazen noles lhal }apanese aninalion is nol
iesliicled ly lhe age and suljecl nallei consliainls
oflen inposed on Weslein aninaled sloiies.
Accoiding lo Diazen, anine oflen iefIecls high
ciealive vaIues, shovs gieal allenlion lo ailislic
delaiI, uliIizes lhe Ialesl pioduclion lechnoIogy, and
diavs allenlion lo ilseIf lhiough ils sophislicalion.
In conliasl, unliI iecenlIy, faniIiai Weslein
aninalion shave seened siniIai lo nevspapei
cailoons: sinpIislic, Iacking indelaiIs, chiIdish.
In his look "The Anine Conpanion" pulIished
ly Slone iidge Iiess, eikeIey in 1999, CiIIes
Ioilias says, Aneiican aninalion lends lo le diy
and piediclalIe -- lhe good guys, usuaIIy naIe,
aIvays vin lhiough supei slienglh oi supei
veapons. ul vhal peopIe Iike aloul }apanese
aninalion is lhal even vhen il is deaIing vilh sci-fi
and fanlasy, lheie aie sullIelies, shadings, and lhe
chaiacleis aie lolaIIy hunan. They nake nislakes,
lhe good can faiI niseialIy, lhe lad aie usuaIIy lad
foi ieasons ve can undeisland." InleieslingIy,
Miianax, Disney disliiluled lhe }apanese fiIn
'Iiincess Mononoke' in lhe Iale 9Os denonslialing
lhal }apanese aninalion had nade inioads inlo lhe
US.
In a 2OO4 ailicIe pulIished in Cailoons and
Caiicaluies, Leo Levis says, Whal nany anaIysls
can ieadiIy inagine is a scenaiio in vhich Disney is
effecliveIy spIil up inlo ils saIienl divisions, and lhe
naikel (via inveslois, coipoiale luyeis and piivale
equily) decides vhal viII conslilule lhe nev coie of
Disney and vhal viII nol. In lhal piocess il is aIso
veiy possilIe lhal, in effecl, lhe concIusion viII le
ieached lhal lhe lusiness of aninalion is nov lesl
handIed ly an aggiessive nev lieed of expeils and
lhal lhe }apanese aie al lhe veiy lop of lhe
Iisl..Theii nakeis have eveiy ieasonloleIieve lhal
lhe foinuIa viII voik oulside lheii counliy vilh
onIy a nininaI lveaking of Ianguage and lhe
adjuslnenl of cuIluiaI iefeiences...cailoon seiies,
video ganes, liading caids and a hosl of olhei
nani f esl al i ons l hal iake i n ni I I i ons i n
neichandising piofils. Hiioshi Takahashi ,
piesidenl of a Ieading }apanese aninalion conpany
Toei vas quoled in lhe sane piece saying lhal
conpIex sloiyIines and a pIelhoia of nenoialIe
chaiacleis dislinguished }apanese aninalion,
lesides lhe uniqueIy iecognizalIe }apanese ailislic
slyIe lhal had aIieady pioven a hil in lhe US and
Luiope. He aIso quoled lhal 4O of Toei's piofils
cane fion lhe Luiopeanand Aneiicannaikels.
This Iileialuie eslalIishes }apanese aninalion
as lhe lig lhing inchiIdien's piogianning, and hov
il has chaIIenged lhe Aneiican hegenony in lhis
donain. The genie of chiIdien's piogianning and
lhe popuIaiily of }apanese aninalionlhe voiId ovei
has leen invesligaled ly ieseaicheis in diffeienl
vays. '}apanese anine, infacl, is a phenonenon of
lhe popuIai cuIluie 'nass cuIluie' in}apanand 'sul-
cuIluie' in Aneiica. Thiough anine }apan has
lecone an incieasingIy significanl pIayei in lhe
gIolaI cuIluiaI econony. Infacl one schoIai has gone
so fai lo IaleI anine as }apan's chief cuIluiaI expoil'
(Napiei, 2OOO).
In a laIk deIiveied al lhe akaIoiun 2OO8 in lhe
conlexl of chiIdien's leIevision, David W. KIeenan
Iiesidenl, Aneiican Cenlei foi ChiIdien and Media
said, Is chiIdien's leIevisiona cuIluiaI expiession a
neans of inlioducing young peopIe lo lhe voiId
aiound lhen oi jusl anolhei division in lhe gIolaI
nedia lusiness` On ils suiface, lhe ansvei is
lolh: inleinalionaI coipoialions vilh piogians
nade lo pIay anyvheie in lhe voiId exisl side ly
side vilh shovs and channeIs designed lo
disseninale IocaI cuIluie. In nany pIaces, lhe Iine is
lIuiiing as gIolaI lusinesses pIay lolh ioIes
lIending doneslic pioduclion vilh inpoils, oi
ciealing cuIluie-specific adaplalions of voiIdvide
hils.
Dala ieveaIs lhal }apanese aninalion has nel
vilh Iol of popuIaiily in Aneiica, Luiope as veII as
lhe Asian Iandscape. Taivan, Indonesia, Hong
Kong, MaIaysia, ThaiIand and Singapoie have leen
sliongIy infIuenced ly lhe }apanese aninalion
loon. Il of couise has counleilaIanced lhe
Aneiican hegenony and nade vay lo undeisland
popuIai cuIluie as nuch noie lhan Aneiican
c uI l ui e ( Mi ng, 2OO1) . The s hi f l f oi n
i nl einal i onaI i zal i on i n 196Os & 7Os l o
nuIlinalionaIizalion in lhe 8Os and fuilhei lo
gIolaIizalion in lhe 9Os nade lhe Asian niddIe cIass
a key naikel foi foieign lioadcasleis. The
nuIlicuIluiaI, ieIigious, iaciaI and Iinguislic
conpIexilies in Asia chaIIenged lheii penelialion
pIans. ul lhis expansion nade inioads foi a Iol of
deveIopnenl in lhe nedia and enleilainnenl secloi
acioss Asia. Iion conpIeleIy foieign conlenl lo
dulled conlenl and lhen IocaI piogianning,
gIolaIizalion vas appioached as a nassive lvo-
vay piocess invoIving lhe inleipenelialion of lhe
univeisaIizalion of pailicuIaiisn and lhe
pailicuIaiizalion of univeisaIisn. Infacl, Roleilson
loiioved lhe lein 'gIocaIizalion' fion }apanese
lusiness piaclices and used il lo concepluaIize lhe
inleiseclion of univeisaIizalion (gIolaIizalion) and
pailicuIaiizalion(IocaIizalion) (Chang, 2OO3).
9
In a synposiun lilIed, "Lnleilainnenl Coes
' Iop' : The Iuluie of Manga and Anine
Lnleilainnenl" heId al UCLA, USA on Seplenlei
27, 2OO3, lhe keynole speakei Kinindo Kusaka,
Chaiinan of lhe Tokyo Ioundalion exanined lhe
diffeiences lelveen }apanese and Weslein
aninalion. He said lhal anine and lhal laigel
chiIdien leII sloiies fion a chiId's peispeclive and
don'l ieIy on lhe sIapslick conedy lhal is used in
Aneiican aninalion. AIso, anolhei depailuie fion
Aneiican conics is lhal lhe Ieading chaiacleis aie
nol aIvays supei heioes, lul lhey aie usuaIIy
connon foIks sluck in ieaI Iife silualions. He aIso
expIained lhal sone of lhe lhenes in }apanese
anine give lhe foin ils unique idenlily and a
phiIosophy lhal sliesses effoil, fiiendship and
vicloiy (Okinaka, 2OO7).
1he lndian Scenario
Wilh lhe onsIaughl of saleIIile TV ievoIulion in
lhe eaiIy 9Os in India, chiIdien's piogianning aIso
noved on. Iion a coupIe of houis' segnenl on lhe
veekend, il nelanoiphosed inlo daiIy noining
and evening segnenls on saleIIile channeIs. The
yeai 1996 sav lhe enliy of lhe fiisl excIusive
chiIdien's leIevision channeI - Cailoon Nelvoik.
CuiienlIy, lheie aie aiound 15 chiIdien's channeIs
on lhe Indian leIevision and lheie aie olheis in lhe
pipeIine (}aggi, 2OO9). Inpoiled conlenl has leen a
key chaiacleiislic of chiIdien's piogianning on
Indian leIevision (Iig I). Off Iale, lhe veighlage of
lhis conlenl has seen a suige lolh in quaIilalive and
quanlilalive leins.
}apanese aninalion piogiannes foi chiIdien
have lecone lhe pie-doninanl foieign conlenl on
Indian leIevision, as viII le eslalIished ly lhe dala
in succeeding seclions of lhis papei. This papei
expIoies lhe liend vheie Indian leIevision foi
chiIdien is lhoioughIy iegaIing in lhe }apanese
vave. }apanese anine veie inlioduced in India in
}uIy 2OO4 on lhe leIevision channeI Aninax. As
evidenl in lhe piogianning liend ovei lhe Iasl six
yeais, olhei channeIs foIIoved suil Ialei. The
vaiious genies of }apanese aninalion advenluie,
conedy, ionance, spoils and ganes, hisloiicaI
diana, conedy, science ficlion and fanlasy,
nysleiy, hoiioi, sexuaIily anong olheis aie leing
leIecasl on Indian leIevision. These shovs have
lecone veiy popuIai and slalislics shov lhal lhey
have incieased adveilising ievenues foi lhese TV
channeIs innenseIy.
Conlenpoiaiy leIevision piogianning
palleins aie veiy aggiessive. olh in leins of lhe
24x7 sliucluie and dynanics, as veII as lhe huge
chiIdien's naikel in India, a sliong denand
confionls chiIdien's leIevision channeIs. Theie is
aIso a significanlIy vaiied audience foi chiIdien's
piogiannes. Il is lheiefoie inpeialive lo calei lo
lhis naikel vilh ideas, speed and segnenlalion.
The nunlei of indigenous leIevision cailoons has
nevei leen adequale lo neel lhis denand.
Theiefoie a Iol of foieign leIevision cailoons have
leenlhe najoi conlenl diiveis onlhese channeIs.
Theie aie lvo nain issues diieclIy associaled vilh
chiIdien's leIevisioninIndia-
a) Cap lelveen denand and suppIy, vhich is an
eveiIasling piolIen: Wilh chiIdien's leIevision
channeIs aIso gone 24x7, lhe gap lelveen
denand and suppIy is evei incieasing. Hence il
is cenliaI lo lhe econonics of chiIdien's
piogianning.
l) Indigenous Indian aninalion piogiannes,
vhich aie najoiIy iooled in nylhoIogy and
foIkIoie and lheiefoie lend lo gel iepelilive, do
nol find an inleinalionaI naikel, lhus Iiniling
lheii avenues. As in lhe soflvaie indusliy,
nuch of lhe giovlh in lhis indusliy is diiven ly
off-shoiing and conliacl seivices as veII.
Indigenous conlenl lheiefoie has socioIogicaI
iesliiclions, vhichaIsoieguIale ils econonics.
WhendeIving inlo lhe piolIens of denand and
suppIy, il is inpoilanl lo nole lhal chiIdienundei 12
aie nol one naikel, lhey aie lhiee oi foui segnenled
naikels. ChiIdien in lhese naikels aie conslanlIy
deveIoping and vilhin a 12-yeai peiiod lhey
piogiess fion infancy lo aInosl lhe independency
of aduIlhood. WhiIe lhe one- lo five-yeai oIds can'l
iead and aie highIy slinuIaled ly leIevision, lhe six-
lo nine-yeai oIds aie lhe heaviesl valcheis of
leIevision. The 1O lo 12 yeai-oIds aie a sulcuIluie in
lhen and legin lo inilale adoIescenls (Schneidei,
1989). This segnenl seeks noie speciaIized
leIevision foi ilseIf and noie conpIex nessages aie
enjoyed ly il. This inpIies lhal lhe denand is aIso
age-specific in naluie. ConsequenlIy, a highei IeveI
sophislicalion in sloiy-leIIing, diieclion and
ani nal i on i s iequi ied l o esl alI i sh l hi s
diffeienlialion.
Ioi yeais, Indian kids had IillIe in leins of
enleilainnenl, vhen il cones lo discussing lhe
oplions avaiIalIe lo lhen on leIevision. UnliI aloul
2OO1, lhey had jusl one channeI: lhe fiisl novei,
Cailoon Nelvoik, vhich foi nine yeais nainlained
ils pieniei posilion capilaIizing on lhe paucily of
leIevisionenleilainnenl foi chiIdien. SulsequenlIy,
lvo nalionaI kids' channeIs - NickeIodeon and, on a
1O
RUCHI }ACCI
veiy Iiniled lasis, SpIash - enleied lhe fiay. LaiIiei
Indian aninalion popuIai, lul couId nol iake up
TRIs lhe vay inleinalionaI piogiannes Iike Mi.
ean (TOI, 2OO8). This inslance denonsliales lhe
cenliaIily of nylhoIogy and foIkIoie in chiIdien's
piogianning in India lesides lheii Iiniled
popuIaiily, vhich nake lhen iesliiclive in iange
and ieach. As lhe nunlei of chiIdien's leIevision
channeIs incieased, lhe chaIIenge lo suslain a 24x7
piogianning and lhal loo vilh a niche appioach
lecane cenliic.
The doninance of foieign conlenl on chiIdien's
leIevision undeivenl a change vilh lhe Iaunch of
lhe leIevision channeI Hungana in 2OO4, vhich vas
diiven ly Indian conlenl. ul lhis conlenl couId nol
diive lhe channeI. Whenil gol acquiied ly 'The WaIl
Disney Co'., in 2OO6 and Iaunched lhe fiisl }apanese
cailoonshov Doiaenon, foIIoved ly anolhei shov
Shin Chan in 2OO7. NickeIodeon foIIoved suil ly
iunning Ninja Halloii, anolhei }apanese anine.
The foIIoving (TalIe IV) piovides lhe
appioxinale peicenlage piesence of }apanese
cailoons on vaiious channeIs as pei lhe dala in
lalIe III.
11
weekdays weekends
||c| 30 20
lurgara 75 90
Carloor |elWor| 25 15
Pogo 20 |||
0|srey 15 15
popuIaiily of Doia The LxpIoiei, Ninja Halloii and
Oggy and The Cockioaches, vhich ieach audiences
in Hindi, TaniI and TeIugu lesides LngIish (and
have eained lhe channeI lhe highesl shaie of lhe
Hindi-speaking naikels 24 pei cenl in }uIy 2O1O, 4-
14 yeai-oIds, AC C&S, accoiding lo TAM Media)
(ChaIIapaIIi, 2O1O).
Whal is aIso significanl lo nole in lhe Indian
conlexl is lhe ciealion of a non-veslein cuIluie on
leIevision foi chiIdien. Though }apanese cuIluie is
significanlIy diffeienl fion lhe Indian cuIluie, yel
lhe iepiesenlalions in anine have incoipoialed
essenliaIisl inages lhal nol onIy ieIale lhen lo vilh
inages of Indian cuIluie, lul sinuIlaneousIy offei a
sliong connolalion of lhe exolic oi nyslicaI. The
expIoialion of lhe poslcoIoniaI sullexl lo India's
desiie lo luiId cuIluiaI capilaI using lhe }apanese
sofl povei fianevoik vouId ceilainIy highIighl lhe
conpIexily of lhe gIolaI nedia naikel (yice el aI,
2O1O). The popuIaiily of lhese piogiannes
lheiefoie can aIso le Iooked al fion lhe peispeclive
of foieign, lul nol-so-foieign.
This discussion Ieads lo fuilhei inlegialing
cognilive, discuisive and sociaI aspecls of lhe
'Anine' phenonenon in India. These shovs have
voiked veII vilh olhei foieign audiences. Theii ie-
iun in India legins onIy aflei lhen having lesled
lheii valeis. The chaiacleis lhough elhnic in nanes
and sliucluie have a geneiic naiialive and a gIolaI
appeaI. Add lo lhis lhe sIick dulling in Hindi and
olhei iegionaI Ianguages, lhe conlinalion voiks
snoolhIy in lhe Indian conlexl. These chaiacleis
have leen oidinaiy loys and giiIs vho do nol slep
oul of lhe pages of an epic. Theii supeiheio fealuies
have enlhiaIIed young audiences, vho valch
diean-cone-liue silualions foi youngsleis vho aie
jusl Iike lhen. This cieales sliong enpalhelic
ieIalionship. The TV channeIs have aIso uses an
inlegialed appioach of deIuging lhe naikels and
kids' inaginalion vilh neichandise and olhei
accessoiies lo popuIaiize lhese chaiacleis (}aggi,
2OO9).
ConcIusion
Anine is one of lhe nosl inpoilanl cuIluie
pioducls of poslvai }apan, and is loday one of lhe
nosl ceIelialed gIolaI phenonena lhal affecls lhe
coIIeclive inaginalion of nany of peopIe
lhioughoul lhe voiId, especiaIIy youngsleis.
}apanese aninalion is lhe lig lhing in chiIdien's
piogianning, and has chaIIenged lhe Aneiican
hegenony in lhis donain. The genie of chiIdien's
piogianning and lhe popuIaiily of }apanese
The alove dala anaIysis denonsliales lhe Iaige
piesence of }apanese cailoons on Indian chiIdien's
leIevision channeIs. The popuIaiily of lhese
piogiannes has heIped pIayeis Iike Hungana lo
Iead lhe landvagon vilhin a span of 2-3 yeais,
usuiping veleians Iike Cailoon Nelvoik and Iogo
fion lhe lop sIols. The success of lhis liend has
encouiaged aII lhe olhei channeIs lo acquiie and
leIecasl }apanese aninalion piogiannes. Though
Hungana has lhe Iaigesl piopoilion of }apanese
piogianning, Nick (lhe lop ialed) iuns lhe nosl
popuIai }apanese Anine Ninja Halloii, vhich
indeed is one of lhe channeI diiveis foi Nick India.
Nina LIavia }aipuiia, Senioi Vice-Iiesidenl &
CeneiaI Managei, Nick India poinls lo lhe
;Tnc inf|ucncc cf |nc ]apancsc Aninc |ccnniquc cn |nc 8cn 10 scrics
(|ncugn Ancrican) |c|ccas| cn Car|ccn Nc|ucr| |a|cs |nc prcscncc cf
|nis gcnrc |c apprcxina|c|q 50 cn ucc|daqs and apprcxina|c|q 28
cn ucc|cnd).
12
aninalion lhe voiId ovei has leen invesligaled ly
ieseaicheis in diffeienl vays. '}apanese anine,
infacl, is a phenonenon of lhe popuIai cuIluie
'nass cuIluie' in }apan and 'sul-cuIluie' in Aneiica.
Napiei has defined anine as }apan's chief cuIluiaI
expoil'. }apanese aninalion has nel vilh Iol of
popuIaiily in Aneiica, Luiope as veII as lhe Asian
Iandscape. Taivan, Indonesia, Hong Kong,
MaIaysia, ThaiIand and Singapoie have leen
sliongIy infIuenced ly lhe }apanese aninalion
loon. CuiienlIy, lhe Indian leIevision foi chiIdien
is lhoioughIy iegaIing in lhe }apanese vave. Theie
aie lvo nain issues diieclIy associaled vilh
chiIdien's leIevision in India- dap lelveen denand
and suppIy, and indigenous Indian aninalion
piogiannes lhal aie najoiIy iooled in nylhoIogy
and foIkIoie and lheiefoie lend logel iepelilive, and
donol find aninleinalionaI naikel.
The leIecasl of }apanese aninalion on Indian
leIevision liidged lhis gap lelveen denand and
suppIy. ChiIdien couId enpalhize veII vilh lhe
fealuie chaiacleis, lhenes and pIols of anine. These
veie nol onIy a shifl fion lhe liadilionaI
nylhoIogicaI and foIk naiialives, lul aIso lhe
vaiious Aneiican shovs lhal offeied a veiy
iepelilive conlexl. The sIick dulling in Hindi and
olhei iegionaI Ianguages aIso voiked effecliveIy.
The popuIaiily of lhese piogiannes has heIped
pIayeis Iike Hungana lo Iead lhe landvagon
vilhin a span of 2-3 yeais, usuiping veleians Iike
Cailoon Nelvoik and Iogo fion lhe lop sIols. The
success of lhis liend has encouiaged aII lhe olhei
channeIs lo acquiie and leIecasl }apanese aninalion
piogiannes. Though Hungana has lhe Iaigesl
piopoilion of }apanese piogianning, Nick (lhe lop
ialed) iuns lhe nosl popuIai }apanese Anine Ninja
Halloii, vhich indeed is one of lhe channeI diiveis
foi Nick India.
Though nol expIoied in lhis papei, ciealion of a
non-veslein cuIluie on Indian chiIdien's leIevision
channeI is anolhei significanl dinension. This
popuIaiily and success of }apanese aninalion lolh
econonicaIIy and sociaIIy is aIso a veiy sliong
cuIluiaI slalenenl inlhe posl-coIoniaI eia.
The anine phenonenon on Indian leIevision
shouId definileIy inspiie indigenous aninalion.
keferences
iyce, M., ailei, C., KeIIy, }., Kunvai, S., & IIunl, A (2O1O).
Manga and Anine: IIuidily and Hyliidily in CIolaI
Inageiy. LIeclionic jouinaI of Conlenpoiaiy }apanese
Sludies.
ulIei, }eieny C (2OO2). TeIevision: CiilicaI nelhods and
AppIicalions. Nev }eisey: Lavience LiIlaun Associales,
IulIisheis.
ChaIIapaIIi, Siavanlhi (2O1O, Augusl 26). No kids pIay lhis. The
H i n d u u s i n e s s I i n e . R e l i i e v e d f i o n
hllp://vvv.lhehindulusinessIine.con/calaIysl/2O1O/O8
/26/sloiies/2O1OO8265OO2O1OO.hln
Chang, Yu-Ii (2OO3), 'CIocaIizalion' of leIevision: Iiogianning
slialegies of gIolaI leIevision lioadcasleis in Asia', Asian
}ouinaI of Connunicalion, 13, 1-36.
Diazen, Ialiick (2OO3). Anine LxpIosion: The Whal, Why &
Wov of }apanese Aninalion. eikIey, CA: Slone iidge
Iiess
IIev, Teiiy (May 22-26, 2OO7), Relhinking CIolaI Media:
Ciealive Diveisily and Media DispeisaI, Iapei piesenled lo
Connunicaling foi SociaI Inpacl: 58lh AnnuaI
InleinalionaI Connunicalions Associalion Confeience,
MonlieaI, Quelec, Reliieved Oclolei 5, 2OO9 fion
hllp://vvv.aIIacadenic.con/nela/p_nIa_apa_ieseaich
_cilalion/2/3/O/4/2/p23O427_index.hlnI
HaniIlon, Roleil (2OO2), Lnpiie of Kilsch: }apan as Repiesenled
in Weslein Iop Media, ad Suljecls, 6O. Reliieved Oclolei
1 , 2 O 1 O f i o n
hllp://lad.eseivei.oig/issues/2OO2/6O/haniIlon.hlnI
}aggi, Ruchi (Oclolei, 2OO9), }apanese Cailoons Rocking Kids'
ChanneIs, Adveilising Lxpiess, The ICIAI Univeisily Iiess
}ensen, Laus, (2OO2), A Handlook of Media and
ConnunicalionReseaich, RoulIedge
KIeenan, David W (2OO8), LocaI and CIolaI: ConfIicl and
ConpIenenl, Reliieved Novenlei 1, 2O1O fion
hllp://vvv.cenleifoichiIdienandnedia.oig/anaIyze/ail
icIe_IocaI_gIolaI.asp
Leonaid, Sean (2OO5) 'Iiogiess againsl lhe Iav: Anine and
fandon, vilh lhe key lo lhe gIolaIizalion of cuIluie',
InleinalionaI }ouinaI of CuIluie Sludies, 8(3), 2813O5
Levis, Leo (2OO4), Anine Allacks, Cailoon oi Caiicaluies, 54, 5O-
58. Reliieved fion LSCOhosl.con
MaIholia, Deepli (2OO8, May 11). Indian kids vanl lo Iive Iife lhe
Disney vay. The Tines of India. Reliieved fion
hllp://linesofindia.indialines.con/Iife-slyIe/Indian-
k i d s - v a n l - l o - I i v e - I i f e - l h e - D i s n e y -
vay/ailicIeshov/3O24227.cns
Ming, W Ng. (2OO1), }apanese Aninalion in Singapoie: A
HisloiicaI and Conpaialive Sludy, Reliieved Maich3, 2OO9
fion vvv.cuhk.edu.hk / jas / slaff / lenng / pulIicalions
/Anine (A}).pdf
Napiei, Susan }.(2OOO), Lxpeiience Conlenpoiaiy }apanese
Aninalion: Anine fion Akiia lo Iiincess Mononoke,
IaIgaiave IulIisheis Lld., Reliieved Maich 7, 2OO9 fion
hllp://looks.googIe.co.in/looks
Okinaka, olly (2OO7), HoIIyvood Heads Lasl: lhe usiness of
}apanese Aninalion and Conic. Reliieved Oclolei 4, 2O2O
fion hllp://vvv.asiaails.ucIa.edu / O7O413 / ailicIe.asp`
paienlid=5O29
Ioilias, CiIIes (1999). The Anine Conpanion. eikIey, CA: Slone
iidge Iiess
Saikai, Anindila (2OO9), Kids' channeIs gain vieveiship, Nick
ciacks HSM, Reliieved Seplenlei 15, 2OO9 fion
hllp://vvv.indianleIevision.con/speciaI/y2k9/spI_iep
oil_kids.php
Schneidei, Cy (1989). ChiIdien's TeIevision: The Ail, The
usiness, and Hov il Woik. IIIinois: NTC usiness ooks
SneIIksz, ReneIIe (2OO7), Kid's TVup foi lig allIe, Reliieved Sep
15, 2O1O fion hllp://vvv.indianleIevision.con /speciaI /
y2k7 /kidoIogy_ialings_sp.php
RUCHI }ACCI
13
L||ta| Jechno|o and Jhe Cha||ene ol Ved|a l|te|ac |n /
Leve|op|n `at|on
YnmI O!ugbndI
Nigeiia NalionaI IiIn Inslilule,
The lvenly-fiisl cenluiy aiiived vilh il a nosl dianalic ievoIulion in nedia lechnoIogy- digilizalion. The dynanisn of lhis nev
nedia, as digilaI nedia is oflen iefeiied lo, has fuilhei coIIapsed lhe gaps lelveen nalions in leins of nedia consunplion vis-a-vis
infoinalion exchange, cuIluiaI inlegialion, sociaI inleiaclions, educalion and enleilainnenl. The posilion of lhis papei is lhal, despile
lhe nany advanlages of digilaI nedia inliinging aloul iapid lechnoIogicaI, Socio-poIilicaI and econonic liansfoinalions if piopeiIy
hainessed, deveIoping nalions, pailicuIaiIy Nigeiia, faces chaIIenges in lhe aiea of piopei cuIlivalion and appIicalion of lhe digilaI
nedia lechnoIogy foi nalionaI deveIopnenl. The papei olseives lhal lhe conseivalive concenlialion on noiaI issues on lhe negalive
inpacl of digilaI nedia is ialhei counlei-pioduclive. Inslead, vhal shouId le of ulnosl concein lo Nigeiia is lhe piopei cuIlivalion of
and nassive inveslnenl in digilaI nedia lechnoIogy foi deveIopnenlaI pioposes. To lhis end, lheie is lhe need foi poIicy foinuIalion
and execulion lhal viII deIileialeIy denyslify access lo digilaI nedia as an eIile pieiogalive, enpovei lhe cilizeniy ly vay of
capacily luiIding and depIoy appiopiiale iesouices lhal vouId ensuie in lhe Iong iun lhal lhe nalion is nol Iefl slianded in lhe
infoinalionsupei highvay lhal lhe digilized nedia is.
Kcqucrds. Media lechnoIogy, nediaIileiacy, deveIoping nalions
Overviewof DigitaI Media in Nigeria
The penelialion of lhe digilaI nedia inlo lhe
Nigeiian sociely did nol slail unliI lhe eaiIy 199O's.
As a nallei of facl, as an undeigiaduale in lhe
pienieie NigeiianUniveisily, lhe fiisl line I evei
louched a conpulei lo access lhe inleinel vas in
1993 vhen I vas aloul giadualing! Iion lhis
peiiod, lhe nev nedia, vhich is piinaiiIy lased on
conpulei lechnoIogy, has conlinued lo hovei
aiound eveiy spheie of Iife in lhe counliy.
Digilizalion, filei oplic, and lioadland
lechnoIogies have ciealed oppoilunilies foi a
syneigy lelveen lhe leIevision, leIeconnunicalion
and conpulei indusliies voiId ovei, and lhe
inpacl of lhese deveIopnenls aie aIso feIl in
Nigeiia.
Connunicalion and nedia use and piaclice
in lhe counliy have leen iedefined vilh lhe advenl
of lhe inleinel, e-naiI, CSM phones, saleIIile
leIevision lioadcasls, on-Iine edilion of nevspapei
elceleia, lhe uses of vhich coiioloiale lhe
asseilion of MaishaI MacLuhan of lhe voiId as a
gIolaI viIIage.
Media consuneis in lhe counliy loday have a
vide vaiiely of vays lo access conlenl, le il
enleilainnenl, infoinalion, educalion, ieseaich
findings and olhei sundiy conlenls avaiIalIe in
lhe infoinalion supei-highvay via lhe nev
nedia, lhis hovevei depends on seveiaI faclois Iike
accessiliIily, IeveI of educalion and oi Iileiacy,
econonic slalus and pIace of alode vhelhei iuiaI
oi uilan.
Wilhlhe digilaI nedia cane lhe fuilhei opening
of lhe cilizeniy lo infIuences oulside lhe puiviev of
lhe nalion's conlioI, le il via novies, nusic,
diessing, sociaI nelvoiks and such olhei indices of
lhe digilaI voiId. To loiiov lhe voids of W.
Iollei, 've cannol escape lhe nedia. The lesl ve can
hope foi is lo ain ouiseIves vilhlhe skiIIs necessaiy
lonininize ils inpacl onus'.
No gioup feeIs lhe inpacl of lhe nev nedia
noie lhan lhe youlhs of lhe nalion. They aie lhe
nosl aclive in leins of quesl foi access lo digilaI
nedia and lhe expIoialion of sane in a nyiiad of
vays. They aie lhus affecled indiffeienl vays ly lhe
nessages lhey gel fion aiound lhe voiId via lhe
digilaI nedia Iove poIilics, spoils, scandaIs,
vioIence, sex, conlioveisies, vioIenl evenls elc.
consequenl upon lhis, lhe nalion, lhiough ieIigious
lodies, educalionaI oiganizalions, non-
goveinnenlaI oiganizalions and advocacy gioups
lend lo haip on lhe negalive effecls of lhe
uniesliained fieedon lhal lhe digilaI nedia
accoid lhe youlhs lo access conlenl and liaveI lhe
voiId vilh jusl a cIick of lhe lullon. ul lhe
queslion is, conpaied vilh lheii counlei pails and
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 13-16
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
" |acu|t, Natlona| |l|m lnstltute, P.O. Box 693,
]os, P|ateau State, Nlgerla.
14
conlenpoiaiies in olhei pails of lhe voiId, do
Nigeiian youlhs have enough access lo lhe nev
nedia voiId` Tony nind, lhe ansvei is no!
The lines aie diffeienl and so aIso aie lhe
nodes of Iife susceplilIe lo lhe foice of change,
especiaIIy in lhis eias of lechnoIogicaI ievoIulions.
The voiiy aloul ieaI and inagined negalive
inpacls of such ievoIulions vis-a-vis lhe use lo
vhich lhey aie pul, is nol enough lo discouiage
access looi lhe use of lhen. As olseived ly Haiding
(1963:65), lhe iichness of a cuIluie and lhe inleiesl of
lhe Iives Ied vilhin il depend IaigeIy on ils sul-
gioups and lheii speciaIisls, deveIopnenls. In a
fIuenlIy connunicalive sociely such as ouis vilh
jouinaIisn, lioadcasling and uliquilous ficlion of
noveIs pIays and fiIns, il is easy lo nake an
inaginaiy conlacl vilha vasl vaiiely of vays of Iife.
Nigeiia as a connunicalive sociely can
lheiefoie nol escape lhe phenonena of digilaI
nedia lechnoIogy and lhe nany noveI and dynanic
innovalions il has lioughl lo leai on lhe gIolaI
connunily. Il is hovevei lhe appIicalion of lhe
lechnoIogy lhal vouId deleinine lhe vaIues lhal a
sociely deiives fion il. As Llon CIaik (1979) iighlIy
olseives, a nalion cannol le conpIele unIess il has
ils ovncuIluiaI idenlily logive lolhe voiId. Il is oui
duly lo see lhal aII lhal is good in Afiican cuIluie
nusl le nade lo suivive ialhei lhan le Iosl ---. To
achieve lhe alove, no giealei avenue lhan lhe
depIoynenl of lhe digilaI nedia lechnoIogy exisls.
Lxcepl and unIess appiopiiale aclions aie laken ly
aII slakehoIdeis lo deIileialeIy open up lhe
infoinalion supei highvay ly vay of capacily
luiIding, skiIIs and Iileiacy acquisilions,
piovision of infoinalion on nedia ieIaled issues foi
deveIopnenl elc, lhe vilianl oppoilunily foi seIf
expiession and enpoveinenls lhal lhe digilaI
nedia piovide vouId le Iosl and lhe nalion vouId
le voise foi il. Anin anani (1977), nakes a vaIid
poinl lhal 'If, in lhe piocess of acquisilion of noden
lechnoIogy and scienlific oulIook lhal goes vilh il
peopIe of deveIoping socielies acquiie and
peipeluale a sense of infeiioiily and Ioss of
confidence vis-a-vis cuiienl souices of lechnoIogy,
lhe gap lelveen deveIoping and deveIoped
nalions viII conlinue loviden'.
ChaI I enges of Di gi t aI Medi a
1echnoIogy in Nigeria
Theie has aIvays leen eageiness on lhe pail of
eveiy enIighlened Nigeiian lo depIoy lhe digilaI
nedia in aII facels of hunan deveIopnenl. They
have hovevei leen hanpeied ly seveiaI faclois lhe
discussions of vhich fion lhe lhiusl of lhis
segnenl.
lnfrastructures
Conpuleis foin lhe lasis of digilaI nedia
lechnoIogy. The silualion in lhe counliy hovevei, is
such lhal lhe avaiIaliIily of lhe haid and soflvaies
aie sliII veiy Iov conpaied lo lhe popuIalion of lhe
counliy. In lhis nodein age, nosl peopIe aie nol
avaie of lhe essence of conpuleis nol laIk of leing
equipped vilh lhe knovIedge essenliaI foi
conpulei appiecialion. Theie is no vay a nalion
cangiov as il is supposed loif il is nol insync vilh
lechnoIogicaI advancenenl, and, since a gieal
peicenlage of lhe Nigeiian popuIalion is nol
conpulei Iileiale enough lo piopeI lhe needed
advancenenl, lhe counliy slands lhe iisk of
conlinuing lo lollei Iike a lig nan vilh lhe
spindIed Iegs of a chiId in lhe infoinalion supei-
highvay lhal lhe digilaI nedia is.
Despile lhe facl lhal Nigeiia is a Iale enlianl
inlo lhe digilaI nedia and infoinalion lechnoIogy
voiId, enough effoils have nol leen nade lo
slialegicaIIy depIoy enough infiasliucluie lo
enhance lhe chances of lhe counliy, lhis, ienains a
najoi lane of deveIopnenl polenliaIs of lhe
counliy. Lveiy singIe ilen lhal has lo do vilh
conpulei lechnoIogy is sliII leing inpoiled inlo lhe
counliy al highcosls lhus deveIoping lhe econonies
of lhe expoiling counliies lo lhe deliinenl of
inleinaI giovlh of Nigeiia. LIecliicily vilhoul
vhich lhe conpulei lechnoIogy cannol funclion is
sliII veiy epiIeplic and unslalIe.
Cost of Access to the lnternet and other
DigitaI Media Devices
High cosl of access is anolhei najoi chaIIenge
facing lhe counliy's digilaI Iandscape. The econonic
silualionis suchlhal lhe IeveI of poveily is veiy high
so aIso is lhe cosl of Iiving. ConsequenlIy, nosl
peopIe cannol affoid lhe inleinel faciIilies lhal foin
lhe lasis of digilaI connunicalions. AveiageIy, lhe
cosl lo suifing lhe vel foi an houi in a cylei cafe is
lelveen lvo hundied lo lvo hundied and fifly
naiia, a piice of aInosl 1.5 doIIais! Lven lhe CSM
leIephone conpanies aie nol heIping lhe silualion
due lo lhe high piices lhey chaige useis of lheii
YOMI OLUCODI
15
CIRS, WAI oi olhei faciIilies. As a nallei of facl,
Nigeiians aie said lo pay lhe highesl piice foi
leIephony seivices in sul-Sahaian Afiica. The
viieIess inleinel faciIilies vhen avaiIalIe cosl a
foilune lo acquiie lhe noden and in daiIy, veekIy,
nonlhIy oi li-nonlhIy sulsciiplions .IeopIe viII
lheiefoie ialhei choose lo salisfy Alian MasIov's
hieiaichy of needs, food, sheIlei, cIolhing, lhan
spend lheii IillIe incone ondigilaI lechnoIogies.
1he SociaI Status SymboI ChaIIenge
The alliludinaI chaIIenge of seeing access lo oi
possession of digilaI nedia devices as an indicalion
of one's sociaI inpoilance, lhoughialhei iidicuIous,
is a najoi lane of oui nalionaI deveIopnenl.
SaleIIile/calIe leIevision nelvoiks, leIephone
hand-sels vilh inleinel faciIilies, ovneiship oi
passions of a Iaplop conpulei, nenleiship of
sociaI inleiaclions gioups Iike Iacelook, lvillei, elc
aie indices of leing a 'lig nan' oi leing in vogue.
Infacl, lheie vas a line in lhe hisloiy of oui nalion
vhen a Connunicalions Minislei decIaied lhal
leIephony nusl le a pieiogalive of lhe eIiles and
lhal lhe pooi nasses shouId nol have access lo
such Luxuiy. In lhe schooI vheie I leach foi
exanpIe, lhe IedeiaI Coveinnenl nade avaiIalIe
inleinel faciIilies foi lhe use of slaff and sludenls,
hovevei, lhe fiisl and lhe Iasl line I evei sav lhe
faciIilies voik vas vhen lhe schooI pIayed hosl lo
sone goveinnenl officiaIs vho cane on a
veiificalion exeicise and lhe schooI had lo shov
lhen lhal ve aie voiId cIass inslilule. Theie aie
so nany hiIaiious lul painfuI inslances of dispIay
of ciass vanilies in lhe vay ve giand sland in lhis
pail of lhe voiId vhenfoilunes sniIe onus lo le
alIe lo possess digilaI nedia lechnoIogy and lhus le
alIe loOppiess oui neighlois vhodonol have.
1Hl CHAlllNCl Ol MlDlA ll1lkAC
AND lDUCA1lON
Inadequacy of nedia educalion oi Iileiacy aIso
conslilules a najoi chaIIenge. Majoiily of Nigeiians
aie nol yel equipped vilh lhe necessaiy skiIIs lo
effecliveIy undeisland and nake pioduclive use of
lolh lhe haid vaie/soflvaie and lhe conlenl of lhe
nedia inlheii daiIy Iives. UnliI sucha line vhenlhe
geneiaIily of lhe peopIe can ieIale lo and expIoie
lhe nyiiad of oppoilunilies lhal alound in lhe nev
nedia lechnoIogy, appieciale hov lhe nev nedia
voik, hov neanings aie deiived fion conlenls
and olhei ieIaled issues, lhe counliy slands lhe iisk
of leing peipeluaIIy passive and inaclive in lopicaI
gIolaI issues. The cilizeniy loo viII conlinue lo
suffei lhe psychoIogicaI condilion of infeiioiily
conpIex since lhey viII le unalIe lo conpele
effecliveIy vilh lheii counleipails in olhei pails of
lhe voiId.
SlCUkl1 AND C8lk CklMl
AIlhough lhe issue of secuiily is a gIolaI one,
lhe Nigeiian case is hovevei pecuIiai in lhe sense
lhal lhe skiIIs and lechnicaI enpoveinenl needed
lo fighl cylei ciine and ensuie secuiily aie giossIy
inadequale. Hackeis and viiuses aie eveiyvheie,
peopIe have Iosl high suns of noney, seciels have
leen Ieaked, lIacknaiIs, inpeisonalion and nany
such secuiily issues lend lo cieale pholia in lhe
peopIe, lhus iesliicling lhe Iileily and excilenenl
vilh vhich lhey vouId have oidinaiiIy enliaced
lhe nev nedia. SociaI nelvoiking siles loo do nol
escape lhese ugIy liends. The ciealoi of Iacelook,
Maik Zuckenleig once had his peisonaI Iacelook
accounl hacked inlo, lhis in spile of his gIolaIIy
accIained ingenuily inciealing lhe velsile!
CONClUSlONS
DigilaI nedia lechnoIogies have shifled lhe
paiadign, of hunan inleiaclions loday leyond
vhal anyone had inagined a fev decades ago. Il has
shiunk lhe voiId inlo a gIolaI viIIage, coIIided
cuIluies and sulsequenlIy leconing lhe nosl
inpoilanl facloi in shaping oui voiId vievs.
Nigeiia as a Ieading nalioninlhe Afiicanconlinenl
cannol affoid lo le Iefl lehind in lhis cuiienl liend,
lhe nalion lheiefoie needs lo uigenlIy lake sleps
lhal viII ensuie lhal lhe cilizens, no nallei lheii
slalus, vouId have access lo, undeisland and
depIoy lhe polenliaIs of lhe digilaI nedia in
conliiluling lo nalionaI deveIopnenl. Though lhe
chaIIenges aie nany and vaiied lhe facl ienains lhal
vilhlhe iighl allilude and depIoynenl of iesouices,
lhe counliy sland a gieal chance of lieaking nev
giounds and leconing a piincipaI facloi in lhe
gIolaI affaiis lhiough lhe piopei expIoilalion of lhe
digilaI nedia lohei advanlage.
POS1 SCklP1
Iiesidenl CoodIuck }onalhan of lhe IedeiaI
RepulIic of Nigeiia is on Iacelook. He inleiacls
vilh his nuneious fiiends and adniieis lhiough
16
lhis sociaI inleiaclion velsile. As a nallei of facl, he
fiisl decIaied his inlenlion lo conlesl lhe foilh
coning eIecliononIacelook and is iaising funds foi
his poIilicaI canpaigns lhiough lhe canpaign
oiganizalion's velsile. He has aIso had a good lasle
of secuiily issue in lhe digilaI nedia Iandscape a Ia
Susan Assange's WikkiLeaks. May le, since oui
piesidenl appieciales lhe vaIue of digilaI nedia and
is in lune vilh gIolaI digilaI ieaIilies, ve viII soon
have a digilized nalion.
klllklNClS
anan(1977),TOWARDS A NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS
IOLICY IOR IRAN, i n Maj i l TeI eian el aI ,
e d , C o n n u n i c a l i o n I o I i c y f o i N a l i o n a I
DeveIopnenl,London,RouleIedge and KeganIauI.
Llun CIaik, (1979, Huleil Ogunde, The M aking of Nigeiian
Thealie, Oxfoid Univeisily Iiess, Oxfoid.
Haiding, D. W, 1963, SOCIAL ISYCHOLOCY AND
INDIVIDUAL VALULS, London, Hulchinsonand coLld.
W .}anes Iollei, MLDIA LITLRACY, SACL, 1988.
YOMI OLUCODI
17
/ct|v|t l|v|n : l|ole|ona| and lconom|c kene.a| lo|
ou|na||m |n the /e ol L||ta| Ved|a
Brad!cy C!ark
Mounl RoyaI Univeisily, Canada
In lhe DigilaI Age, Weslein jouinaIisn finds ilseIf giappIing vilh lvo epic ciises: lhe faiIuie of ils liadilionaI lusiness nodeIs, and a
sleady, fiee faII of pulIic liusl inlhe voik of nevs oiganizalions. These ciises aie, of couise, ieIaled and undoulledIy exaceilaled ly lhe
iise of sociaI nedia, lhe alundance of inleinel conlenl and lhe pioIifeialion of digilaI pIalfoins. WhiIe coipoiale nevs oiganizalions
sliuggIe lo find piofilalIe econonic nodeIs lased in nev nedia, lheie has leen a sleady eiosion of enleipiise and invesligalive
iepoiling associaled vilh lhe pulIic seivice ideaI heId so deai ly jouinaIisls. Conlexl has had lo nake vay foi lhe shoil and sensalionaI.
Il is leconing incieasingIy appaienl lhal lhe fale of ciedilIe jouinaIisn Iies in lhe hands of ils piaclilioneis. Sone have caIIed foi
piofessionaIizalion, hovevei lhal palh loo, is fiaughl vilh chaIIenges, and onIy addiesses one of lhe lvo ciises. If lhe oId econonic
nodeIs inaneia of digilaI nedia sland inlhe vay of accuiale, conlexluaI and elhicaI iepoiling, nev ones need lole found. Inlhis papei I
viII aigue a nev discouise of jouinaIislic piofessionaIisn, vilh a coiiesponding vel-lased econonic nodeI, is eneiging. This papei
viII exlend an anaIysis of lhe piaclice of leaching in AusliaIia lo jouinaIisn in Noilh Aneiica. Il viII denonsliale hov lhe nanageiiaI
discouise of piofessionaIisn, vilh ils focus on capalIe execulives neeling coipoiale laigels, is giving vay lo an aclivisl discouise,
vheiely piaclilioneis acl in lhe lesl inleiesls of lhe peopIe lhey seive, lhe pulIic. Moieovei, lhis discouise and lhe coiiesponding
econonic nodeI il geneiales aie incieasingIy leing adapled ly Weslein jouinaIisls lenl on iefoin. One such oiganizalion has aIieady
gaineied a IuIilzei Iiize foi Invesligalive }ouinaIisn.
Kcqucrds. Inleinel conlenl, econonic ienevaI, piofessionaIisn, digilaI nedia
lntroduction
ack in 1993, vhen lhe void inleinel nighl
diav puzzIed Iooks vhen used in casuaI
conveisalion, an Aneiican jouinaIisl naned
Kalheiine IuIlon Iefl lhe piinl indusliy foi a nedia
feIIovship al Haivaid Univeisily. Duiing hei line
i n Canli i dge, MA, l he seI f - desci i led
lechnophole decided lo expIoie lhe eneiging
voiId of conpuleis and digilaI nedia. The noie she
Ieained lhe noie she legan lo see lhe polenliaI of a
iadicaIIy denocialic vision (IuIlon, 1993, p. 3O).
She leIieved lhe oId iepoilei IaleIs aIong nedia
Iines vouId disappeai: We von'l le jusl piinl
jouinaIisls, oi iadio jouinaIisls oi leIevision
jouinaIisls. We nay aII le digilaI, nuIlinedia
jouinaIisls. And lhings viII le possilIe lhal no one
has yel lo inagine (p.31). Hovevei sone of lhal
enlhusiasn vas lenpeied vhen she picked up a
look caIIed Undeislanding Hypeinedia. When she
luined lo lhe look's index lhe void jouinaIisn
vas nol lheie.
AInosl lvo decades Ialei, jouinaIisn pIace in
lhe digilaI univeise is veII-enlienched, lul ienains
unceilain. So is ils pIace in sociely, lhough lhis is nol
enliieIy Iinked lo lhe vioIenl shifls in lhe
lechnoIogicaI Iandscape. As coipoiale nevs enlilies
have sliuggIed lo eain piofils fion a vaiiely of
digilaI pIalfoins, lhe piaclice of jouinaIisn ilseIf in
Weslein sociely has nol inpioved, despile lhe
oppoilunilies foi lechnoIogy lo do so nuch noie,
As IuIlon noled. Lcononic iesouices aie lighl,
highIighled ly consoIidalion, incieased nedia
concenlialion and snaIIei nevsioons deIiveiing
Iess oiiginaI jouinaIisn. DeadIine piessuies of lhe
oId econonic nodeIs have leen exaceilaled ly lhe
innediacy of digilaI conlenl deIiveiy lhiough any
nunlei of eIeclionic gadgels. The iesuIling decIine
in lhe quaIily of nevs has nol leen nissed ly
audiences, as pulIic liusl in jouinaIisn conlinues lo
faII (The Iev ReseaichCenlei foi lhe IeopIe and lhe
Iiess, 2OO9). In lhe 21sl Cenluiy, lhe veiy piaclice of
jouinaIisn needs ils ovn iadicaI ieliilh. To
pieseive lhe ciafl, jouinaIisls need lo asseil lhe
dislincliveness of lheii voik vilha sliongei sense of
piofessionaIisn, and a connilnenl lo lusiness
nodeIs lhal do nol undeinine lheii elhics. If oId
econonic nodeIs sland lelveen accuiale,
conlexluaI and elhicaI iepoiling, nev ones need lo
le found. In lhis papei I viII aigue a nev foin of
piofessionaIisn is aIieady laking shape in lhis
DigilaI Age, and vilh il, a coiiesponding nev
econonic nodeI.
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 17-22
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
" Assoclate Professor, Broadcast ]ourna|lsm,
|acu|t of Communlcatlon Studles Mount Roa|
Unlterslt, Canada
A "1wo-Iegged Crisis"
Ovei nuch of lhe Iasl 25 yeais, and quile
independenl of lhe iise of lhe inleinel and digilaI
nedia, lolh acadenics and piofessionaI jouinaIisls
have consislenlIy deciied lhe sleady iise of slyIe
ovei sulslance IaigeIy due lo conpelilion in naikel
econonies. Ioinei CS nevs anchoi WaIlei
Cionkile ciilicized a liend lovaids infolainnenl
in Aneiican leIevision nevscasls, as lhe US
nelvoiks shifled lheii focus lo piofils, ialhei lhan
pulIic seivice (McNaii, 1998, p. 121). Thiough
lhe198Os and 199Os }ay IunIei and MichaeI
Cuievilch exanined lhe ieIalionship lelveen
poIilicians, lhe eIecloiale and lhe nedia,
cuIninaling vilh Ciisis of IulIic Connunicalion,
invhichlhey suggesl conpelilionfoi audiences has
geneialed piessuies lovaids lhe 'lalIoidizalion' of
nuch infoinalion piogianning on Aneiican
leIevision, shifling ils slyIe fion lhe seiious and
exlended lo lhe enleilaining and aiiesling (1995,
p.1O1).
Ioi IunIei, lhe effecls of lhose piessuies on
jouinaIisn seen lo le even noie pionounced
loday. In The Tvo-Iegged Ciisis of }ouinaIisn
(IunIei, 2O1O), he sees lhe chaIIenges cIeaving
aIong Iines of vialiIily, piincipaIIy lhough nol
excIusiveIy financiaI and civic adequacy (p. 243),
lopaiaphiase, a decIining connilnenl lolhe pulIic
seivice ideaI heId up ly jouinaIislic codes of
conducl. The conpelilion foi audiences,
adveiliseis and piofils has nevei leen noie inlense
givenlhe pioIifeialionof digilaI pIalfoins.
|cr jcurna|is|s (ou| c|ncrs |cc), |nis can
priti|cgc scnsa|icna|isn ctcr scoric|q, ctcn|s
ctcr ccn|cx|, |nc cnc|icna||q ccnpc||ing ctcr
|nc infcrna|icna||q c|arifqing, and |nc ncga|itc
ctcr |nc pcsi|itc. An incrcascd prcniun cn
orcti|q a|sc sccns |c inncrc in |nis sqs|cn. || is
as if frcn |nc snrin|ing scundoi|c cf |c|ctisicn
ncus uc arc grati|a|ing |c |nc 140-cnarac|cr
|cng|n cf |nc |ucc| (8|un|cr, p. 244).
In a Canadian and educalionaI conlexl, IsaleI
MacDonaId piovides consideialIe evidence of a
piofessionaI ciisis in jouinaIisn (MacdonaId,
2OO6). She desciiles iising concein ovei
deieguIalion, incieasing concenlialion of lhe nedia
indusliy, as veII as high IeveIs of audience disliusl
in lhe nedia (Canadian Media Consoiliun, 2OO4,
ciled in MacdonaId, p. 75O). Anong lhe
inpIicalions foi jouinaIisn, she suggesls, has leen
an incieasing ieIiance on officiaI and inslilulionaI
souices (p.751), in addilion lo a honogenizalion
of nedia pioducls, and lhe undeinining of
jouinaIislic vaIues (Coopei, 2OO3, ciled in
MacdonaId, p. 751).
Such anaIysis is nol Iiniled lo acadenic ailicIes.
In The Huf f i ngl on Iosl , Muiiay Waas,
deconsliucled lhe peiceived decIine inlhe quaIily of
jouinaIisn vilh a specific exanpIe. Wiiling aloul
lhe nevs coveiage of a nining disaslei in Wesl
Viiginia, he lIunlIy ciilicizes lhe shifl lo lhe
innediacy of iepoiling Iive, and avay fion lhe
kind of conlexluaI anaIysis lhal, he says, nighl have
pievenled lhe accidenl in lhe fiisl pIace: CNN
couId have done a sloiy on nine safely. ul lhey
didn'l and von'l. Thal lakes enleipiise and
iepoiling and invesligalion. Lnoling is so nuch
easiei, cosl-effeclive and piofilalIe (Waas, 2OO6).
Sone suggesl lhe lIogospheie and sociaI nedia
viII fiII lhe void in ciedilIe jouinaIisn, lhal Tvillei,
YouTule and Iacelook viII keep Weslein
denociacies infoined. Roleil W. McChesney and
}ohn NichoIs, in The Dealh and Life of Aneiican
}ouinaIisn, viile lhal lhey aie heailened ly lhe
iise of cilizen jouinaIisn on lhe inleinel, lhal il is
unIeashing a gieal deaI of laIenl lhal vas
pieviousIy Iying faIIov (2O1O, p.78). Hovevei
lhey aIso nole lhe vasl najoiily of hils lo nevs and
pulIic affaiis vel siles aie diiecled al nedia
congoIeiales MSNC, CNN and Yahoo! Nevs (p.
84). Ioi lhen, cilizen jouinaIisls aie onIy pail of lhe
soIulion, lhal lheie sliII need lo le piofessionaI
jouinaIisls skiIIed in Ianguages and hisloiy and
invesligalive lechniques, suppoiled ly gieal
nedia inslilulions (p.82). Theii soIulion, vhich
lhey adnil vouId le a difficuIl seII in lhe Uniled
Slales, is heavy goveinnenl sulsidizalion lo foslei
sliong jouinaIisn (p.162).
In Noilh Aneiica, najoi nevs oiganizalions
have faiIed econonicaIIy al an aIaining iale. WhiIe
once lheie veie Iiniled oppoilunilies lo adveilise
ovei lhe aiivaves oi in piinl, lhe inleinel and aII lhe
ieIaled digilaI pIalfoins nake lhose oppoilunilies
viiluaIIy IinilIess. Coipoiale nevs gioups have yel
lo cone up vilh a Iong lein soIulion. Roleil Ciill,
an invesligalive jouinaIisl al The Toionlo Slai,
viiles:
Mains|rcan ncdia in jCanada and |nc US]
natc cxpcricnccd |nc gradua| fai|urc cf |nc
nis|cric cccncnic ncdc| in |nc |n|crnc| agc.
Tncrc natc occn uidcsprcad |aqcffs in oc|n
ccun|rics and s|raincd a||cnp|s |c rcintcn|
jcurna|isn fcr |nc digi|a| agc (Crioo, 2010).
As Ciill suggesls, jouinaIisn needs lo find a
nev appioach. IunIei caIIs foi nol onIy nev
18
RADLLY CLARK
econonic nodeIs, lul soIulions lo addiess lhe
eiosion of jouinaIislic piincipIes. If lhe quaIily of
jouinaIisn has faIIen, lhose on lhe fionl Iines aie
in lhe lesl posilion lo liing aloul iefoin. y
enliacing lhe pulIic seivice ideaI upon vhich lhe
lesl iepoiling is lased, piaclilioneis can legin lo
iesloie pulIic liusl. Selling aside lhe issue of
econonic vialiIily foi a nonenl, lhis couId nean a
nove ly jouinaIisls lo piofessionaIizalion, oi al
Ieasl lo a piaclice iooled lo sone degiee in lhe
liadilionof lhe piofessions.
Defining ProfessionaIism
}ouinaIisn's pIace in lhe panlheon of
piofessions has leen delaled foi aloul as Iong as il
has leen laughl in coIIeges and univeisilies. Many
schoIais slail lhe anaIysis fion an undeislanding of
vhal defines a piofession. Lisls of alliilules
usuaIIy incIude: a lheoielicaI lody of knovIedge,
aulonony oi conlioI ly lhe piofession ovei ils
voik and nenleiship in lhe piofession, and a
seivice ideaI -- lhal is, a connilnenl oi elhicaI
inpeialive lopIace lhe veIfaie of lhe pulIic oi of lhe
individuaI cIienl alove lhe seIf inleiesl of lhe
piaclilionei (CoIdslein, 1984, p. 175). Thal Iasl
ideaI, il is voilh noling, fundanenlaIIy sepaiales a
conneiciaI occupalion fion a piofession (p. 175).
Thal highei caIIing is oflen vhal alliacls peopIe lo
lhe piaclice of jouinaIisn. Il's aIso vhal nolivales
seIf-iefIecling piaclilioneis lo shaie lheii
knovIedge vilh olhei jouinaIisls. In facl, Maik
Deuze and nany olheis have noled pulIic seivice is
one of lhe key discuisiveIy consliucled ideaI-
lypicaI vaIues in lhe piofessionaI idenlily of
jouinaIisls (Deuze, 2OO5, p.446). Hovevei, olhei
elhicaI and ideoIogicaI vaIues have geneiaIIy
pievenled jouinaIisn fion assuning a pIace anong
lhe liadilionaI piofessions. As IauI Codkin noles,
jouinaIisls: do nol have lhe nonopoIy noled ly
CoIdslein on lhe ciealion of nevs, especiaIIy in lhe
inleinel age, do nol possess lhe lody of esoleiic
knovIedge lhal is indispensalIe lo lhe piaclice,
lhe vay lhe undeislanding of lhe Iav is lo lhe IegaI
piofession, and cannol conlioI nenleiship of lhe
jouinaIislic fialeinily (Codkin, 2OO4, pp.11O-118).
Ieihaps noie inpoilanlIy, lhe nolion of
piofessionaIizalion iuns againsl lhe nolion of
independence, anolhei souice of piofessionaI
idenlily heId deai ly jouinaIisls (Deuze, p. 448). Ioi
sone, piofessionaIizalionlecones associaled vilh
goveinnenl-inposed coIIeclive seIf-ieguIalion and
vilh dininished individuaI aulonony and
innovalion(Shapiio, 2O1O, p. 145).
Despile lhese aigunenls, lheie have leen caIIs
foi jouinaIisls lo oiganize lhenseIves inlo a seIf-
ieguIaling piofessionaI lody. AIan ass (2OO8), in
lhe aplIy lilIed ailicIe, }ouinaIisl HeaI ThyseIf,
oulIines sone of lhe iecenl aigunenls in suppoil of
a jouinaIisl piofession. He noles one Iongslanding
opponenl of such a slep, ienovned Aneiican
acadenic }ohn C. MeiiiII, changed his slance a fev
yeais ago, suggesling jouinaIisn needs enfoicealIe
elhicaI slandaids, as veII as independence fion
goveinnenl, naikel foices and speciaI inleiesl
gioups (MeiieII, p. 239, ciled in ass, p. 15). ass
hinseIf nakes lhe case:
Tnc nain cnarac|cris|ic |na| dcfincs jcurna|isn
as uniquc is i|s ctcrriding ccnni|ncn| |c
indcpcndcn||q scc|ing cu| |ru|n frcn a taric|q
cf scurccs and rcpcr|ing i| |c |nc puo|ic, ctcn if
|nis ac|iti|q is ccn|rarq |c |nc in|crcs|s cf
cnp|cqcrs, |nc nar|c| and gctcrnncn|. Tc oc
ao|c |c carrq cu| |nis nissicn, jcurna|is|s nccd a
ncasurc cf indcpcndcncc. Tncq nccd a
nccnanisn |na| cnao|cs |ncn |c acccun| |c |nc
puo|ic ncuuc|| |ncq carrq cu| |na| nissicn and
prc|cc|s |ncir aoi|i|q |c ccn|inuc |c fu|fi|| i|. Tna|
nccnanisn uscd |c oc tcs|cd in |nc ncusrccn
ou| ncusrccns ctcr |inc natc |cs| au|ncri|q
and pcucr in nanq ncdia crganiza|icns. Ancu
nccnanisn is nccdcd (p. 24).
Il is cIeai nany jouinaIisls and noie nevs
oi gani zal i ons have I osl si ghl of such
piofessionaIisn and elhics. This has Ied iefoinisls
lo caII foi codes of piofessionaI conducl, and foi
voIunlaiy adoplion ly jouinaIisls (Hackel & Zhao,
1996, ciled in MacdonaId, 2OO6, p.751), a fiisl slep
lovaids piofessionaIizalion. Ceneva OveihoIsei, in
On ehaIf of }ouinaIisn: A Manifeslo foi Change,
concedes lhe idea of ciedenliaIing viII le iejecled
oul of hand ly liadilionaIisls, lul lhal a syslen of
slandaids, accounlaliIily and lianspaiency couId
pIay a pail injouinaIisn's iesuigence (2OO6, p.12).
OveihoIsei and olheis agiee lhal iefoin lased
on sone kind of a ieneved connilnenl, iooled in
piofessionaIizalionoi sonelhing eIse, is onIy pail of
lhe ansvei. Whal ienains is 21sl cenluiy nedia
econonics, vilh ils digilaI chaIIenges and
inpeialives on cheap conlenl and luiIding
audiences, adveilising ievenue and piofils. On lhis
fionl, jouinaIisls sliII need lo find oiganizalionaI
sliucluies lhal foslei lheii piofessionaI ideaIs. As il
luins oul lheie is an evoIving nodeI of
piofessionaIisn veII-suiled lo iefoinisl jouinaIisls,
one lhal neshes veII vilh lhe gioving liend
lovaids a vialIe nev lusiness nodeI in lhe
DigilaI Age.
19
1hree Discourses of ProfessionaIism
The schoIaiship of piofessionaI piaclice oflen
focuses on leaching, and in nany cases lheie aie
Iessons foi jouinaIisn. In consideiing lhe
educalionaI syslen in AusliaIia, }udylh Sachs luins
lo iennan (1996), Iieslon (1996) and Rees (1995) lo
desciile lvo doninanl discouises of leachei
piofessionaIisn: denocialic and nanageiiaI (
Sachs, 2OOO). Denocialic piofessionaIisn
enphasizes coIIaloialion and coopeialion anong
slakehoIdeis. Wilhin lhis discouise, lhe leachei has
iesponsiliIilies leyond hei/his cIassioon
incIuding olhei sludenls, lhe schooI, lhe syslen and
iesponsiliIilies of leacheis lhenseIves as a gioup
and lhe lioadei piofession (iennan, 1996 ciled in
Sachs, 2OOO, p.79). The discouise of nanageiiaI
piofessionaIisn gained favoui lhiough devoIulion
in AusliaIia's educalionaI syslen. Il pIaces sliong
enphasis on lhe aliIilies of capalIe nanageis: The
successfuI piofessionaI in lhis coipoiale nodeI is
one vhovoiks efficienlIy and effecliveIy inneeling
lhe slandaidised ciileiia sel foi sludenls and
leacheis (p.8O).
These discouises of piofessionaIisn can le
appIied lo jouinaIisn as veII. IulIic lioadcasleis
and lhe quaIily piess have geneiaIIy laken vhal
nighl le desciiled as a noie iesponsilIe appioach
lo jouinaIisn, Iess conceined vilh lhe coipoiale
goaIs of shaiehoIdeis, lhan vilh jouinaIisn's ioIe in
denocialic sociely. IulIic lioadcasleis such as lhe
C, piojecl inages of a seivice oiganizalion
vhich suppIies quaIily jouinaIisn, vheieas lhe
lioadsheel piess nainlain an oIdei liadilion of
ciilicaI, invesligalive, exposiloiy jouinaIisn
(McNaii, 1998). IinanciaI expediency undoulledIy
has an inpacl on lhese oiganizalions, lul lhe
appioach lo jouinaIislic piaclice does leai
siniIaiilies lo lhe denocialic nodeI of
piofessionaIisn. Iiivale lioadcasleis and lalIoids,
vho do can and do piovide of good exanpIes of
enleipiise jouinaIisn, lend lo pIace giealei
enphasis on lhe lollonIine. McNaii suggesls as
lioadcasl nevs has noved fion leing a pulIic
seivice lo a conneiciaI one lhe deIiveiy of
audiences lo adveiliseis nevs vaIues aie
undeigoing changes, noie Iike lhose of lhe
lalIoids (p. 121). Iiaclice in lhis niIieu lakes on
lhe fealuies of lhe nanageiiaI discouise of
piofessionaIisn.
Sachs slakes oul nev giound leyond lhese lvo
discouises of piofessionaIisn lo incIude a lhiid
appioach. She caIIs il aclivisl piofessionaIisn,
chaiacleiized ly an even highei degiee of
coIIaloialionlhanundei lhe denocialic nodeI, and
foIIoving noie of a lollon up appioach lo
connunicalion (p. 86), in conliasl lo lhe lop
dovn fIov of infoinalion in lhe nanageiiaI
discouise. Aclivisl piofessionaIisn has sliong Iinks
lo sociaI juslice and poIlicaI aclivisn, vilh seIfIess
goaIs: IiincipIes and piaclices of aclivisl
piofessionaIs.piovide syslenalic vays of lhinking
and acling in lhe lesl inleiesls of aII lhose vho aie
invoIved in educalion (p. 87). Thal kind of
discouise appIied lo jouinaIisn nighl veII
iesenlIe lhe inspiied caII lo foigo iiches and seive
lhe pulIic pul foivaid ly lhe nosl piincipIed
jouinaIisls, jouinaIisn foundalions and jouinaIisn
insliuclois. Indeed, lhe luiluIenl lines faced ly
nedia oiganizalions have aIieady giveniise lovhal
nighl le desciiled as aclivisl piofessionaIs in
nedia ciicIes. This nev nodeI of jouinaIisn as
sone have caIIed il, is lhe nonpiofil invesligalive
nevsioon, and il has lecone noie pioninenl of
Iale, pailicuIaiIy in lhe Uniled Slales, vheie lhe
financiaI ciisis and lhe inaliIily lo find sound
lusiness nodeIs have gulled once ciovded
nevsioons. The nonpiofil nodeI is, of couise, nol
nev. Whal's diffeienl loday has leen lhe iecenl
pioIifeialion (pailicuIaiIy in lhe Uniled Slales), lhe
connilnenl lo an aclivisl agenda, lhe desiie foi
coIIaloialion and lhe polenliaI foi nass
disseninalioninlhe inleinel eia.
Many of lhe nonpiofils lake lhe foin of
independenl jouinaIisn foundalions eslalIished lo
fiII lhe void inenleipiise and invesligalive iepoiling
Iefl ly indusliy-vide Iayoffs. IioIulIica is peihaps
lhe lesl exanpIe. One of ils viileis, Sheiii Iink, von
lhe IuIilzei Iiize foi invesligalive iepoiling foi hei
sloiy on palienls leing given IelhaI injeclions al a
hospilaI in Nev OiIeans in lhe afleinalh of
Huiiicane Kaliina, palienls lhal nighl olheivise
have suivived lhe disaslei (Iink, 2OO9). The sloiy
aIso ian in lhe Nev Yoik Tines. IioIulIica's
nanaging ediloi says lhe avaid, one of nany von
ly lhe oiganizalion, is gialifying.
8u| uc ticu |ncn as a sign |na| cur ncnprcfi|,
ncnpar|isan ncdc| puo|isning oc|n cn cur cun
uco si|c and in par|ncrsnip ui|n najcr prin|,
tidcc, audic and cn|inc ncus crganiza|icns can
na|c a ncaningfu| ccn|riou|icn |c |nc
infcrna|icn nccds cf |nc Ancrican pccp|c in an
cra cf cxp|csitc cnangc in ncuspapcrs and c|ncr
ncdia (Rcsncr, 2010).
Sone of lhese nonpiofils have leen aiound foi
a vhiIe, olheis, incIuding IioIulIica, have spiung
up jusl in lhe Iasl fev yeais, lo lhe poinl vheie lheie
2O
RADLLY CLARK
aie ioughIy lvo dozen in lhe Uniled Slales loday
(Houslon, 2O1O, p.17). The econonic laiiieis lo
enliy of 2Olh cenluiy nedia no Iongei sland in lhe
vay of jouinaIisls inlenl on piaclicing lheii ciafl in
lhe DigilaI Age, and funding canle diiecled lonevs
galheiing, vilh nuch Iess focus on lhe neans of
pioduclion. Ieihaps piescienlIy, OveihoIsei is
anong lhose in lhe pasl vho caIIed foi a giealei ioIe
lo le pIayed ly nonpiofils inlhe nedia Iandscape, if
nolhing eIse lhan lo heIp Iifl aII nedia (2OO6, p.3.)
In leins of conpensalion, lhe nodeI seens lo voik
suipiisingIy veII foi ediloiiaI slaff, al Ieasl al
IioIulIica: lhe lop eighl edilois and iepoileis veie
paid noie lhan $19O,OOO US each in 2OO9 (Ionpeo,
2O1O).
Nonpiofils face a diffeienl sel of elhicaI
chaIIenges ieIaling lo donois and discIosuie (Waid,
2O1O, p.4), lul lhe coipoiale denands lhal nighl
veII piedispose iepoileis lo a Iovei slandaid of
piaclice (innediacy, sensalionaIisn, piofil nolive)
have nuch Iess inpacl on an oiganizalion such as
IioIulIica. WhiIe lhe jouinaIisls lheie nighl
eschev lhe IaleI aclivisl piofessionaI, lheie aie
cIeaiIy highei ideaIs al voik. IioIulIica chaIIenges
sociely's povei sliucluie, il inviles olhei nevs
oiganizalions lo sleaI ils sloiies fiee of chaige, il
ains lo use lhe noiaI foice of invesligalive
jouinaIisn lo spui iefoin in lhe lesl liadilion of
sociaI juslice (IioIulIica, 2OO9). In shoil, il leais
nany of lhe chaiacleiislics of lhe aclivisl
piofessionaI desciiled ly Sachs. In nany iespecls,
IioIulIic iepiesenls sone of lhe pionise fiisl
envisioned vhen onIine jouinaIisn vas in ils
infancy: giealei independence, diveisily, deepei
conlexl.
Wilh a IuIIilzei on lhe nanlIe, peihaps
IioIulIica viII lecone a nev slandaid foi
jouinaIisn, and inspiie piaclilioneis lo seIf-
oiganize nol vilh a viev lo enfoice lhe iuIes of
sone ieguIaling lody lul lo enliace a nodeI lhal
aIIovs lhen lo iepoil in a vay lhey shouId: fieeIy,
accuialeIy and vilh lhe lesl inleiesls of sociely in
nind.
ConcIusion
}ouinaIisn's lvo-Iegged ciisis has Iefl nedia
oiganizalions and piaclilioneis seaiching foi
lusiness nodeIs lhal do nol devoui lhe heail of
piincipIed, elhicaI iepoiling. The caIIs foi
piofessionaIizalion, oi al Ieasl a sliongei
connilnenl lo good jouinaIisn aie aII veII-
inlenlioned allenpls lo pieseive jouinaIisn's
inpoilanl pIace in denociacies. In an eia vheie
anyone can posl i nfoinali on foi gI olaI
consunplion, MichaeI Davis suggesls Weslein
socielies need jouinaIisls as nevei lefoie:
Prcfcssicna|s cf a ccr|ain |ind, |c scr| |nrcugn
una| gctcrnncn| cfficia|s, inpcr|an| prita|c
pcrscns, ui|ncsscs and c|ncr ncus scurccs saq,
pccp|c unc arc ccnni||cd |c |carning |nc |ru|n
cf significan| ctcn|s and |c rcpcr|ing cn |ncn
accura|c|q. Ic nccd ncus ga|ncrcr upcn uncn
uc can rc|q (2010, p. 101).
keferences
ass, A. (2OO8). }ouinaIisl HeaI ThyseIf: Tovaids A Slialegy of
IiofessionaIizalion. Canadian }ouinaI of Media Sludies, 3
(1), 1-32.
IunIei, }. C. (2O1O). The Tvo-Iegged Ciisis of }ouinaIisn.
}ouinaIisn Iiaclice, 4 (3), 243-245.
IunIei, }. C., & Cuievilch, M. (1995). The Ciisis of IulIic
Connunicalion. London: RoulIedge.
iennan, M. (1996). MuIlipIe IiofessionaIisn foi AusliaIian
Teacheis in lhe Infoinalion Age` AnnuaI Meeling of lhe
AneiicanLducalionaI ReseaichAssocialion. Nev Yoik.
Canadian Media Reseaich Consoiliun. (2OO4). Repoil Caid on
Canadian Media. Reliieved Decenlei 4, 2OO4, fion
cnicccin.ca: hllp://vvv.cnicccin.ca / engIish /
iepoilcaid2OO4.hlnI
Coopei, M. (2OO3). Media Ovneiship and Denociacy in lhe
DigilaI Infoinalion Age: Iionoling Diveisily vilh Iiisl
Anendnenl IiincipIes and Maikel Sliucluie AnaIysis.
Slanfoid: Cenlei foi Inleinel and Sociely, Slanfoid Lav
SchooI.
Ciill, R. (2O1O). The Canadian Landscape. RoundlalIe
Repoil:Llhics foi lhe Nev Invesligalive Nevsioon (pp. 14-
16). Madison, WI: The Cenlei foi }ouinaIisn Llhics,
Univeisily of Wisconsin-Madison.
Davis, M. (2O1O). Why }ouinaIisn is a Iiofession. In C. Meyeis
(Ld.), }ouinaIisn Llhics: A IhiIosophicaI Appioach (pp. 91-
1O2). Nev Yoik: Oxfoid Univeisily Iiess.
Deuze, M. (2OO5). Whal is }ouinaIisn` IiofessionaI Idenlily and
IdeoIogy of }ouinaIisls Reconsideied. }ouinaIisn, 6 (4), 442-
464.
Iink, S. (2OO9, Augusl 27). Invesligalions: The DeadIy Choices al
MenoiiaI. Reliieved May 31, 2 O 1 O , f i o n
piopulIica.oig: hllp://vvv.piopulIica.oig/fealuie/lhe-
deadIy-choices-al- nenoiiaI-826
ILIOCRAIHY \I 1O33 IuIlon, K. (1993, Novenlei). Iuluie
Tense: The Anxious }ouiney of a Technophole. CoIunlia
}ouinaIisn Reviev , 32, pp. 29-33.
Codkin, I. (2OO4). Relhinking }ouinaIisn as a Iiofession.
Canadian}ouinaI of Media Sludies, 4 (1), 1O9-123.
CoIdslein, }. (1984). IoucauIl Anong lhe SocioIogisls: The
"DiscipIines" and lhe Hisloiy of lhe Iiofessions. Hisloiy
and Theoiy, 17O-192.
Hackel, R. A., & Zhao, Y. (1996). Aie Llhics Lnough` "Oljeclive"
}ouinaIisn Veisus SuslainalIe Denociacy. In V. AIia, .
iennan, & . Hoffnaslei (Lds.), DeadIines and
Diveisily: }ouinaIisn Llhics in a Changing WoiId (pp. 44-
58). HaIifax, NS: Ieinvood IulIishing.
Houslon, . (2O1O). Nev Nelvoiks, Nev ChaIIenges. RoundlalIe
Repoil:Llhics foi lhe Nev Invesligalive Nevsioon (pp. 17-
2O). Madison, WI: The Cenlei foi }ouinaIisn Llhics,
21
Univeisily of Wisconsin-Madison, SchooI of }ouinaIisn and
Mass Connunicalion.
MacdonaId, I. (2OO6). Teaching }ouinaIisls lo Save lhe Iiofession:
A CiilicaI Assessnenl of Recenl Delales onlhe Iuluie of US
and Canadian }ouinaIisn. }ouinaIisn Sludies, 7 (5),
745-764.
McChesney, R. W., & NichoIs, }. (2O1O). The Dealh and Life of
Aneiican }ouinaIisn: The Media RevoIulion Thal WiII
eginlhe WoiId Again. IhiIadeIphia: Nalionooks.
McNaii, . (1998). The SocioIogy of }ouinaIisn. Nev Yoik:
Oxfoid Univeisily Iiess.
MeiiiII, }. C. (2OO5). IiofessionaIizalion: Iusion of Media
Iieedon and ResponsiliIily. CIolaI M e d i a
}ouina , 4 (6).
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of lhe Univeisily of IennsyIvania.
Ionpeo, }. (2O1O, Augusl 1O). IioIulIica's Ldiloi In Chief Makes
Moie Than HaIf A MiIIion DoIIais. Reliieved Seplenlei 3,
2 O 1 O , f i o n l h e l u s i n e s s i n s i d e i . c o n :
hllp://vvv.lusinessinsidei.con/piopulIicas-ediloi-in-
chief-nakes-noie-lhan-haIf-a- niIIion-doIIais-2O1O-8
Iieslon, . (1996). Avaid Resliucluiing: A CalaIysl in lhe
LvoIulion of Teachei IiofessionaIisn. In T. Seddon (Ld.),
Iay, IiofessionaIisn and IoIilics. MeIlouine: ACLR.
IioIulIica. (2OO9, Seplenlei 3O). Aloul Us: IioIulIica.
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hllp://vvv.piopulIica.oig/aloul/
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IiofessionaIisn of SchoIaiship. }ouinaIisn Sludies, 1 (2),
213-227.
Rosnei, C. (2O1O, ApiiI 27). }-Souice.ca Llhics -- AIleinalive
}ouinaIisn: fion SIui lo IuIilzei. Reliieved May 3O, 2O1O,
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h l l p : / / v v v . j -
souice.ca/engIish_nev/delaiI.php`id=4993
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Change, 77-95.
Shapiio, I. (2O1O). LvaIualing }ouinaIisn: Tovaids an
Assessnenl Iianevoik foi lhe Iiaclice of }ouinaIisn.
}ouinaIisn Iiaclice, 4 (2), 143-162.
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Seplenlei 13). Suivey Repoils: Iiess Accuiacy Raling Hils
Tvo Decade Lov. Reliieved }anuaiy 31, 2O11, fion
h l l p : / / p e o p I e - p i e s s . o i g / : h l l p : / / p e o p I e -
piess.oig/iepoil/543/
Waas, M. (2OO6, }anuaiy 4). Aneiica Mouins vilh Andeison
Coopei -- huffinglonposl.con. Reliieved ApiiI 3O, 2O1O,
f i o n h u f f i n g l o n p o s l . c o n :
hllp://vvv.huffinglonposl.con/nuiiay-vaas/aneiica-
nouins-vilh- andei_l_13279.hlnI`
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Repoil: Llhics foi lhe Nev Invesligalive Nevsioon (p. 4).
Madison, WI: The Cenlei foi }ouinaIisn Llhics, Univeisily
of Wisconsin-Madison, SchooI of }ouinaIisn and Mass
Connunicalion.
22
RADLLY CLARK
23
Lom|nance ol L||ta| Ved|a ove| J|ad|t|ona| Ved|a :
/ c||t|ca| tud
B. K. RavI
angaIoie Univeisily, angaIoie, Kainalaka
The lasic aigunenl in lhe conlexl of changing paiadigns of nedia Iandscape is aII aloul lhe ouliighl iejeclion of lhe oId even lefoie
giipping ovei lhe nev. The advenl of saleIIiles changed lhe funclioning of nedia. The nelanoiphosis due lo lhe enliy of liansnalionaI
leIevision in India aIong vilh gIolaIizalion vas accepled and saleIIile connunicalion lechnoIogy lecane iedundanl in pIace of lhe
conneiciaI venluies of nev nedia. The piesence of liansnalionaI nedia ilseIf nade lhe liadilionaI nedia conpele on quaIily, conlenl,
piioiilies, ieach, access and naikelaliIily. Advenl and giovlh of Nev Media giaduaIIy lioughl aloul diaslic changes, iesuIling in
piaclices Iike Cilizen }ouinaIisn and SociaI Nelvoiking. The silualion denands lhe iedefining of lhe socioIogy of nedia addiessing lhe
ioIe of e-connunilies lhal have givena lvisl lolhe ieaIizalionof Conveigence. The noliIe equipnenl lhal cane as a loonlioughl aIong
vilhils neiils, lhe negalive hazaids lhal had aninpacl onlhe veiy cuIluiaI faliic of India's sociely. ThoughconpaialiveIy lhe advenl of
digilaI nedia has nade il aII usei-savvy vilh unpleen anounls of faciIilies, il is in facl iesuIling in aloilion of connunicalion piocess.
A liue ieseaichei is nol alIe lo idenlify oi neasuie lhe ieach of a nessage. In spile of piesence of vaiious lechnoIogies, connunicalion
expeils aie nol in a posilion lo evaIuale lhe usage of nany of lhen. In lhe Iighl of alove ciicunslances, lhe sludy is significanl lhiough
evaIualionof neasuiing lhe effecliveness of digilaI nedia inpIace of liadilionaI nedia. The scope of lhe sludy Iies inliacing lhe expanse
of lhe lvokinds of nedia and lheii connonaieas. The oljeclives of lhe sludy incIude checking foi effeclive digeslionand disseninalion
of nessages lhiough lhe lvo kinds of nedia. The nelhodoIogy is of ciilicaI sludy suppoiled ly enpiiicaI evidences and case sludies.
Infeiences aie diavnoul of lhe findings of lhe sludy lo concIude and suggesl vaIualIe changes inlhe piaclices of lhe lvo kinds of nedia
and lhe vay lhe nenleis of sociely accIinalize lolhen.
Kcqucrds. Melanoiphosis, gIolaIisalion, conveigence, oul of ieach, ciediliIily, noise.
lntroduction
Mankind nade ienaikalIe piogiess in lhe
lvenlielh cenluiy. Science and lechnoIogy look
aslonishing sleps lo liansfoin lhe voiId and lhe
daiIy assunplions of hunan Iife. Mosl of lhe
invenlions lhal define oui piesenl-day Iife and poinl
lo oui polenliaI foi fuilhei piogiess veie devised in
lhal cenluiy. The piaclices undei LIC have leen
accepled ly lhe voiId as poinls of no ieluin and
neaiIy ieaIized even ly sone of lhe deveIoping
counliies.
Mass Media aclivilies have leen connendalIe
al any poinl of line in lhe hisloiy, le il infoining,
educaling oi enleilaining lhe peopIe aII ovei lhe
voiId. The Iiinl, IiIn, Radio and TeIevision have
had lheii shaie of effecls on lhe sociely. The IR,
Adveilising, lhe Nevs Agencies and lhe coiieIalive
nedia congIoneiales have joined lhe land vagon
vilh lheii shaie of conliilulion lo enlei inlo 21sl
cenluiy nedia lusiness. Lach of lhese nedia has
leeniesponsilIe inils ovnvay foi changes insociaI
and econonic aspecls.
Al lhe sane line, vhen lhese nass nedia aie
vieved individuaIIy foi lheii peifoinances and
effecls, il is found lhal lhe liilh of any olhei nev
nass nedia is a iesuIl of oveiconing lhe
shoilconings sighled in lhe eaiIiei ones. Theiefoie
il caIIs foi lhe need lo iecognize lhe possiliIily of a
pIuiaIily of nass nedia - high, inleinediale and
Iov, - co-exisling and anenalIe foi appIicalion lo
diffeienl seclois of econony and sociely. Il needs lo
le iecognized lhal aII nass nedia aie appiopiiale,
conlexluaIIy. Lndoising lechnoIogicaI pIuiaIisn is
aninpoilanl chaIIenge of lhe lvenly-fiisl cenluiy.
As a vhoIe, lheie is a siIenl ievoIulion in lhe
voiId of 21sl Cenluiy. Ioi inslance, lhe highIy
inleiaclive conveigence nedia is a najoi vehicIe lo
liansnil nevs and vievs. Il has added nev
dinensionlo lhe useis ly pIacing vilhineasy ieach,
a nind-loggIing iange of infoinalion. Today, lhe
ieceivei is even lhe sendei and a nass
connunicaloi. And as lhe nunleis of peopIe on il
nuIlipIy, lhe oppoilunilies aie gelling Iaigei.
Digressions due to kegression
In spile of aII lhe alove facls, The UNDI's
(Uniled Nalion DeveIopnenl Iiojecl) Index of
Hunan DeveIopnenl ieveaIed lhal no fevei lhan
lhiily counliies had Iovei scoies of deveIopnenl
lhis yeai (2OO1) lhan in lhe pasl. A leiiilIe facl:
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 23-33
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
" Assoclate Professor, Det. of Communlcatlon,
Banga|ore Unlterslt, Banga|ore, Karnataka
lhiily counliies aie iegiessing, nol piogiessing, in
leins of hunandeveIopnenl. The nev divide inlhe
voiId is lelveen lhe high-lech counliies and lhe
Iov-lech (oi even no-lech) counliies. On lhe use of
nev nedia foi connunicalion, a slalenenl is You
can leII lhe iich fion lhe pooi ly lheii Inleinel
Conneclion (The Nev Indian Lxpiess coIunns).
AIieady, lhe spiead of infoinalion has had a diiecl
inpacl on lhe degiee of accounlaliIily and
lianspaiency of Coveinnenls' deveIopnenlaI
funclioning aiound lhe voiId. Theie aie piolalIy
nany ieasons foi lhis iegiession, lul one ciuciaI
ieason is, lhal lhe knovIedge gap enliacing -
infoinalion, educalion and access lo lechnoIogy, is
videning. Accoiding lo Di. T.K. Oonnen, an
acadenic, Ouis is a voiId vhen doIIai signs, and
Cioss NalionaI Iioducl (CNI) lalIes aie no Iongei
onIy eIenenls dividing lhe haves and have-nols.
In anolhei case of nedia aclivily, lhe Inleinel
nade il possilIe logel voiId infoinalional Iov cosl
vilh high speed lo eveiylody. ul lo piocess aII lhis
infoinalion, undeisland lhe sane and lo
inpIenenl, is a voik of knovIedge. Infoinalion is
nol knovIedge. Though conpulei has lecone a
necessily of loday's Iife, sociaI juslice, econonic
equily, poIilicaI decenliaIizalion and hunane
phiIosophies aie noie inpoilanl and, lhese cannol
le exliacled oul ly any lechnoIogy. The ansvei Iies
inhov ve use lhis looI loaddiess oui piolIens.
When ve valch lhe incieasing deveIopnenls
and changes inlhe ITinnovalions and lhink aloul il,
lhe olvious queslions aiise as lo vhelhei lhese
changes aie foi good oi lad and vhelhei lo
veIcone oi loycoll oi conlioI il. Il seens Iike il has
aII digiessed fion lhe focussed oljeclives of nedia
piogiess. The pseudo-ieaIily lhal Conpulei and
ieIaled lechnoIogies liing inlo exislence appeais lo
le onIy a pielexl foi naking oui Iife loIeialIe. Wilh
lhe nuIlipIe nedia spieading al such a fasl pace,
nany queslions, jusl foi inslance, 'Is IIIileiacy going
lo dininish`' viII have lo le ansveied.
Connunicalion is nol jusl foi neichandise, il is foi
sociaI good and pulIic seivice foi a pailicipalive
diaIogic connunily.
The uliIily of lechnoIogy as an efficienl neans
foi connunicalion ly lhe peopIe aII ovei lhe voiId
al lhe sane line is vhal nakes il lole sludied undei
nass nedia. Connunicalion is incieasingIy
lieaking dovn geogiaphic loideis and Iocalions
Ieading lo cIosei inleiaclion. Today's conveigence
of connunicalion, lioadcasling, conpuleis and
conlenls is a lypicaI conpIex nedia nodeI. The
cylei nedia nol onIy saves space lul aIso ensuies
dala Iongevily. Nel paves vay foi usei-fiiendIy
dala nanagenenl as veII as infoinalion ieliievaI.
The aliIily lo ieceive, dovnIoad and send
infoinalion and lhe capacily lo shaie lhe sane,
vilhoul censoiship oi iesliiclion have lhe inheienl
polenliaI in fuilheiing suslainalIe deveIopnenl,
especiaIIy foi deveIoping counliies. Tvillei is nov
used ly a nedia savvy in India in sane feivoui as
lhal in lhe US. In lhis sense, lhe veiy definilion of
nass connunicalionis acquiiing a nev dinension.
1he 1ransition
India, one of lhe Iaigesl denociacies in lhe
voiId is an epilone of cuIluiaI enlodinenl
enledded vilh noiaI vaIues and coupIed vilh lhe
slienglh of alundanl hunan iesouice as veII as
liodiveisily. Media in India has expeiienced a Iol lo
gainvaIue anidsl lhe conpIexsociely.
Medla Boom: Il can le decIaialiveIy slaled lhal lhe
sloiy of piogiess of Indian nedia has leen ly and
Iaige of an unsyslenalic giovlh. The ieasons aie
nany. When lhe exisling sociaI condilion of
najoiily of lhe Indians is highIy inlaIanced, and in
lhe silualion lhe nass nedia enleis and liies lo pIay
a ioIe, il viII have disaslious effecls/ inpacl lhan
laking piogiessive oi deveIopnenlaI node.
Il vas lhe scene vhen lhe Indian sociely
suffeied vilh Iack of scienlific knovIedge, sociaI
inequaIily, lIind leIiefs and peopIe in lheii ovn
paiadise lhal lhe nass nedia pul ils pug naik on
lhe soiI. Il soon Ied lo an unlaIanced silualion
scienlificaIIy. In lhe nane of nass nedia aclivily,
lechnoIogy vas inposed on lhis daik sociely. Al lhe
line onIy a ninoiily vas exposed lo iead and viile.
Moie oi Iess, il conlinues lole soevennov.
Hovevei, if ve Iook al neai fuluie najoi
agiicuIluiaI econonies of lhe voiId, il poinls
lovaids lhe gioving and enhanced inpoilance of
L&M anong lhe eneiging poveied econonies, lhe
RIC nalions.
Il is eslalIished ly lhe voiId liade anaIysis lhal
lhe RIC nalions viII doninale lhe lop CDIsIols ly
lhe nid of 21sl Cenluiy. Nol lo foigel lhal aII lhese
foui nalions have a sliong lase of agiicuIluiaI
piaclices coupIed vilh lackup indusliiaI econonic
foice. Today, lhe size of India's Media Indusliy is
15.82 iIIion DoIIais vilh 13.49 peicenl giovlh iale.
India viII oveilake lhe US in lhe size of aclivily of
nedia ly lhe yeai 2O13.
24
. K. RAVI
Year $|ze Per cent Srowth
($ b||||on)
2005 7.72 -
200o 8.9 15.28 Per cerl
2007 10.4 1o.85 Per cerl
2008 11.o8 12.31 Per cerl
2009 12.5o 7.53 Per cerl
2010 13.94 10.89 Per cerl
2011 15.82 13.49 Per cerl
2012 18.22 15.17 Per cerl
2013 21.04 15.45 Per cerl
Tab|e 3
Year-Wise rcWth rate cf Irciar EH Irccstry (3ccrce: KPHS-FI00I Pepcrt)
$egment 2008 2013 f Per cent
($ b||||on) ($ b||||on) 0ASP
Te|ev|s|or 4.81 9.45 14.5 per cerl
Pr|rl 3.45 5.32 9.0 per cerl
F||r 2.18 3.37 9.1 per cerl
Ar|ral|or 0.35 0.79 17.8 per cerl
00l 0.32 0.59 12.8 per cerl
0ar|rg 0.13 0.55 33.3 per cerl
lrlerrel 0.12 0.43 27.9 per cerl
Rad|o 0.1o 0.33 14.2 per cerl
Vus|c 0.14 0.21 8 per cerl
Tab|e 2
3euert-Wise SrcWth rate cf Irciar Hecia; (3ccrce: KPHS-FI00I Pepcrt)
25
P|0 Na|tons 2004 2005 200 200I 2008p 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 0ASP
2009-13
6raz|| 15,870 18,254 20,o19 23,o48 2o,248 25,914 2o,175 27,o02 29,930 32,895 4.o
0hare 16.0 18 14.7 11.0 -1.8 1.0 6.6 8.4 0.0
Russ|a 12,231 14,151 1o,743 20,185 23,533 21,047 20,847 22,07o 24,87o 28,2oo 3.7
0hare 16.7 18.8 20. 1. -10. -1.0 6.0 12.7 18.
lrd|a 8,339 9,724 11,424 13,o2o 15,088 1o,328 18,039 20,149 22,489 25,094 10.7
0hare 1. 17.6 10.8 10.7 8.2 10.6 11.7 11. 11.
C||ra 34,348 41,48o 47,9o5 58,o95 o9,800 74,744 80,o13 88,298 88,309 110,081 9.5
0hare 20.8 16. 22.4 18.0 7.1 7.0 0.6 11.8 12.0
Tola| 6r|c Courlr|es 70,788 83,o15 9o,751 11o,154 134,oo9 138,033 145,o74 158,125 175,o04 19o,33o 7.8
0hare 18.1 16.7 20.1 16.0 2.6 6.6 8.6 11.1 11.8
Tola| E&V 0|ooa| 1,134,74 1,20o,oo 1,207,4o 1,373,91 1,400,90 1,354,00 1,359,45 1,411,70 1,50o,49 1,o13,13 2.7
0hare .8 .7 .7 2.6 -8.0 0.4 8.8 .7 7.1
Tab|e 1
3ccrce : PW0 Slcbal Ertertairuert Hecia Dctlcck 2000-2018
The prcjectec rcWth rate cf 8PI0 Naticrs EH cctlcck 2000
Hed|a 2009 2010 2011 f 2012 f 2013 f 0ASP 0ASP
$egments 2009-13 2004-08
Pupees |n ||||ons
Te|ev|s|or 2o7.5 298.0 332.0 372.0 420.0
C|arge 9.3 11.4 11.4 12.0 12.9 11.4 17.4
F||red 118.0 132.0 147.0 159.0 185.0
Erlerla|rrerl
C|arge 10.3 11.9 11.4 8.2 1o.4 11.o 15.o
Pr|rl Ved|a 1o8.0 178.0 191.0 205.0 213.0
C|arge 3.7 o.0 7.3 7.3 3.9 5.o 13.4
Rad|o 9.8 11.5 14.0 1o.0 19.0
C|arge 18.1 17.3 21.7 14.3 18.8 18.0 3o.4
Vus|c 5.o 5.0 4.9 4.9 5.0
C|arge -11.o -9.7 -2.o -2.o 1.o -4.5 -1.7
Tab|e 4
Table 4: Irciar EH Irccstry cctlcck 2000-18 fcr Traciticral Hecia
26
$egment 2004 2005 200 200I 2008p 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 0ASP
2009-13
lrlerrel Access . 110,370 13o,588 1o2,394 190,425 214,o01 22o,221 238,450 2o2,3o0 29o,387 333,o28 9.2
w|red ard Voo||e
0hare 21.0 24 18.0 17.8 12.7 6.4 6.4 10.0 18.0 12.
lrlerrel Adverl|s|rg . 17,922 2o,795 38,o9o 51,813 59,873 58,717 o0,241 o5,o54 74,972 8o,728 7.7
w|red ard Voo||e
0hare 48.7 40.6 44.4 88.0 16. -1.0 2. 0.0 14.2 16.7
Tab|e 5
Ps. b||||on 2008 2009 f 2010 f 2011 f 2012 f 2013 f 0ASP
2009-13
Ar|ral|or lrduslry 15.o 18.5 23.0 27.o 33.o 42.5 22.2
0hare 20.0 18. 24.8 20.0 21.7 2.6
Voo||e 0ar|rg 2.5 3.0 4.5 o.0 10.1 12.1 3o.89
0hare 7. 10.8 61.6 88.0 .4 20.2
PC 0.4 0.o 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 20.o
0hare 28. 44.4 28.1 18.8 10.6 0.6
Tab|e
Table 6 arc : Irciar EH Irccstry cctlcck 2000-18 fcr 0iital Hecia
The lasic aigunenl in lhe conlexl of changing
paiadigns of nedia Iandscape is aII aloul lhe
ouliighl iejeclion of lhe oId even lefoie giipping
ovei lhe nev. Reading halil is nol jusl dininishing
lul disappeaiing fasl. Magazines' laigel vas
'faniIy' and lhe concepl of popuIai nagazines has
nov disappeaied. The lalIoid has eneiged. Soon
even lhe lalIoid is vaning. Mosl nevs nagazines
vilh gIossy inpoiled nevspiinl ienain as a slalus
synloI onlhe leapol.
In Radio loday, lhe liansnissions of MW and
SW do nol have lakeis. The ciedil shouId go lo lhe
lechnoIogy as nov il is lhe eia of IM. DigilaI iadio is
fasl calching up. Today, lhe convenlionaI
piogianne pioduclion incIuding lhe use of
Ianguage has laken a lack seal. Theie is no piioi
sciipling oi no piepaialion foi posl and pie-
pioduclion. Sanclily of lhe sludio is Iosl. A sludio
vas eaiIiei consideied as a sacied pIace and a cenlie
of knovIedge vilh lhe pailicipaling ailisls, schoIai,
. K. RAVI
poels, inleIIecluaIs and scienlisls. Il vas a pIace of
infoinalion geneialion and vilh ieveiences. The
lehavioui of lhe ciev vas nuch discipIined. Nov,
lhe aeslhelics of pioduclion aie lhiovn lo lhe vind
and nolhing is laken seiiousIy. Lisleneis aie laken
foi a iide. Ioi inslance, lhe Ioud Iaugh of an R},
challeiing gioups aie found inlhe sludio.
Mosl fiIns loday aie nade on desklops onIy
vilh liack iecoiding. A nusic diiecloi is onIy a
lechnicaI nan and nol ciealive nan. The cIassicaI
vigoui is nissing. The naking is iidden vilh
nechanicaI aclions. The eaiIiei oiiginaI nusic
dulling had lesl linlie and ieaIily, nov digilaI
nusic is haish lo lhe eais and caIIs foi sulslilulion
ly sophislicaled ieceiveis and gadgeliies. LaiIiei il
vas nono, lhen cane lhe sleieo and nov il is onIy
digilaI liacks. The Tapes aie nol soughl aflei, loday,
il is lhe lIue iay CDs and pendiives. The Caneia
lechnoIogy has seen Iong sliides VHS, SVHS,
pneunalic, lela can and nov il is aII DigilaI.
The advenl of saleIIiles has aIso changed lhe
funclioning of nedia, huge anounl of channeIs,
slalions and lechnoIogies has iesuIled in nedia
conveigence. The conveigence is heie lo slay. As
dala, voice, sound, video, aninalion, lexl oi lveak
aII need onIy lechnoIogy suppoil and il is easy lo
achieve nedia conveigence of ieaI naluie. Ioi an
inslance, a fax gels lo le vieved eIeclionicaIIy on a
ceII phone, confeiencing has lecone a viiluaI
ieaIily, inleiaclive nedia is al ils peak juslifying lhe
definilions of nass connunicalion. Lven a
dinension of inleiaclive onIine nevspapei is soon
inlhe Iooning. The nelanoiphosis due lolhe enliy
of lians-nalionaI leIevision in India aIong vilh
CI olaI i zal i on i s accepl ed and sal eI I i l e
connunicalion lechnoIogy has lecone iedundanl
inpIace of lhe conneiciaI venluies of nev nedia.
1he lndian Media Metamorhosis
Novheie in lhe voiId do ve see sinuIlaneous
giovlh of aII nedia vilhin a counliy. India is lhe
onIy exceplion lo lhis facl lhal eveiy nedia has
suipiisingIy voiked vilh coheienl giovlh and
suslenance vilhin lhe Iiniled econonic slienglh
and conliilulion lo lhe nalionaI exchequei. Aflei
LIC, lhe TVsav phenonenaI giovlh and lhe olhei
nedia loo. The nevspapeis changed lheii conlenl,
lhe piice vai legan, foiced lo ieinleipiel eaiIiei
paiIance Iike iedefining vhal Iead is, quaIificalions
of jouinaIisl, nevsioon iequiienenls and so nany
olheis. Radio disappeaied as il vas loin heie. Then
againlhe IM usheied in, il is nov of ils ovndonain.
The Cinena cane nucheaiIy onlhe soiI and lhiived
foi a vhiIe. Soon il had lo fighl foi ils exislence
vhen lhe nedia Iike TV vas inside lhe hones of
niIIions. The inleidependency of Cinena and TVis
veII-knovnloday.
Nov lhe digilaI nedia is heie loslay. Ils giovlh
is looquick foi a sulconlinenl Iike lhal of India, vilh
olhei paianeleis of econony, educalion,
lechnoIogy leing asynchionous vilh lhe nedia
loon. The inveslnenl in lhe nelanoiphic Indian
nedia secloi vas sIuggish in lhe leginning lul
loday is of inpoilanl aspecl of lhe econony. Today,
lhe lians-nalionaI nedia aie nuch cheapei ovei
lheii liadilionaI counleipails, al lhe sane line lheii
piofils aie noie. The uilan lased adveilisenenl
ievenue fIovs lo lhe lians-nalionaIs. The veiy
piesence of lians-nalionaI nedia has nade lhe
liadilionaI nedia conpele on quaIily, conlenl,
piioiilies, ieach, access and naikelaliIily.
TiadilionaI nedia is foiced lo iedefine ilseIf
conlenl-vise. The piinl nedia is nov iepoiling
fashion shovs, piivale Iife of ciickeleis and novie
slais. The pIacing of pholo, lhe changing design and
lhe use of inpoiled quaIily papei aie evidenl. In lhe
conlenl lhoughl piovoking ailicIes, seiious
ciilicisn, deplh iepoiling oi even lhe cailoons aie
giaduaIIy vanishing.
Marketabl|lt: TiadilionaI nevspapei edilois
slailed speaking of nevspapei as naikelalIe
pioduclion. The voids Consunei and Maikel aie
veiy nev foi IndianjouinaIisn. Ldilois aie acling as
I.R.Os. Iuilhei, lhe naikel diclales lhe conlenls of
lhe page. AdveiloiiaIs and Iaid Nevs have sel in.
Nov, lhe fiisl page, inslead of leIIing inpoilanl
evenls, is neaiIy fuII of adveilisenenls and
fundanenlaI nevs deleininanls aie no noie
consideied heie. Tiends Iike sanpIe sachels of
consunei duialIe pioducls aie pinned lo fionl
page.
The lhiee piinaiy slienglhs of nedia aIvays
nalleis. Theii capaliIilies of naking peopIe inilale,
selling of liends foi lhe nexl geneialions and lhe
nouI di ng of pulI i c opi ni on. Ciovlh of
liansnalionaI TV, piinl, fax, supeifasl piinl
lechnoIogy, ieliilh of IM iadio, ienaissance of fiIn
indusliy, advenl and giovlhof nev nedia - have aII
giaduaIIy lioughl aloul diaslic changes, iesuIling
in nol jusl cilizen jouinaIisn lul aIso SociaI
Connunicalion.
27
Ob]ectltes of the stud: To eslalIish lhe
anonaIies in lhe piaclices of liadilionaI and digilaI
nedia in India, lo anaIyse lhe inpacl of such
piaclices onlhe sociaI faliic of lhe sociely.
Scoe: The polenliaIilies, piioiilies and lhe inpacl
incIuding lhe conneiciaI aspecls of lolh kinds of
nedia aie lioughl oul in lhe sludy and a
conpaialive anaIysis is acconpIished.
Slgnlflcance: Whenevei lhe oId lechnoIogy
lecones olsoIele and lhe nev enleis lhe scenaiio,
vilhoul piopei undeislanding of lhe nev, lhe oId
shouId nol le ignoied. Convenience of lhe oId is
lellei ovei lhe sliange nev adaplalions. This sludy
enphasises lhe posilive and negalive aspecls of
lolh liadilionaI and digilaI nedia lo aiiive al a
laIance.
The Mcthndn!ngy of lhis lheoielicaI sludy is
lasicaIIy of ciilicaI lype, suppoiled vilh case
sludies and anaIysis.
lindings and AnaIysis
The pioIifeialion of lechnoIogy has foiced lhe
connuni cal i on expeil s l o iedef i ne l he
connunicalion lheoiies. The oId connunicalion
lheoiies aie sinpIy diclaled ly lhe advanced
lechnoIogy. LIeclionic nedia vas eaiIiei one-vay
connunicalion, lul vilh nev lechnoIogies, il is
loday a lvo-vay connunicalion. Anylody
anyvheie in lhe voiId can inleiacl vilh lhe channeI
oi slalion piogiannes. Cognilive dissonance is
nade iedundanl lecause lhe veiy nessage ilseIf is
nol ieaching lhe laigel gioups and so such
neasuienenl is aIsonol possilIe.
SociaI ResponsiliIily Theoiy has lecone a fIop
in lhe lusiness and piofil naking nedia scene. The
nedia as a sociaI agenl oi calaIysl is slunled.
Inpoilance = size / pIacenenl, is aIso nol voiking
as nolhing is inpoilanl excepl conneiciaI diclales
vhich keep changing loo oflen. RoIe of opinion
Ieadeis no noie nalleis. So nany nodeIs of
connunicalion have ciunlIed. Cenuine effoils of
nouIding pulIic opinion aie oveilaken ly
inlenlionaI piopaganda.
The conneiciaI endeavouis have laken lhe
uppei hand and lhus nedia has acquiied lhe slalus
of an indusliy. Il has changed lhe veiy
chaiacleiislics of nedia and Media's funclion lo
nouId pulIic opinion. 'On nalleis of infIuencing
pulIic and nedia agendas (undei conlioI
conpelency in nevs nanagenenl), il is evidenl lhal
nainsliean iepoilei/ediloi diieclIy do nol seive
pulIic al Iaige lul onIy econonic necessilies of
coipoialions lhal viie and pay lhen...' says Ton
Koch, nedia connenlaloi. Inleinel is iegaided as
lhe fiisl of ils kind as nev nedia lhal have nade il
possilIe foi lhe 'conpIele decenliaIizalion of
conlioI' of nass connunicalion syslen. 'In
cyleispace, eveiyone is his/hei ovn iepoilei...'
says }anes Walson, nedia educalionisl and
jouinaIisl. Hovevei, affoidaliIily, accuiacy in
iepoiling, infoinalion conlioI and hisloiicaI
chionicIing aie sliII lhe slienglhs of lhe convenlionaI
nedia.
SeveiaI significanl sludies of lhe Iale 199O's aII
ovei lhe voiId, on lhe ioIe of Inleinel, ieveaI nany
inleiesling facls. An inslance of a sludy on
insliuclion in highei educalion ieveaIed lhal
sludenls exhililed highei oidei ieasoning and
lhinking skiIIs in lhese couises (Ioon's laxonony).
Sludies conducled lo knov lhe feasiliIily of
undeilaking ieseaiches on Inleinel ieconnend lhe
need foi videspiead conpulei accessiliIily, foi
insliuclion in Inleinel use and infoinalion
evaIualion, foi facuIly invoIvenenl, and foi facuIly-
Iiliaiian coIIaloialion in pionoling iesponsilIe,
infoined and appiopiiale use of lhe Inleinel as a
ieseaichoplion.
Media piioiilies have changed. They hesilale lo
caiiy a picluie of a slaiving nan lecause lhey
inlend nol lo spoiI lhe joyous nood of lheii ieadeis.
ul anuilanenviionnenl is nol conpIele vilhoul a
sIun dveIIei oi a consliuclion voikei vho aie ils
cheap and chief Ialoui. Inpoilance of nedia on
socioIogicaI aspecls is ieaIised ly lhe iedefining
socioIogy of nedia. SociaI connunicalion gioups
Iike lvillei, face look, oikul vilh aII lheii
conveigence avalai, aIong vilh lhe piesence and
giovlh of noliIe equipnenl has lioughl in aIong
vilh ils neiils, a Iol of negalive hazaids and inpacl
on cuIluiaI faliic of Indian sociely. The finaI iesuIl-
lhe speed of connunicaling a nessage has seen a
sea change. The nunleis of souices have dvindIed.
CiediliIily of nedia is undei queslion. Theie is a
dunp of a Iol of infoinalion. Media piofessionaIs
aie faiIing lo digesl lhe nessage, lo conveil lhe
Ianguage of Iaynen. Il is aII lhiovn lo digilaI
nedia, giving negalive iesuIls.
Keeping aII lhese lhings in viev, lhe lheoiy of
OOR, lhe lheoiy of TRI, and a veiy najoi queslion
of a liue connunicaloi vhelhei nedia shouId give
28
. K. RAVI
vhal peopIe vanl oi il shouId give vhal is good foi
lhe sociely- aie lo le ansveied. ConpaialiveIy, due
lo lhe advenl of digilaI nedia, il nay le usei savvy
and nay have Iol of faciIilies, lul il is giossIy
iesuIling innon-ieachof any nessage. The oulpul is
fuII of infoinalion expIosion ending in infoinalion
poIIulion. A liue ieseaichei is nol alIe lo idenlify oi
neasuie lhe ieach of a nessage, noi is il easy lo
neasuie vilh enpiiicaI slalislics. The effecl of such
nessages aie enhancing lhe sociaI nelhod of
hieiaichy ialhei lhan suslaining heaIlhy sociely.
The hainony of sociely is deslioyed. IosiliveIy, a
young coupIe nay diean of a fuluie Iife, lheie nay
le an undeislanding lelveen lhe lvo, lul is
iesuIling in desliuclion of faniIy. The suivey and
ieseaich dala veiy cIeaiIy shov lhe nunlei of
divoicees incieasing.
Cltlten ]ourna|lsm: Yel, vilhpiesence of a caneia
in pen, shoes, noliIe, elc., lhe connunicalion
expeils aie nol in a posilion lo evaIuale lhe usage of
lhe canoufIaging lechnoIogy. CIeai cul evaIualion
of any lechnoIogy is difficuIl, a lechnoIogy lhal
cannol give posilive iesuIls can definileIy hanpei
sociaI engineeiing piocess of any connunily. An
anliguily oi a conliadiclion is- digilaI nedia is
equipped, lhe youngei geneialion laIk of speed, lul
nosl of voilhvhiIe nessages aie lhiovn lo liash
lhiough vhich lhe vhoIe puipose of lhe piocess of
connunicalion is deslioyed. The concepl of
feedlack is noslIy foigollen.
1he arehensions
Inleinel, anong lhe nev nedia lechnoIogies, is
anunieguIaled eIeclionic connunily, vhichneans
niIIions of peopIe, Iinked logelhei, aie conpuling
on vhal has leen aplIy leined as lhe infoinalion
supeihighvay. CuiienlIy, India has aloul 55
niIIion Inleinel useis and ly 2O12 lhis figuie is
expecled lo louch1OO niIIion. The aiiivaI of e-looks
is highIy inleiaclive, and nevspapei-on-lhe nel has
nov leen iecognized as a najoi vehicIe lo liansnil
nevs. Il has pIaced vilhin easy ieach, a nind-
loggIing iange of infoinalion. This nev nedia give
each of us lhe oplion lo le a pulIishei of oui
infoinalion and vievs. And as lhe nunleis of
peopIe on il nuIlipIy, lhe oppoilunilies aie gelling
Iaigei.
Yel lhe vhoIe funclioning of lhe digilaI nedia
syslen is nol peifecl. Ioi inslance, aII of lhe hype
suiiounding lhe Inleinel has caused a panic of soils
in }ouinaIisn, especiaIIy lhe piinl nedia, as lhe
lenefils and pilfaIIs of lhe nev nediun aie
expIoied. LinilIess souices and lheii faslei access,
Iess piessuie of deadIines, noie fieedon nakes lhe
nedia have an uppei hand ovei liadilionaI
connunicalion piaclices of lhe Iand. DigilaI nedia
has lhe polenliaI dangei of connilling ciines,
poinogiaphy, iIIegaI iepioduclionof soflvaie lolhe
nishandIing of eIeclionic syslens and iIIicil
inliusion inlo lhen (hacking), fion copyiighl
infiingenenl lo eIeclionic pIagiaiisn. The digilaI
nedia has lhe dangeis in naking us Iazy, lIock
peison-lo-peison inleiaclion oi cieale a sepaialisl
sociely. Il has capaliIilies lo cieale fundanenlaI
changes inoui vaIues.
On one hand, anyone anyvheie can pul
anylhing onlo an open nedia Iike lhe inleinel
Ieading lo a piepondeiance of vhal sone caII
gailage. On lhe olhei hand, lhese veiy
disadvanlages aie seen as poinleis lo lhe nel's
polenliaI as a fiee gIolaI foiun of uniesliicled
infoinalionand inleiaclive connunicalion.
lnferences
Ioi successfuI funclioning of digilaI nedia as
fai as Indian conlexl is conceined, lhe ioad lIocks
aie nany. SliII Iooning Iov Iileiacy iales anong
nenleis of sociely iefIecled in lheii acule
Iinilalions of conpiehending lechnoIogicaI
inliicacies, Missed oppoilunilies of lechnoIogies
conpaliliIily lo piedoninanl iegionaI Ianguages of
lhe soiI, lhe unaddiessed socio-econonic divide in
leins of casle, cieed, ieIigion, slalus and lhe
pieslige of econonics, pooi nanagenenl of equily,
access and paiily in disliilulion of lechnoIogies,
affoidaliIily lovaids lechnoIogicaI looIs oving lo
naiioved vesled inleiesls in leins of exliene
lusiness piaclices oi lhe enignalic ieason of
iiialionaI feai of nisuse anong lhe hoIdeis of lhe
looI, Iack of poIilicaI viII lovaids conpiehensive
piogiess and deveIopnenl of lhe nalion, aggiessive,
neiciIess lusiness poIicies of nuIli-nalionaIs
lovaids lhe nalion and consuneis, suspicious
appioach in liade agieenenls ly lhe Ieadeis of lhe
nalions. Moie lhan lhe ioad lIocks, lhe nind lIocks
of lhe Iav nakeis viII have lo le addiessed
uigenlIy. Inconpiehensive, incongiuous and
asynchionous nedia-Iavs have indiieclIy lecone
anadded huidIe lo lhe snoolhfunclioning of nedia
in India. AIso, foi digilaI nedia lo le effeclive,
suinounling lhese ioad lIocks shouId nol anounl
lo fighling vilh lhe piolIen lul lo evoIve slialegies
and nechanisns inniceIy deaIing vilhil.
29
Al Ieasl foi lhe sulconlinenl excepl peihaps
China, lhe concepl of DigilaI age ilseIf is
queslionalIe, Wilh lesl of piinl nedia piaclices in
India, a liue digilaI nevspapei is yel lo see lhe Iighl
of lhe day, neie on-Iine veisions aie nol liuIy digilaI
veisions as lhey aie Ieasl inleiaclive in leins of
oplions lo lhe ieadei lo knov vaiious angIes of a
sloiy, veiifying lhe facls lhiough going onlo lhe
spol of happenings via., nuIlinedia looIs and soon.
The Indian sul-conlinenl is iesliicled lo lhe
concepl of digilaI age onIy in leins of pioIifeialing
video paiIouis, inleinel cafes, unhoIy lusiness
piaclices lhiough saIe of poinogiaphy, iII-viII
chaiaclei iidden aninalion videos suiging in lhe
naikelpIace and so on. AIso digilaI nedia
chaIIenges aie innense. Il is in lhe lackgiound lhal
liadilionaI nedia is sliII pIaying lhe ioIe of lhe
valchdog of denociacy. The piinaiy chaIIenges
lefoie lhe digilaI nedia incIude lhal of
enIighlening, invoIving and inviling lhe connon
nasses vilh skiIIed expeilise lo pailicipale vilhoul
appiehension, in lhe disseninalion of iighlfuI,
voilhy and iadicaIIy usefuI infoinalion lo lhe
nasses, iegaidIess of lhe uilan-iuiaI divide, lhe
digilaI divide oi lhe haves and have-nols.
The paiIance of lhe seIIing pioposilion of lhe
vesl is sliange and non-conpiehendilIe lo lhe
consuneis/liadeis of India. CIolaIizalion is oflen
peiceived and undeislood ly lhe Indian nasses as
vesleinizalion. WhiIe lhe consuning Iols aie
connecled lo lheii iools, lhe liading Iol lehind lhen
has lheii lhoughl piocesses en-cuIluied ly lhe
veslein elhos and piaclices. In spile of lhese
vagiancies, lhe liends aie in favoui of lhe liadeis
and nol lhe luyeis oi consuneis. The liadei is
successfuI in pushing lhe pioducls lo hones and
offei leiliaiy seivices vilh jaigon-iidden lechno-
ciazy phiases as/vhencaIIed foi.
TiadilionaI nedia ly ils inheienl slyIe of
funclioning has lo physicaIIy opeiale fion a pIace of
pioduclionand office. If piinl nedia- il is anedilion,
if eIeclionic nedia- il is a pioduclion house. WhiIe
doing so, il has lo idenlify ilseIf vilh lhe pulIic of
lhal iegion and calei lo lheii needs and aspiialions
lhiough pulIishing/lioadcasling of nevs and
vievs of lhe iegion. If nol, ils inage viII le al slake
and vouId soon Iose ils naikel oi even idenlily in
lhe couise of line. So, Iong since, nedia has leen
veiy seiious aloul keeping up lhe IocaIizalion
aspecl. The Indian denociacy is chuining noie and
noie IocaI heioes in deveIopnenl and piogiess.
AII of lhen find pIace in lhe nedia in one vay oi lhe
olhei. This ensuies genuine nass connunicalion
of any nedia.
Any nedia is aIso nol innune fion lhe diclales
of lhe cuIluiaI elhos ovei ils piogians and
pioduclions. Iiioiily lo lhe knovIedge and skiIIs of
sone cuIluiaI piaclices, lolhof lhe iegionand of lhe
nalion, is aIvays given vhiIe ieciuiling and
pionoling nedia peisonneI in Indian nedia
houses. Theie is an inlense effoil ly lhe liadilionaI
nedia lo undeisland lhe senlinenls and alliludes of
lhose piaclicing lhese cuIluies and liies lo nainlain
and confoin lolhen inils conlenl and piaclices.
AIong vilh lhe pioIifeialion of liadilionaI
nedia seclois, slalion, channeIs and houses, lheie is
aIso an aclive pailicipalion ly lhe ciealive peopIe
hankeiing lonake lheii naik inlhe sociely ly using
nass nedia as an effeclive looI. The digilaI nedia
nisses oul lo give lhe lhiiII of ly-Iines and inpiinl
Iines vhich eveiy ciealoi in lhe nedia secloi Iongs
foi. This lhiisl foi nane is fuIfiIIed ly lhe liadilionaI
nedia.
On lhe econonic fionl, Indian nedia has a huge
oppoilunily lo piovide foi liead and lullei lo
niIIions of lhose vilh dieans lo shovcase lheii
laIenls, lheii enolions and lheii skiIIs. The Indian
nedia ly ils luinovei has aIieady joined lhe
landvagon of lhe lig five in lhe voiId. Cioss-
cuIluiaI laIenls have added a fIavoui lo lhe
piogians of iegionaI kind. Indian ailisls aie doing
lesl in lhe gIolaI nedia, nol lo foigel Oscais oi a
piesligious piinl avaid. This is lecause of digilaI
nedia as lack end, hovevei il is lhe liadilionaI
nedia vhichis inlhe fionl end.
The conveigenl Iavs, pailicuIaiIy in India aie
veiy nuch Iagging lehind. The Conveigence iII of
2OOO vas a good effoil hovevei Iacked leelh lo look
lhe vioIalois, pailicuIaiIy lhe calIe opeialois and
sone lioadcasleis. Hence digilaI nedia appeais lo
le discouiaging foi lhe soiI.
The IDI cap viII go on ieIaxing in lhe fuluie.
The ieguIaloiy aulhoiily is sliII lhe TRAI and il is
OK as Iong as il is doing a connendalIe jol. This is a
loonlo digilaI nedia as foieignpIayeis aie sliongei
in il. ennell & CoInan, Iox Media, Rupeil
Muidoch, Ted Tuinei, Wainei iolheis, WaIl
Disney- - you nane lhen and lhey aie eveiyvheie
oneailh
Iiinling lechnoIogy has laken ievoIulionaiy
changes in jusl lhe Iasl lhiee decades oi so. The
3O
. K. RAVI
|ssues w|th 0|nema
0|g|ta| Hed|a
0rap||cs, ar|ral|or,
surrourd sourd &
rega r|x|rg,
u|lra-lrac||rg ard
duoo|rg
0ecrease ol v|eW|rg
|ao|ls |r l|ealres due lo
Cds
lrcreased aWareress ol
copyr|g|ls, palerls ard
ru|l|red|a r|g|ls
Trad|t|ona| Hed|a
Vega oudgel & ever r|s|rg pr|ce ol l|e
aclors,
Fore|gr |ocal|ors ard rorey,
Loca| slars |r g|ooa| c|arces,
lrcreased Wa||-posler rerace ard l|e
|aWs aooul rol sl|c||rg o|||s
Ra|s|rg ol ru|l|p|exes
P|racy ard |||ega| dup||cal|or
giind IeveI of lhe inks & dyes, lhe conpaliliIily of
lhen vilh lhe piinl papei, lhe CNC nachines foi
conlioI and conseive of lhose inks, aII aie aIieady a
pievious niIIenniun phenonena. Nov, il is lhe
design changes oving lo lhe change in lasles oi
nindsels of evei incieasing ieadeis. The inpiinl
vas a convenlionaI Iasl-page-lollonei in end-lo-
end shape. Il is no Iongei so. Il canlake onany page
and any shape. Cone Maiio Caicia, lhe nanliik of
design jeIIing vilh lhe lanliiks of nedia lechnoIogy.
Conlenl leing aInosl sane in any lvo nevspapeis,
lhe design can nov change lhe inpiession on lhe
sane ieadei of lhe lvo nevspapeis. These
innovalions aie lhe foile of lhe digilaI nedia, yel lhe
finaI pioduclion iesuIls inlo a liadilionaI nedia
oulpul.
Radio lioadcasling is no noie nanuaI. Il is nov
podcasling loo. On lhe i-pod, lhe inleinel
conpalilIe iadio, digilaI iadio is doing lhe iounds.
SaleIIile iadio is aIso in lhe neai ieach of lhe
connonnan. IM iadiohas gone ona ievoIulionaiy
spiee in India and conlinues lo iuIe lhe ioosl. Heie
digilaI nedia has an uppei hand. IM node of Radio
is nol conpIenenlaiy in funclioning vilh ils AM
counleipail. Il aII seens Iike a diiecl cul-off in
ieceplivily and consuneiisn adding lo lhe digilaI
divide. Theie aie inslances of Vividhlhaiali |Indian
CSj liansnilleis iepIaced vilh LIT of an IM, nol
heaIlhy foi nedia lhiiving. Connunily Radio lhal
faIIs noie inlo lhe liadilionaI nedia calegoiy, is yel
locone of sheeninIndia. The ieasons aie nany. The
issue of lhe sky oi lhe aiivaves as pulIic piopeily is
favouialIy decided ly lhe apex couil of India in
favoui of peopIe. Oppoilunilies in naiiovcasling
aie lole incieased, pailicuIaiIy inlhe sea coasl.
In liadilionaI nedia, il is noinaI and accepled
exeicises foi lhe audience lo savoui aloul a coupIe
of lines lhe noie dangeious feals, Iess liicky slunls,
noie and noie exposuie of lody, easiIy inseiled
sleany scenes incIuding iandy-iaucous, lusly,
losoned heioines, vheieas, lhe sane in lhe digilaI
nedia has a dangei of high degiee iepelilion in
vieving and usage, lhus iesuIling in peiveision.
Hovevei, favouialIe aigunenl foi digilaI nedia is
lhal noie liained laIenls aie in lhe sofl and
haidvaie of lhe indusliy.
Human kights asects
Heie aie onIy sone of lhe issues diieclIy olseivalIe
and aclionalIe on piioiily aflei inviling lhe vaiious
nedia foi a ciealive diaIogue. The issues undei lhe
Hunan Righls aie Iisled undei foi innediale
allenlion on nedia, pailicuIaiIy lhe eIeclionic and
lhe nev nedia:-
- Misuse of chiIdien as aclois foi noney |an issue
vilhliadilionaI nediaj
- Aluse of lhe sex and sexuaIily of vonen|eviI in
lolhliadilionaI and digilaI nediaj
- Use of concepls affecling lhe inage of sex
voikeis, gi goI os, gays, I esli ans and
honosexuaIs, vioIence on-scieen |as on nov an
issue vilhliadilionaI nedia, lhe digilaI nedia is
yel localchupj
- Invasion of piivacy and nisuse of foolages on
nev nedia |MMS, lhe vel . j foi unelhicaI and
shoil lein gains |issue vilhdigilaI nediaj
- CIoiifying viIIainy, lieacheiy and cunningness
as liaveiy, inleIIigence and liiIIiance |issue
vilhliadilionaI nediaj
- Disloiled poiliayaIs of inlei-nalion ieIalions
|issue vilhliadilionaI nediaj
- Sleieo-lyping of poIilicians, poIice and ained
foices. |issue vilhliadilionaI nediaj
Road lIocks can le ienoved onIy if nedia
sleadies ils piaclices vilh lhe sociely in vhich il
opeiales vilhoul iacing in lhe ial-iace of gIolaI
nedia scene. The chaIIenges posed ly lhe digilaI age
aie naluiaI and a shaipei undeislanding of
lechnoIogies and lheii usages is lhe need of lhe houi
ly nedia piaclilioneis as veII as consuneis. The
oppoilunilies aie equaIIy noie and lhe viII lo gial
lhen vhen avaiIalIe is lo le incuIcaled ly eveiy
nass connunicalion agency of India. The
liadilionaI nedia's piaclice of IocaIizalion has lo le
31
nade noie pailicipalive ly incIusion of NCOs,
SHCs and olhei such Micio Iinance inslilulions,
naking lhe lusiness pioposilion secondaiy and
liealing IocaI pailicipalion as piinaiy, caiiying
f oi vai d l he connuni l y nedi a i n l he
connunicalionpiaclices, elc.
In India, cuIluiaI ieguIalions aie foicefuI on
eveiy secloi incIuding lhe nedia. So, due caie is
needed in liadilionaI nedia aloul fianing of nevs,
vievs and piogians aloul lhe elhos of lhe Iand. Nol
jusl skiIIed nedia piaclilioneis lul lhose vilh
knovIedge and concein on cuIluiaI heiilage of lhe
Iand aie lo le enpIoyed and pionoled. Media
conveigence is juslifialIy usalIe onIy vhen
lechnoIogies aie nade accessilIe ly laigeling lhe
consuneis of nass connunicalion. Conveigence is
a ieaIily onIy vhen il finds use in day-lo-day Iife of
connon nan. Hence, diffeienl nedia shouId
expIoie and idenlify vaiious possilIe looIs of
conveigence ieachalIe ly ils consuneis.
In liadilionaI nedia, Coipoiale SociaI
ResponsiliIily is a chief facloi lo le incoipoialed in
lhe nedia nanagenenl aspecl of lhe indusliy. Il
shouId exlend nol onIy lo ils fialeinily lul aIso lo
lhe inlei-discipIinaiy seclois of econony and
sociely. DigilaI nedia has no such hassIes. Oui
hunan iesouice is huge and unlapped. Hunan
capilaI, sociaI capilaI, enolionaI capilaI and
inleIIecluaI capilaI aie lo le geneialed as laIancing
faclois againsl lhe doIIai oi lhe pound gushing inlo
India, lhus aveiling gIolaI hegenony fion
conlinuing. AII lhis is possilIe vilh noie of
liadilionaI nedia as lhe digilaI nedia is nol hunan
iesouice-cenliic lul noie lechno-cenliic.
Inilalion of design shaII le avoided. LocaI
laIenls lo le encouiaged and given chance lo nake
page Iayouls and designing. RegionaI ieadeiship is
unIike lhe LngIish ieading popuIalion and so lhe
IocaI laIenls viII acconpIish lellei on pioviding
oppoilunilies. DigilaI nedia lhal liing nev
oppoilunilies aIso liing psychoIogicaI upheavaIs
anong ils useis. Iogging and sociaI nelvoiking
siles nay le ieguIaled lul nol conlioIIed as
gesluied ly lhe HRD ninisliy of 2OO8 cenliaI
goveinnenl in India. One of lhe Iaige liadilionaI
nedia, lhe Indian Cinena, is al cioss ioads. Lack of
Ieadeiship and unily in lhe indusliy is evidenl. In
lhe lusy IifeslyIe of peopIe, cinena shouId join
hands vilh olhei eIeclionic nedia in evoIving
diffeienl genie of piogians.
ConcIusion
The nalion of India cannol le lIind lo lhe gIolaI
happenings. Il does nol nean lhal il has lo give up
eveiylhing of ils ovn and Iap up eveiylhing of lhe
gIole. Il onIy neans lhal il has lo faII in Iine vilh
olhei nalions, especiaIIy lhe deveIoped ones, foi a
lhiiving and piospeiing, suslained denociacy.
Mass nedia leing accepled and funclionaI as lhe
fouilh piIIai of denociacy in India, il aIso goes lo
say lhal nedia enpoveinenl lhiough lechnoIogy,
ieach, penelialion and usage shouId inciease in
Ieaps and lounds.
The ioad lIocks shouId le sensed veII ahead,
lhe chaIIenges of lhe digilaI age is lo le faced
skiIfuIIy and snailIy, lhe oppoilunilies of
lechnoIogy has lole lapped loils fuII polenliaI and a
fine laIance is lo le sliuck lelveen gIolaIizalion
and IocaIizalion. TiadilionaI nedia has lo calei lo
lellei slyIe of IocaIizalion, lhe lusiness and inpacl
of gIolaI nedia has lo le sludied and encounleied
veII, lhe cuIluiaI ieguIalions of lhe Iand is lo le
iespecled and nol lanpeied vilh, olhei pIalfoins of
inlei-cuIluiaI & inleinalionaI connunicalions have
lo le associaled voIunlaiiIy and coIIaloialions have
lole sliuck vheievei and vhenevei possilIe.
The indusliy shouId face lhe chaIIenges and
oppoilunilies vilh equaninily and leing uniled,
lhe nedia conveigence foi lhe digilaI nedia has lo
le ieaIized scienlificaIIy. In liadilionaI nedia, high
degiee of coipoiale sociaI iesponsiliIily is lo le
deveIoped in lhe fialeinily, coipoiale nedia needs
lo le veIconed lul vilh caulion and piovide
conpelilion lo lhe gIolaI hegenony onIy lo gain
and nolhing lo Iose. The Iiinl nedia has lo calch lhe
aeslhelics of ieadeis of piinl and le pioud of lheii
inpiinl. Radio undei lhe liadilionaI nedia shouId
calei lellei lo naiiovcasling and podcasling, lhe
nev nedia shouId le accessilIe inils conpIele foin
in eveiy viIIage if onIy lhe nev oppoilunilies in il
aie lo le oplinaIIy ieaIized. The leIevision foi 21sl
cenluiy shouId cone oul of shackIes of
enleilainnenl and ieveil lack lo educalion as nain
agenda. The Indian cinena needs ensuiing second
oidei of Ieadeiship foi suslained niIeage and
conpelilionfion olhei nedia.
TiadilionaI nedia and digilaI nedia aie
insepaialIe loday and hence shouId go hand in
hand, conpIenenling inslead of suppIenenling
eacholhei.
32
. K. RAVI
keference
Ciaig, AIan (1998). Adoplion, Diffusion and oplinaI uses of
conpulei lechnoIogies foi insliuclion in highei educalion:
A case sludy, The Univeisily Of Daylon.
Khandekai, Vanila KohIi (2O1O). Indian Media usiness, Nev
DeIhi: Sage pulIicalions.
McQuaiI, Denis (2OO5). McQuaiI's Mass Connunicalion Theoiy,
Nev DeIhi: Vislaai IulIicalions.
Noan Kaninei (1997). Inleinel Use and SchoIais' Iioduclivily,
eikeIey: Univeisily Of CaIifoinia.
Oonnen T.K. (Di.) (1999). SociaI ChaIIenges of lhe 21sl Cenluiy,
Nev DeIhi: Manoiana Yeai ook 2OOO.
IavIik, }ohn.V (1998). Nev Media TechnoIogy- CuIluiaI and
ConneiciaI Ieispeclives Massachusells, USA: AIIyn &
aconIulIisheis.
Rananalhan, Sankaian, & eckei, }oig (2OO1). Inleinel in Asia,
Singapoie: Asian Media and Infoinalion Connunicalion
Cenlie.
Rao, Madan Mohan Ldiloi (2OO3). Nevs nedia and Nev nedia,
lhe Asia Iacific Inleinel Handlook, Singapoie: Laslein
Univeisily Iiess, episodeV
Shaina & Chaluivedi (1998). The Iuluie of Mass
Connunicalion, Nev DeIhi: Radha IulIisheis.
SinghaI, Aivind & Rogeis, M. Lveiell (2OO2). India's
Connunicalion RevoIulion fion luIIock cails lo cylei
nails, Nev DeIhi: Sage IulIicalions.
ViIaniIan }.V (2OO5). Mass Connunicalion In India- A
SocioIogicaI Ieispeclive, Nev DeIhi: Sage IulIicalions.
WiIIians, Iiedeiick, Cilson, David. V e. (1996). TechnoIogy
Tiansfei: A Connunicalion Ieispeclive, Nev DeIhi: Sage
IulIicalions.
WiIson, Relecca A (1997). Sludenls' use of lhe Inleinel foi
Couise-ieIaled Reseaich: Iaclois vhich accounl foi use oi
non-use, IennsyIvania, The Ienn. Slale Univeisily.
33
lacto| lnl|uenc|n l|o||le|at|on ol L||ta| Ved|a |n a
lo|ma| C|oup : / Lnam|c le|pect|ve
Rahu! Thakurta
Xaviei Inslilule of Managenenl, hulanesvai
Ieifoinance of a nedia foi infoinalion (conlenl) dissipalion has lypicaIIy leen infIuenced ly lhe fiequency vhich diclales lhe nunlei
of lines a pailicuIai infoinalion is liansnilled, and lhe spiead oi coveiage vhich is a neasuie of ieach of lhe seIecled nedia. In lhis
digilaI age naiked vilh iapid lechnoIogicaI innovalions, piopei seIeclion of nedia pIays an infIuenliaI ioIe in deciding on lhe
pioIifeialionof lhe dissipaled infoinalion. Inlhis ieseaich, ve focus onpaianeleis lhal infIuence lhe coveiage oi penelialionof a digilaI
nedia in a foinaI gioup selling. A syslen dynanics nodeI of digilaI nedia penelialion is aiiived upon lased on veII accepled
lehavioiaI lheoiies Iike lhe lechnoIogy acceplance nodeI vhich Iooks al lhe faclois affecling adoplion of a digilaI nedia, and lhe lass
diffusionnodeI vhichaddiesses lhe palleinof diffusionof lhe digilaI nedia vilhline. SinuIalioniesuIls lased onvaiious consliucled
scenaiios piovide expIanalion lo vhal couId le lhe laiiieis lo lhe piocess of penelialion of a digilaI nedia, and vhal couId le lhe
iesponse slialegies. The end iesuIls aie expecled lo enalIe oiganizalions in chaige of lhe conlenl lo seIecl lhe nedia depending upon
laigel audiences and digilaI nedia chaiacleiislics, and inlhe piocess ensuie dissipalionof lhe inlended infoinalion.
Kcqucrds. DigilaI nedia penelialion, lechnoIogy acceplance nodeI, lass diffusionnodeI, syslen dynanics.
lntroduction
The naikel of digilaI conlenl (nusic,
pulIishing, nevs elc.) has changed significanlIy
ovei lhe pasl fev yeais, as noie and noie nev
pIayeis (e.g. inleinel seivices, digilaI seivice
piovideis, elc), nany of lhen oiiginaIIy fion olhei
seclois, enlei lhe space of lhe liadilionaI aclois. The
consequences of digilaI lechnoIogies foi lhe nedia
indusliy have leen enoinous, lolh foi lhe
pioduclion and lhe consunplion of digilaI conlenl.
The econonics of pioduclion and disliilulion has
leen iadicaIIy aIleied and lhe conlexl of lhe
econonic ciisis and ieIaled faII in adveilising
ievenues have fuilhei accenlualed lhe need of
expeiinenling vilhnev conlenl dissipalionnodeIs
as veII as of sliucluiaI changes. Theie is an
enoinous inciease in lhe sheIf-piesence of digilaI
lechnoIogies foi conlenl dissipalion (e.g. ceIIuIai
phones, leIevisions, conpulei, inleiaclive nedia,
elc) vilh piovision of fealuies Iike inleiaclive
nuIlinedia, conlenl cuslonizalion, elc. Theie is
lhus a chaIIenge foi lolh lhe oiganizalion in chaige
of lhe conlenl oi infoinalion, and lhe oiganizalion
pioviding oi designing lhe infoinalion dissipalion
seivices/pioducls. To lhe foinei, lhe chaIIenge is lo
figuie oul vhich digilaI nedia lo opl foi so lhal lhe
designed conlenl ieaches ils inlended audience in a
cosl effeclive nannei. Iiopei seIeclion of nedia is
IikeIy lo le insliunenlaI in deciding on lhe
pioIifeialion of lhe dissipaled infoinalion. To lhe
Iallei, lhe chaIIenge is lo design and naikel ils
pioducl/seivices in ieIalion lo conlenl dissipalion
in such a nannei so as lo ensuie naikel doninance
and enjoy conpelilive advanlage. Since lhe nedia
indusliy is leconing incieasingIy digilaI and vilh
iapid lechnoIogicaI innovalions, piopei seIeclion of
digilaI nedia is IikeIy lo pIay a key ioIe in judging a
nedia peifoinance. To dale lheie aie onIy a coupIe
of inlei-discipIinaiy sludies in infoinalion syslens
(IS) and nedia nanagenenl (Iisanias & WiIIcocks,
1999, oczovski, 2OO5) vhich expIoies hov
oiganizalions pIan lheii aclivilies in lhe conlexl of
infoinalion dissipalion using digilaI lechnoIogy.
The sludies veie caiiied oul in lhe conlexl of
nevspapei oiganizalions onIy and hence veiy
naiiov inscope.
The success of a digilaI nedia is deleinined ly
hov veII lhe nedia is alIe lo peneliale vilhin ils
inlended audience (LYCM Nevs ReIease, 2O1O).
The individuaIs vho aie IikeIy lo use lhe digilaI
nedia aIso leIong lo a nunlei of diffeienl gioups
vhich shape lheii leIiefs and aclions. In lhis
ieseaich, ve focus on paianeleis lhal infIuence lhe
coveiage oi penelialion of a digilaI nedia in a
foinaI gioup selling. We define a foinaI gioup as
one vho's funclioning is goveined ly veII defined
poIicies and pioceduies (Cioups and IoinaI
Oiganizalions, 2O1O). In oidei lo sludy lhe piocess
ve lake heIp of pioninenl lheoiies pul foivaid in
" Asslstant Professor, lnformatlon Sstems, Xatler
lnstltute of Management, Bhubanesuar
34
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 34-40
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
lhe iespeclive fieIds, lased on vhich ve deiive lhe
digilaI nedia penelialion nodeI vhich foins lhe
lasis of enquiiy in lhis ieseaich. This papei is
oiganized as foIIovs. Seclion 2 discusses on lhe
ieIevanl lheoielicaI nodeIs lhal conliilule lo lhe
enquiiy piesenled in lhis papei. The ieseaich
nelhodoIogy is piesenled in Seclion 3 vheie ve
piesenl lhe ieseaich nodeI of inleiesl in lhe foin of
a causaI Ioop sliucluie. The iesuIls aie enuneialed
in Seclion 4 vheie ve anaIyze lhe nodeI lehavioi
undei diffeienl consliucled scenaiios. IinaIIy in
concIusion (Seclion 5) ve sunnaiize lhe findings
and piovide diieclionfoi fuluie ieseaich.
1heoreticaI 8ackground
Ienelialionof a digilaI nedia canle vieved as a
sequence of lvo inleiacling piocesses i.e. lhe
acceplance piocess and lhe diffusion piocess.
Acceplance iefeis lo lhe slage in vhich a lechnoIogy
is seIecled foi use ly an individuaI oi an
oiganizalion, and is diffeienlialed fion diffusion
vhich iefeis lo lhe slage in vhich lhe lechnoIogy
spieads lo geneiaI use and appIicalion (Caii, 2O1O).
The nosl videIy used lheoiy ieIaled lo lhe
acceplance piocess is lhe 'lechnoIogy acceplance
nodeI' (TAM) (Davis, 1989). TAM vhichis lased on
lhe 'lheoiy of ieasoned aclion' (TRA) (Iishlein and
Ajzen, 1975) allenpls lo expIainadoplionand use of
a lechnoIogy. TAM posils lhal adoplion of a
lechnoIogy ly an individuaI is goveined ly lheii
lehavioiaI inlenlion, vhichinluinis deleinined ly
lvo leIiefs: peiceived usefuIness defined as lhe
exlenl lo vhich use of lhe lechnoIogy is leIieved lo
le enhancing lhe peifoinance (Davis, 1989), and
peiceived ease of use defined as lhe degiee lo vhich
use of lhe lechnoIogy is consideied lo le fiee of
effoil (Davis, 1989). A veiy high IeveI viev of TAM
is shovninIiguie 1.
In lhe foIIoving yeais, nuneious sludies have
leen caiiied oul vilh lhe TAM nodeI. Reseaicheis
have liied lo vaIidale, exlend and appIy TAM in a
vaiiely of diffeienl conlexls (Venkalesh and aIa,
2OO8). ased on lhe eneiging sludies, lhe TAM vas
iefined inlo lhe TAM2 (Venkalesh and Davis, 2OOO),
vhich conlined lhe geneiaI deleininanls of
peiceived usefuIness. Moie iecenlIy, lhe TAM3
(Venkalesh and aIa, 2OO8) vas pioposed vhich
augnenled TAM2 ly incIuding lhe deleininanls of
peiceived ease of use. AII lhese advancenenls
soughl lo inlegiale lhe Ieaining's fion vaiious TAM
sludies in oidei lo idenlify possilIe nanagenenl
inleivenlion slialegies, and chail lhe fuluie
liajecloiy of piogiess (Chullui, 2OO9, Venkaleshand
aIa, 2OO8).
Sludies ieIaled lo lhe diffusion piocess can le
liaced lack lo lhe diffusion of innovalion (DOI)
(Rogeis, 1983) vhich expIains hov an innovalion is
inpailed on nenleis of a sociely lhiough ceilain
channeIs ovei line. DOI has leen lhe lasis foi
ieseaich in diffusion nodeIing ly ass (1969). The
ass nodeI foi pioducl giovlh and innovalion
diffusion has leen used lo sludy and foiecasl lhe
pallein of diffusion piocess of nuneious pioducls
in nany diffeienl indusliies (Hsiao el aI., 2OO9). The
ass diffusionnodeI desciiles lhe piocess ly vhich
pioducls aie laken up anongsl a popuIalion of
polenliaI cusloneis vho aie peisuaded lo lake up a
pioducl ly adveilising oi olhei naikeling effoils,
lul aie aIso peisuaded lo lake il up ly inleiacling
vilh exisling cusloneis oi ovneis of lhe pioducl.
The equalion iepiesenling lhe ass diffusion
piocess is givenleIov.
Wheie:
f(l) iale of change of lhe inslaIIed lase fiaclion (i.e.
lhe change in fiaclion of lhe popuIalion vhich
has lakenup lhe pioducl inconcein)
35
F|gure 1. Tec|ro|ogy Acceplarce Vode| (TAV)

I(l) inslaIIed lase fiaclion
p coefficienl of innovalion(i.e. exleinaI infIuence)
q coefficienl of inilalion(i.e. inleinaI infIuence)
Ovei lhe yeais, naikel liends and gIolaIizalion
Ied lo evoIulion of lhe ass nodeI in vaiious foins
in oidei lo fil diffeienl conlexls (Ieies el aI., 2O1O).
Ieies el aI. (2O1O) in lheii papei aIso indicaled lhal
lhe pallein of adoplion of lhe inlioduced syslen
vouId infIuence lhe coveiage of lhe diffusion
piocess. Oui sludy invesligales lhis aspecl in lhe
conlexl of penelialionof a digilaI nedia.
MethodoIogy
The piocess of penelialion is line vaiianl in lhe
sense il is IikeIy lo change depending upon hov lhe
diffeienl faclois lhal infIuence il inleiacl and evoIve
ovei line. To faciIilale undeislanding of lhis line-
vaiianl and seeningIy conpIex phenonenon ve
adopled lhe syslen dynanics (SD) appioach
(Sleinan, 2OOO). Syslen dynanics is an appioach lo
undeislanding lhe lehavioui of conpIex syslens
ovei line ly anaIyzing lhe foices lhal aie geneialed
ly lhe sliucluie of lhe syslen, and lhe iesuIlanl
lehavioi lhese foices uIlinaleIy Iead lo. Inleiaclions
anong diffeienl paianeleis aie iepiesenled vilh
lhe heIp of feedlack Ioops in an SD nodeI. ModeI
luiIding legins vilh deveIopnenl of a causaI Ioop
diagian lhal depicls lhe lehavioi of a syslen in lhe
foin of inleiacling causaI Iinks, each vilh a ceilain
poIaiily. A posilive (negalive) Iink inpIies a
ieinfoicing (laIancing) ieIalion vheie a posilive
change in lhe cause iesuIls in a posilive (negalive)
change in lhe effecl. A doulIe Iine inleisecling a Iink
iepiesenls deIays in an effecl. The causaI Ioop giaph
can le napped lo a nalhenalicaI nodeI consisling
of a syslen of diffeience equalions, vhich can le
sinuIaled undei diffeienl paianeliic condilions.
A pieIininaiy veision of lhe digilaI nedia
penelialion nodeI iepiesenled as a causaI Ioop
diagian is shovninIiguie 2.
The nodeI lehavioi is diclaled ly hov lhe
foIIoving lvo sulseclois inleiacl vilh each olhei
and ovei line: adoplion sulsecloi and lhe diffusion
sulsecloi
- AdnptInn 5ubscctnr: This poiliays lhe
lechnoIogy acceplance nodeI (TAM) and
expIains lhe foinalion of individuaI inlenlion
lovaids adoplion of a digilaI nedia in a foinaI
gioup selling. Ieiceived UsefuIness and Lase of
Use deleinine lhe foinalion of ehavioiaI
Inlenlion lo Use digilaI nedia. ehavioiaI
Inlenlion lo Use digilaI nedia sulsequenlIy
diclales lhe usage of digilaI nedia ly lhe
individuaIs.
36
F|gure 2. Causa| Loop 0|agrar or 0|g|la| Ved|a Perelral|or
RAHUL THAKURTA
- DIffusInn 5ubscctnr: This iesenlIes lhe ass
diffusion nodeI. IolenliaI Adopleis iepiesenl
lhe pooI of IikeIy adopleis of lhe digilaI nedia
aflei il has leen inlioduced in sone vay vilhin
lhe gioup selling. Adopleis iepiesenl lhe
popuIalion vho has adopled lhe digilaI nedia.
Adoplion Rale indicales hov fasl lhe digilaI
nedia is leing adopled ly nenleis of lhe
foinaI gioup selling. IinaIIy Useis iepiesenl
lhe popuIalion fion anong lhe Adopleis vho
finaIIy slails louse lhe digilaI nedia.
An inciease in Ieiceived UsefuIness oi Lase of
Use posiliveIy infIuences lhe Adoplion sulsecloi
lheiely ciealing a favoialIe enviionnenl lovaids
iniliaI acceplance of a digilaI nedia ly seIecled
nenleis, vho again leIong lo a foinaI gioup
selling. The iesuIlanl incieased ehavioiaI
Inlenlion lo Use posiliveIy affecls lhe Adoplion
Rale, and in lhe piocess iesuIls in an inciease in
Useis of lhe digilaI nedia (Diffusionsulsecloi). The
inciease in lhe Useis pooI posiliveIy infIuences
gioup nenleis' leIief's aloul Ieiceived Media
Inpoilance (i.e. a neasuie of peiceived vaIue oi
voilh of lhe digilaI nedia in concein). This
incieased inpoilance of lhe digilaI nedia in luin is
expecled lo heighlen Leadeiship InfIuence (i.e. lhe
infIuence lhal individuaIs in Ieadeiship oi
equivaIenl posilions in a gioup have ovei lhe gioup
nenleis), lhal guide individuaI's adoplion of lhe
digilaI nedia. The scenaiio is fuilhei conpIicaled
ly changes in exogenous vaiialIes Iike LnalIing
Media Chaiacleiislics (i.e. lhe chaiacleiislics lhal
inciease lhe vaIue of lhe digilaI nedia as peiceived
ly ils inlended useis, foi exanpIe high iesoIulion,
exceIIenl usei inleiface, elc. Lileialuie evidences
suggesl il lo le a nuIli-dinensionaI consliucl of
funclionaIily, equipnenl peifoinance, inleiaclion,
enviionnenl, usei inleiface quaIily, syslen
sinpIicily, and syslen quaIily (Kaiahanna el aI.,
1999)), Ieei Cioup Iiefeiences (i.e. lhe choice sel of
nenleis vho aie al lhe sane IeveI oi slalus in a
foinaI gioup selling), elc.
The nodeI sliucluie vas vaIidaled lased on
feedlacks ieceived fion fieId expeils and lhen
inpIenenled using Vensin ILL soflvaie. The
iange of vaIues lhal lhe nodeI vaiialIes (Iiguie 2)
can lake veie fixed in lhe iange |O.1j vilh O
indicaling lhe nininun and 1 indicaling lhe
naxinun (i.e. fuII polenliaI vilh iespecl lo lhal
vaiialIe has leenachieved).
kesuIts
We consliucl lhe foIIoving hypolhelicaI
scenaiios (TalIe 1) in oidei lo depicl sone of lhe
ieaI-Iife silualions goveining inlioduclion of a
digilaI nedia vilhin a foinaI gioup selling. The
exogeneous vaiialIes (i.e. LnalIing Media
Chaiacleiislics and Ieei Cioup Iiefeiences) vhich
aie nol affecled ly an expeiinenl aie nainlained al
a noninaI IeveI.
37
$cenar|o No. $cenar|o 0escr|pt|on
1. T|e d|g|la| red|a Was very corver|erl lo use
2. Preserce ol slrorg Leaders||p lrl|uerce
3. LoW 6e|av|ora| lrlerl|or lo Lse or l|e parl ol l|e
users
4. l|g| Peer 0roup Prelererces loWards a spec|l|c
d|g|la| red|a
Tab|e 1. Scerar|os Represerl|rg 0|llererl S|lual|ors
F|gure 3 prov|des l|e ralure ol var|al|or ol l|ree |ey rode| pararelers correspord|rg lo l|e lop l|ree corslrucled scerar|os.
- Scenarlo-1: The dlglta| medla uas ter
contenlent to use
The scenaiio canle visuaIized as lhe inlioduced
digilaI nedia has exceIIenl usei inleiface and
easy lo use fealuies. This is nodeIed ly
incieasing lhe vaIue of LnalIing Media
Chaiacleiislics (Iiguie 2). Iiguie 3 shovs lhe
inpacl of lhe alove change on key nodeI
paianeleis. As is evidenl fion lhe figuie, lhe
piesence of high vaIue of LnalIing Media
Chaiacleiislics Ieads lo an inciease of ease-of-
use peiceplion anong lhe polenliaI adopleis
pooI and aIso causes lo inciease lhe peiceplion
of usefuIness (nol shovn). This in luin affecls
lhe lehavioiaI inlenlion foinalion lovaids lhe
digilaI nedia, vhich acceIeiales ils adoplion.
AII lhese iesuIl in heighlened peiceplion of
vaIue associaled vilh lhe digilaI nedia, lheiely
posiliveIy infIuencing lhe oveiaII dynanics.
The findings aIso expIain vhy a digilaI nedia
vilh lellei usaliIily fealuies has a giealei iale
of penelialion given lhal lhe olhei paianeleis
ienainconslanl.
- Scenarlo-2: Presence of strong Leadershl
lnf|uence
This iefeis lo a scenaiio vheie lheie is a
piofound infIuence of a nenlei assuning
Ieadeiship ioIes in a foinaI gioup selling on lhe
leIiefs of olhei gioup nenleis. Undei such a
scenaiio, lheie is lendency lo confiin lo lhe
piefeiences of lhe peison assuning such
Ieadeiship ioIes (Schninke el aI., 2OO1). Say if
such a peison has connunicaled his/hei
piefeience lovaids a specific digilaI nedia, lhe
piefeience sel gels aIso inposed on lhe olhei
gioup nenleis, lheiely affecling lheii
lehavioiaI inlenlion lovaids adoplion of lhe
sane. Side-ly-side, lhis aIso affecls gioup
nenleis' adoplion of lhe digilaI nedia. The
pooI of useis hence depicls an incieasing liend
ovei line, and is conpaialIe vilh Scenaiio-1
iesuIls (Iiguie 3 (c)). Hovevei, vilh iespecl lo
Scenaiio-1, lhe vaiialIe Ieiceived Lase of Use is
found lo sellIe al a Iovei vaIue (Iiguie 3 (a)).
This is lecause lhe foinalionof inlenlionheie is
noslIy diclaled ly lhe choices and piefeiences
of lhe gioup Ieadei. Hence evenlhougha digilaI
nedia couId le peiceived lo le sonevhal
infeiioi, il couId lecone veiy popuIai if lhe
ieinfoicing Ioop geneialed lhiough Ieadeiship
infIuence assunes doninance as desciiled
alove.
- Scenarlo-3: Lou Behatlora| lntentlon to
Use on the art of the users
Heie ve vanl lo depicl a silualion vheie lhe
useis lhenseIves possess a veiy Iov inlenlionlo
use lhe digilaI nedia. The scenaiio is
inpIenenled ly naking lhe iale of change of
inlenlion veiy Iov ly nuIlipIying il vilh a
decinaI facloi in lhe sinuIalion nodeI. This
gels iefIecled in lhe cuive of ehavioiaI
Inlenlion lo Use vhich shovs veiy IillIe
vaiialionovei lhe peiiod of sinuIalion(Iiguie 3
(l)). Diiven ly nininaI IeveI of inlenlion lo use
lhe digilaI nedia, lhe conveision iale of
pol enl i aI adopl ei s l o usei s i s aI so
conpaialiveIy Iov. The end iesuIl is lhal onIy a
fiaclion of lhe polenliaI adopleis goes on lo
lecone useis, and lhe pooI of Useis in lhis case
38
Figure 3. Variaticr ir Key Hccel Paraueters
RAHUL THAKURTA
is lhe nininun of lhe foui scenaiios (Iiguie 3
(c)).
- Scenarlo-4: Hlgh Peer Grou Preferences
touards a seclflc dlglta| medla
The Iasl scenaiio depicls hov peei gioup
lehavioi affecls an individuaI's leIief. If lhe
gioup lo vhich an individuaI leIongs lo
sliongIy opines foi a specific digilaI nedia, lhis
can iesuIl in lhe foinalion of inlenlion lo adopl
and use lhe specific nedia. Nov vhelhei lhis
inlenlion acluaIIy liansIales inlo lhe individuaI
puichasing and using lhe digilaI nedia is again
conlingenl upon diffeienl faclois Iike lhe
peiceived usefuIness of lhe digilaI nedia, lhe
liusl of lhe individuaI onpeei gioup choices, elc
(nol shovn). Hovevei a poilion of lhe polenliaI
adoplei's pooI gels conveiled inlo useis of lhe
digilaI nedia lased on peei gioup piefeiences
(nol shovn).
The alove iesuIls depicl hov diffeienl
scenaiios can infIuence lhe piocess of diffusion of a
digilaI nedia in a foinaI gioup selling. Iaclois Iike
individuaI peiceplions of ease of use and usefuIness
iegaiding a digilaI nedia veie found lo infIuence
lhe digilaI nedia adoplion piocess. Hovevei lhis
did nol guaianlee a videi coveiage. Leadeiship
ioIes assuned ly individuaIs veie found lo IaigeIy
infIuence lhe exlenl of digilaI nedia penelialion.
The infIuence of peei gioup on lhe penelialion
piocess vas aIsonolicealIe.
The vaiialions in lhe key paianeleis acioss lhe
lhiee poIicies aIso offei inleiesling insighls (Iiguie
3). The giovlh iale of ehavioiaI Inlenlion lo Use
couId le found lo le sIovesl undei Scenaiio-3. This
is lecause of a Iack of desiie on lhe pail of
individuaIs lo adopl oi use a specific digilaI nedia.
This couId le lecause lhe digilaI nedia has sone
deficiencies vhich Iinil ils adoplion. Oiganizalions
nanufacluiing suchdigilaI nedia foi lhe puipose of
infoinalion dissipalion can lioulIeshool lhe
scenaiio lo find oul lhe exacl causes lehind such
phenonenon. The inpacl of Leadeiship InfIuence
on lhe penelialion piocess (Scenaiio-2) highIighls
lhe ioIe pIayed ly infIuenliaI individuaIs in shaping
olheis leIiefs and aclions.
ConcIusion
The penelialion of a digilaI nedia can le an
issue vhen lheie aie conpeling digilaI lechnoIogies
vilh conpalilIe funclionaIilies, and lhe
oiganizalions in chaige of lhe infoinalion lo le
dissipaled doesn'l have a choice lul lo seIecl a
specific nedia foi dissipalion of lheii conlenl.
Iiopei seIeclion of lhe nedia can go a Iong vay in
deciding vhelhei lheii infoinalion ieaches lhe
inlended audience oi has a giealei coveiage. The
ieseaich piesenls an unique allenpl of conlining
lvo pioninenl lheoiies ieIaled lo adoplion and
diffusioni.e. lhe TechnoIogy Acceplance ModeI and
lhe ass Diffusion ModeI in oidei lo undeisland lhe
phenonenon of penelialion of digilaI nedia vilhin
a foinaI gioup selling. We deveIop a hoIislic nodeI
lo iepiesenl lhe phenonena, and in lhe piocess
capluie lhe dynanic inleiaclions lhal lakes pIace
duiing lhe adoplion and lhe diffusion piocess.
SinuIalion iesuIls piovide expIanalion lo vhal
couId le lhe chaIIenges in lhe piocess of diffusion,
and vhal couId le lhe possilIe iesponse slialegies.
The scenaiio iesuIls suggesl lhal if one is alIe lo
infIuence lhe usei denogiaphic chaiacleiislics (i.e.
inleiesl, inlenlion, elc) oi infIuence lhe syslen
chaiacleiislics (i.e. incieased usaliIily, elc), lhen
noie success couId le achieved in ieIalion lo
diffusion of lhe digilaI nedia. In lhis vay, lhe sludy
heIps lo augnenl oui undeislanding of lhe piocess
of digilaI nedia penelialion.
The ieseaich is nol vilhoul Iinilalions. The
nodeI is highIy sinpIislic and lakes inlo accounl
onIy a snaII sel of faclois lhal nighl infIuence lhe
penelialion piocess. The iecenl deveIopnenls
ieIaled lo lhe TechnoIogy Acceplance ModeI and
lhe ass Diffusion ModeI oi ils vaiianls is aIso nol
iefIecled fion lhe nodeI sliucluie. Theie is aIso a
need foi lhoughl on hov lhe diffeienl nodeI
consliucls as depicled in Iiguie 2 can le lellei
opeialionaIized. Inoidei lo sinpIify lhings, heie ve
have iepiesenled each consliucl in lhe iange |O.1j.
Whelhei lhe sane iange vouId lesl iepiesenl each
consliucl, oi vhelhei specifying lhe uppei and lhe
Iovei lounds vouId le appiopiiale vaiianls
fuilhei invesligalion. Oui sludy aIso does nol lake
inlo accounl lhe cosl faclois, vhich again couId le
an uIlinale decidei on vhich digilaI nedia lo opl
foi, given each individuaI's ludgel and piefeience
sels. The findings aIso appeai quile inluilive and
connon-sensicaI. Hovevei lhis sludy is jusl lhe
fiisl slep lovaids laking a hoIislic viev in liying lo
undeisland lhe dynanics of lhe penelialion
piocess, and ils inheienl unceilainlies. Iuluie voik
is expecled lo luiId on lhis foundalion, eIaloiale on
lhe nodeI sliucluie, and addiess lhe Iinilalions as
poinled alove. Il ienains lo le seen hov lhis iniliaI
slep shapes lhe fuluie of digilaI nedia penelialion
ieseaich.
39
keferences
ass, I.M. (1969). A nev pioducl giovlh foi nodeI consunei
duialIes. Managenenl Science, 5(5), 215-227.
oczkovski, I.}. (2OO5). Digilizing lhe nevs: innovalion in onIine
nevspapeis. Canliidge, Mass.: MITIiess.
Caii, V.H. }i. (2O1O). TechnoIogy adoplion and diffusion, |onIinej
AvaiIalIe al:<hllp://vvv.au.af.niI/au /avc /avcgale /
innovalion/adopliondiffusion.hln>
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nodeI: oiigins, deveIopnenls and fuluie diieclions.
Spiouls: Woiking Iapeis on Infoinalion Syslens, 9 (37), 1-
23.
Davis, I. D. (1989). Ieiceived usefuIness, peiceived ease of use,
and usei acceplance of infoinalion lechnoIogy. MIS
QuaileiIy, 13 (3), 319-34O.
LYCM Nevs ReIease. (2O1O). Reliieved Decenlei 22, 2O1O, fion
hl l p: //vvv. ey. con/US/en/Nevsioon/Nevs-
ieIeases/Changing-consunei-denands-diive-nev-
digilaI-nedia-disliilulion-channeIs
Iishlein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975). eIief, allilude, inlenlion and
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2 O 1 O , f i o n
hllp://vvv.unsI.edu/~keeIi/O1O/gioups.hlnI
Hsiao, }. I-H., Chyi, }. and Tzung-Cheng, H. (2OO9). Infoinalion
diffusion and nev pioducl consunplion: A lass nodeI
appIicalion lo louiisn faciIily nanagenenl. }ouinaI of
usiness Reseaich, 62 (7), 69O-697.
Kaiahanna, L., Sliaul, D. W. and Cheivany, N. L. (1999).
Infoinalion lechnoIogy adoplion acioss line: A cioss-
seclionaI conpaiison of pie-adoplion and posl-adoplion
leIiefs. MIS QuaileiIy, 23 (2), 183-213.
Ieies, R., MuIIei, L. and Mahajan, V. (2O1O). Innovalion
diffusionand nev pioducl giovlhnodeIs: A ciilicaI ieviev
and ieseaichdiieclions. InleinalionaI }ouinaI of Reseaichin
Maikeling, 27 (2), 911O6.
Iisanias N. & WiIIcocks, L. (1999). Undeislanding sIov Inleinel
adoplion: 'infonedialion' in ship-lioking naikels. }ouinaI
of InfoinalionTechnoIogy, 14 (4), 399 413.
Rogeis, L. M. (1983). Diffusionof innovalions. 3id ed. Nev Yoik:
The Iiee Iiess.
Schninke, M., WeIIs, D.L., Ieyiefille, }.A. and Seloia, T.C. (2OO1).
Leadeiship and Llhics in Woik Cioups: A LongiludinaI
Assessnenl. Cioup and Oiganizalion Managenenl, 27,
272-293.
Sleinan, }.D. (2OOO). usiness dynanics: syslens lhinking and
nodeIing foi a conpIex voiId. 2nd ed. Nev Yoik:
Iivin/McCiav-HiII.
Venkalesh, V. and aIa, H. (2OO8). TechnoIogy acceplance nodeI
3 and a ieseaichagenda oninleivenlions. DecisionSciences,
39 (2), 273-315.
Venkalesh, V. and Davis, I.D. (2OOO). A lheoielicaI exlension of
lhe lechnoIogy acceplance nodeI: foui IongiludinaI heId
sludies. Managenenl Science, 46 (2), 186-2O4.
4O
RAHUL THAKURTA
41
lnte|net and lo||t|ca| Chane |n l|an :
`atu|e o| Content`
Ehsan 5haghascmI TIba Bnnyad
The Univeisily of Tehian, Iian The Univeisily of Tehian, Iian
Aflei lhe dispuled }une 2OO9 piesidenliaI eIeclion in Iian, denonslialions eiupled in Tehian and olhei cilies. Il vas supposed lhal
cIashes viII deescaIale in fev days lul lhe lensions conlinued. AInosl aII of pailies in lhe cIash adnilled lhe inpoilance of Inleinel in
cIashes. Inleinel vas used as nean foi lolh oljeclion and suppiession. The piesenl sludy nanages lo see vhal aie lhe peiceplions of
sludenls of 'Connunicalions' on lhe ioIe of Inleinel in lhe poIilicaI aiena of Iian. Using in deplh inleiviev, ve have aIso expIoied hov
nuch lhey do leIieve in cyleiulopianisn oi cyleidyslopianisn. In depl inleivievs aIso heIped us undeisland hov lhey conpaie
conlenl veisus naluie vhenappioaching lolhe Inleinel.
Kcqucrds. Iian, inleinel, june eIeclion, cylei-ulopianisn, cylei-dyslopianisn, lechnoIogicaI deleininisn.
lntroduction
Il vas jusl a fev houis aflei lhe Iianian TV
foinaIIy announced Mahnoud Ahnadinejad as lhe
vinnei of 1Olh piesidenliaI eIeclion in Iian on 12
}une of 2OO9 lhal piolesleis sloined on lhe slieels of
Tehian. Shocked ly lhe iesuIls, denonslialois
sl ail ed l o chanl agai nsl l he i ncunlenl
Ahnadinejad and defied lhe iesuIls. Oplinisls
supposed lhal lhe denonslialois viII give up soon
lul uniesls conlinued and cIashes have cuIninaled
lo lens of casuaIlies on pail of lhe piolesleis. This
veiy conlinualionlecane lhe suljecl of nany seciel
and pulIic discussions. Hovevei, nosl of peopIe
have consideied lhe Inleinel as lhe nosl inpoilanl
looI inheIping piolesleis loconlinue.
Inleinel aIso has leen lhe nain lopic of
discussion oi even accusalion anong poIilicians
fion aII sides. InnedialeIy aflei lhe fiisl cIashes,
aulhoiilies issued an announcenenl and vained
lhal in lheii assessnenl of cyleispace lhey have
fiequenlIy noliced aleiianl nevs velsiles vhich
aie appiehending pulIic ninds, pionoling
vandaIisn and naking slieel iiols. In Oclolei
2OO9, Ahnadi Moghadan, chief connandei of lhe
Iianian poIice said lhe poIice nusl have noie cIose
suiveiIIance on lhe Inleinel. A coupIe of nonlh
Ialei, he vained, aII enaiIs and SMSs aie senl fion
a pIace vhichis undei oui conlioI.
Tens of lhousands videos and picluie senl ly
piolesleis lo lhe inleinalionaI nedia aIso vas a
peiceived chaIIenge ly lhe Iianian aulhoiilies.
CNN, VOA, C and olhei inleinalionaI nevs
nedia eslalIished a seclion foi Iianian piolesleis
vho fiequenlIy upIoaded inages laken fion lheii
on-lhe-giound expeiiences. In 21 }une 2OO9, Ioieign
Minisliy spokesnan of Iian Hassan Qashqavi said
CNN had sel up a silualion ioon and a
psychoIogicaI vai ioon.
ul, vhal is in lhe Inleinel lhal gives il lhal
inpoilance lolh lo lhe piolesleis and aulhoiilies`
Making a dislinclion lelveen naluie and
conlenl, ve have liied lo expIoie lhe schenala of
lhis dicholony in lhe ninds of oui iespondenls. As
oui iespondenls veie of socioIogicaI lackgiounds,
Iel us fiisl have a Iook vhal lhinkeis in lhis fieId say
aloul nev connunicalionlechnoIogies.
1wo PoIes: Cyber-utoianism versus
Cyber-dystoianism
Any piediclion of lhe fuluie viII le suljecl of
lolh ulopian and dyslopian piophecies. The
I nl einel , I i ke any ol hei l echnoI ogy, i s
sinuIlaneousIy lhe pioducei and lhe pioducl of
sociaI change (Sousa, 2OO6: 374). When lhe hunan
agenls lesl a nev lechnoIogy and lecone avaie of
lhe nev capaliIilies offeied ly lhese lechnoIogies,
lhey conliilule lo lhe ulopian and dyslopian
'judgenenl days', vhen lhe digilaI and expeiience
econonies and voiIds coIIide and conveige (May
& Heain, 2OO5: 199).
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 41-45
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
" PhD student at Deartment of Communlcatlons.
The Unlterslt of Tehran, lran
"" BA student at Deartment of Communlcatlons.
The Unlterslt of Tehran, lran
Cyber-Utoianism
ecause of unpiecedenled faciIilies nev nedia
piovide foi lheii useis, cylei-ulopianisn has leen a
ianpanl viev anong nany acadenicians. Much is
nade of lhe denocializing effecl of ICTs in e-
goveinnenl (Loi & iilz, 2OO7). ScoIaii (2OO9: 956-
957) goes lo lhe poinl in vhich he feaiIessIy cIains
lhe conlinalion of open souice phiIosophy and
nany-lo-nany disliilulion is inlioducing changes
lhal aie liansfoining lhe foundalions of eslalIished
nass connunicalionpioduclionIogic.
Sadie IIanl (1996) offeis peihaps lhe nosl
pioninenl and oplinislic cyleifeninisl visions.
Wonen, conpuleis, viiluaI ieaIily, and cyleispace,
she aigues, aie Iinked logelhei in dispeised,
disliiluled conneclionslhe naliix, vhich, lecause
of ils inheienl feninine chaiaclei, viII eneige as lhe
nev sociely lhal viII deslioy paliiaichy (Lagesen,
2OO8: 7).
HaIpin (1999: 351) asseils hunan iighls
oiganizalions have leen quick lo adopl lhe Inleinel
and il is having a gieal nunlei of inpacls upon
lheii voik, ciealing change, pioviding nev neans
of canpaigning and chaIIenging aluses of hunan
iighls. ChaIaly (2OOO: 19) lakes a hisloiicaI viev lo
say lhe nascenl look vas invoIved in lhe sliuggIe
foi ieIigious fieedon in lhe 15lh and 16lh cenluiies,
lhe pulIic piess vas engaged in lhe sliuggIe foi
poIilicaI fieedon in lhe 17lh and 18lh cenluiies, and
loday's nev nedia aie, in luin, used as vehicIes foi
lhe advocacy and pionolion of nev iighls. Iiuijl
(2OO2) focuses on lhe sociaI capaliIilies of lhe
nelvoiks and appieciales lhe nev nedia lecause
SociaI capilaI is lhe spiiil of lhe Inleinel |. . .j gelling
connecled neans gelling access lo a slock of sociaI
capilaI. The vaIue of lhis slock nuIlipIies
(exponenliaIIy) vilh lhe nunlei of pailicipanls (p.
113).
These hopes diav heaviIy on lhe pailicipaloiy
nodeI's undeislanding of 'good' pulIic delales
(Ceihaids & Schafei, 2O1O: 145). Theiefoie,
pioponenls of cyleispace pionise lhal onIine
discouise viII inciease poIilicaI pailicipalion and
pave lhe vay foi a denocialic ulopia. Accoiding lo
lhen, lhe aIIeged decIine of lhe pulIic spheie
Ianenled ly acadenics, poIilicos, and seveiaI
nenleis of lhe pulIic viII le haIled ly lhe
denocializing effecls of lhe inleinel and ils
suiiounding lechnoIogies (Iapachaiissi, 2OO2).
Theiefoie, ceIelialoiy iheloiic on lhe advanlages of
lhe inleinel as a pulIic spheie focuses on lhe facl
lhal il affoids a pIace foi peisonaI expiession (}ones,
1997). Olheis suggesl lhal lhe Inleinel engages
cilizens in eveiylhing fion chaIIenging doninanl
discouise lo cyleidissenl and, lheiefoie, aIIovs
individuaIs lo fuIIy engage on a lioad iange of
sociaI and poIilicaI issues (RohIingei & iovn,
2OO9: 133).
Cyber-distoianism
Cylei-dislopianisn couId le epilonized ly
audiiIIaids fanous asseilion: This is anolhei kind
of ciine againsl hunanily, a hijacking of fanlasies,
affecls and lhe cieduIily of hundieds of niIIions of
peopIe ly neans of leIevisiona ciine of lIacknaiI
and sinuIalion. (Quoled inCIynn, 2OO9: 216).
Hassan (1999: 3OO) concIudes lhal cyleispace
and viiluaI connunilies aie deepIy dyslopic and
aIienaled spaces, and cylei-Ulopian dieans of
olhei, possilIe voiIds nade viiluaI lhiough
infoinalion lechnoIogy aie al lesl naive. WhiIe
piaising cyleispace foi ils dislinguished
capaliIilies, HaIpin (1999: 351) noles lhal Yel
lechnoIogy aIso inlioduces nev laiiieis lo hunan
iighls aclivily: issues of censoiship, ieguIalion and
conlioI aie fundanenlaI lo lhis voik. Theie aie
olhei skeplicisns as veII. Nol aII infoinalion
avaiIalIe on lhe inleinel is denocialic oi pionoles
denociacy, foi exanpIe, vhile supienacy gioups
oflen possess sone of lhe cIeveiesl, yel nosl
undenocialic velsiles. Hovevei, lhis pailicuIai
connenl shouI d nol le ni sundeislood.
IundanenlaI denocialic piincipIes guaianlee lhe
fiee expiession of opinion. WhiIe siles lhal openIy
advocale disciininalion on lhe lasis of iace oi
elhnicily exeicise lhe iighl lo fiee speech, lhey
ceilainIy do nol pionole denocialic ideaIs of
equaIily (Iapachaiissi, 2OO2).
}ones (1997: 3O) suggesled lhal peihaps lhe
inleinel aIIovs us lo 'shoul noie IoudIy, lul
vhelhei olhei feIIovs Iislen, leyond lhe fev
individuaIs vho nay iepIy, oi lhe occasionaI
Iuikei, is queslionalIe, and vhelhei oui voids
viII nake a diffeience is evennoie indoull.' Cylei-
dislopianisls aIso vain lhal lechnoIogies aie nol
univeisaIIy accessilIe and ones lhal fiequenlIy
induce fiagnenled, nonsensicaI, and eniaged
discussion, olheivise knovn as 'fIaning', fai fion
guaianlee a ievived pulIic spheie (Iapachaiissi,
2OO2: 1O).
Ceihaids and Schafei (2O1O: 155) found onIy
nininaI evidence lo suppoil lhe idea lhal lhe
42
LHSAN SHACHASLMI AND TIA ONYAD
inleinel is a lellei connunicalion space as
conpaied lo piinl nedia. Olheis, hovevei, have
depicled lhe sociaI consequences of nev nedia
lechnoIogies in a negalive Iighl, as lhe desliuclion
of eslalIished sociaI conlexls of inleiaclion and an
inpoveiishnenl of hunan expeiience (LisenIohi,
2OO9: 276).
KckIich (2OO9: 34O) aIso vains lhal in viiluaI
voiIds, lhe suffusion of goveinance vilh econonic
pioduclionlhus Ieads lo lhe foinalionof piecaiious
foins of goveinnenlaIily, vhich aie veiIed ly a
peilinenl ideoIogy of pIay. Moieovei, sone
inleinel-denociacy connenlalois cIain lhal nuch
onIine inleiaclion sinpIy invoIves lhe neeling of
'Iike-ninded' individuaIs, Ieading lo a fiagnenled
pulIic spheie of insuIaled 'deIileialive encIaves'
vheie gioup posilions and piaclices aie ieinfoiced
ialhei lhanopenIy ciiliqued (DahIleig, 2OO7: 828).
Though heiaI di ng l hal I nf oinal i on
lechnoIogies and connunicalion nelvoiks have
lecone iecognized as leing looIs lhal aie a vilaI
eIenenl of lhe neans of pioduclion and ciuciaI lo
econonic innovalion, Munio(2O1O) aIsonoles lhal
infoinalion lechnoIogies aie incieasingIy leing
used as veapons lo disiupl and deslioy lhese veiy
sane nelvoiks (I. 199).
Method and Particiants
Seeking lo expIoie lhe ioIe of Inleinel in
poIilicaI change in lhe pailicipanl's ninds, ve
inleivieved 17 A sludenls in lhe IacuIly of SociaI
Sciences al lhe Univeisily of Tehian. They veie aII
in lheii lhiid oi fouilh yeai and lheiefoie lhey veie
acquainled vilh lhe Iileialuie on nedia sludies. As
ve veie excIusiveIy inleiesled in lheii opinions
aloul lhe ioIe of Inleinel in lhe poIilicaI change, ve
cIeaiIy asked lhen lo discuss lhis issue. Aflei
liansciiling lhe inleivievs, ve iead lhen
lhoioughIy and inslead of inposing any
calegoiizalion, ve Iel lhen lo speak on lheii ovn
and ieveaI lheii ovn calegoiizalion vhich eveiy
inleiviev viII find ils pIace inone calegoiy.
lindings
Oui 17 inleivievs feII in lhiee calegoiies:
Conlenl ovei Naluie, 5 oul of 17, Conlenl and
Naluie, 5 oul of 17, and Naluie ovei Conlenl, 7 oul
of 17.
Content over Nature
These connenls aie conceined vilhlhe conlenls on
lhe Inleinel and lhe uses peopIe gel fion lhese
conlenls. Though in lheii ninds lhe naluie of lhe
Inleinel has nol leen oveiIooked, lhey pul noie
enphasis onlhe conlenl. LxanpIes aie:
- I lhink lhe scope of lhe conlenl is so vasl on lhe
Inleinel lhal il ecIipses lhe naluie of lhis
nediun. The conlenl of lhe Inleinel is
cuslonized lased on lhe needs of socielies and
lhese needs aie diffeienl in diffeienl epochs
(Mohannad, 19).
- I lhink lhe naluie is nol inpoilanl al aII. I do nol
lhink lhal lhe unfoIding lechnoIogies can have
anespeciaI use onlheii ovn(Ieynan, 21).
- I don'l lhink lhal lechnoIogy is sonelhing
liased. Il is lhe conlenl and use lhal nake il
liased and one cannol say lhal Inleinel is in ils
naluie a nean lhal seives lhis oi lhal povei
(Ialeneh, 21).
- I lhink lhe conlenl is inpoilanl. Inleinel is lhe
vehicIe lhal nakes lhe veilicaI |fIov ofj
infoinalion possilIe. CiaduaIIy, peopIe gel lhe
infoinalion fion lhe Inleinel and goveinnenls
have lole noie lianspaienl (Iahineh, 24).
- I vouId choose lhe conlenl ovei naluie. If ve
vanl lo considei lhis issue in a counliy Iike Iian
in vhich nany velsiles veie fiIleied aflei lhe
posl eIeclion luinoiI, nany souices veie laken
avay fion lhe Iianianaudience (Iainoush, 21).
Nature and Content
These kinds of connenls lake lolh naluie and
conlenl inpoilanl. The ansveis liied lo depicl a
picluie of lhe Inleinel invhichlolhgeneiaI fealuies
of lhe lechnoIogy and IocaI uses and conlenls of lhe
Inleinel aie consideied. LxanpIes incIude:
- Lveiyone uses lhe Inleinel lased on his
oljeclive. olh naluie and conlenl aie
inpoilanl, indeed (Maiyan, 2O).
- I lhink lolh have lhe sane degiee of inpoilance
lecause lhe conlenl needs lhe Inleinel ilseIf and
lhe Inleinel needs lhe conlenl in ieveise. In posl
eIeclion |luinoiIj in Iian foi exanpIe, ve can
see lhal youngei peopIe appioached Iacelook
and Tvillei vhiIe lhe oIdei useis Iiked nevs
velsiles (Milia, 21).
- We cannol sepaiale lhese lvo. Inleinel has
43
nany di nensi ons. One di nensi on i s
inleipeisonaI connunicalion, lhe second
dinension is ils infoinalionaI fealuie and lhe
lhiid is lhe infoinalion lhal eneiges
sponlaneousIy (Mehian, 19).
- olh naluie and conlenl aie inpoilanl lecause
ve aie no Iongei lhe cilizen of oui ovn counliy
and ve aie connecled lolhe vhoIe voiId. This is
lhe naluie. And in lhis naluie lhe conlenl viII
find ils pIace (ahaieh, 2O).
- I lhink lolh aie inpoilanl, lhough I lhink lhe
conlenl has piioiily ovei lhe naluie. The conlenl
can le eveiylhing fion poino lo lhe poIilics
(Roza, 24).
Nature over Content
Texls lhal aie conceined vilh lhe naluie of
lechnoIogy aie oflen conpIicale and noie haid lo
iead. Theiefoie, apail fion lheii iighl oi viong
piesupposilions, lhese connenls aie in naluie
noie sullIe. LxanpIes aie:
- I lhink lhe naluie pei se has piovided a silualion
in vhich eveiyone has lhe povei lo expiess
hinseIf and lhe pioIifeialion of sendeis has
given lhe Inleinel a denocialic fealuie (Sina,
2O).
- I lhink lhe lesl slailing poinl foi us is lhe diclun
of McLuhan vho said lhe nediun is lhe
nessage (Sahai, 21).
- I lhink lhe Inleinel ilseIf shouId le noie
inpoilanl foi us lecause if lheie vas no
Inleinel, ve couId nol eslalIish such a gIolaI
connecledness. The facl is lhal lheie cannol le
any conlenl vilhoul lhe vehicIe (Iaiisa, 22).
- The naluie is effeclive. I vouId caII lhe Inleinel
lhe second voiId foi oui Iife. Wilh lhe Inleinel,
lhe pIaceness viII le iepIaced ly spaceness in
vhich foi exanpIe in lhe posl eIeclion piolesls
you did nol need physicaI piesence (Chavoush,
2O).
- Al fiisl pIace, il is lhe naluie of lhe Inleinel
vhich is inpoilanl. Inleinel is geneiaI and
accessilIe foi eveiyone (Sina, 2O).
- IieviousIy, I lhoughl lhe conlenl is noie
inpoilanl. ul knov, I lhink vice veisa. And, I
lhink lhis is lhe veiy naluie lhal paves lhe vay
foi pioIifeialion of supeificiaI ideas (Iaezeh,
22).
- I lhink lhe naluie of lhe Inleinel is anaichic.
Inleinel inlends lo deslioy loideis vhiIe lhe
goveinnenls vanl lo have ceilain IeveI of
conlioI ovei peopIe and infoinalion. The
naluie of lhe Inleinel is loideiIess (Masoud,
2O).
Discussion and ConcIusion
In lhis ieseaich, nosl of lhe iespondenls
ieveaIed a good deaI of knovIedge iegaiding
Inleinel, ils naluie, ils uses and ils effecls. A
najoiily of lhe iesponses couId le consideied as
cylei-ulopianisls: Inleinel is denocialic,
Inleinel heIps us lo eslalIish gIolaI scaIed
nelvoiks . . . vhiIe fev of lhe iespondenls look a
noie piudenl slance lovaids lhe Inleinel oi
expiessed negalive accounls aloul ils naluie and
conlenl: I lhink lhe naluie of lhe Inleinel is
anaichic, On lhe Inleinel, nosl of lhe naleiiaI aie
supeificiaI.
IiIleiing vas one of lhe lhenes oui iespondenls
diieclIy oi indiieclIy addiessed. 4 oul of 17
iespondenl nenlioned fiIleiing in lheii
inleivievs: The conlenl is noie inpoilanl lecause
if lhe naluie vas noie inpoilanl, lhey vouId lan
lhe Inleinel inslead of fiIleiing ils conlenl, Iioxy
lieakeis have nuIIified lhe fiIleiing of lhe
goveinnenl, No fiIleiing can lan lhe fIov of
infoinalion, They use fiIleiing lul lheie aie
neans lolypass lhese fiIleis.
Iacelook and olhei sociaI nelvoiking velsiles
veie aIso inpoilanl in lhe ninds of oui
pailicipanls. 6 oul of 17 pailicipanls diieclIy
nenlioned Iacelook in lheii connenls: Mosl of
pages on Iacelook aie ieIigious, When ve vanl
lo gel infoinalion, ve appioach Iacelook . . ., We
can see lhal youngei peopIe appioached Iacelook
and Tvillei vhiIe lhe oIdei useis Iiked nevs
velsiles, In ny Iacelook, lhe infoinalion cone
up sponlaneousIy, Welsiles Iike Iacelook heIp
us lole lolhpioduceis and consuneis of conlenls,
Iacelook conlains onIy shoil and Iess infoinalive
senlences.
As lhe Inleinel is going lo le a poveifuI
nediun vilhin lhe Iianian pulIic spheie, delales
ovei Inleinel and ils ioIe in lhe poIilicaI piocesses
has leen evei incieasing in Iian. One inpoilanl
queslion has conceined lhe dicholony of naluie-
conlenl. If, as nosl of oui pailicipanls cIained, lhe
Inleinel ilseIf is denocialic and chaIIenging
iegaidIess of ils conlenl, lhe goveinnenl's effoil lo
fiIlei opposilionvelsiles vouId le vain.
44
LHSAN SHACHASLMI AND TIA ONYAD
keferences
ChaIaly, }. K. (2OOO). Nev Media, Nev Iieedons, Nev Thieals.
InleinalionaI ConnunicalionCazelle. 62 (1), 19-29.
DahIleig, L. (2OO7). Relhinking lhe fiagnenlalion of lhe
cyleipulIic: fion consensus lo conleslalion. Nev Media &
Sociely. 9 (5), 827-847.
LisenIohi I. (2OO9). TechnoIogies of lhe spiiil: DevolionaI IsIan,
sound iepioduclion and lhe diaIeclics of nedialion and
innediacy inMauiilius. AnlhiopoIogicaI Theoiy. 9 (3), 273-
296.
Ceihaids }., & Schafei M.S. (2O1O). Is lhe inleinel a lellei pulIic
spheie` conpaiing oId and nev nedia in lhe USA and
Ceinany. Nev Media and Sociely. 12 (1), 143-16O.
CIynn, K. (2OO9). The 2OO4 LIeclion Did Nol Take IIace: ush,
SpeclacIe, and lhe Media Nonevenl. TeIevision and Nev
Media. 1O (2), 216-245.
HaIpin, I. (1999). Thiough lhe nel lo fieedon: infoinalion, lhe
Inleinel and hunan iighls. }ouinaI of Infoinalion Science.
25 (5), 351-364.
Hassan, R. (1999). CIolaIizalion: infoinalion lechnoIogy and
cuIluie vilhin lhe space econony of Iale capilaIisn.
Infoinalion, Connunicalionand Sociely. 2 (3), 3OO-317.
}ones, S.C. (1997) 'The Inleinel and ils SociaI Landscape', in S.C.
}ones (ed.) ViiluaI CuIluie: Idenlily and Connunicalion in
Cyleisociely, pp. 735. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
KuckIich, }.R. (2OO9). ViiluaI voiIds and lheii disconlenls:
Iiecaiious soveieignly, goveinnenlaIily, and lhe ideoIogy
of pIay. Canes and CuIluie. 4 (4), 34O-352.
Lagesen, V. (2OO8). A Cyleifeninisl Ulopia`: Ieiceplions of
Cendei and Conpulei Science anong MaIaysian Wonen
Conpulei Science Sludenls and IacuIly. Science
TechnoIogy HunanVaIues. 33 (1), 5-27.
Loi, I. }., & iilz, }. }. (2OO7). Is a knovIedge sociely possilIe
vilhoul fieedon of access lo infoinalion` }ouinaI of
InfoinalionScience. 33 (4), 387-397.
May, H., & Heain, C. (2OO5). The noliIe phone as nedia.
InleinalionaI }ouinaI of CuIluiaI Sludies. 8 (2), 195-211.
Munio, I. (2O1O). Defending lhe nelvoik oiganizalion: An
anaIysis of infoinalion vaifaie vilh iefeience lo
Heideggei. Oiganizalion. 17 (2), 199-222.
Iapachaiissi, Z. (2OO2). The viiluaI spheie: lhe inleinel as a pulIic
spheie. Nev Media & Sociely. 4 (1), 9-27.
Iiuijl, H. (2OO2). SociaI CapilaI and lhe LquaIizing IolenliaI of lhe
Inleinel. SociaI Science Conpulei Reviev. 2O (2), 1O9-115.
RohIingei, D., & iovn, }. (2OO9). Denociacy, Aclion, and lhe
Inleinel Aflei 9/11. Aneiican ehavioiaI Scienlisl. 53 (1),
133-15O.
ScoIaii, C. (2OO9). Mapping conveisalions aloul nev nedia: The
lheoielicaI fieId of digilaI connunicalion. Nev Media &
Sociely. 11 (6), 943-964.
Sousa, H. (2OO6). InfoinalionlechnoIogies, sociaI Change and lhe
fuluie: The case of onIine jouinaIisn in IoilugaI. Luiopean
}ouinaI of Connunicalion. 21 (3), 373-388.
45
lecut|ve b|o|n :
\hat Lo lnd|an Co|po|ate lead b|o /bout and \h`
5mccta MIshra
}ania MiIIia IsIania Nev DeIhi
This sludy conpiises inleivievs of lop Indianexeculive lIoggeis and ananaIysis of lhe conlenl, usaliIily, inleiaclivily and conneclivily
of lheii lIogs. ResuIls indicale lhal anong lhe Indian CLOs and lop execulives vho lIog, nosl aie associaled vilh lhe Infoinalion
TechnoIogy and Inleinel seclois. A conlenl anaIysis of lhe lIogs shovs lhal popuIai lIogging lopics incIude indusliy oulIook,
lechnoIogy liends and lips, cuiienl affaiis and insighls on lhe econony. The lIog posls of lhese execulives aie oflen in lhe naluie of
individuaI opinions, expeil advice and aclionalIe lips. WhiIe lhe lIogs scoie high in lhe inleiaclivily calegoiy and do ieasonalIy veII in
lhe usaliIily calegoiy, nosl suffei fion pooi conneclivily in leins of pioviding Iinks lo olhei lIogs and velsiles in lhe lIogioII. The
second pail of lhe sludy, vhich conpiises inleivievs of execulive lIoggeis, iIIuninales lhe ieasons vhich lhe lIoggeis leIieve have
conliiluled lo lhe Iack of popuIaiily of execulive and coipoiale lIogging in India. The lIoggeis aIso highIighl lhe inpacl of Tvillei on
lheii lIogging halils. They desciile lhe inpacl of lIogging onlheii slakehoIdeis and lhe ioIe il pIays inlheii peisonaI lianding.
Kcqucrds. Lxeculive lIogging, sociaI nelvoiking, conneclivily, usaliIily, inleiaclivily
lntroduction
This sludy exanines individuaI lIogs
nainlained ly Indian CLO and olhei lop
execulives. The second pail of lhis sludy incIudes
inleivievs of lop Indian execulive lIoggeis,
conpiising lolh lhose vho Iive in India and lhose
vho aie a pail of lhe Indian Diaspoia. efoie ve
expIoie execulive lIogging ly Indians, il is peilinenl
lopoinl oul lhal lIogging is nol veiy popuIai anong
lhe lop liass in lhe coipoiale voiId. Accoiding lo a
suivey vhich poIIed 47O senioi execulives
voiIdvide, jusl ovei 1O have a lIog of lheii ovn
vhiIe 69 iead lIogs oveiaII and 31 conliilule lo
olhei lIogs (Senioi execulives, 2OO9). WhiIe noie
enpIoyees aie lIogging al coipoialions, fev lop
execulives aie leconing a pail of lhal liend
(Ciayliov, 2OO5). The facl lhal lIogging is a nol-so-
connon piaclice anong lop execulives voiIdvide
nakes il even noie piessing lo deleinine vhal
execulive lIoggeis lIog aloul and vhy.
8Iogging in lndia
Accoiding lo lhe findings of a 2OO6 onIine
suivey of noie lhan 1OOO MSN poilaI visilois, lhe
Indian lIogospheie is sliII in ils infancy. The iepoil
lilIed Iogging India: A Windov's Live Repoil,
shoved lhal onIy 14 of India's nelizens lIog
(usiness Iogs, 2OO6). Lov inleinel penelialion
in lhe counliy eslinaled al 5.22 peicenl of lhe lolaI
popuIalion and lhe Iiniled naluie of iegionaI
Ianguage lIogging nighl have conliiluled lo lhe
sIov giovlh of lhe Indian lIogospheie (Ieieia &
Raghav, 2OO9). Hovevei, lhe facl ienains lhal lhe
Indian lIogospheie has giovn sleadiIy, if
unspeclacuIaiIy, fion a handfuI al lhe davn of lhe
counliy's Inleinel eia in lhe eaiIy 2OOOs lo an
eslinaled 3.2 niIIion (Ieieia & Raghav, 2OO9). In a
iepoil pulIished in lhe Minl nevspapei, Cauiav
Mishia, chief execulive of a DeIhi-lased sociaI
nedia fiin, eslinales lhal loday lheie aie lelveen
2OO,OOO and haIf a niIIion aclive lIogs in lhe Indian
lIogospheie (Ieieia & Raghav, 2OO9). The Indian
lIogospheie loday ienains a niche connunily lhal
is lolh LngIish-Ianguage doninaled and uilan
cenliic (Ieieia & Raghav, 2OO9).
WhiIe coipoiale lIogging is aIso jusl leginning
lo lake iool in India (hall, 2OO8), Rajiv KaivaI, a
CLO lIoggei and co-aulhoi of lhe look Coipoiale
Iogging in India poinls oul lhal CLO lIogging has
geneialed a Iol of inleiesl in lhe counliy (KaivaI &
Chaluivedi, 2OO9). KaivaI nenlions a fev eninenl
execulive lIoggeis in his look: Nandan NiIekani
( co- f oundei, Inf osys) , Aj i l aI akii shnan
(Rediff.con), asal Iiadhan (Ciidslone Reseaich),
Rajesh }ain (Nelcoie), Vineel Nayai (HCL) and
AiunNalaiajan(Venluie InleIIigence).
AIlhough il is appaienl lhal nol loo nany
Indian CLOs nainlain individuaI lIogs, one nusl
keep in nind lhal lhese execulives nighl conliilule
posls lo a gioup lIog oi an oiganizalionaI lIog. Ioi
" Ph.D. (Unlt. of Texas at Austln), Vlsltlng |acu|t
A.].K. Mass Communlcatlon Research Centre,
]amla Ml||la ls|amla Neu De|hl
46
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 46-57
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
inslance, Infosys has seveiaI lIogs vheie lhe enliie
senioi nanagenenl lean conliilules (KaivaI &
Chaluivedi, 2OO9). MeanvhiIe, Rajiv Dhingia,
foundei and CLO of WATMedia Ivl Lld., vhich
ovns India' s Ieading digilaI nedia lIog
WATlIog.con, lIogs on piofessionaI nalleis on lhe
oiganizalionaI lIog, vhich liacks lhe Wel,
Adveilising and TechnoIogy (WAT) Indusliy in
India.
usiness lIogs nay lhus foIIov diffeienl aulhoi
foinals. Hovevei, lhis sludy focuses on individuaI
execulive lIogs and lheii aulhois. Il does nol deIve
inlo oiganizalionaI lIogs oi inleiviev lhose vho
conliilule lo lhen. ased on lhe Iileialuie ieviev
and liends in lhe Indian lIogospheie, foIIoving
ieseaich queslions veie fianed foi lhe fiisl pail of
lhe sludy vhich exanined lhe conlenl of lhe lIogs
aIone:
RQ1: Whal is lhe naluie of conlenl of Indian
execulive lIogs`
RQ2: Hov inleiaclive aie Indianexeculive lIogs`
RQ3: Hov usalIe aie Indianexeculive lIogs`
RQ4: Hov connecled aie Indianexeculive lIogs`
MethodoIogy
As fev IndianCLOs lIog, lhe ieseaicheis used a
puiposive sanpIe vilh lhe ain of incIuding lhe
naxinun nunlei of execulive lIogs in lhe sanpIe.
As nenlioned alove, lhe sanpIe does nol incIude
coipoiale lIogs oi gioup lIogs vheie seveiaI
execulives nighl conliilule conlenl peiiodicaIIy.
OnIy individuaI lIogs of lop execulives fion India
and lhe IndianDiaspoia veie seIecled.
The sanpIe seIeclion piocess invoIved
seaiching foi Iisls of Indian CLO and lop execulive
lIogs ly iunning keyvoid seaiches on lhe CoogIe
and Yahoo seaich engines. A seaich foi lhe
keyvoids Indian CLO lIogs and ils ieIaled
veisions such as Indian CLO lIoggeis vas
conducled. The fiisl lhiee pages of CoogIe and
Yahooseaiches veie lakeninloaccounl.
The lvo Iisls of Indian CLO lIogs lhal veie
connon lo lolh lhe CoogIe and Yahoo seaiches
veie hllp://lIog.lIogadda.con / 2OO9/O6/1O/
les l - i ndi an- c eo- lI ogs - al - lI ogadda and
hllp://vvv.IalnoI.oig/india-lIogs/indian-
lIoggeis.hlnI. The Yahoo seaich aIso yieIded a
lhiid Iisl hllp://alhisheknillaI.con/2OO9 /
O1/O5/ lusiness-lIogs-in-india/. A sepaiale seaich
foi lhe keyvoid Indian CLOs sociaI nelvoik
lioughl up lhe foIIoving Iisl of CLOs vho lveel
hllp://lusiness.napsofindia.con/sociaI-nedia-
foi-lusiness/indian-ceo-on-lvillei.hlnI. The
ieseaicheis lhenused lhe infoinalionloidenlify lhe
lIoggeis inlhe Iisl.
Anolhei Iisl lhal vas used lo seIecl execulive
lIogs foi lhis sludy vas fion lhe IndilIoggies
ve ls i l e hl l p: //vvv. i ndi lI oggi e s . oi g.
IndilIoggies, vhich desciiles ilseIf as a paiody
cIique on lhe lIoggies, has leen giving oul
pulIicIy-chosen avaids lo lIoggeis fion India and
lhe Indian Diaspoia since 2OO3. IndividuaI lIogs of
lop Indian execulives veie seIecled fion lhe Iisl of
2OO8 noninees in lhe lesl lusiness indilIog
calegoiy onlhe indilIoggies velsile.
The seIecled lIogs veie coded lelveen
Ieliuaiy 1, 2O1O and Maich 31, 2O1O. Heie il is
inpoilanl lo nole lhal lhe lIogospheie iepiesenls a
dynanic enviionnenl vheie lIogs nay iapidIy
change, nove Iocalionoi evendisappeai.
The second pail of lhe sludy incIudes
inleivievs of 2O Indian CLO and lop execulive
lIoggeis vhichveie conducled duiing }anuaiy and
Ieliuaiy, 2O11. The iesuIls of lhe fiisl pail of lhe
sludy heIped fiane lhe queslionnaiie. The lIoggeis
veie asked queslions in lhe foIIoving najoi aieas:
Reasons foi IillIe execulive lIogging in India,
infoinalion on lheii ovn lIogging halils, neasuies
lhey lake lo ensuie lhal ciilicaI infoinalion aloul
lheii conpany is nol posled on lheii lIog, inpacl of
lIogging on lheii slakehoIdeis and lips foi olhei
lIoggeis. WhiIe nosl execulive lIoggeis in India
veie inleivieved on lhe leIephone, lhose Iiving
alioad veie inleivieved onenaiI.
Coding Scheme
The coding schene foi lhe conlenl anaIysis pail
of lhe sludy diavs upon a pievious sludy on lhe
sliucluie and conlenl of lIogs conducled ly }oidi
Xifia and Assunpcio Hueilas in lhe yeai 2OO8. Xifia
and Hueilas's sludy incIuded lhe foIIoving piinaiy
vaiialIes: aulhoi, conlenl, inleiaclivily, usaliIily
and conneclivily. As lhis sludy focuses on lIogs
viillen ly CLOs and lop execulives in India, il
focused on lhe Iasl foui vaiialIes onIy. This sludy
opeialionaIizes lhe conlenl vaiialIe ly anaIyzing
lhe lopics and issues incIuded in lhe lIogs. A Iisl of
doninanl ilens in lhe lIogs vas piepaied and lhe
eneiging lhenes veie calegoiized inlo lioadei
lopics.
Xifia and Hueilas's sludy defined lhe
inleiaclivily vaiialIe as lhe degiee of usei
pailicipalion, accoiding lo lhe inleiaclive iesouices
47
avaiIalIe on lhe lIog (2OO8, p. 27O). They fuilhei
expIain lhal inleiaclivily does nol sinpIy iefei lo
useis leing alIe loposl connenls onlhe lIog, il aIso
incIudes olhei inleiaclive iesouices such as posling
of inages, video and audio. To neasuie
inleiaclivily, lhe ieseaicheis of lhis sludy used lhe
foIIoving six paianeleis: 1) They deleinined
vhelhei lhe lIog peinilled posling of exleinaI
connenls ly visilois lo lhe sile 2) vhelhei il
piovided conlacl infoinalion of lhe lIoggei 3)
vhelhei il conlained inages 4) vhelhei il conlained
videos 5) vhelhei il conlained suiveys 6) and,
vhelhei lhe lIog peinilled sulsciiplionlolhe posls
aIone oi lolhe connenls onlhe posls as veII.
The usaliIily vaiialIe neasuied lhe ease vilh
vhicha usei canaccess and navigale lhe lIog, vhich
is an inpoilanl fealuie of effeclive onIine
connunicalion. To neasuie lhis vaiialIe, lhe
ieseaicheis used five paianeleis: 1) vhelhei lhe
lIog has aninleinaI seaichengine 2) vhelhei lhe oId
posls aie oiganized in ieveise chionoIogicaI oidei
in lhe aichives 3) vhelhei lhe conlenl of lhe lIog is
divided inlo cIeai IaleIs and calegoiies 4) vhelhei
lhe nosl iecenl posls aie expIicilIy naiked 5)
And, vhelhei lhe lIog has liacklacks. Tiacklacks
nolify useis vhen soneone iefeis lo lheii posls lhus
faciIilaling connunicalionlelveenuseis.
IinaIIy, lhe conneclivily vaiialIe neasuied lhe
exlenl lo vhich lhe lIogs veie Iinked lo lhe Iaigei
lIogospheie. To neasuie lhis vaiialIe, lhe
ieseaicheis exanined lhe lIogioII, vhich shouId
nol le confused vilh hypeiIinks inside lhe posls.
Inslead, a lIogioII conpiises a Iisl of Iinks lo vaiious
lIogs oi siles and is usuaIIy piovided as a sidelai oi
foolei onalIog's fionl page.
IogioIIs aie inpoilanl as lhey can loosl liaffic
lo a lIog: Wilh each lIogioII lhal youi lIog is Iisled
oncones lhe possiliIily lhal ieadeis of lhal lIog viII
cIick on youi Iink and visil youi lIog. IogioIIs
equale lo pulIicily and exposuie acioss lhe
lIogospheie (CuneIius, n.d.). In olhei voids, lhe
lIogioII is an allenpl ly lhe aulhoi lo pIace his lIog
in a specific genie oi gioup, and a iecipiocaI effoil
ly a posse of lIoggeis lo iaise each olhei's visiliIily
on lhe inleinel (lecause lhe nunlei of inconing
Iinks pushes a lIog highei inseaich-engine iesuIls)
(Il's lhe Iinks, 2OO6). Keeping lhe alove
infoinalion in nind, lhe ieseaicheis in lhis sludy
used lhe foIIoving paianeleis lo neasuie
conneclivily. They found oul vhelhei lhe lIogioII
piovided Iinks lo: 1) sane-indusliy lIogs 2) olhei-
indusliy lIogs 3) olhei lypes of lIogs 4) olhei-
indusliy velsiles 5) sane-indusliy velsiles 6) and,
olhei lypes of velsiles.
Aflei coding lhe dala, fiequencies, cioss-
laluIalions and coiieIalions using lhe SlalislicaI
Iackage foi lhe SociaI Sciences (SISS) soflvaie veie
conpuled.
kesuIts (l): Content AnaIysis
Tvenly-foui of lhe 35 lIoggeis in lhis sanpIe
Iive in India vhiIe lhe iesl aie lop execulives of
IndianoiiginIiving alioad, incIuding Uniled Slales,
AusliaIia and Canada. WhiIe 27 of lhe 35 lIoggeis
veie CLOs/foundeis/co-foundeis of fiins, lhe iesl
veie lop execulives such as vice piesidenls and
chief lechnoIogy officeis. OnIy lvo of lhe 35
lIoggeis aie vonen. One of lhen is foundei and
CLO of a San Iiancisco-lased onIine nedia
conpany vhiIe lhe olhei is a nanaging diiecloi al a
naikeling ieseaich and slialegy fiin in Munlai. In
facl, 16 of lhe 35 lIoggeis in lhis sludy Iive eilhei in
Munlai oi DeIhi. Olhei popuIai Indian cilies
incIude angaIoie, Iune and Chennai. Anong lhose
vhoIive alioad, nosl Iive inlhe SanIianciscoaiea.
LIeven of lhe 35 lIoggeis aie associaled vilh
pulIicIy liaded conpanies: Ajil aIakiishnan,
Ioundei Chaiinan and CLO, Rediff.con, Anaggh
Desai, CLO, The onlay Sloie, Canesh Nalaiajan,
Vice Chaiinan and CLO, Zensai, Lakshnipalhy
hal, Vice Iiesidenl, Diaflfcl, Mohan alu,
IiincipaI Aichilecl and Lnleipiise Aichilecluie
ConsuIlanl, Infosys, RahuI Sood,Chief TechnoIogy
Office, HI CIolaI Caning / VU, Rohil haigava,
Senioi Vice Iiesidenl, Slialegy & Maikeling,
OgiIvy IulIic ReIalions, Sanjeev ikhchandani,
CLO, Info Ldge Lld., Shanlanu Chosh, Vice
Iiesidenl, India Iioducl Ops, Synanlec, Sinaipiil
Singh, CLO, Conpaie Infolase Lld., and Vineel
Nayai, CLO, HCL TechnoIogies. Thus, il is nol jusl
lhe CLOs of slail-ups and snaII conpanies lhal aie
lIogging. Top execulives fion Iaige, pulIicIy
liaded fiins aie aIsoa pail of lhe lIogospheie.
Anolhei inpoilanl liend lo nole is lhal a
significanl najoiily (66) of lhe lIoggeis aie
associaled vilh lhe Infoinalion TechnoIogy and
Inleinel seclois. Sevenly-foui peicenl of lhe
l I o g g e i s i n l h i s s a n p I e h a v e a n
engineeiing/nanagenenl lackgiound. In facl,
nosl lIoggeis aie highIy educaled: 6O have a
naslei's and/oi a docloiale degiee. OnIy one
lIoggei, RahuI Sood, is a coIIege diopoul: He is lhe
foundei of Iuxuiy conpulei designei VoodooIC
vhich vas eslalIished in 1991 and acquiied ly HI
in2OO6.
48
SMLLTA MISHRA
IinaIIy, a quailei of lhe lIogs in lhis sanpIe
have leen nainlained foi noie lhan 5 yeais vilh a
lIog updaled ieguIaiIy since 1997. Rajesh }ain,
foundei/CLO, of Nelcoie SoIulions, has leen
lIogging ieguIaiIy since 1997. WhiIe 83 of
lIoggeis have posled one lo foui lines vilhin lhe
one-veek peiiod fion lhe dale of coding, Rajesh
}ain has posled as nany as 7 lines vilhin lhal
peiiod.
The content of lndlan executlte b|ogs
Many of lhe lIogs have jazzy lilIes. Ioi inslance,
AIok KejiivaI, foundei/CLO of conlesls2vin.con,
an onIine ganing conpany, has lilIed his lIog
When Rodin nel Rolinhood.Avinash Kaushik,
co-foundei of Maikel Molive, a fiin lhal piovides
Inleinel Maikeling Tiaining, has naned his lIog
Occan's Razoi. In a siniIai vein, Kiis Naii,
execulive diiecloi al Opdiage Venluie Iailneis, a
fiin lhal nuiluies eaiIy slage venluies, has a lIog
lilIed Less Hunans, Moie Rolols vhiIe VishaI
CondaI, foundei/CLO al India Canes, has a lIog
lilIed Cod inChief.
Sone lIoggeis aIso use lheii ovn nanes as pail
of lhe lIog lilIe. Ioi exanpIe, Sinaipiil Singh, lhe
foundei/CLO of Conpaie Infolase Lld., has lilIed
his lIog Sinaipiil's WelIog. And, Lakshnipalhy
hal, vice piesidenl al Diaflfcl, has a lIog lilIed
halnaluiaIIy: RanlIings on Adveilising, AppIe
and Nev Media.
As TalIe 1 shovs, lhe nosl fiequenlIy lIogged
aloul lopic is indusliy oulIook al 94. olh
lechnoIogy liends and cuiienl affaiis iank second al
83 each. Olhei popuIai lopics incIude naikeling
and adveilising, insighls on lhe econony, onIine
sociaI nedia, peisonaI sloiies, enliepieneuiship,
enleilainnenl, liaveI and food, elc. Iosls on nosl
lopics aie in lhe foin of individuaI opinions and
oflenincIude lips and ieIaled advice foi ieadeis.
The engineeiing lackgiound of a najoiily of lhe
lIoggeis in lhe sanpIe and lheii posilions in
lechnoIogy-diiven fiins is possilIy lhe ieason foi
lhe high pievaIence of posls on lechnoIogicaI
innovalions and liends. Iosls lhal suggesl vays and
lips lo lesl use a nev oi exisling looI oi soflvaie aie
aIso quile connon and aie noslIy lased on lhe
expeiience and knov-hov of lhe lIoggeis
lhenseIves. These aIso incIude posls ly lIoggeis
expIaining nev fealuies in pioducls and soflvaie
offeied ly lheii conpanies.
Iuilhei, vhiIe cuiienl affaiis ienained a
popuIai lopic al 83, nol nany execulive lIoggeis
viole on poIilicaI issues, vhich neasuied jusl 46.
In lhe cuiienl affaiis calegoiy, lIoggeis viole
seveiaI posls on lhe 2OO8 Munlai leiioi allacks.
Anolhei popuIai lopic vas onIine sociaI nedia and
nelvoiking (74). The lIoggeis offeied lips on hov
fiins and individuaIs can use onIine sociaI nedia lo
nelvoik lellei and cieale onIine connunilies. In
facl, lvo of lhe lIoggeis, Cauiav Mishia and Kiiula
Shankai, nake a Iiving iunning sociaI nedia
consuIlancies.
IeisonaI sloiies aIso ianked high as a lopic al
71. Hovevei, lIoggeis al piivale fiins lIogged
noie aloul lheii peisonaI Iives lhan lhose al
pulIicIy liaded conpanies: WhiIe 83 of lIogs
viillen ly execulives al piivale fiins incIuded
peisonaI sloiies, onIy 45 of lIogs viillen ly
execulives al pulIicIy liaded conpanies caiiied lhe
sane.
Sone of lhe peisonaI posls veie quile
hunoious. Ioi inslance, AIok KejiivaI, vho is lhe
foundei CLO of a piivaleIy-heId onIine ganing
conpany, viole a posl lilIed Why do vonen caiiy
suchIaige handlags` KejiivaI (2OO9) lIogs:
|n |nc car, |nc pncnc in |nc nandoag rings, and
sincc |nc oag is a|ncs| |nc sizc cf a catc, i| |a|cs
fcrctcr |c find |nc irri|a|ing ringing |ningq in
|nc |unnc| oq unicn |inc |nc ca||cr gitcs up and
nangs up. |acn ncus|crc uc tisi|, snc firs| ncads
|c 'ucncns oags'.. Inq arc ucncn fascina|cd
oq oig nandoags? And unq dc |ncq ouq ncu
cncs ctcr sc cf|cn?
Olhei such posls focused on lIoggeis' peisonaI
sliuggIes. Ioi exanpIe, Anaggh Desai, CLO al lhe
onlay Sloie, lIogs aloul his sliuggIe vilh veighl
in a calegoiy lilIed fal2fil (Desai, 2OO9). RahuI
Sood, lhe foundei of Iuxuiy conpulei designei
VoodooIC, lIogs aloul his falhei's dealh:
Ic nad jus| finisncd ua|cning na|f cf |nc nctic
'G|adia|cr' -- and |nc ncx| daq nc uas ncn
func|icna|. || uas a disas|cr. Hc nctcr gc| |c scc
Vccdcc cxp|cdc |nc uaq i| did, ou| |'n prc||q
surc nc's ua|cning ctcr us (Sccd, 2010).
The posl venl on lo laIk aloul hov Sood had a
one-vay connunicalion vilh lhe allending
suigeon and docloi. Sood (2O1O) asked: Inagine if
lheie vas an inslanl vay foi doclois lo shaie noles
and coIIaloiale on cases and Iel palienls
pailicipale` Many lIogs veie iepIele vilh such
conpeIIing peisonaI sloiies.
Iuilhei, vhiIe 75 lIogs viillen ly execulives
al piivale fiins caiiied posls on enleilainnenl, onIy
49
36 lIogs viillen ly execulives al pulIicIy liaded
conpanies incIudes posls on lhal lopic. IoIIoving a
siniIai liend, 79 lIogs viillen ly execulives al
piivale fiins caiiied posls on enliepieneuiship
vhiIe onIy 45 lIogs viillen ly execulives al
pulIicIy liaded conpanies caiiied lhe sane. The
posls on enliepieneuiship oflen incIuded specific
and delaiIed lips on hov lo nake a slail up
successfuI.
AIlhough lIogs aie pulIic inleifaces, onIy five
lIogs caiiied IegaI discIaineis. WhiIe sone
discIaineis veie foinaI and/oi lechnicaI, olheis
foIIoved a noie hunoious lone. Ioi inslance,
Lakshnipalhy hal, vice piesidenl al Diaflfcl,
posled lhe foIIoving discIainei:
Tnis o|cg rcf|cc|s nq |ncugn|s and cpinicns. ||
dccs nc| rcf|cc| |nc |ncugn|s cr cpinicns cf nq
ccnpanq, i|s parcn| ccnpanq, nq uifc, nq |id,
nq c|icn|s, nq ca|, MqSpacc, nq car, cr nq
Macocc|. A|| rign|s rcscrtcd. Suojcc| |c cnangc
ui|ncu| nc|icc. Dcn'| quc|c nc cn |na|. Dcn'|
quc|c nc cn anq|ning. Pa|cn| pcnding (8na|,
2009).
IinaIIy, onIy 29 of lhe lIogs caiiied
adveili senenls. Mosl of lhe lI ogs vi lh
adveilisenenls incIuded CoogIeAds.
lnteractltlt of lndlan executlte b|ogs
As TalIe 2 shovs, nosl lIogs veie faiiIy
inleiaclive despile significanl shoilconings. An
oveivheIning 86 of lhe lIogs caiiied picluies.
WhiIe nosl lIogs caiiied a fev picluies peilinenl lo
lhe lopic of lhe posl, a fev lIogs slood oul foi lhe
good quaIily of lhe picluies. One lIog lhal had sone
exceIIenl picluies vas ly ShaIin }ain, vho desciiled
hinseIf as soneone vho iuns a soflvaie conpany
foi a holly and seiiousIy puisues nusic and
phologiaphy. }ain's lIog slands leslinony lo his
skiIIs inchiId poiliail phologiaphy.
Anolhei lIog lhal slood oul foi exceIIenl
phologiaphy vas ly Shanlanu Chosh, Vice
Iiesidenl of India Iioducl Opeialions al Synanlec.
Chosh, vho desciiles hinseIf on his lIog as a
liaveIIei, foodie and geaihead, posled picluies
lhal leII lhe sloiy of his gasliononicaI jouineys
acioss lhe voiId (Chosh, n.d.).
Sevenly-one peicenl of lhe lIogs aIso caiiied
videos. The videos piinaiiIy conpiised YouTule
cIips on cuiienl affaiis, hunoi, adveilisenenls and
inpoilanl speeches. Sone lIogs aIso conlained
peisonaI videocIips.
Anolhei fealuie lhal nade lhe lIogs IiveIy vas
lhe conveisalionaI lone used ly lhe lIoggeis. AII
excepl lvo lIogs foIIoved a conveisalionaI lone.
The lIoggeis used ieadei-fiiendIy Ianguage
coupIed vilh a sullIe sense of hunoi. Ioi exanpIe,
Kiis Naii, vho is lhe execulive diiecloi of Opdiage
Venluie Iailneis, a piivaleIy-heId fiin lhal heIps
enliepieneuis luiId lusinesses, inlioduces hinseIf
inhis lIog vilhlhe foIIoving voids:
| natc nad nq fingcrs in ctcrq|ning. || is nq
|cndcncq |c junp arcund frcn ncooq |c ncooq,
frcn |as| |c |as|, ui|n |i|||c cr nc uarning, and
ui|n nucn unduc nas|c. Tnis nas a|uaqs occn a
prco|cn fcr nc (Nair, n.d.).
WhiIe aII lIogs aIIoved exleinaI connenls,
onIy 9 peinilled anonynous connenls.
AIIoving anonynous connenls vouId nake il
easiei foi useis loposl ciilicaI connenls onlhe lIog,
vhich couId ensuie noie candid inleiaclion
lelveen useis and lIoggeis. MeanvhiIe, onIy 63
lIogs peinilled sulsciiplion lo connenls on posls
aIlhoughaII lIogs faciIilaled sulsciiplionloposls.
Iuilhei, a significanl najoiily of lIoggeis (86)
piovided sone foin of conlacl infoinalion on lhe
lIog. The nosl connon nelhod of conlacl
piovided vas lhe enaiI addiess of lhe lIoggei.
SeveiaI lIoggeis aIso offeied infoinalion aloul
olhei nodes of onIine nelvoiking onlheii lIog such
as lheii Iacelook, Tvillei and Linkedin accounls.
Tvillei vas popuIai anong lhe lIoggeis even as
sixly-lhiee peicenl of lhen piovided Iinks lo lheii
Tvillei accounls onlheii lIog.
IinaIIy, onIy 17 of lhe lIogs caiiied suiveys
aIlhough lhey can seive as gieal inleiaclive looIs.
WhiIe seveiaI lIoggeis ciled findings of suiveys
conducled ly olhei oiganizalions, lhey did nol posl
any suiveys of lheii ovn. Sone lIoggeis piovided
Iinks lo suiveys lhal veie leing conducled ly lheii
fiiends and acquainlances.
Usabl|lt of lndlan executlte b|ogs
UsaliIily of a lIog iefeis lo hov veII useis can
navigale and use ils conlenl. One of lhe nosl
inpoilanl fealuies lhal enhance lhe usaliIily of a
lIog is an inleinaI seaich engine. In lhis sludy, as
TalIe 3 shovs, an oveivheIning najoiily of lIogs
(89) did have an inleinaI seaich engine. Lighly-six
peicenl of lIogs aIso had aichives. olh lhese
fealuies nake il easiei foi useis lo gel infoinalion
onspecific lopics.
Hovevei, onIy 6O lIogs had conlenl
oiganized undei cIeai IaleIs and calegoiies. When
5O
SMLLTA MISHRA
conlenl is nol oiganized cIeaiIy undei IaleIs, il
lecones exlieneIy difficuIl foi useis lo find
sonelhing specific, especiaIIy vhen lhe lIogs have
posls lhal aie seveiaI yeais oId. Iuilhei
conpounding lhe piolIen vas lhe facl lhal onIy
4O lIogs had lheii nosl iecenl posls expIicilIy
naiked.
IinaIIy, onIy one-lhiid of lhe lIogs used lhe
liacklack fealuie. Tiacklacks nolify useis vhen
soneone iefeis lo lheii posls lhus faciIilaling
connunicalion lelveen useis. As fev lIogs in lhis
sanpIe use lhe liacklack fealuie, lhey aie giossIy
unde i ul i I i z i ng a pos s i lI e c ha nne I of
connunicalion.
Connectltlt of lndlan executlte b|ogs
The lIogs in lhis sanpIe aie pooiIy connecled
vilh lhe lIogospheie. As TalIe 4 shovs, lIogioIIs of
onIy aloul one-lhiid of lhe lIogs Iink lhen lo sane-
indusliy lIogs. Woise sliII, lIogioIIs of onIy 11 of
lhe lIogs connecl lhen lo sane-indusliy velsiles.
Theie is IillIe exchange acioss indusliies loo. Thus,
lIogioIIs of onIy one-fiflh of lhe lIogs aie Iinked lo
olhei-indusliy lIogs vhiIe a neie 3 of lhe lIogs
aie Iinked loolhei-indusliy velsiles.
Iuilheinoie, lhe lIogioIIs of onIy foui peopIe
in lhis gioup of Indian CLOs and lop execulives
caiiied Iinks loanolhei lIoggei inlhis sanpIe. Thus,
even lhis niche gioup of Indian execulive lIogs is
laieIy inlei-connecled. As lhese lIogs iank Iov in
leins of conneclivily, lhey sland isoIaled in lhe
lIogospheie.
One of lhe possilIe ieasons foi such pooi
conneclivily of Indian execulive lIogs couId le lhal
lIogging has nol ieaIIy nade sliong inioads in
execulive ciicIes: Theie aie so fev CLOs lhal lIog.
SecondIy, il's possilIe lhal lhe fev Indianexeculives
vho lIog aie nol ieaIIy keen on incieasing liaffic lo
lheii lIogs oi inpioving lheii seaich engine
pIacenenl. OnIy fuluie sludies lhal deIve inlo lhe
nolives of execulive lIogging can deleinine lhe
acluaI ieasons foi pooi conneclivily of Indian
execulive lIogs.
lnter-tarlab|e ana|sls
To conducl an inlei-vaiialIe anaIysis, each
paianelei conpiising lhe inleiaclivily, usaliIily
and conneclivily vaiialIes vas given a vaIue of 1.
Iogs in lhis sanpIe scoied quile high in lhe
inleiaclivily calegoiy and did ieasonalIy veII inlhe
usaliIily calegoiy. In facl, eighly peicenl of lhe
lIogs in lhis sanpIe scoied 6 oi noie in lhe
inleiaclivily calegoiy, vhich conpiised a lolaI of 8
paianeleis. In lhe usaliIily calegoiy, vhich
conpiised five paianeleis, lhe nean and nedian
aie aInosl lhe sane and lhey faII al lhe cenlie of lhe
iange of 1 5 (as seeninTalIe 5).
Hovevei, lhe conneclivily calegoiy piesenled a
diffeienl picluie: NeaiIy 5O of lhe lIogs in lhis
sanpIe scoied O in lhe conneclivily calegoiy, vhich
conpiised six paianeleis. Thus, one nay concIude
lhal Indian execulive lIogs in lhis sanpIe scoie
ialhei pooiIy in leins of conneclivily and lheie
ienains significanl scope foi inpiovenenl in lhis
spheie.
Iuilheinoie, a coiieIalionof lhe lhiee vaiialIes
shovs lhal lolh inleiaclivily and usaliIily vaiialIes
aie significanlIy & posiliveIy coiieIaled, i.e. lIogs
vhich aie noie inleiaclive aie aIso lhe ones vhich
aie noie usalIe. Conneclivily, hovevei, does nol
appeai lo le coiieIaled vilh eilhei of lhe olhei
vaiialIes.
kesuIts (ll): lnterviews of lxecutives
8Ioggers
Less executlte b|ogglng ln lndla: Techno|oglca|
barrlers, cu|tura| ta|ues and more
WhiIe poinling oul lhal eaiIy adoplion and
unIiniled access lo lhe Inleinel nighl le lvo of lhe
piinaiy ieasons nosl execulive lIoggeis in India
leIong lo lhe IT oi IT-enalIed seclois, execulive
lIoggeis inleivieved foi lhis sludy adnilled lhal
execulive and coipoiale lIogging has nol ieaIIy
laken off in India due lo lhe foIIoving ieasons:
Indian cuIluiaI vaIues, lechnoIogy laiiieis and lhe
naluie of voik lhal lop execulives do. Rediff's
foundei CLO, Ajil aIakiishnan, poinled oul:
Mcs| ccrpcra|c pccp|c natc nc in|crcs| cr ticus
c|ncr |nan |ncsc aocu| |ncir cun ousincss. Tncq
arc ousq ncc|ing quar|cr|q dcad|incs and
|argc|s. Tncq dcn'| natc ticus cn c|ncr |nings
un|css i|'s aocu| |P| cric|c| cr scnc|ning |i|c
|na|. Tncq dcn'| uan| |c ccnncn| cn scnc|ning
|ncq dcn'| |ncua |c| aocu|.
CuIluiaI vaIues aIso figuied as anolhei
inpoilanl facloi vhy so fev Indian execulives lIog.
aIakiishnan aigued lhal vhiIe open expiession is
favoied in Aneiican cuIluie, in Indian cuIluie, ve
lend lo le open aloul oui poIilicaI vievs, nol olhei
lhings. Accoiding lo AIok KejiivaI, foundei CLO
of an onIine ganing conpany, conlesl2vin.con,
Indians lake lhenseIves loo seiiousIy vhiIe
lIogging iequiies a casuaI appioach and lhe aliIily
51
lo Iaugh al oneseIf. They nighl le sluck up in vhal
olheis lhink, KejiivaI aigued. AnagghDesai, CLO,
onlay Sloies, agieed: The nind sel of shaiing
infoinalion is sonelhing lhal is hoIding a Iol of us
lack, aIso lhe facl lhal lhe confoil sliII Iies in lhe
viillen void (nevspapeis, nagazines). Kiiula
Shankai, CLO of usiness Iogging Ivl. Lld.,
sunned up lhe issue in lhe foIIoving voids:
WhiIe Indians aie veiy good consuneis of conlenl,
lhey aie nol good ciealois of il. Ioi exanpIe, lhe
nunlei of Indians vho valch YouTule is
hunongous lul lhe nunlei of videos posled ly
Indians is veiy snaII. Il couId le lecause Indians aie
nol confoilalIe laIking aloul lhenseIves.
Apail fion cuIluiaI faclois, Anaggh Desai,
aIong vilh nany olhei execulive lIoggeis, iefeiied
lo lechnoIogicaI laiiieis lhal nal delei execulives
fion lIogging. Desai aigued lhal Majoiily of lhe
senioi IeveI in lhe coipoiale voiId aie sliII nol
confoilalIe vilh using lhe conpulei foi anylhing
olhei lhan enaiIs and nayle LxceI. asal
Iiadhan, co-foundei and CLO of Ciidslone
Reseaich, added lhal one of lhe ieasons lop
execulives piolalIy do nol lIog nay le lecause
lhey aie nol confidenl of lheii viiling skiIIs.
Accoiding lo hin, lhe inleiseclion lelveen peopIe
vho have inleiesling vievpoinls and peopIe vho
canviile veII is snaII.
Iuilheinoie, seveiaI execulive lIoggeis
disnissed line consliainls as a possilIe ieason vhy
so fev execulives lIog. AIok KejiivaI, CLO of
conlesls2vin.con, said, IeopIe vho say lhey don'l
have line aie nol leIIing lhe liulh. They nay suffei
fion i nleI I ecluaI I azi ness. Raj esh }ai n,
foundei/CLO, of Nelcoie SoIulions, disnissed Iack
of line as a slupid excuse. Kiis Naii, execulive
diiecloi al Opdiage Venluie Iailneis, expiessed his
angei al peopIe vho lIane Iack of line as lhe
ieason:
|'d s|ap a guq unc saqs nc dccs nc| natc |inc. ||
|a|cs 13 scccnds |c ccnc up ui|n an idca and 3
ninu|cs |c o|cg aocu| i|. | scc ncs| cf |ncsc guqs
in puos. Hcucan |ncq nc| natc frcc |inc? || nas
|i|||c |c dc ui|n |inc. | |nin| |ncq ci|ncr dcn'| fcc|
qcung cr dcn'| ccnncc|.
ul olhei execulives acknovIedged lhal il is nol
easy lo lIog. Manish }ain, Vice Iiesidenl usiness
DeveIopnenl al MIiofil Soflvaie Ivl. Lld., said il
vas difficuIl foi hin lo lIog lhe pievious yeai
lecause he had olhei deadIines. I lhink of lopics aII
lhe line. My liain is conslanlIy iunning, he said.
Rediff's aIakiishnan added: Wiiling is nosl
painfuI. Il's Iike giving liilhloa chiId.
Mosl execulives poinled oul lhal eveiy lIog
goes lhiough a cycIe. The goaI is lo ieluin lo
lIogging aflei a diy speII, lhey said. Rohil haigava,
SVI- Slialegy and Maikeling al OgiIvy IulIic
ReIalions, said he has found a vay lo keep lIogging:
Whenevei possilIe, I liy lo viile a posl on
sonelhing lhal has inspiied ne as il happens -
lecause I find lhe posl is nuch easiei and faslei lo
viile inlhal nonenl.
To Tueet or to B|og: lmact of Tultter on
B|ogglng
Many lop execulives lIaned nicio-lIogging
siles such as Tvillei foi Iack of giovlh in execulive
lIogging vhiIe sone said lhal lhe lvo jusl cannol le
conpaied. Accoiding lo Dina Mehla, foundei/CLO
of a ieseaich fiin in Munlai, Mosoci, lIogging is
noiphing lecause noie peopIe aie Tveeling: Il's
easiei lo Tveel. The conveisalionaI space has
noved lo Tvillei. You can connecl vilh a
connunily inslanlaneousIy vilh Tvillei. Il lakes a
vhiIe locieale a connunily onyoui lIog.
Lakshnipalhy hal, vice piesidenl al Diaflfcl,
agieed, Tvillei is noie a neans of connecling
loday lhan lIogging. Kiis Naii, execulive diiecloi
al Opdiage Venluie Iailneis, vas calegoiicaI aloul
lhe inpacl of Tvillei on lIogging: Tvillei kiIIed a
Iol of lIoggeis. Il lakes 1O ninules lo posl a lIog and
13 seconds lo Tveel. London-lased IndianRaghav
Cupla, vho is Vice Iiesidenl- Nev usiness
Inilialives al iighlcove, an Inleinel soflvaie
conpany, acknovIedged lhal Tvillei adveiseIy
affecled his lIogging halils. Rohil haigava, SVI-
Slialegy and Maikeling al OgiIvy IulIic ReIalions,
said: On Tvillei, I viII oflen shaie Iinks lo lhings
lhal I lhink aie inleiesling, lul nay nol have enough
sulslance foi a fuII lIog posl. I acluaIIy leIieve lhal
having Tvillei has heIped ne lo inpiove lhe
quaIily of ny posls on ny lIog. ul il has aIso nade
ne a Iess fiequenl lIoggei.
MeanvhiIe, Zensai CLO Canesh Nalaiajan,
spaied no voids in expiessing his disappoinlnenl
vilhTvillei:
Tui||cr is aufu|. | |ucc| cncc a ncn|n |na| |cc,
occausc | natc scnc fc||cucrs unc cxpcc| nc |c
Tucc| frcn |inc |c |inc. Ycu cannc| saq
anq|ning ncaningfu| in 140 cnarac|crs. Tui||cr
is |i|c ins|an| gra|ifica|icn. Ina| dc qcu saq cn
i|? Tna| qcu nad cnic|cn |cdaq?
Rediff's Ajil aIakiishnan aIso heId lhal Tvillei
and lIogging aie diffeienl and cannol le conpaied.
Accoiding lo hin, Tvillei can heIp in lieaking
52
SMLLTA MISHRA
nevs vheieas lIogs aie Iike op-ed pieces: Tvillei
heIps in inslanl iepoiling. I heaid of nanagenenl
guiu CK IiahaIad's dealh on Tvillei. My nephev
foivaided il and I gol lhe nevs even lefoie lhe
nedia channeIs gave oul lhe nevs.
Asocla| medla o|lc: Use our common sense
To lhe queslion Hov do you ensuie lhal you
nevei posl ciilicaI infoinalion aloul youi conpany
in youi lIog`, aInosl aII execulive lIoggeis said
lhey Iel lheii connon sense do lhe jol. Avinash
Kaushik, foundei/CLO Maikel Molive, said: We
shouId nevei undeieslinale lhe connon sense lhal
peopIe possess. And no anounl of voiiy, iuIes,
looks, liaining, ladgeiing can iepIace connon
sense.
Kiis Naii, execulive diiecloi al Opdiage
Venluie Iailneis, says one shouId le inleIIigenl
enough nol lo posl sensilive infoinalion aloul lhe
conpany on a lIog. One shouId nol posl lhings
Iike vhy youi HR gave a hike lo lhis inleiesling-
Iooking hunan leing, he said. Iuilhei, aII
execulive lIoggeis poinled oul lhal one shouId
nevei give oul infoinalionaloul cIienls onlhe lIog.
CIienls viII nevei foigive you, said Dina Mehla,
CLO of Mosoci. I aIvays lake viillen peinission if
I vanl incIude sonelhing in ny lIog. Theie have
lines vhen I have asked and cIienls have denied.
Apail fion cIienl infoinalion, SahiI Iaiikh,
foundei/CLO, Deskavay, a soflvaie pioducl
conpany, added lhal no execulive vouId evei give
oul any foin of financiaI infoinalion aloul his
conpany on his lIog. As CLO, I knov vhal is okay
lo pul oul lheie and vhal is nol. I vouId le afiaid if
enpIoyees lIog (Iaughs), he said.
Mohan alu, IiincipaI Aichilecl and
Lnleipiise Aichilecluie ConsuIlanl, Infosys, loId his
sloiy:
As | uas ancng |nc firs| ccrpcra|c o|cggcrs in
|ndia, |nc ru|cs cf cngagcncn| ucrc nc| qc|
dcfincd. | nad an cppcr|uni|q |c ccn|riou|c |c |nc
sccia| ncdia pc|icq as i| uas ocing dcfincd. Of
ccursc, i| uas a|sc a |c| cf rcspcnsioi|i|q |c uri|c
an cngaging and candid o|cg uni|c rcspcc|ing
ccrpcra|c pc|icics.
Lakshnipalhy hal, vice piesidenl al Diaflfcl,
naiialed an incidenl vheie he aInosl gol inlo
lioulIe. Once I venl a lil oveiloaid on Tvillei. I
nenlioned sonelhing aloul vhal's going on in
office. My loss caIIed ne. I ieaIized I had nade a
nislake and slopped, he said.
Ioi pulIic conpanies, lhe need lokeep sensilive
infoinalionoul of lIogs lecones evennoie ciilicaI.
Accoiding lo Rediff's Ajil aIakiishnan, knovIedge
of iuIes and consequences of lheii vioIalion ensuie
lhal nolody lIogs aloul sensilive infoinalion
aloul lhe conpany: Rediff is pulIicIy Iisled in lhe
Uniled Slales. And, lheie aie seveie penaIlies foi
nisIeading inveslois ly naking any foiecasls aloul
youi conpany..Nolody vho voiks in a posilion
of aulhoiily viII lIog anylhing lhal viII vioIale lhe
Secuiilies Acl.
Hovevei, vilh lIogging leing a dynanic
aclivily, asal Iiadhan, co-foundei and CLO of
Ciidslone Reseaich, poinled oul lhal Conpanies
have lo le confoilalIe vilh a IillIe lil of Ieg
shoving undei lhe kinono. Sone cIeai giound
iuIes aloul II, cuslonei confidenliaIily elc. aside, il
is lellei lo liusl lhe judgnenl of execs lhan
inlioduce ied lape inlolhe piocess.
lmact on stakeho|ders: B|ogs he| create a
ersona| brand
AII lop execulive lIoggeis naiialed lhe lenefils
of lIogging. Iogging heIped cieale lheii peisonaI
liand, heIped luiId lheii ciediliIily and connecl
vilh peopIe lolh inside and oulside lheii fiins.
LspeciaIIy foi execulives of snaII fiins and slail-
ups, lIogging can le ciilicaI lo lusiness and
suivivaI. Says Mosoci CLO Dina Mehla, Ioi lhe
CLO of a snaII, loulique fiin Iike nine, il's veiy
ciuciaI lo lIog. Il's Iike ny iesune. You have lo le
honesl. You have lo iepIy lo lhe connenls on youi
posls. Ioi lhe CLO of a lig fiin, lheie aie loo nany
sliucluies. Kiis Naii has siniIai expeiiences aloul
lIogging:
|n nq car|q s|agcs cf nq carccr as a tcn|urc
capi|a|is|, 90 cf |nc pccp|c | uas dcing
ousincss ui|n ucrc ini|ia||q nq o|cg rcadcrs cr
Tui||cr fc||cucrs. | dctc|cpcd a cncnis|rq ui|n
|ncsc pccp|c. Cncnis|rq is tcrq inpcr|an| in |nc
car|q s|agc fcr tcn|urc capi|a|is|s. Tncsc pccp|c
gc| |c |ncunc as a pcrscn frcn nq o|cgs. | natc
a|sc nadc grca| fricndsnips |nrcugn o|cgs.
Top execulives of lig fiins aIso see lhe posilive
inpacl of lIogging. Zensai's Canesh Nalaiajan says
lIogging heIps his inage vilhin lhe conpany: Il's
veiy good foi associales in ny conpany. The
aveiage age of associales is 27. When lhey see ne
lIog, lhey lhink lhe nanagenenl is cooI. I don'l
lhink nany shaiehoIdeis iead ny lIog. ul
cusloneis Iike il. Sinaipiil Singh, foundei/CLO,
Conpaie Infolase Lld., eIaloiales:
These days I an inlo skydiving. RecenlIy, ve
53
veie liying lo acquiie lhis conpany in lhe Uniled
Slales. We veie laIking lolhen and one of lhen said
'you aie veiy dynanic. I viII nevei daie lo junp
fion lhe sky.' He had olviousIy iead ny lIog.
Diaflfcl's Lakshnipalhy hall desciiled hov
lIogging heIps cieale a peisonaI liand:
Sonelines, in neelings, I an inlioduced as lhe
guy vho has a lIog halnaluiaIIy. Il lecones an
idenlily. IeopIe lend lo Iook al you kind of
diffeienlIy. They knov I an piaclicing vhal I
pieach.
Rajesh Selly, foundei/CLO of soflvaie
conpany, Suggeslica, said lhal lIogging piovides a
pIalfoin lo eslalIish lhoughl Ieadeiship vhich
indiieclIy lenefils lhe conpany's slakehoIdeis.
Accoiding lo C Mahesh, foundei/CLO of an
Inleinel appIicalions conpany, Cieyniun
Infoinalion TechnoIogies Ivl. Lld., peopIe iespecl
you if youi lhoughls aie ciisp and you aie nol afiaid
of laking a sland. asal Iiadhan, co-foundei and
CLO of Ciidslone Reseaich, added lhal Iogging
luiIds infIuence vhich is diffeienl fion inage.
InfIuence, especiaIIy in 2 lusinesses is
invaIualIe.
Gettlng trafflc to b|ogs
WhiIe lhe execulive lIoggeis eIaloialed on lhe
neiils of lIogging, il vas suipiising vhen nany
said lhey aie nol laking any speciaI neasuies lo
inciease liaffic lo lheii lIogs. ShaIin }ain,
Ioundei/CLO of a soflvaie pioducl conpany, Ten
MiIes, said I don'l caie hov nany peopIe iead ny
lIog. I an nol lolheied aloul SLO. I an happy
vhen peopIe I vaIue in ny Iife iead il and enaiI ne
aloul il. Canesh Nalaiajan, Zensai TechnoIogies,
echoed lhe sane senlinenl: I don'l do anylhing lo
inciease liaffic. I an nol liying lo use il as a
naikeling looI.
Ioi Diaflfcl's Laxnipalhy hall, lIogging is a
nediun of individuaI expiession. He said il's a
lonus if soneone ieads il. Rajesh }ain ,
foundei/CLO, of Nelcoie SoIulions, cIaiified lhal
he viiles foi hinseIf as il heIps hin iefine his idea.
Sinaipiil Singh, foundei/CLO, Conpaie Infolase
Lld., said he does nol vanl a ciovd ieading his lIog:
I onIy vanl peopIe vho ieIale lo ne insone vay lo
iead ny lIog, viile lo ne, laIk lo ne. I don'l vanl lo
pul ny officiaI agenda heie. My lIog is an exlension
of ny Iife. Il is an exlension of ne. Rediff's Ajil
aIakiishnan caulioned againsl chasing pulIic
visiliIily. He had a lad expeiience vhen ieadeis of
his lIogs slailed asking foi jols ly sending hin
iesunes in lhe foin of connenls lo his posls. Rohil
haigava poinled oul lhal noie connenls do nol
necessaiiIy inpIy a successfuI posl. Inslead, he
offeied a lip lo inciease liaffic: The posls vhich gel
lhe nosl liaffic aie lhe ones vhich peopIe iead and
find usefuI enough lo shaie. Ioi lhal ieason, ny
liggesl focus is nol usuaIIy on connenls, lul on
vhich posls viII le lhe nosl SHARLALL (sic) and
usefuI foi peopIe.
Discussion and ConcIusion
The fiisl pail of lhe sludy piovided an accounl
of lhe conlenl, inleiaclivily, usaliIily and
conneclivily of lop Indian execulive lIogs vhiIe lhe
second pail offeied insighls aloul lhe nolives,
halils and vievs of lhose lIoggeis. The iesuIls
indicale lhal even as lhe Indian lIogospheie
ienains doninaled piinaiiIy ly execulives fion
lhe Infoinalion TechnoIogy and Inleinel seclois,
lhose fion olhei seclois have nol ieaIIy slailed
expIoiling ils povei. The facl lhal lIogging is nol
veiy popuIai anong lhe lop liass is iefIecled in lhe
snaII size of lhe puiposive sanpIe used in lhis
sludy. The ieseaichei allenpled lo idenlify and
incIude as nany individuaI lIogs nainlained ly lop
Indian execulives in lhis sludy. This liend of fev
Indian execulives lIogging is in keeping vilh lhe
voiIdvide liend of unpopuIaiily of lIogging
anong lop execulives. Woise sliII, onIy lvo of lhe
Indian execulive lIoggeis in lhis sanpIe aie
vonen.
The Indian execulive lIoggeis inleivieved foi
lhis sludy heId lhe opinion lhal lhe unpopuIaiily of
execulive lIogging in India couId le alliiluled lo
Indian cuIluiaI vaIues, lechnoIogy laiiieis and
quaileiIy olsessions of lop execulives. Shankei
(2OO8) poinled oul lhal lop execulives al pulIic
conpanies vouId aIso le afiaid of possilIe lackIash
fion slakehoIdeis and lhe nedia.
Hovevei, eveiy singIe execulive lIoggei
inleivieved foi lhis sludy enphasized lhe lenefils
of lIogging. Apail fion heIping lhen luiId a
peisonaI liand, CLOs of slailups and snaII
conpanies desciiled lhe ciilicaI ioIe pIayed ly
lIogs in ieaching oul lo slakehoIdeis and luiIding
ciediliIily. They aIso highIighled lhe ioIe of
connon sense in ensuiing lhal ciilicaI infoinalion
aloul lhe conpany slays oul of lIog posls so lhal
lheie is nounnecessaiy conlioveisy.
Iuilhei, conlenl anaIysis of lhe lIogs shoved
lhal popuIai lopics incIuded indusliy oulIook,
lechnoIogy liends and lips, cuiienl affaiis and
54
SMLLTA MISHRA
insighls on lhe econony. Iuilheinoie, execulives
voiking vilh piivaleIy-heId conpanies lIogged
noie aloul lheii peisonaI Iives and lopics such as
enliepieneuiship, naikeling and adveilising, and
enleilainnenl lhan lhose vilh pulIic conpanies.
Iog posls veie oflen in lhe foin of lhe execulive's
individuaI opinions and expeil vievs on specific
liends, issues and pioducls, vhich is in keeping
vilhlIogging liends lolhal hone and alioad.
The Iogging India iepoil, vhich vas lased
on an onIine suivey of MSN poilaI visilois in 2OO6,
shoved lhal having a pIalfoin foi seIf-expiession
facloied heaviIy inlo lhe nolivalion lo lIog in India
vilh 58 slailing a lIog lo expiess passionale
vievs (usiness Iogs, 2OO6). InleinalionaIIy, lhe
2OO9 Technoiali suivey aIso shoved lhal
lienendous inpoilance is given lo voicing one's
opinion on one's lIog. Thus, 71 iespondenls in lhe
Technoiali suivey said lhey lIog al Ieasl in pail lo
speak lheii ninds (Sussnan, 2OO9). Olhei ieasons
incIuded lhe need lo shaie one's expeilise and
expeiiences, naking noney oi doing lusiness
(Sussnan, 2OO9).
InleieslingIy, lhe execulive lIogs exanined in
lhis sludy veie aIso found lo le faiiIy inleiaclive.
Apail fion lhe conveisalionaI lone, lhe use of
picluies and videos aIso heIped nake lhe lIogs in
lhis sanpIe quile inleiaclive. A significanl najoiily
of lIoggeis aIso piovided sone foin of conlacl
infoinalion on lheii lIogs incIuding lheii enaiI
addiesses and/oi Iinks lo lheii Iacelook, LinkedIn
and Tvillei accounls. Tvillei vas veiy popuIai
anong lhe lIoggeis inlhis sanpIe.
Inleivievs of lop execulives shoved lhal nany
of lhen veie conceined lhal Tvillei vas ieducing
lhe line lhey used lo spend lIogging vhiIe a fev
said lhe lvo couId nol le conpaied. A iecenl Tines
of India ailicIe lilIed The Iog's Long Coodlye,
iepoiled lhal lIogs have indeed laken a hil vilh
incieasing popuIaiily of Iacelook and Tvillei
(Naii, 2O11). The iepoil vas lased on a sludy
conducled ly Iev Reseaich Cenlei vhich cIains
lhal onIy haIf as nany onIine adoIescenls lIogged in
2O1O conpaied lo2OO6 (Naii, 2O11).
Anolhei inpoilanl finding of lhe conlenl
anaIysis sludy ieveaIed lhal nosl Indian execulive
lIogs in lhis sanpIe suffei fion pooi conneclivily.
SpecificaIIy, haIf lhe lIogs in lhis sanpIe scoied O in
lhe conneclivily calegoiy. A veII-connecled lIog
vouId liing in liaffic lo lhe lIog. Kiislin Daiguzas,
vho iuns lhe lIog IaienlDish lhal gels noie lhan
lvo niIIion vievs pei nonlh, enphasizes lhal
highIighling olhei lIoggeis is a gieal vay lo liing
peopIe in. If you highIighl a popuIai lIoggei vilh a
posl, lhey'II usuaIIy iecipiocale and Iink lo you, and
il lecones aII viiaI (anks, 2OO7, p. 174).
Hovevei, oui sludy shoved lhal nany Indian
execulive lIoggeis said lhey aie nol ieaIIy inleiesled
in incieasing liaffic lo lheii lIogs. To lhen, lhe lIog
vas a pIace lo pulIish lheii ideas and il did nol
nallei hov nany peopIe acluaIIy iead lhen. Maiy
}o IoIey, a lechnicaI jouinaIisl and fuII-line
Miciosofl valchei, poinls oul lhal one shouId nol Iel
one's lIog luininloa vaIIed gaiden ly nol Iinking
lo olhei lIogs (anks, 2OO7, p. 52). Hovevei, il nusl
le poinled oul lhal vhiIe nosl lIogs in lhis sanpIe
had pooi oi no lIogioIIs, a fev lIoggeis such as
Cauiav Mishia, vhose lIog ieceived lhe
IndilIoggies esl usiness Iog avaid in 2OO8,
piovided Iinks lo olhei lIoggeis in lhe posls ilseIf.
Thus, specific posls in Mishia's lIog veie veII-
Iinked lo olhei lIogs so lhal an infoinalion chain
vas ciealed.
Apail fion inpioving conneclivily, Indian
execulive lIogs can lecone noie usalIe if lhe
conlenl is oiganized undei IaleIs and calegoiies and
lhe nosl iecenl posls expIicilIy naiked. Using lhe
liacklack fealuie viII aIso heIp execulives Iink lo
ieIevanl posls. Iuilhei, execulive lIoggeis can
nake lheii siles noie inleiaclive ly posling suiveys
and aIIoving sulsciiplion lo lhe connenls on lheii
posls.
Iev lIoggeis in lhis sanpIe peinilled
anonynous connenls on lheii lIogs. IoIey poinls
oul lhal nany vho connenl on lIogs opl lo le
anonynous: I lhink nany peopIe aie afiaid of
posling vilhlheii ieaI nanes. They eilhei voik foi a
conpany lhal doesn'l appiove of lhen posling oi
veighing in, oi lhey vanl lo pielend lo le inpailiaI
vhen lhey aien'l. Sone aIso jusl vanl Iicense lo say
lhings anonynousIy lhal lhey'd nevei daie say in
peison oi via e-naiI (anks, 2OO7, p. 51). AIIoving
anonynous connenls vouId possilIy gel noie
peopIe loengage vilhlhe posls.
This sludy focused on individuaI lIogs
nainlained ly lop Indian execulives. As noie
execulives lake lo lIogging, noie definile palleins
viII eneige and geneiaIizalions nay le diavn.
IndividuaI lIogs apail, fuluie ieseaich needs lo
focus on lIogs nainlained ly gioups of lop
execulives and coipoiale lIogs. Hov diffeienl aie
lhey fion individuaI lIogs` Aie lheie inleicuIluiaI
diffeiences anong lIogs nainlained ly peopIe fion
diffeienl counliies` The nonelizalion of lhe
55
Var|ab|e H|n|mum Hax|mum Hax|mum Hean Hed|an $tandard
0bserved 0bserved Poss|b|e 0ev|at|on
lrleracl|v|ly 3 8 9 o.2o o.00 1.039
Lsao|||ly 1 5 5 3.09 3.00 1.0o7
Correcl|v|ly 0 5 o 1.37 1.00 1.592
Tab|e 5: lrler-var|ao|e Ara|ys|s
56
Top|c
lrduslry 0ul|oo| 94
Tec|ro|ogy Trerds & T|ps 83
Currerl Alla|rs - 0l|ers 83
Var|el|rg & Adverl|s|rg 80
lrs|g|ls or l|e Ecorory 77
0r||re Soc|a| Ved|a / |elWor||rg 74
Persora| Slor|es 71
Erlreprereurs||p o9
Erlerla|rrerl (Vov|es, Vus|c & 0ar|rg) o3
Trave| & Food o0
lrlorral|or aooul go|rgs-or al oWr l|rr 57
C|v|| Soc|ely Ergagererl 57
luror 49
Currerl Alla|rs - Po||l|cs 4o
lurar Resources Varagererl T|ps 43
Educal|or 43
Sporls 43
L|lerary Express|ors 23
Tab|e 1 : Corlerl
Features
6|og a||oWs exlerra| correrls 100
6|og a||oWs suoscr|o|rg lo posls 100
6|og lore |s corversal|ora| 94
6|og prov|des aul|or's corlacl |rlorral|or 8o
6|og d|sp|ays p|olograp|s 8o
6|og corla|rs v|deos 71
6|og a||oWs suoscr|o|rg lo correrls o3
6|og corla|rs surveys 17
6|og a||oWs aroryrous correrls 9
Tab|e 2 : lrleracl|v|ly
|og has
Ar |rlerra| searc| erg|re 89
Arc||ves s|oWr c|roro|og|ca||y 8o
C|ear |aoe|s ard calegor|es o0
'Vosl Recerl Posls' exp||c|l|y rar|ed 40
Trac|oac| lealure 34
Tab|e 3 : Lsao|||ly
L|nks
6|ogro||s lo ol|er lypes ol o|ogs 40
6|ogro||s lo sare-|rduslry o|ogs 37
L|r|s lo ol|er lypes ol Weos|les 2o
6|ogro||s lo ol|er-|rduslry o|ogs 20
L|r|s lo sare-|rduslry Weos|les 11
L|r|s lo ol|er-|rduslry Weos|les 3
Tab|e 4 : Correcl|v|ly
lIogospheie lhiough adveilisenenls and
canpaigns aIsoneeds lole expIoied.
To concIude, lhis sludy shoved lhal anong lhe
lop Indian execulives vho lIog, nosl aie associaled
vilh lhe Infoinalion TechnoIogy and Inleinel
seclois. A conlenl anaIysis of lhe lIogs shoved lhal
popuIai lIogging lopics incIuded indusliy oulIook,
lechnoIogy liends and lips, cuiienl affaiis and
insighls on lhe econony. Iosls veie oflen in lhe
naluie of lhe execulive's individuaI opinions,
aclionalIe lips, and expeil vievs on specific liends,
issues and pioducls. WhiIe lhe lIogs scoied quile
highinlhe inleiaclivily calegoiy and did ieasonalIy
veII in lhe usaliIily calegoiy, nosl suffeied fion
pooi conneclivily inleins of Iinks loolhei lIogs and
velsiles inlheii lIogioIIs.
Iuilhei, inleivievs of execulive lIoggeis
highIighled faclois such as cuIluiaI vaIues, voik
slyIe of lop execulives and lechnoIogy laiiieis lhal
nighl have adveiseIy affecled lhe giovlh of
execulive lIogging in India. WhiIe nany poinled
oul lhal Tvillei has noiphed lIogging, aII
execulives fiinIy nainlained lhal lIogging gave
lhen an edge in leins of ciealing a peisonaI liand,
luiIding ciediliIily, and eslalIishing lhoughl
Ieadeiship. Lasl lul nol lhe Ieasl, lhey sliessed lhe
ioIe of connon sense in ensuiing lhal ciilicaI
infoinalion aloul lhe conpany is nevei posled on a
lIog.
SMLLTA MISHRA
57
T|ps for b|oggers from 0E0s and top execut|ves
Learr lo |aug| al yourse|l
wr|le or |rleresl|rg lop|cs
0|ve rea| ||le exarp|es, rol oor|rg l|eory
wr|le posls l|al |ave a |orger s|e|l ||le
6e geru|re ard |oresl
Adr|l your r|sla|es ard correcl l|er
6e |rlorra| |r your Wr|l|rg sly|e
walc| your rarrers W|||e o|ogg|rg
L|sler lo your cuslorer
Tab|e 5 : T|ps lor 6|oggers
keferences
anks, M. A. (2OO7). Iogging heioes: Inleivievs vilh 3O of lhe
voiId's lop lIoggeis. Indiana: }ohnWiIey and Sons.
hal, L. (2OO8, ApiiI 2). Aloul. |Laxnipalhy hal's Wel Iog:
halnaluiaIIyj. Reliieved Ieliuaiy 1O, 2O1O, fion
hllp://vvv.Ilhal.con/aloul/
hal, L. (2OO9, }anuaiy 8). DiscIainei. |Laxnipalhy hal's Wel
Iog: halnaluiaIIyj. Reliieved Ieliuaiy 1O, 2O1O, fion
hllp://vvv.Ilhal.con/discIainei/
ikhchandani, S. (2OO9, Novenlei 1). SeIecling lhe iighl lusiness
pailnei. |Sanjeev ikhchandani's vel Iog: Wisdon in
Hi nds i ghl . j Rel i i eved Mai c h 1, 2O1O, f i on
hllp://likhchandani.lIogspol.con/2OO9/11/seIecling-
iighl-lusiness-pailnei.hlnI
usiness lIogs diive India's lIogospheie (2OO6, Novenlei 27).
MSN I ndi a. Rel ii eved } anuaiy 3, 2O1O, f ion
hllp://dovnIoad.niciosofl.con/dovnIoad/d/3/l/d3l7
d5c9-6OO5-434c-8e71-822678l15eac/pi_2711O6.doc
Desai, A. (2OO9, Maich). fal2fil. |Anaggh Desai's vel Iog:
Lnliepieneui ly Allilude, LnpIoyee ly Choicej. Reliieved
M a i c h 2 , 2 O 1 O , f i o n
hllp://vvv.anaggh.con/calegoiy/fal2fil
Chosh, S. (n.d). Aloul ne. |Shanlanu Chosh's vel Iog:
TiaveIIei's TaIej. Reliieved Maich 12, 2O1O, fion
hllp://vvv.shanlanughosh.con/
CondaI, V. (2OO8, Decenlei 1O). Afleinalh: Munlai leiioi
allacks lo inpacl poIilicaI funding. |VishaI CondaI's vel
Iog: Cod in Chief.j Reliieved Maich 14, 2O1O, fion
hllp://vvv.godinchief.con/enliy/nunlai-leiioi-
allacks-lo-inpacl-poIilicaI-funding/
Ciayliov, M. (2OO5, Augusl 27). As lIogging giovs, conpanies
eye pi lfaI I s. Relii eved }anuaiy 4, 2O1O, fion
hllp://vvv.cioI.con/conlenl/nevs/2OO5/1O5O827O1.as
pIo
CuneIius, S. (n.d.) Whal is a IogioII` Hov Ioggeis Use
IogioIIs lo oosl Tiaffic lo Theii Iogs. Reliieved May 3,
2 O 1 O , f i o n
hllp://velIogs.aloul.con/od/pailsofalIog/ql/WhalIsa
IogioII.hln
KaivaI, R. & Chaluivedi, I. (2OO9). Coipoiale lIogging in India.
Nev DeIhi: Wisdon Tiee.
Kaushik, A. (2OO9, }an 6). CoogIe AnaIylics Maxinized: Deepei
AnaIysis, Highei ROI & You. |Avinash Kaushik's vel Iog:
Occan's Razoij. Reliieved Ieliuaiy 2, 2O1O, fion
hllp://vvv.kaushik.nel/avinash/2OO9/O1/googIe-
anaIylics-naxinized-deepei-anaIysis-highei-ioi-fiee.hlnI
KejiivaI, A. (2OO9, Decenlei 8). Why do vonen caiiy such Iaige
handlags` |AIok KejiivaI's vel Iog: When Rodin nel
Rolinhoodj. Reliieved Ieliuaiy 25, 2O1O, fion
hllp://iodinhood.con/2OO9/12/O8/vhy-do-vonen-
caiiy-such-Iaige-handlags/
Naii, K. (n.d.). Aloul. |Kiis Naii's vel Iog: Less Hunans, Moie
Ro l o l s j . Re l i i e v e d Ma i c h 1 5 , 2 O 1 O , f i o n
hllp://kiisnaii.lunlIi.con/
NiIkanlh, A. (2OO9, }une 26). In louch vilh augnenled ieaIily.
|Ashulosh NiIkanlh's vel lIog: Ashulosh NiIkanlh's Iog
on lhe IhiIosophy of TechnoIogyj. Reliieved Maich 16,
2O1O, fion hllp://vvv.niIkanlh.con/2OO9/O6/24/in-
louch-vilh-augnenled-ieaIily/
Iaiikh, S. (2O1O, }anuaiy 8). I vish I had knovn lhese al lhe slail...
|SahiI Iaiikh's vel Iog: SahiI Iaiikh's voik+Iife slieanj.
R e l i i e v e d M a i c h 1 8 , 2 O 1 O , f i o n
hllp://vvv.sahiIpaiikh.con/i-vish-i-had-knovn-lhese-
al-lhe-slail
Ieieia, A. & Raghav, K. (2OO9, Augusl 11). A decade on, Indian
lIogs ienain noslIy uilan, niche. The Minl. Reliieved
}anuaiy 1O, 2O1O, fion hllp://vvv.Iiveninl.con/2OO9/O8
/11OO1925/A-decade-on-Indian-lIogs-iena.hlnI`h=A1
Raghav, K. (2OO9, Augusl 14). Tveel nov, lIog Ialei. The Minl.
R e l i i e v e d } a n u a i y 1 O , 2 O 1 O , f i o n
hllp://vvv.Iiveninl.con/2OO9/O8/1321O553/Tveel-
nov-lIog-Ialei.hlnI
Ravin, R. & Mishia, C. (2OO9, May). Slale of lhe Indian
lIogospheie. Reliieved Ieliuaiy 2, 2O1O, fion
hl l p: //vvv. ga ui a vononi c s . c on/lI og/l he -
indilIoggeiin-slale-of-lhe-indian-lIogospheie/
Senioi execulives conlinue shifl loonIine nedia. (2OO9, Decenlei
4 ) . R e l i i e v e d M a y 2 , 2 O O 9 , f i o n
hllp://vvv.naikelingpiofs.con/chails / 2OO9 / 3224 /
senioi-execs-conlinue-shifl-lo-onIine-nedia
Schvailz, }. (2OO5, Novenlei). If you vanl lo Iead, lIog. Haivaid
usiness Reviev, Reliieved Ieliuaiy 1, 2O1O, fion
vvv.hli.oig
Shankai, K. (2OO8, ApiiI 18). Coipoiale lIogging and vhy CLOs
don'l gel il. The usiness Slandaid, Reliieved Maich3, 2O1O,
f i o n h l l p : / / v v v . l u s i n e s s -
slandaid.con/india/nevs/coipoiale-lIoggingvhy-ceos-
don`l-gel-il/32O457/
Sood, R. (2O1O, }anuaiy 21). Inlioducing iighlsquid. |RahuI
Sood's vel Iog: RahuI Soodj. Reliieved Ieliuaiy 15, 2O1O,
fion hllp://vvv.iahuIsood.con/2O1O/O1/inlioducing-
liighlsquid.hlnI
Sussnan, M. (2OO9, Oclolei 2O). The vhal and vhy of lIogging:
Slale of lhe Iogospheie 2OO9. Reliieved }anuaiy 15, 2O1O,
fion hllp://lechnoiali.con/lIogging/ailicIe/day-2-lhe-
vhal-and-vhy2/
Xifia, }. & Hueilas, A. (2OO8). Iogging IR: An expIoialoiy
anaIysis of pulIic ieIalions velIogs. IulIic ReIalions
Reviev, 34, 269-275.
Ved|a keu|at|on \ Lemoc|at|c \a|ue |n lnd|a
Pa!!avI Majumdar
Anily Univeisily Ullai Iiadesh
The iapid lechnoIogicaI and sliucluiaI change innedia indusliies duiing lhe pasl lvodecades has chaIIenged lhe exisling inslilulions of
ieguIalion and lheii Iegilinacy. The slale has liadilionaIIy allenpled lo nainlain conlioI ovei lhe lioadcasl nedia as lhe conlioI of
infoinalion syslens caiiies enoinous poIilicaI povei. The deieguIalion of lhe lioadcasl nedia duiing lhe 199Os in seveiaI pails of lhe
voiId, as aIso lhe conveigence of nedia and changing poIilico-econonic niIieu, has iaised queslions peilaining lo lhe ialionaIe and
oljeclives of ieguIalion. Il has aIso iaised queslions aloul lhe ideaI ioIes lhal lhe nass nedia shouId pIay as an inslilulion lo slienglhen
denocialic goveinance, undei vhal condilions do nedia syslens succeed oi faiI lo neel lhese oljeclives, and vhal slialegic iefoins
vouId liidge lhe gap lelveenlhe denocialic pionise and peifoinance of nedia syslens. As a iesuIl lhe eaiIiei nodeIs of slale cenliic
nedia ieguIalion aie leing iepIaced ly diffeienl piololypes (eg., seIf- and co-ieguIalion) diiven ly poIilicaI, econonic foices and
denocialic vaIues. These aIleinalives lo liadilionaI slaluloiy ieguIalion aie naiked ly lhe invoIvenenl of non-goveinnenlaI aclois in
ieguIaloiy piocesses and aie leing iecognized lo have gieal polenliaI foi soIving conlenpoiaiy piolIens of connunicalion
ieguIalions. This papei ains lodiscuss sone of lhe ialionaIes foi ieguIalionand assess lhe effecliveness of aIleinale nodes of ieguIalion.
Kcqucrds. ReguIalion, lioadcasl nedia, denocialic vaIues, goveinance
keviewof literature
The scoiching pace of change in lhe aiea of
lioadcasling has posed chaIIenges lo schoIais
acioss lhe voiId. The lechnoIogicaI and sliucluiaI
changes have iaised queslions of ieguIaloiy
iefoins, spavning a Iaige lody of voik in lhe aieas
of leIeconnunicalions, lioadcasling and nedia
Iav and connunicalions conveigence. A Iaige
nunlei of schoIais have sludied hov lioadcasling
ieguIalion ieIales lo lhe piincipIe of fieedon of
expiession. Heinan and McChesney (1997) in lheii
voik `lhe CIolaI Media' have asseiled lhal
ieguIalionoi conlioI of lhe nedia is liue inaII slales.
HeIge Ronning (2OO7) in his ailicIe `ioadcasling
ReguIalion vs. Iieedon of Lxpiession and LdiloiiaI
Independence' has aigued lhal lheie aIvays is a
lension lelveen hov lo ieguIale lhe nedia lhiough
adninislialive and poIilicaI neasuie on lhe one
hand and hov lo secuie a fiee independenl
lioadcasling nedia on lhe olhei. His ailicIe vhich
iefeis lo lhe Noivegian Iieedon of Lxpiession
idenlifies six possilIe lhieals lo an independenl
lioadcasling silualion: The slale, lhe couils,
conneiciaI ovneis, adveiliseis, souices, nelvoiks
of aclois. Many schoIais (McQuaiI 2OO3, eiliand
2OO2, MuIIei 2OO5, Cailei 1996, Dennis el aI.) have
aIso expIoied lhe Iinkage lelveen nedia
accounlaliIily in a IileiaI denociacy queslioning
lhe noins on vhich lhe nedia's peifoinance is
judged in ieIalion lo quaIily of nedia conlenl.
Accoiding lo MuIIei, lhe nedia have cIained foi
lhenseIves lhe ioIe of agenls in naking olheis in
povei accounlalIe. This has ciealed a sulslanliaI
inconsislency in lhe equalion of povei and
accounlaliIily as il appIies lo najoi denocialic
inslilulions. WhiIe lhe nedia cIain lhe iighl lo hoId
olheis lo accounl, no equivaIenl nechanisn exisls
lo hoId lhe nedia lo accounl. Nol onIy is lhis a
`seiious inslilulionaI inconsislency, lul il loideis
on giand hypociisy'. Denis McQuaiI (2OO3) in his
voik `Media AccounlaliIily and Iieedon of
Lxpiession' aigues lhal fieedon and accounlaliIily
aie nol inconpalilIe and shovs vays foivaid lo
giealei iesponsiliIily. Ciling cases of lalIoidisalion
of lhe Aneiican nedia, eiliand (2OO2) slales lhal
lhe `naikel' cannol ensuie nedia quaIily. eiliand
pioposes ielhinking exisling "nedia accounlaliIily
syslens" and ciealion of nev ones and aigues lhal
lhe onIy soIulion is lo add seIf-ieguIalion, oi quaIily
conlioI, ly piofessionaIs and pulIic lo naikel and
slale ieguIalion. In his voik `HoIding lhe nedia
accounlalIe, Iiilchaid, has conducled enpiiicaI
ieseaich inlo nedia elhics and accounlaliIily,
focusing on lhe syslen of noins such as Iav and
elhics lole usefuI looIs of nedia accounlaliIily.
SchoIais such as Dennis el aI. suggesl seveiaI
nodeIs incIuding lhe naikelpIace nodeI, lhe seIf-
ieguIaloiy nodeI, lhe voIunlaiy nodeI, lhe
fiduciaiy nodeI, and lhe Iiligalion nodeI vilhin lhe
puiviev of seveiaI foins of nedia accounlaliIily
lhal funclion effecliveIy vilhin fiee speech
paianeleis. Theie have leen seveiaI sludies on lhe
appioaches lo ieguIale lhe nedia. Tiine Syveilsen
(2OO4) has idenlified foui lypes of aigunenls foi
" Asst. Professor, Amlt Schoo| of Communlcatlon,
Amlt Unlterslt Uttar Pradesh
58
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 58-62
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
hov lo ieguIale lhe nedia in geneiaI and
lioadcasling in pailicuIai. These aie Iinked lo
cuIluiaI poIilics, nedia lusiness inleiesls, consunei
poIilics and conpelilion ieguIalion. Hofnann-
Rien's aulhoiilalive ``ReguIaling lhe Media''
hi ghI i ghl s di veise appioaches l o nany
connunicalionpiolIens and liends suchas hov lo
juslify ieguIalion vhen channeIs aie alundanl, lhe
shifl fion cuIluiaI lo econonic conceins, lhe
vuIneialiIily of ieguIalois lo poIilicaI and indusliy
piessuies. The aulhois aigue lhal vheieas naikel
diiven leIevision lends lo fIoul pulIic inleiesl,
ieguIalion can cIose lhe gap onIy lo a Iiniled exlenl.
``ioadcasling IIuiaIisn and Diveisily'' ly LesIey
Hilchens exanines poIicy and ieguIaloiy neasuies
designed lo ensuie pIuiaIisn and diveisily in lhe
nedia secloi. The sludy adopls lolh a hisloiicaI and
a conpaialive appioach, focusing on lhe ieguIaloiy
fianevoiks adopled in lhiee juiisdiclions: lhe
Uniled Kingdon, lhe Uniled Slales of Aneiica and
AusliaIia. This look is lased on lvo assunplions:
lhal pIuiaIisn and diveisily in lhe nedia secloi can
le achieved onIy ly enpIoying a nelvoik of
ieguIaloiy neasuies vhich conpIenenl each
olhei |p. 8j and lhal lhe poIicy neasuies ained al
ensuiing nedia pIuiaIisn and diveisily have leen
skeved ly a fuliIe focus onlhe diffeienl ieguIaloiy
liealnenl of lioadcasling and lhe piess, ialhei
lhan concenlialing on lhe ioIe pIayed ly lhe nedia
ina denocialic sociely |p. 8j. This difficuIly couId le
ienedied ly adopling a nev focus on lhe ioIe
pIayed ly lhe nedia in a denocialic sociely, lased
on lhe nolion of lhe pulIic spheie |p. 8j. CIive
HoIIick in his ailicIe `Media ieguIalion and
denociacy' slales lhal conliaiy lo lhe geneiaI viev,
ieguIalioncanle lhe defendei of fiee speechand lhe
foices of lhe naikelpIace lhe chief lhieal lo a
pIuiaIily of viev. ul nev lechnoIogies denand
nev foins of ieguIalion and goveinnenl
inleivenlion nay le lhe lesl vay of ensuiing lhe
pIuiaIily of voice onvhichdenociacy depends.
SchoIais such as Ieinluik and Vainey have
allenpled lo capluie lhe ``lechnoIogicaIIy diiven
conveigence of nedia'' Ieading lo a ``lieakdovn of
convenlionaI secloiaI divides''. Theii aulhoiilalive
voik ``Media ieguIalion, IulIic Inleiesl and lhe
Lav'' queslions lhe ialionaIes and oljeclives of
ieguIalion, vhich accoiding lo lhen, have leen
``insufficienlIy addiessed, vilh lhe consequence
lhal ieguIaloiy lechniques, no nallei, hov
sophislicaled, do nol cIeai laigels oi a cIeai vaIue
syslen undeipinning lhen.'' Caica-MuiiIIo
Mailha's papei on ``ReguIaloiy iesponses lo
conveigence'' idenlifies lhe faclois lhal have noved
sone ieguIalois aiound lhe voiId lo iesliucluie
lheii ieguIaloiy agencies lovaids an inlegialed
infoinalion and connunicalion lechnoIogy (ICT)
ieguIaloi. This papei uses lhe lheoiy of liansaclion
cosls as an anaIylicaI fianevoik lo anaIyze lhe
ieguIaloiy conveigence effoils of lhe UK, India,
MaIaysia, and SoulhAfiica
The coIIeclion of papeis in ``Conveigence in
Luiopean DigilaI TV ReguIalion'', ediled ly
Maisden and VeihuIsl, expIain ieguIaloiy
iesponses lo lechnicaI and naikel conveigence of
lhe lioadcasling, leIecons, piinl nedia and leIecon
seclois. The aulhois hosl lhe viev lhal lhe delale on
hov lo ieguIale conveigence and vhelhei
ieguIalionvilhinlhis conlexl is a laiiiei ialhei lhan
a faciIilaloi has leen divided inlo lvo nain canps
lhe naxinaIisls and lhe nininaIisls. Sone of lhe
iecenl schoIaiship aIso focuses on aIleinale nodes
of ieguIalionsuchas seIf and co-ieguIalion.
Ieng Hva's ailicIe `y lhe Indusliy, of lhe
Indusliy, foi lhe Indusliy: The IossiliIilies and
Linils of SeIf-ReguIalion of Indian ioadcasling',
discusses lhe naikel condilions iequiied foi a seIf
ieguIaloiy nechanisn lo succeed and evaIuales lhe
Indiannedia scenaiioinlhis conlexl. He aigues lhal
lhe Indian lioadcasl indusliy's allenpls al seIf-
ieguIalion have leen `inadequaleIy lhoughl
lhiough fion concepluaIizalion lo opeialion'. A
sludy conducled ly ieseaicheis al lhe Univeisily of
Hanluig on`ReguIaled SeIfReguIalionas a Ioin of
Modein Coveinnenl', idenlifies and anaIyses lhe
vaiious looIs lhal can le used in ``ReguIaled SeIf-
ReguIalion'' and cieales a "looI lox" fion vhich
Iavnakeis can lenefil in a fiisl slep lo soIve lhe
alove-nenlioned ieguIaloiy diIenna.
keguIation vs Democratic vaIues
Iev vouId deny lhal lhe nass nedia vieId
enoinous povei in loday's voiId. They aie
incieasingIy pIaying lhe ioIe once pIayed ly faniIy,
connunily, ieIigion and foinaI educalion: `Nol
onIy disseninaling infoinalion and knovIedge,
lul aIso shaping vaIues and noins, nouIding
alliludes and lehavioui, and infIuencing lhe veiy
piocess of Iiving'. The nedia is aIso a key agenda
sellei il deleinines vhich vais and confIicls
shouId lhe cilizens knov aloul and vhal issues and
deveIopnenls lhey shouId le infoined and
conceined aloul. TeIevision in pailicuIai has leen
acknovIedged as a poveifuI audio-visuaI nediun
vhich Ieaves Iong-Iasling inpiessions on lhe ninds
of lhe pulIic and is lheiefoie a poveifuI looI lo
shape pulIic opinion.
59
Defining keguIation
efoie lhe delale on nedia ieguIalion, il is
necessaiy lo indicale vhal is neanl ly lhe lein
`ieguIalion'. Though a nunlei of definilions of
ieguIalion have leen offeied ovei lhe yeais, Ogus
(1994) discusses SeIznick's (1985) definilion of
ieguIalion, vhich suggesls lhal ieguIalion is
`suslained and focused conlioI exeicised ly a pulIic
agency ovei aclivilies lhal aie vaIued ly a
connunily' (SeIznick 1985:363). This definilion
focuses on lhe `slale-cenlied' viev of ieguIalion,
vhiIe olhei sludies of nedia ieguIalion in lhe UK
have aII pIaced lhe giealesl enphasis on pulIic
inleivenlion. The polenliaI exlension of olhei foins
of conlioI, such as seIf ieguIalion, and lhe IikeIihood
of giealei inleivenlion ly nevei slakehoIdeis such
as lhe couils, neans lhal a noie sophislicaled
definilion of ieguIalion, vhich acknovIedges lhe
nuIlipIicily of polenliaI ieguIaloiy lodies, nay
have lo le adopled. Iack (2OO2), quoled in Ieinluck
and Vainey (2OO6), offeis lhiee desciiplions of
ieguIalion.
|n |nc firs|, rcgu|a|icn is |nc prcnu|ga|icn cf
ru|cs oq gctcrnncn| acccnpanicd oq
nccnanisns fcr ncni|cring and cnfcrccncn|,
usua||q assuncd |c oc pcrfcrncd |nrcugn a
spccia|is| s|a|c agcncq. |n |nc scccnd, i| is anq
fcrn cf dircc| s|a|c in|crtcn|icn in |nc cccncnq,
una|ctcr fcrn |na| in|crtcn|icn nign| |a|c. |n
|nc |nird, rcgu|a|icn is a|| nccnanisns cf sccia|
ccn|rc| cr inf|ucncc affcc|ing a|| rcspcc|s cf
ocnaticur frcn una|ctcr scurcc, unc|ncr |ncq
arc in|cn|icna| cr nc|. (8|ac| 2002. 18)
1he need for keguIation
The delale on fieedon of connunicalion and
iesislance lo ieguIalion has hisloiicaIIy foined lhe
lheoielicaI lasis on vhich nuch of lhe povei of lhe
nedia has leen luiIl and aIso lhe piinaiy dynanic
vhichdeleinines lhe ieIalionship lelveenlhe slale
and lhe nedia. McQuaiI (1992: 9) eslalIishes a
hisloiicaI piogiession in lhe ieIalionship lelveen
iesliiclion and fieedon of expiession, liacing il
fion suppiession (ly lhe slale and ieIigious
aulhoiilies) and seIeclive piohililion, lo Iiniled
peinission `in lhe nane of Iileily and lusiness', lo,
in lhe nodein eia, piesciiplion in lhe puisuil of
educalionaI oljeclives and finaIIy, lo Iileilaiianisn
in vhal he iefeis lo as `a naikel lased cIain lo
unhindeied fieedon of opeialion' (quoled in
Ieinluck and Vainey, 2OO6 p.9).
The aliIily lo connunicale leIiefs, ideas and
vievs is heId lo le cenliaI lo denociacy, yel in aII
denociacies Iinils aie pIaced on lhe fieedon lo
connunicale. The queslion is vhelhei lhe nedia
shouId le heId lo a highei slandaid and le
ieguIaled inlo lehaving vilh inlegiily. Slephen L.
Cailei, piofessoi of Iav al YaIe Univeisily, asks, if
inlegiily is such a good lhing and if ve liuIy have
Iess of il lhan ve oughl lhen vhy nol nandale il`
Cailei suggesls lhal ieguIalion of nedia, and
especiaIIy ils poIilicaI inquiiy inlo conlenl, is a
piolIenalic souice of enlaiiassnenl as lhe lvo aie
dialoIicaIIy voIaliIe. Heinan and McChesney
(1997: 11) asseil lhal il is liue lhal lhe nedia is
ieguIaled inaII slales. Whelhei il is lhioughlhe kind
of diiecl conlioI associaled vilh Connunisl oi
Iascisl iegines, oi lhiough appaienlIy poveifuI
slale aulhoiized agencies, lhe slale al aII lines
ensuies a degiee of conlioI oi infIuence ovei lhe
nedia. WhiIe in lhe US, lhe couils have slaled a
viIIingness, aIleil in Iiniled inslances, lo pievenl
lhose vishing lo pulIish naleiiaI fion doing so, in
iilain, a vide iange of olhei significanl iesliiclions
exisl, ianging fion geneiaI Iavs of olscenily,
lIaspheny, defanalion and incilenenl lo iaciaI
halied, lhiough nedia-specific Iavs. The issue of
lioadcasling ieguIalion vs fieedon of expiession is
sunned up veII inlhe slalenenl givenly Ofcon in
2OO4 inils pioposaI foi a ioadcasling Code.
8rcadcas|ing and frccdcn cf cxprcssicn arc
in|rinsica||q |in|cd. Tnc cnc is |nc |ifc o|ccd cf
|nc c|ncr. Ncuncrc can |na| |cnsicn oc|uccn |nc
rign| |c frccdcn cf cxprcssicn and i|s rcs|ric|icn
oc ncrc acu|c |nan in drauing up a Ccdc unicn
scc|s |c rcgu|a|c orcadcas|ing. (Scc|icn 2, pcin|
2 cf |nc dccuncn|, Ofccn 2005).
The Indian ieguIaloiy fianevoik has lhe
5
fieedon of speech and expiession al ils iool and is
chaiacleiized ly a Iaige nunlei of slakehoIdeis, lhe
piinaiy anong lhen leing lhe slale, lhe nedia
ovneis, lhe lioadcasleis and lhe consuneis of lhe
conlenl. A Iaige nunlei of paiaIIeI syslens of
conlioI exisl, incIuding lhe geneiaI Iavs nenlioned
alove, conlenpl of couil, and lhe CalIe TeIevision
6
Nelvoiks (ReguIalion) Acl, 1995. Inaddilionlolhal
lhe Indian judiciaI syslen has shovn an incIinalion
loieininlhe nedia and lhe nedia indusliy has pul a
seIf ieguIaloiy nechanisn inpIace.
Civen lhe degiee of povei lhal lhe nedia
exeicise ly, in IunIei's voids, pioviding `lhe
infoinalionaI luiIding lIocks lo sliucluie vievs of
lhe voiId' (quoled in Negiine 1994: 2), il is
ieasonalIe lo expecl lhal lhe nedia loo shouId le
accounlalIe lhal lheii aclivilies shouId le ieguIaled.
Yel sinuIlaneous vilh lhe acquisilion of povei in
piivale, coipoiale hands iuns lhe paiaIIeI liend of
6O
IALLAVI MA}UMDAR
lhe alandonnenl ly lhe slale of nany funclions and
aclivilies hisloiicaIIy associaled vilh a vision of
pulIic aclivily. If Maiquand's lhesis on lhe decIine
of lhe pulIic donain is accepled (Maiquand 2OO4)
lhen ve shouId le incieasingIy lioulIed ly lhe
alsence of any aulhoiily exeicising counleivaiIing
poveis lo lhose of nodein coipoialions (Ieinluck
and Vainey 2OO6). Accoiding lo lhese aulhois, lhe
cenliaIily of lhe nedia lo denociacy, as lhe piinaiy
infoinalionsouice, cannol le oveienphasized, and
lhe veiy facl lhal denociacy iequiies cilizens lo le
infoined if lhey veie lo acl effecliveIy as cilizens,
seives as a piina facie juslificalion foi ieguIalion
vilhina denocialic conlexl.
AIternative modes of keguIation
The nodeinviev of ieguIalioniequiies a vision
of ieguIalion vhich is nol enliieIy slale cenlied.
Hence il lecones inpeialive lo considei lhe
concepl of seIf-ieguIalion and co-ieguIalion. The
exisling Iileialuie offeis a vide iange of
peispeclives on lhe issue (Ayeis and iailhvaile
1992, Iack 1996, 2OOO and 2OO1). Accoiding loOgus,
``seIf-ieguIalion is a lioad concepl, coveiing a vide
iange of inslilulionaI aiiangenenls'. Aiyeis and
iailhvaile (1992:1O2-3) offei a usefuI dislinclion
lelveenco-ieguIalionand seIf-ieguIalion.
Cc-rcgu|a|icn.is usua||q |a|cn |c ncan
indus|rq-assccia|icn sc|f-rcgu|a|icn ui|n scnc
c t c r s i g n | a n d / c r r a | i f i c a | i c n o q
gctcrnncn|.Sc|f rcgu|a|icn cntisicns |na| in
par|icu|ar ccn|cx|s i| ui|| oc ncrc cfficacicus fcr
|nc rcgu|a|cd firns |c |a|c cn scnc cr a|| cf |nc
|cgis|a|itc, cxccu|itc, and judicia| rcgu|a|crq
func|icns. (Aiqcrs and 8rai|nuai|c 1992)
SchoIais such as Maisden suggesl lhal co-
ieguIalion has leen sonevhal noie popuIai in lhe
nedia secloi lhan seIf-ieguIalion. In his iepoil on a
Luiopean Connission funded sludy, Maisden
suggesls lhal innodeinco-ieguIalion:
Tnc s|a|c, and s|a|cnc|dcr grcups inc|uding
ccnsuncrs, arc s|a|cd |c cxp|ici||q fcrn par| cf
|nc ins|i|u|icna| sc||ing fcr rcgu|a|icn. Cc-
rcgu|a|icn ccns|i|u|cs nu||ip|c s|a|cnc|dcrs,
and |nis prcccss rcsu||s in grca|cr |cgi|inacq fcr
c| ai ns. Hcuctcr, di rcc| gctcrnncn|
intc|tcncn| inc|uding sanc|icning pcucrs naq
rcsu|| in |nc gains cf rcf|cxitc rcgu|a|icn ocing
|cs|. || is c|car|q a finc|q oa|anccd ccnccp|, a
nidd|c uaq oc|uccn s|a|c rcgu|a|icn and purc'
indus|rq sc|f-rcgu|a|icn. (Marsdcn 2004. 188)
Though co-ieguIalion nay gain giealei degiee
of conpIiance as lhe oulcones aie negolialed vilh
ieIevanl slakehoIdeis, il is acconpanied vilh lhe
lhieal of sone foin of slale sponsoied sanclion. On
lhe olhei hand, seIf-ieguIalion shouId le seen as a
iefIexive node of ieguIalion (Iack 1996, 2OOO,
2OO1).
ConcIusion
Keeping lhe peiceived dangeis of ``nonopoIy
and incieasing conneiciaIisn'' in viev, il is ciuciaI,
in leins of effecliveness and Iegilinacy, lhal foi any
ieguIaloiy iegine lo piove effeclive, lhe undeiIying
ialionaIes and posilive oljeclives aie speIIed oul
vilhadequale cIaiily. As Ieinluck and Vainey slale,
in an eia in vhich lhe goveinnenl is diiven ly a
hands-off appioachand pionises lhe vilhdiavaI of
lhe slale fion liadilionaI ioIes, il lecones
pailicuIaiIy inpoilanl lo idenlify and eslalIish
juslificalions foi conlinuing pulIic inleivenlion in
lhe nedia naikel. olh lhe slale and coipoiale
povei have lhe aliIily lo censoi connunicalion
given lhal `lhe dynanics of denociacy aie
inlinaleIy Iinked lo lhe piaclices of connunicalion
and lhal socielaI connunicalion incieasingIy lakes
pIace vilhin lhe nass nedia' (DahIgien 1995).
Theiefoie, lhe exeicise of such denocialicaIIy
si gni f i canl povei shouI d le sulj ecl l o
ac c ounl ali I i l y, vhel hei i eguI al i on of
connunicalion is caiiied oul ly pulIic oi piivale
povei hoIdeis. Iion a hisloiicaI peispeclive,
Sieleil el aI.'s lypoIogy of nedia syslens
(aulhoiilaiian, lolaIilaiian, Iileilaiian and sociaI
iesponsiliIily) offeis a significanl conliilulion
lovaids undeislanding lhe ieIalionship lelveen
foins of goveinnenl and appioaches lo lhe
ieguIalion of lhe piess. This lypoIogy, deveIoped
fion an Aneiican peispeclive is no Iongei
appIicalIe, hovevei lolh Hunphieys (1996) and
Negiine (1994) iefIecl lhe `significance' of lhe pulIic
seivice nodeIs in Luiope vhen appIied lo
lioadcasling, vhiIe leslifying lo lhe significance of
lhis voik.
The aIleinale node of ieguIalion is lased on lhe
lheoielicaI undeipinnings of lhe `Iileilaiian' and
`sociaI iesponsiliIily' nodeIs. WhiIe lhe `Iileilaiian'
nodeI iepiesenls a silualion in vhich lhe nedia aie
IighlIy ieguIaled and IillIe Iicensing oi censoiship
exisls, lhe `sociaI iesponsiliIily' nodeI enphasizes
inslead lhe ioIe of lhe nedia as a pulIic iesouice in
`infoining lhe delale'. The foinei appioachis nosl
cIoseIy associaled vilh `fiee naikelpIace' of ideas
and vievs piess fieedon and lhe aliIily lo nake
piofil fion il essenliaIIy as a piopeily iighl.
Vieving il fion lhe piisn offeied ly Heinan and
McChesney olseivalion lhal `ieguIalion of lhe
61
nedia has aIvays leen vieved as a Iegilinale
aclivily foi goveinnenl', Ieinluck and Vainey slale
lhal onIy lhe foins of inleivenlion, as opposed lo
lhe facl of il, change, and lhal hisloiicaIIy,
significanl deieguIalion has lheiefoie leen noie
appaienl lhan ieaI. The conpelilive deieguIalion
seen in Luiopean nedia naikels is consislenl vilh
vhal McQuaiI (1992: 143) idenlifies as `a noie
geneiaI ``IileiaIising'' and deieguIaloiy poIilicaI-
econonic liend', lhough lhe ieaI exlenl of lhe
vilhdiavaI of lhe slale shouId peihaps le liealed
skeplicaIIy. Ieinluck and Vainey add lhal in lhe
alsence of cIose consideialion of undeiIying vaIues,
piincipIes, oljeclives and poIicies, and lhe anaIysis
of oulcones, any syslen of nedia ieguIalion, viII
quickIy lecone anachionislic. In lhis conlexl,
aIleinale nodes of ieguIalion such as seIf and co-
ieguIalion, vhich lake inlo accounl lhe Iileilaiian
and sociaI iesponsiliIily lheoiies, nay seive lo le of
ieIevance.
keferences
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lhe Indusliy, of lhe Indusliy, foi lhe Indusliy: The
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eiliand, CIaude }ean (2OO2). Media Llhics & AccounlaliIily
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Univeisily Iiess
Heinan, L and McChesney, R. (1997). The CIolaI Media.
London: CasseII.
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Conpaialive Sludy of IoIicy and ReguIalion. Oxfoid: Hail
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onCensoiship
Seplenlei/Oclolei 1992 voI. 23 no. 4-5 54-58 (Sage }ouinaIs
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}oseph, Annu (2OO9). ioadcasl ieguIalioninlhe pulIic inleiesl:
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ReguIalions/ioadcasl-ieguIalion-in-lhe-pulIic-inleiesl-
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62
IALLAVI MA}UMDAR
63
Commun|cat|on lo| /ll|||at|on :
/n lnd|cat|ve /pp|oach to |nde|tand b|o|n
VIkas Dngra ManIsh Vcrma
HinachaI Iiadesh Univeisily, ShinIa Anily Univeisily Rajaslhan
Shaiing oi affiIialion has Iong since leen eslalIished as one of lhe lasic hunan aclivilies. MasIov's hieiaichy of needs Iisled
leIongingness as one of lhe lasic hunan needs. In his lheoiy of nolivalion, McCIeIIand (1961) said lhal peopIe aie nolivaled ly one of
lhiee lhings: lhe need foi achievenenl, lhe need foi povei oi lhe need foi affiIialion. Ieisons nolivaled ly lhe need foi affiIialion seek
ieIalionships and inleiaclions vilh a vaiiely of diffeienl lypes of peopIe. esides lhese lvo, ieseaich Iileialuie is alound on need foi
affiIialion as inpoilanl lo hunan veII leing. Reseaicheis geneiaIIy agiee lhal lheie is a definile uige in peopIe lo shaie lheii enolionaI
expeiiences vhelhei posilive oi negalive. If lheie is one nediun lhal encouiages and enalIes affiIialionlhe nosl, il is lhe lIog. MiIIions
of lIoggeis aII ovei lhe voiId aie shaiing lheii Iives vilh each olhei. AIlhough lhis shaiing (affiIialion) has leen happening foi a Iong
line nov fiisl il vas lhe enaiI, lhenlhe honepage onlhe WoiId Wide Wel, lhenlhe chal, conpIele vilhlexl, voice and video lhe lIogs
have nov laken ovei lhe viiluaI Iives in viiluaI voiIds. Iogs have, in one vay, changed nolhing significanl olhei lhan peihaps lhe
inleiface, i.e. lhe vay peopIe shaie lhe sane oId lexl, sounds and inages vilh each olhei in lhe viiluaI space. The change hovevei, is in
lhe piesence of lhe individuaI. In vhal is nov iefeiied lo as lIogospheie, an individuaI is nol Iosl in counlIess pseudonyns of a
chalioon, noi is his individuaIily hoslage lo piessuies of onIine connunily oi usei-gioup. esides, lhe lIog as a nediun is liuIy
denocialic. This sludy, leing an expIoialoiy anaIysis, expIains lhe neaning of lIogs lefoie going on lo expIoie vilh lhe heIp of
secondaiy dala lhal vhy lhis is a nediun lhal deseives lo le laIked aloul and vhy peopIe use lIogs. This vouId le foIIoved ly an
expIanaloiy anaIysis on vhal nakes lIogging inpoilanl vhen lheie aie aIieady so nany olhei neans of connunicalion. This papei is
dedicaled lo lhe niIIions of lIoggeis aII ovei lhe voiId vho aie shaiing lheii Iives vilheacholhei. Yes lhis shaiing leenhappening foi a
Iong line nov fiisl il vas lhe enaiI, lhenlhe honepage onlhe WoiId Wide Wel, lhenlhe chal, conpIele vilhlexl, voice and video. Nov
lhe lIogs have lakenovei lhe viiluaI Iives inviiluaI voiIds.
Kcqucrds. AffiIialion, lIogging , viiluaI space, expIoialoiy anaIysis
lntroduction
Iogs have, in one vay, changed nolhing
significanlIy olhei lhan peihaps lhe inleiface, lhal is
hov peopIe shaie lhe sane oId lexl, sounds and
inages vilh each olhei in lhe viiluaI space. The
change hovevei, is inlhe piesence of lhe individuaI.
In vhal is nov iefeiied lo as lIogospheie, an
individuaI is nol Iosl in counlIess pseudonyns of a
chalioon, noi is his individuaIily hoslage lo
piessuies of onIine connunily oi usei-gioup.
esides, lhe lIog as a nediun is liuIy
7
denocialic . AIlhough, lheie is noconcIusive dala
on lhe piofiIe of lhis individuaI, lul a iandon
shuffIing lhiough lhe lIogs vouId suggesl lhal
nosl of lhese aie viillen ly lhe young. Thus, il
suggesls lhal lhe youlh lhal ve aie laIking aloul
heie is lhe chanpion of lhe individuaIily. No
vondei il is lhis (you)lh lhal lhe Tine nagazine
8
naned lhe peisonof lhe yeai foi 2OO6 .
efoie going any fuilhei Iel ne expIain foi lhe
non-lIoggeis One, vhal a lIog is i.e. ils neaning, ils
conlenl and ils puipose, and SecondIy, vhy is lhis a
nediun lhal deseives lo le laIked aloul i.e. a IillIe
lil of nunlei ciunching. This vouId le foIIoved ly
an expIanalion on vhal nakes lIogging inpoilanl
vhen ve have so nany olhei neans of
connunicalion`
The lein "lIog" is deiived fion "Wel Iog." A
lIog is a usei-geneialed velsile vheie enliies aie
nade in jouinaI slyIe and dispIayed in a ieveise
chionoIogicaI oidei. Iogs oflen piovide
connenlaiy oi nevs on a pailicuIai suljecl, such as
food, poIilics, oi IocaI nevs, (vhiIe) sone funclion
as noie peisonaI onIine diaiies. A lypicaI lIog
conlines lexl, inages, and Iinks lo olhei lIogs, vel
pages, and olhei nedia ieIaled lo ils lopic. The
aliIily foi ieadeis lo Ieave connenls in an
inleiaclive foinal is an inpoilanl pail of nany
lIogs. "Iog" can aIso le used as a veil, neaning lo
9
nainlainoi add conlenl loa lIog .
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 63-67
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
" Sr. Lecturer, Deartment of ]ourna|lsm and Mass
Communlcatlon, Hlmacha| Pradesh Unlterslt,
Summer Hl||, Shlm|a
"" Professor S Head, Amlt Schoo| of
Communlcatlon, Amlt Unlterslt Ra]asthan
LaiIy velIogs veie sinpIy nanuaIIy updaled
conponenls of connon velsiles. Hovevei, lhe
evoIulion of looIs lo faciIilale lhe pioduclion and
nainlenance of vel ailicIes posled in ieveise
chionoIogicaI oidei nade lhe pulIishing piocess
feasilIe lo a nuch Iaigei, Iess lechnicaI popuIalion.
UIlinaleIy, lhis iesuIled in lhe dislincl cIass of
onIine pulIishing lhal pioduces lIogs ve iecognize
1O
loday .
y 2OO1, lIogging vas enoughof a phenonenon
lhal hov-lo nanuaIs legan lo appeai, piinaiiIy
focusing on lechnique. The inpoilance of lhe
lIogging connunily (and ils ieIalionship lo Iaigei
sociely) incieased iapidIy. LslalIished schooIs of
jouinaIisn legan ieseaiching lIogging and noling
11
lhe diffeiences lelveenjouinaIisn and lIogging .
12
In Oclolei 2OO6, Tecnoiali decIaied lhal il vas
liacking noie lhan 57 niIIion lIogs. In ils annuaI
Slale of lhe Iogospheie iepoil il aIso cIained lhal
lhe nunlei of lIogs veie gioving al a iale of ovei
one Iakh lIogs eveiy day aII ovei lhe voiId. Liiing
on lhe side of caulion, il nay le safe lo assune lhal
ly nov lheie couId le ovei 65 niIIion lIogs lhe
voiId ovei. Hovevei, Tecnoiali nakes il cIeai lhal
of lhese onIy aloul 55 of lhe lIogs ienain aclive
i.e. onIy aloul 55 lIogs ieceive al Ieasl one posl in
lhe Iasl lhiee nonlhs. Al lhe sane line, lheie aie
sone 1.3 niIIions lIog posls nade eveiy day.
These figuies nake lhe inpacl lhal lIogs have
on lhe Iives of peopIe lhe voiId ovei noie
falhonalIe. Accoiding loTechnoiali's iepoil, a IillIe
noie lhan 4,OOO lIogs conslilule lhe lIogging eIile.
They have highei posl fiequencies, and have leen
opeialing foi noie lhan a yeai and a haIf on an
aveiage. Sone of lhese aie fuII-fIedge piofessionaI
enleipiises lhal posl nany, nany lines pei day and
lehave incieasingIy Iike lhe nainsliean nedia.
They aie in lhe lusiness nainIy foi ievenues. The
peopIe vho voik in lhese lIogs vieId incieasingIy
dianali c i nfI uence on oui cuI luies and
13
denociacies, says Siify .
Siify's iepoil cIassifies lhe lIogs inlo foui
aulhoiily calegoiies Iov aulhoiily, niddIe
aulhoiily, high aulhoiily and veiy high aulhoiily
(eIile) lIogs. Hovevei, even a casuaI exliapoIalion
of lhe figuies fion his sanpIe shov lhal noie lhan
71 lIogs ieceive an aveiage of 12 posls a nonlh,
and anolhei 26 (niddIe aulhoiily lIogs) ieceive
uplo 18 posls a nonlh. So, il nay le safe lo assune
fion heie lhan lhese 97 lIogs aie leing
nainlained ly non-piofessionaI lIoggeis. Il nay le
fuilhei assuned lhal lhese 97 lIog foi peisonaI
ieasons nosl of vhich aie ievoIve aiound shaiing
infoinalion on lheii peisonaI Iives, jokes, incidenls,
lopics of peisonaI inleiesls elc.
What Makes 8Iogs So PouIar
Al lhe leginning of lhis ailicIe, il vas
enphasized lIogs as signifying denocializalion of
connunicalionas lhey piedicale lhe individuaI his
vaIues, enolions, judgnenls, and nosl inpoilanlIy
lhe individuaI viII and ieIalionships.
SecondIy, fiee soflvaie, pie-designed
lenpIales, and fiee vel-space offeied ly
enleipiises Iike Woidpiess, Ioggei, Iogspol elc.
lhough iequiie viiluaIIy no pieiequisile lechnicaI
giounding, lhey do offei lhe piospecls of gelling
lhiough lo unIiniled voiId vide audience, naking
lIogging quile analliaclive nediun.
Then lheie aie olhei noie olIique faclois loo.
The conceins iaised ly Hunan DeveIopnenl
Repoil (1999) ovei sone key issues lhal affecl lhe
ioIe pIayed ly lhal infoinalion lechnoIogy in
hunan deveIopnenl aie as ieIevanl lo lhe
lIogospheie as ils pioIifeialion. These issues aie:
Conneclivily Making avaiIalIe connunicalion
and conpulei haidvaie, Access esides haidvaie
conneclivily, pionoling lhe use of inleinel use
lhiough gioup access, as aIso keeping lhe
lechnoIogy in pulIic donain ly valching oul
againsl conneiciaI inleiesls, Capacily deveIoping
hunan skiIIs foi naking use of lhe lechnoIogy,
Money finding iesouices lo fund lhe knovIedge
sociely, and Conlenl and ciealivily naking
avaiIalIe IocaIIy ieIevanl nevs, vievs, cuIluie and
conneice, and adapling lechnoIogy foi needs of lhe
14
undeipiiviIeged .
In deveIoping and undei deveIoped counliies
nosl of lhese issues aie sliII as ieIevanl loday, as
lhey veie vhen Iisled aInosl a decade ago.
Hovevei, lhe peopIe onlhe daikei side of lhe digilaI
divide nal nol have yel seen Iighl lecause of lhis
deveIopnenl, lhe pioIifeialion of lIogs nay, lo
sone exlenl, have heIped lo deaI vilh aI Ieasl one of
l he naggi ng i ssues. Many naigi naI i zed
connunilies and gioups have, in lhe foin of lIogs,
an equaI oppoilunily lo voice lheii vievs and
conceins, and cieale and shaie conlenl ieIevanl lo
lhe connunily. In shoil, lhe lIog as a phenonenon
is incIusive, and lhus ils gioving inpoilance.
64
VIKAS DOCRA AND MANISH VLRMA
Shaiing has Iong since leen eslalIished as one
of lhe lasic hunan aclivilies. MasIov's hieiaichy of
15
needs Iisled leIongingness as one of lhe lasic
hunan needs. In his lheoiy of nolivalion,
16
McCIeIIand (1961) said lhal peopIe aie nolivaled
ly one of lhiee lhings: lhe need foi achievenenl, lhe
need foi povei oi lhe need foi affiIialion. Ieisons
nolivaled ly lhe need foi affiIialion seek
ieIalionships and inleiaclions vilh a vaiiely of
diffeienl lypes of peopIe. esides lhese lvo,
ieseaich Iileialuie is alound on need foi affiIialion
as inpoilanl lohunanveII leing.
Reseaicheis geneiaIIy agiee lhal lheie is a
definile uige in peopIe lo shaie lheii enolionaI
expeiiences vhelhei posilive oi negalive (Luninel
el aI, 2OOO, Zechel aI., unpulIished, Rine el aI., 1994,
KuIik el aI., 1994)*. Hovevei, lheie is no consensus
on vhelhei oi nol shaiing lhe expeiience heIps in
ieIieving lhe enolionaI Ioad. Lven as lhe popuIai
leIief is sliII lhal shaiing of an uniecoveied
enolionaI expeiience heIps ieIieve Ioad, lheie is
gioving enpiiicaI evidence lhal lhis does nol
happen (Zech & Rine, 2OO2, Sludy 2, Zech, 1999,
Zech, 2OOO, Rine el aI., 1996, Zech el aI,
unpulIished)*. Hovevei sliII lheie aie sludies lhal
ieIaled opening up lo physicaI veII leing (M. A.
Cieenleig el aI, 1996) *. Revieveis of lhese sludies
geneiaIIy concIuded lhal "opening up" and
expiessing sliess-ieIaled lhoughls and feeIings vas
associaled vilh inpioved physicaI and nenlaI
heaIlh (LsleiIing, L'Alale, Muiiay, & Iennelakei,
1999, LillieII, 1998, Iennelakei, 1993, 1997, Snylh,
1998) *. Hovevei Zech (unpulIished, avaiIalIe
onIine) *, is nol convinced.
Tnc findings issucd frcn |ncsc uri|ing s|udics
arc cf|cn undcrs|ccd as suppcr|ing |nc ticu|na|
'pu||ing cnc|icn in|c ucrds' is ccnducitc |c
cnc|icna| rccctcrq and cnc|icna| rc|icf.
Hcuctcr, uncrcas |nc dcsign cf |ncsc s|udics
a||cu cnc |c ccnc|udc |na| |ncrc arc scnc
pcsi|itc cffcc|s cf 'pu||ing cnc|icn in|c ucrds'
cn nca||n indiccs, i| dccs nc| addrcss |nc prcccss
|nrcugn unicn sucn cffcc|s arc acnictcd. Tnis
prcccss nign| intc|tc fac|crs |c|a||q a|icn |c a
tcn|i|a|icn cffcc|. |cr ins|ancc, i| nign| oc |na|
pu||ing cnc|icns in|c ucrds in a sc|i|arq scssicn
s|inu|a|cs |nc nccd |c oc ui|n c|ncrs and |c snarc
cnc's cnc|icns ui|n |ncn. Tnc rcsu||ing
incrcasc in rcccitcd sccia| suppcr| ccu|d |nus
acccun| fcr nca||n inprctcncn|s.
The possiliIily lhal lhe fiequency of sociaI
shaiing diffeis foi posilive and negalive enolions
has aIso leen invesligaled. In lvo sepaiale sludies,
Rine el aI. (1991)* asked coIIege sludenls and oIdei
aduIls lo desciile foui specific evenls. The evenls
veie cIassified a piioii as having a posilive oi a
negalive vaIence. The piopoilions of posilive and
negalive evenls vhich veie shaied veie
ienaikalIy siniIai (posilive evenls: 89 in sludy 1,
95 in Sludy 2, negalive evenls: 89 in sludy 1, 94
in sludy 2). ResuIls iepoiled ly Chiislophe and
DiCiacono(1995)* suggesl lhal exposuie loposilive
enolionaI episodes acceIeiales and enhances lhe
sociaI shaiing effecl.
Thus, leing exposed lo an enolionaI episode
has a naiked inpacl on seeking sociaI conlacls vilh
olheis and on lhe cognilive aclivily ieIaled lo lhe
eIiciling silualion. Togelhei, lhese lvo piocesses
Iead lo lhe sociaI shaiing of enolion, in vhich
individuaIs connunicale openIy vilh one oi noie
olheis aloul lhe ciicunslances of lhe enolion-
eIiciling evenl and aloul lheii ovn feeIings and
enolionaI ieaclions. Vaiious sludies have
suggesled lhal enolionaI inlensily piovides a good
(if nol conpIele) expIanalion foi vaiialions in exlenl
of sociaI shaiing, and lhal lhe ieIalion lelveen
enolionaI inlensily and sociaI shaiing is nol a Iineai
funclion. In olhei voids, enolionaI expeiiences do
Iead lo sociaI shaiing, aIlhough lhe inlensily of lhe
expeiience nay nol effecl lhe anounl oi lhe exlenl
of shaiing.
Iuilhei, il is cIeai lhal Iike olhei nedia of
connunicalion, lIogging loo heIps lo fuIfiII a
peison's innale need foi shaiing and affiIialion. Il is
nol yel hovevei eslalIished, vhelhei oi nol
lIogging as a neans of affiIialion is noie gialifying
lhan olhei neans, oi if il is noie piefeialIe lhan
olhei neans. Il is aIso nol yel cIeai if affiIialion is lhe
onIy ieason vhy peopIe lIog. Theie have leen
sludies on vhy peopIe use vaiious olhei nedia Iike
leIevision, iadio, inleinel in geneiaI oi foi exanpIe
inleinel chal inpailicuIai, and evenvhy dolhey use
noliIe phones, lesides of couise, connunicalion.
17
The Uses and Cialificalions appioach in
connunicalion sludies has pul foilh seveiaI
inleiesling ieasons foi vhy peopIe use vaiious
nedia, lesides of couise affiIialion.
In aII, lhe Cialificalions ieseaich has leen
infIuenced ly lhe lasic need nodeI suggesled in
lvo eaiIiei sludies. In 1972, McQuaiI, IunIei and
iovn exlended LassveII's foui gioups 25 yeais
Ialei and have giouped lhese nolives oi needs foi
65
valching leIevision nevs as foIIovs: SuiveiIIance
Infoinalion aloul lhings, vhich nighl affecl one oi
viII heIp one do oi acconpIish sonelhing,
Diveision Lscape fion iouline piolIens,
enolionaI ieIease, IeisonaI Idenlily oi IndividuaI
IsychoIogy VaIue ieinfoicenenl oi ieassuiance,
seIf-undeislanding, ieaIily expIoialion, IeisonaI
ReIalionship SociaI uliIily of infoinalion in
conveisal i on, sulsl i l ul i on of nedi a f oi
conpanionship.
In a 1973 sludy, Kalz, Cuievilch and Haas, sav
lhe nass nedia as a neans ly vhich individuaIs
connecl oi disconnecl lhenseIves vilh olheis (in
Kalz el aI, 1974). They deveIoped 35 needs laken
fion lhe IaigeIy specuIalive Iileialuie on lhe sociaI
and psychoIogicaI funclions of lhe nass nedia and
pul lhen inlo five calegoiies: Cognilive needs
Acqui ii ng i nf oinal i on, knovI edge and
undeislanding, Affeclive needs Lnolion, pIeasuie,
and feeIings, IeisonaI inlegialive needs
CiediliIily, slaliIily, and slalus, SociaI inlegialive
needs AffiIialion lo faniIy and fiiends, Tension
ieIease needs Lscape and diveision.
AIlhough, lhe Uses and Cialificalions ieseaich
slailed vilh lhe convenlionaI nedia, especiaIIy
leIevision, il vas sIovIy adapled lo olhei
luigeoning lechnoIogies, especiaIIy lhe nev
connunicalionlechnoIogies.
Decenlei (1996) idenlified "connunicalion,
inleiaclion, and infoinalion" as lhe lhiee lioad
calegoiies foi vhy peopIe use lhe Inleinel. Chainey
(1996) concIuded fion a sludy of univeisily
sludenls lhal lhe Inleinel is used "lo keep infoined,
foi enleilainnenl and diveision, lo nainlain
connunicalion, and lo Iook al lhe sighls and
sounds of lhe 'Nel" (p. 88), lul nosl fiequenlIy foi
enleilainnenl-diveision (p.9O). In a piIol sludy
conducled ly Hyunoh Yoo (1996) lhe aulhoi found
six gialificalions dinensions ieIaling lo use of lhe
Inleinel: "Lnleilainnenl, Infoinalion, SocialiIily-
luiIding, SocialiIily-nainlaining, Tiansaclion-
geneiaI, and Tiansaclion-lask". Of lhese,
enleilainnenl, infoinalion, liansaclion-geneiaI,
and socialiIily-luiIding veie ieIaled lo WWW
usage. Hunlei (n.d.), viiling aloul uses and
giali fi cali ons of lhe WWW, ci led lhiee
gialificalions: liovsing, infoinalion seeking, and
enleilainnenl. A 1995 sludy of coIIege sludenls'
WWW usage iesuIled in "six nolivalionaI
calegoiies: enleilainnenl, sociaI inleiaclion, pass
line, escape, infoinalion, and Wel sile piefeience"
(Kaye, 1998, p. 34).
Accoiding lo lhe 9lh WWW Usei Suivey
conducled ly Ceoigia Tech (CVU's 9lh WWW usei
suivey, 1998), lhe WWW's youngesl useis (11-2O)
use lhe vel nainIy foi "enleilainnenl" (81),
"educalion" (7O), "line vasling" (67), and
"peisonaI infoinalion" (6O). Ina sludy (1996-97) of
lhe gialificalions ieceived fion Inleinel ly a coIIege
facuIly, slaff and sludenls, Hunlei found lhal lhe
piinaiy use of e-naiI vas connunicalion, vheieas
WWW vas used foi lhiee najoi funclions:
enleilainnenl, acadenic ieseaich and liovsing.
Usenel vas used piinaiiIy foi ieseaich puiposes
lesides enleilainnenl.
The siniIai sludies excIusiveIy on lIogospheie
aie yel lo le conducled. ul Iike olhei inleinel
appIicalions, and olhei nedia, lheie suie aie olhei
ieasons vhy so nany peopIe aie gelling hooked on
lo lIogging. Lxlending oui eaiIiei assunplions,
olhei nolivalions foi lIogging (lesides affiIialion)
couId le lhe need foi achievenenl and need foi
18
povei . Oi as pei MasIov's need hieiaich, olhei
ieasons foi lIogging couId le lhe need foi Lsleen
and SeIf-AcluaIisalion. Il is possilIe lhal vhy peopIe
lIog is lecause lhey vanl lo shaie, and lhey aie
Iooking foi affiIialion, seIf esleen, seIf acluaIizalion,
and aIso lhey vanl lo feeI lhe povei of infIuencing
olhei peopIe's vievs and lhoughls.
ConcIusions
Iion lhe pieceding discussion, ve nay
concIude lhal lheie aie no easy ansveis lo vhy
peopIe lIog. LnpiiicaI dala cIeaiIy shovs lhal a
niIIions of useis voiId vide aie ieguIaiIy exposed
lo one lIog oi lhe olhei lhe expeiience nay al lines
le un-idenlifialIe fion lhal on lhe WoiId Wide
Wel. Hovevei, a najoiily aie conscious and ieguIai
useis of lhe lIogospheie. Many of lhese lIogs aie
exlensions of peisonaI diaiies oi accounls a
venliIalion oulIel foi lhe innei feeIings on lopics
vhich couId le as vaiied ad Advocacy (foi ceilain
issue), oi connenls on Ail and Ihologiaphy,
AulonoliIes and Cadgels, Dieans and lhe
SupeinaluiaI, Iashion, SlyIe, Shopping, Iood and
Reslauianls, Iiiends , Canes, CoaIs, IIans, Hopes,
}ols, Woik, Caieeis, Life, Movies, TV, CeIeliilies,
Music, Nevs and IoIilics, Iailies and NighlIife, Iels
and AninaIs, Quiz/Suivey, ReIigion and
IhiIosophy, Ronance and ReIalionships, SchooI
and CoIIege Iife, Spoils, TiaveI and IIaces, Wiiling
and Ioeliy. One has lo jusl as nuch as lhink aloul a
lopic and seaich lhe lIogospheie. This nuIlipIicily
of voices and choices nakes lhe phenonenon of
lIog a liuIy denocialic nediun.
66
VIKAS DOCRA AND MANISH VLRMA
This fieedon is in ilseIf a coioIIaiy of vhal lhis
viilei lhinks lo le lhe nosl inpoilanl fealuie of lhe
lIog (and nay aIso piovide ansveis lo vhy peopIe
lIog) il pieseives lhe individuaIily. Shaiing and
affiIialion nay le lhe chief nolivalois foi a lIoggei,
lul so nay le lhe needs foi seIf esleen and seIf
acluaIizalion. When peopIe lIog, lhey couId le
Iooking foi aII lhese and lhal loo in an enviionnenl
lhal pionises lo pieseive lhal vhal lhey vaIue nosl
lheii individuaI seIf.
keferences
IunIei, }. C. (1979), The ioIe of lheoiy in uses and gialificalions
sludies, ConnunicalionReseaich, 6(1): 9-36
Chainey, T. R. (1996), Uses and gialificalions of lhe Inleinel
(Masleis lhesis, Michigan Slale Univeisily, 1996). Masleis
Alsliacls InleinalionaI, 35, O612.
CVU's 9lh WWW usei suivey. (1998). |OnIinej AvaiIalIe:
hllp://vvv.gvu.galech.edu/usei_suiveys/suivey-1998-
O4/(Decenlei, 1998).
Hunlei, C. (1996, 97), Lxeculive Sunnaiy: The uses and
gialificalion of piojecl Agoia, |OnIinej AvaiIalIe:
hllp://vvv.asc.upenn.edu/usi/chunlei/agoia_uses
Kalz, L., M. Cuievilch, and H. Haas (1973). Onlhe use of lhe nass
nedia foi inpoilanl lhings. Aneiican SocioIogicaI Reviev,
38:164-181.
Kalz, L., IunIei, }.C., & Cuievilch, M. (1974), UliIizalionof nass
connunicalion ly lhe individuaI, In }. C. IunIei & L. Kalz
(Lds.), The uses of nass connunicalions: cuiienl
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Kaye, . K. (1998). Uses and gialificalions of lhe WoiId Wide
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AngIenan, Shaion (2OOO) }ouinaI of Conpulei Medialed
Connunicalion6(1)
Luninel, O., ouls, I., DeIie, I., Manslead, A.S.R., and Rine', .
(2OOO), SociaI shaiing of enolion foIIoving exposuie lo a
negaliveIy vaIenced silualion, Cognilion And Lnolion, 14
(5), 661688
MasIov, A. (1954). Molivalion and peisonaIily. Nev Yoik, NY:
Haipei & Rov
Yoo, H. (1996), Uses and gialificalions of lhe Inleinel, |OnIinej
AvaiIalIe: hllp://vvv.lc.nsu.edu/lc96O/yoofinaI.hln
67
|.S. bu|ne : Jo|t l|ab|||t lo| the J|annat|ona| kepub||he| ol
lea|ed Co|po|ate Sec|et
RIchard J. Pc!tz
Univeisily of Aikansas, USA
WikiIeaks, lhe vel enleipiise iesponsilIe foi lhe unpiecedenled pulIicalion of hundieds of lhousands of cIassified goveinnenl
iecoids, is ieshaping fundanenlaI nolions of lhe fieedon of infoinalion. MeanvhiIe noie lhan haIf of iecoids heId ly WikiIeaks aie
fion lhe piivale secloi, and lhe oiganizalion has pionised lIockluslei ieveIalions aloul najoi conneiciaI pIayeis such as lig lanks
and oiI conpanies. This papei exanines lhe polenliaI IialiIily undei U.S. lusiness-loil Iav foi WikiIeaks as a liansnalionaI iepulIishei
of Ieaked coipoiale seciels. The papei exanines lhe paiadign foi ciininaI IialiIily undei lhe Lspionage Acl lo inagine a consliucl of
civiI IialiIily foi loilious inleifeience vilh piospeclive econonic ieIalions, consideiing key piolIens of scienlei, juiisdiclion, and
conslilulionaIily. The papei concIudes lhal piospecls foi civiI IialiIily aie din.
Kcqucrds. usiness loils, espionage, fieedon of infoinalion, seciecy, loilious inleifeience, vikiIeaks
lntroduction
WikiIeakslhe oiganizalion iesponsilIe foi lhe
conlioveisiaI 2O1O Inleinel pulIicalion of
Afghanislan and Iiaq vai Iogs and a cache of U.S.
dipIonalic calIeschaIIenges lhe fundanenlaI ideaI
of fieedon of infoinalion vilh an unpiecedenled
expiession of alsoIulisn. Aflei lhe calIes ieIease,
vhich legan in Novenlei 2O1O and is ongoing, lhe
U.S. Alloiney CeneiaI opened a ciininaI
invesligalion inlo WikiIeaks. ConslilulionaI
schoIais and civiI Iileilies advocales veie quick lo
caulion againsl lhe inposilion of ciininaI IialiIily
foi lhe pulIicalion of goveinnenl seciels ly an
oiganizalion puipoiledIy in lhe lusiness of
jouinaIisnin conliasl vilh, naneIy, iadIey
Manning, lhe U.S. Ainy inleIIigence anaIysl
chaiged vilh Ieaking lhe cIassified iecoids lo legin
vilh. Indeed, ciininaI pioseculion of WikiIeaks
vouId occasion foinidalIe IegaI olslacIes, lioadIy
an iII fil lelveen cIassic espionage Iavs and a nass
nediadefendanl.
MeanvhiIe, a Iess veII exanined lul equaIIy
inpoilanl piolIen is polenliaI civiI IialiIily foi
WikiIeaks. WikiIeaks discIosuies iange veII leyond
lhe lig spIashes of U.S. goveinnenlaI iecoids and
incIude inpoilanl piivale-secloi conlenl such as
enlaiiassing ieveIalions fion vilhin IceIand's
enlallIed Kauplhing ank (oveis, 2OO9).
Accoiding lo fIanloyanl WikiIeaks spokespeison
}uIian Assange, WikiIeaks possesses as-yel
unieIeased sloies of docunenls unfIalleiingIy
ieveaIing of coipoiale nisconducl vilhin such
pioninenl laigels as gIolaI lanks and oiI
conpanies (Cieenleig, 2O1O). A hosl of IialiIily
lheoiies nay le IeveIed againsl WikiIeaks upon lhe
ieveIalion of coipoiale seciels, lul civiI IialiIily
conpiises a nuch nuikiei pioposilion lhan
ciininaI pioseculion. Thus lhe lhieal of civiI
IialiIily poses queslions inlegiaI lo lhe naluialion
of fieedon of infoinalionas a hunaniighls noin.
This papei expIains vhal WikiIeaks is, and lhen
liaces lhe conlouis of civiI IialiIily exposuie on U.S.
lusiness loils foi lhe liansnalionaI pulIishei of
liulhfuI, Ieaked infoinalion, vilh enphasis on lhe
loil of inlenlionaI inleifeience vilh piospeclive
econonic ieIalions. WikiIeaks nay le haiIed inlo
couil aiound lhe voiId, lul lhis papei focuses on
U.S. Iav lecause il has leen a leIIvelhei in lhe
deveIopnenl of noins goveining lhe inleiaclion of
hunan iighls and loil Iav. ecause lhe Iav in lhis
aiea, in lhe Uniled Slales as eIsevheie, is loo
unceilain lo diclale a iesuIl on lhe neiils, lhis papei
exanines lhe piolIen of ciininaI pioseculion
lefoie consideiing civiI IialiIily. CiininaI
pioseculion has leen lellei exanined lo dale, and
lhe inpedinenls lhal have leenidenlified have civiI
anaIogs. Consideiing lhe inpedinenls in lhe civiI
conlexl, lhe papei concIudes lhal piospecls foi a
successfuI civiI suil aie din.
About WikiIeaks
Launched in 2OO6, WikiIeaks is a Ioose, IaigeIy
anonynous, and inleinalionaI associalion of
advocales foi fieedon of infoinalion in lhe pulIic
inleiesl. The oiganizalion's ianks incIude a snaII
" Professor of Lau, Unlterslt of Arkansas at Lltt|e
Rock, USA
68
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 68-74
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
coie slaff and a nelvoik of voIunleeis aiound lhe
voiId, piincipaIIy jouinaIisls and hackeis (Mey,
2O1O). Iunded ly donalions, WikiIeaks enpIoys
niIilaiy-giade enciyplion lo safeguaid dala on
seiveis in vaiious Iocalions, incIuding Sveden and
SvilzeiIand (Cieenleig, 2O1O, Mey, 2O1O). IiesenlIy
cenleied al lhe Sviss sile vikiIeaks.ch, WikiIeaks
Iocaled ils physicaI opeialions vilhin IegaI
juiisdiclions lhal pIace high vaIue on lhe jouinaIisl-
souice piiviIege and lhal olseive conlenl-neuliaI,
non-inleivenlionisl poIicies vilh iespecl lo Inleinel
seivice piovideis and lhe conlenl lhey caiiy (HeIin,
2O1O, inslad, 2O1O).
WikiIeaks coIIecls infoinalion lhiough an
onIine diop lox, as a nallei of poIicy, if aigualIy
of piaclice, WikiIeaks does nol soIicil conliilulions
(inslad, 2O1O). Any peison vilh Inleinel access
can sulnil dala anonynousIy lo WikiIeaks via lhe
velsile. WikiIeaks pionises anonynily lo ils
souices and pIedges lo lhe pulIic lhal il viII posl
onIy unfiIleied and aulhenlic conlenl of poIilicaI,
elhicaI, dipIonalic oi hisloiicaI significance
(WikiIeaks, 2O1O). IniliaIIy conceived as a viki,
WikiIeaks in facl alandoned lhe pulIic-
pailicipaloiy nodeI in 2O1O in favoi of cooidinaled
pulIicalions vilh liadilionaI nedia oulIels given
advance access on condilion of enlaigo (CiIson,
2O1O, LIIison, 2O11). Though diiven lo inleinalionaI
iepule ly lhe vai Iog and calIe ieIeases of 2O1O,
WikiIeaks engages as veII in high-piofiIe ieIeases of
piivale-secloi iecoids. }uIian Assange, a co-foundei
and iconic spokesnan foi WikiIeaks, has advocaled
fieedon of infoinalion alsoIulisn, lhough
WikiIeaks has iedacled sensilive infoinalion such
as lhe idenlilies of infoinanls fion lhe Iiaq vai Iogs
(inslad, 2O1O).
1he Paradigm of CriminaI liabiIity
WhiIe lhis papei seeks lo exanine civiI IialiIily
foi U.S. lusiness loils, lhe veII exanined piospecl
of U.S. ciininaI pioseculion has geneialed a iuliic
of IegaI inpedinenls vilh civiI anaIogs. Thus an
anaIysis of lhe ciininaI paiadign is a IogicaI
piecuisoi loconsliuclionof lhe civiI paiadign.
When lhe Afghan vai Iogs venl Iive on
WikiIeaks, lhe Ienlagon fuliIeIy denanded lhe
ieluin of Ieaked iecoids (inslad, 2O1O) and
quickIy idenlified and delained lhe piolalIe
niIilaiy souice of lhe Ieak (Hodge, 2O1O). WhenIalei
in2O1O lhe U.S. Adninislialionvas enlaiiassed ly
lhe ieveIalion of lhe dipIonalic calIes, lhe civiIian
goveinnenl vas conpeIIed lo iespond. U.S.
Alloiney CeneiaI Liic HoIdei opened an
invesligalion inlo WikiIeaks. Upon oljeclions ly
civiI Iileilies advocales lhal lhe U.S. Lspionage Acl
had nevei leen used lo piosecule a nass nedia
pulIishei, HoIdei indicaled lhal WikiIeaks vouId
le invesligaled undei vaiious slalules (Savage,
2O1O).
HoIdei vas lighl-Iipped on lhe delaiIs, lul lhe
CongiessionaI Reseaich Seivice (CRS) pulIished a
lhoiough exaninalion of polenliaI ciininaI
iesponsiliIily foi WikiIeaks (LIsea, 2O1O). In sun,
CRS vas highIy skeplicaI lhal a ciininaI
pioseculion couId succeed. The inpedinenls lo
pioseculion lhal CRS idenlified can le ieslaled in
lhiee calegoiies: (1) scienlei, (2) exlialeiiiloiiaIily
and juiisdiclion, and (3) conslilulionaIily. WhiIe
specific anaIyses vaiy vilh slalules, aInosl aII
vieck onlhe shoaIs of lhese inpedinenls.
The Lspionage Acl of 1917, 18 U.S.C. 792-799
(2O11), is iIIuslialive. Wilh iegaid lo scienlei, lhe
Lspionage Acl iequiies inlenl. The key piovisions of
lhe acl confionl pioseculois vilh a seiies of high
huidIes. Ioi exanpIe, seclion 793 piohilils laking,
copying, ieceiving, oi ollaining nalionaI defense
infoinalion vilh inlenl oi ieason lo leIieve lhal
lhe infoinalion is lo le used lo lhe injuiy of lhe
Uniled Slales. Thus inlenl peilains loacquisilionof
lhe infoinalion, lo lhe conlenl as defense
infoinalion, and (vilh a leIief aIleinalive) lo
inj uiious nolive. Seclion 793 sepaialeIy
ciininaIizes discIosuie lo an unaulhoiized
peison, lhus anolhei inlenl huidIe vis-a-vis lhe
pulIishei-defendanl.
These iequiienenls aie veII suiled lo a cIassic
spying case, lhey iII fil WikiIeaks (LIsea, 2O1O). Iiisl,
lhe passive WikiIeaks diop lox does nol pIainIy
eslalIish inlenl lo lake, copy, oi ollain infoinalion.
Lven as lo ieceipl, il is difficuIl lo pinpoinl lhe line
al vhich WikiIeaks foinuIaled inlenl. The diop lox
cane inlo exislence al an indefinile line lefoie lhe
infoinalion vas acluaIIy deIiveied, aclus ieus onIy
aigualIy occuis lhiough lhe sudden eIeclionic
possession of sulnissions ly aulonaled seiveis.
Moie piolIenalicaIIy, lhe passive diop lox iendeis
inlenl haid lo piove as lo conlenl. WikiIeaks ieadiIy
confesses a desiie lo ieceive infoinalion nol yel
pulIic fion aII seclois, lul aigualIy nanifesls no
inlenl specific lo nalionaI defense. SiniIaiIy, nass
disseninalion evinces no inlenl specific lo injuiy lo
nalionaI inleiesls, lo lhe conliaiy, WikiIeaks
puipoils lo fuilhei nalionaI inleiesls ly
disseninaling infoinalion lo lhe denocialic
eIecloiale. AigualIy, ieckIess disiegaid of injuiious
polenliaI desciiles lhe WikiIeaks slale of nind al ils
69
nosl cuIpalIe, nanifesled foi exanpIe in lhe ouling
of Afghan infoinanls lefoie WikiIeaks adopled a
iedaclionpoIicy (inslad, 2O1O).
efoie lhe Coveinnenl can nake ils case on
scienlei, lheie aie piaclicaI piolIens allending
exlialeiiiloiiaI appIicalionof lhe Lspionage Acl and
lhe juiisdiclion of U.S. couils. On lhe face of lhe
nallei, lhese piolIens aie suinounlalIe.
}uiisdiclion vouId depend on lhe Uniled Slales
secuiing an agenl of WikiIeaks peisonaIIy in U.S.
cuslody. The piolIen is a piaclicaI one. Assange,
vho is AusliaIian, has avoided U.S. juiisdiclions
assiduousIy since lhe sunnei of 2O1O (WikiIeaks
foundei, 2O1O). He has vaiiIy iegaided Sveden's
allenpls lo secuie his exliadilion fion iilain, in a
ciininaI invesligalion puipoiledIy unieIaled lo
WikiIeaks, as a fiisl slep lovaid exliadilion lo lhe
Uniled Slales (WiggIesvoilh & Sallei, 2O1O).
MeanvhiIe exlialeiiiloiiaI appIicalion of U.S.
slalules is dependenl on IegisIalive inlenl. CRS
concIuded lhal suchinlenl is adequaleIy nanifesled
inlhe Lspionage Acl ly lhe 1961 iepeaI of piovisions
Iiniling lhe acl lo appIicalion in doneslic Iav and
adniiaIly (LIsea, 2O1O). AccoidingIy, a fedeiaI couil
in lhe 198Os accepled lhe guiIly pIea of an Lasl
Ceinan defendanl foi espionage alioad (U.S. v.
Zehe, 1985).
SliII, lheie nighl le a piolIenalic dinension lo
lhe puieIy exlialeiiiloiiaI appIicalion of espionage
Iav. CRS ieasoned lhal espionage Iavs aie, in
oveiaiching puipose, lieason Iavs (LIsea, 2O1O).
Tieason aiises fion lhe defendanl's leliayaI of a
duly of IoyaIly lo nalion, Assange has no such duly
lo lhe Uniled Slales. If a iank-and-fiIe anaIysl in lhe
Iianian foieign inleIIigence seivice passes an
unI avf uI I y i nl eicepl ed U. S. di pI onal i c
connunicalion lo a Tehian officenale, neilhei of
lhe lvo is guiIly of lieason, any noie lhan lheii
counleipails in LangIey can le said daiIy lo connil
lieason againsl foieign nalions. Theie nusl le sone
oulei Iinil lo lhe puieIy exlialeiiiloiiaI appIicalion
of espionage Iav, and lhal Iinil nighl save
WikiIeaks.
IiolIens of scienlei, exlialeiiiloiiaIily, and
juiisdiclion aII suinounled, a finaI and nosl IikeIy
piohililive laiiiei lo ciininaI pioseculion deiives
fion lhe affiinalive defense of fieedon of
expiession. As CRS expIained sinpIy, espionage
Iavs have nol lefoie leen used lo condenn nass
nedia (LIsea, 2O1O). The WikiIeaks case nighl
exenpIify lhe U.S. Supiene Couil disincIinalion lo
punish lhe iepulIicalion of liulhfuI infoinalion
IavfuIIy ollained. Wheie, foi exanpIe, a iepoilei
ollained and pulIished lhe nane of a sexuaI assauIl
viclin ieIeased ly poIice in inadveilenl vioIalion of
slale Iav, lhe Couil disaIIoved punishnenl of lhe
iepoilei (IIoiida Slai v. }I, 1989). Wheie slalules
ouliighl foilade lhe pulIicalion of lhe nane of a
sexuaI assauIl viclin, oi of a juveniIe chaiged vilh a
ciine, lhe Couil iuIed lhen unconslilulionaI (Cox
v. Cohn, 1975, Snilh v. DaiIy MaiI, 1979). The Couil
has Iefl lhe dooi open lo such a pioseculion, lul
nevei decided lhe case. ConslilulionaI nuslei
vouId nol le nel easiIy. In sliicl sciuliny of a
WikiIeaks pioseculion, lighlei goveinnenl secuiily
in lhe fiisl pIace, oi pioseculion of lhe niIilaiy
Ieakei, aie ieadiIy avaiIalIe aIleinalives, Iess
iesliiclive of fiee expiession lhan ciininaI
pioseculion of lhe nass nedia iepulIishei. Thus
pioseculionvouId faiI sliicl sciuliny.
Ieihaps insliuclive on lhe fiee expiession
queslion is a 2OO6 fedeiaI case invoIving lhe
Aneiican IsiaeI IulIic Affaiis Connillee (AIIAC)
(U.S. v. Rosen, 2OO9). Tvo pio-IsiaeI Iollyisls in lhe
Uniled Slales veie indicled foi conspiiacy lo
discIose nalionaI defense infoinalion lo lhe
goveinnenl of IsiaeI and lo a iepoilei foi The
Washinglon Iosl nevspapei. IedeiaI pioseculois
uIlinaleIy diopped lhe chaiges (NAA, 2OO9), lhe
couil had expiessed seiious ieseivalions aloul lhe
Coveinnenl's aliIily lo neel lhe denanding inlenl
huidIes of lhe Lspionage Acl (U.S. v. Rosen, 2OO6).
ul CRS offeied an even noie saIienl assessnenl of
AIIAC and ils ieIevance lo WikiIeaks: in lhe fiisl
evei pioseculion undei lhe Lspionage Acl of
civiIians in lhe piivale secloi, lhe goveinnenl
suffeied poveifuI iepioach foi ciininaIizing lhe
exchange of infoinalion (LIsea, 2O1O, p. 9). The
ieIalionship of WikiIeaks lo pioninenl gIolaI nevs
oulIels such as The Nev Yoik Tines and The
Cuaidian vouId iendei conpaiison inevilalIe
lelveen WikiIeaks and AIIAC. Lven vilhoul cIeai
IegaI piecedenl on lhe appIicaliIily of espionage
Iav in such a case, lhe goveinnenl nighl le unalIe
lo advance a pioseculion againsl ciushing
opposilion in lhe poIilicaI spheie, vheie nass
nedia piolesl vouId iaIIy pulIic opinion.
Anolhei polenliaIIy deiaiIing paiaIIeI iuns
lelveen WikiIeaks and Nev Yoik Tines v. Uniled
Slales (lhe Ienlagon Iapeis case, 1971), vhich
invoIved lhe Ieak ly niIilaiy conliacloi DanieI
LIIsleig of cIassified and enlaiiassing ieveIalions
aloul U.S. invoIvenenl in Vielnan. IIC Manning,
nol WikiIeaks, is lhe LIIsleig anaIog heie. The
LIIsleig pioseculion faiIed upon lhe ieveIalion of
lioulIing conducl ly goveinnenl invesligalois,
such as iIIegaI viielaps, nol IikeIy lo le an
7O
RICHARD }. ILLTZ
inpedinenl in lhe couil nailiaI of Manning. In
Ienlagon Iapeis, lhe U.S. Supiene Couil upheId
lhe fiee expiession iuIe againsl piioi iesliainl,
iejecling an injunclion againsl iepulIicalion.
Though Ienlagon Iapeis vas a case of piioi
iesliainl and nol a case of punishnenl ex posl, lhe
facluaI paiaIIeIs aie sliiking. Il is difficuIl lo ignoie
lhal pioseculion of lhe Tines foi pulIicalion of lhe
Ienlagon Iapeis vouId have iesuIled in
sulsequenl seIf-censoiship, lhus piioi iesliainl in
piaclicaI effecl. If Ienlagon Iapeis is an appIicalIe
piecedenl foi WikiIeaks, lhen lhe anaIysis foi lhe
conslilulionaI defense nighl denand even noie
lhan sliicl sciuliny, foi exanpIe, lhal lhe defendanl
acluaIIy jeopaidized Iives ly pulIishing lioop
novenenls in advance. One can aigue lhal a veiy
snaII segnenl of WikiIeaks vai-ieIaled ieIeases
neel lhal slandaide.g., lhe Afghan infoinanls'
idenlilies, oi laclicaI slialegies foi uilan conlallul
noieIease has yel leenlied causaIIy loa casuaIly.
Ieihaps lhe lesl piospecl idenlified ly CRS
(LIsea, 2O1O) foi a successfuI ciininaI pioseculion of
WikiIeaks Iies in chaiges foi lhefl of goveinnenl
iecoids (18 U.S.C. 641). If WikiIeaks does nol
denonsliale an adequale conlinalion of aclus ieus
and nens iea lo le guiIly of espionage, lhe case foi
lhefl of goveinnenl piopeily is noie danning. Like
lhe connon Iav offense of ieceiving sloIen
piopeily, inlenlionaIily occuis in lhe ieceipl, lhe
ciine is lhen acconpIished ly neie knovIedge of
lhe piedicale lhefl, oi ieason lo leIieve il occuiied.
When WikiIeaks coIIecls lhe fiuils of ils diop lox
and lhen heais lhe Ienlagon denand foi lhe ieluin
of sloIen piopeily, lhe lhefl appeais conpIele. ul
pioseculion foi lhefl has an inpoilanl Iinilalion in
ienedy. Copies of eIeclionic iecoids have no
langilIe vaIue, so financiaI ieslilulion appioaches
zeio. Maxinun penaIlies foi suchpelil Iaiceny aie a
nodesl fine and a yeai's inpiisonnenlhaidIy lhe
nevsvoilhy liiunph lhal vouId juslify a
sulslanliaI depIoynenl of goveinnenl iesouices in
lhe poIilicaIIy dulious pioseculion of an eIusive
inleinalionaI enlily.
WikiIeaks is lheiefoie haidIy innune lo
ciininaI pioseculion in lhe Uniled Slales foi ils
aclivilies. ul lhe olslacIes lo a successfuI
pioseculion, incIuding lhe piaclicaI, IegaI, and
poIilicaI, aie oveivheIning. These sane vaiialIes
cone inlopIay inlhe civiI conlexl.
lmagining CiviI liabiIity
Weslein nedia have focused on lhe vai and
calIe ieIeases, lul lhose iecoids conpiise onIy
fiaclion of WikiIeaks seciels. Since 2OO3, WikiIeaks
has nade spIashes aiound lhe voiId vilh ieIeases
of pulIic significance and piivale-secloi aulhoiship,
incIuding, in 2OO7, iecoids of poIilicaIIy nolivaled
nuideis in Kenya, in 2OO8, seciel docunenls of lhe
Chuich of ScienloIogy, lhe nenleiship of lhe fai-
iighl iilish NalionaI Iaily, and e-naiIs fion lhe
peisonaI accounl of U.S. vice piesidenliaI candidale
Saiah IaIin, and in 2OO9, iecoids of an oiI scandaI in
Ieiu and of shenanigans inside lanks such as
Kauplhing, vhichdecinaled lhe IceIandic econony
(Cieenleig, 2O1O, Kushnei, 2O1O). In Decenlei
2O1O, WikiIeaks spokespeison }uIian Assange
asseiled lhal WikiIeaks is sliII safeguaiding lhe
enlaiiassing seciels of lig lanks, possilIy
incIuding lhe ank of Aneiica, lig phainaceulicaI
conpanies, and lig oiI conpanies, incIuding I, lhe
conpany lIaned foi lhe 2O1O oiI spiII in lhe CuIf of
Mexico (Cieenleig, 2O1O). Thus vilh noie
ieveIalions fion lhe piivale secloi on lhe hoiizon
foi 2O11 and coning yeais, and lhe piospecls foi
ciininaI pioseculion Iiniled, civiI Iavsuils in lhe
Uniled Slales and eIsevheie seen inevilalIe
(Savage, 2O1O).
WikiIeaks has leen sued civiIIy once aIieady in
lhe Uniled Slales ly lhe viclin of a Ieak (ank }uIius
aei v. WikiIeaks, 2OO8). Recoids posled in 2OO8
evidenced suspicious financiaI liansaclions in lhe
Caynan IsIands lianch of lhe Sviss lank }uIius
aei. ReaIizing lhal ils diily Iaundiy vas on pulIic
dispIay, aei ank noved quickIy lo ollain an
injunclion fion a U.S. fedeiaI couil in CaIifoinia, lo
shul dovn lhe WikiIeaks donain vikiIeaks.oig.
The lank sued lolh WikiIeaks and ils CaIifoinia
Inleinel seivice piovidei, Dynadol. Dynadol
negolialed a sellIenenl vilh lhe pIainliff lo shul
dovn lhe donain. WikiIeaks did nol appeai, and
lhe liiaI couil enleied a puipoiledIy slipuIaled,
peinanenl injunclion upon lhe sellIenenl. ul lhe
lank's vicloiy vas hoIIov. In anlicipalion of lhe
couil oidei, velsiles aiound lhe voiId niiioied
vikiIeaks.oig. MeanvhiIe, anici, incIuding lop
nass nedia in lhe Uniled Slales, uiged lhe couil lo
ieconsidei in Iighl of fiee expiession. UIlinaleIy lhe
couil iescinded lhe injunclion, ciling lolh fiee
expiession and fuliIily, and aei ank Ieained a
haid Iesson on lhe Slieisand effecl: lhe iionic
lendency of lhe Inleinel lo anpIify lhe disliilulion
of infoinalion lhal soneone liies lo squeIch. The
effecl is naned foi diva ailaia Slieisand, vhose
nuIli-niIIion-doIIai Iavsuil againsl a phologiaphei
calapuIled his inage of hei coaslaI eslale inlo
slialospheiic ciicuIalion.
71
Though aei ank anounled lo no decision on
lhe neiils, lhe Iavsuil calaIoged peilinenl connon
Iav loil aclions: inleifeience vilh conliacl,
inleifeience vilh piospeclive econonic advanlage,
and conveision. aei ank fuilheinoie aIIeged
vioIalions of unfaii lusiness piaclices, consunei
lanking, and piivacy pioleclion Iavs. One can
inagine as veII a slaluloiy aclion foi copyiighl
infiingenenl (Savage, 2O1O), essenliaIIy a
conveision of inleIIecluaI piopeily. These civiI
causes iaise lhe sane liiad of piolIens as in lhe
ciininaI aiena: scienlei, exlialeiiiloiiaIily and
juiisdiclion, and conslilulionaIily. Hov lhese
causes vouId faie againsl lhese piolIens is even
Iess cIeai lhan in lhe conlexl of ciininaI sanclion, foi
vanl of piecedenls, lhough a successfuI suil in sun
seens unIikeIy.
LxenpIaiy is lhe connon Iav loil foi
inlenlionaI inleifeience vilh piospeclive econonic
advanlage, veiy siniIai and sIighlIy noie
peinissive lhan inleifeience vilh conliacl. The
connon Iav eIenenls aie: (1) lhe exislence of an
econonic ieIalionship lelveen pIainliff and a lhiid
paily, (2) defendanl' s knovIedge of lhe
ieIalionship, (3) defendanl's viongfuI and
inlenlionaI inleifeience vilh lhe ieIalionship, and
(4) iesuIling danages (Muskus, 2O1O).
The scienlei piolIen is akin lo lhal piesenled
undei lhe Lspionage Acl, vhich is lo say, il is nol
cIeai lhal nass nedia disseninalion can suffice as
an inlenlionaIIy inleifeiing acl. aei ank, foi
exanpIe, vouId have nainlained lhal WikiIeaks
i nlenli onaI I y i nleifeied vi lh lhe lank' s
ieIalionships vilh cIienls oi inveslois. ul as CRS
olseived vilh iespecl lo ciininaI pioseculion
undei espionage Iav (LIsea, 2O1O), lhe cause
convenlionaIIy has nol leen used lo laigel nass
nedia nol lhenseIves conpIicil in lhe piedicale
Ieak. In one high-piofiIe case, foi exanpIe,
piofessionaI laskellaII pIayei LalieII SpieveII
conpIained lo Nev Yoik couils lhal lhe Nev Yoik
Iosl inleifeied vilh his enpIoynenl ly iepoiling
lhal he had lioken his hand in a fighl, nol in a faII as
he had iepoiled (Kovnei, el aI., 2O1O). The couil
disnissed lhe inleifeience cIain, opining lhal |any
inleifeience vasj neieIy incidenlaI lo lhe
defendanls' exeicise of lheii conslilulionaI iighl lo
|pulIishj nevsvoilhy infoinalion (Kovnei, el aI.,
2O1O, p. 387).
AIso Iike inlhe ciininaI anaIysis, lhe piolIen of
juiisdiclion is suinounlalIe in lheoiy lul
chaIIenging in piaclice. LxlialeiiiloiiaIily is nol lhe
piolIen lhal il is in lhe ciininaI aiena, lecause lhe
defendanl is piesenl in lhe Uniled Slales and suffeis
ils aIIeged injuiies lheie. A case nighl faIlei, lhough,
on juiisdiclion. Lxliadilion is of couise nol avaiIalIe
lo a civiI pIainliff, so WikiIeaks and ils agenls nay
ieIy on lhe secuiily of pioleclive Iavs vheie ils
opeialions aie Iocaled in Sveden and SvilzeiIand,
and in lhe fuluie peihaps IceIand, vheie ouliage
ovei Kauplhing ank ieveIalions has pionpled a
novenenl lovaid IegaI sancluaiy foi lhe fiee fIov
of infoinalion (Cieenleig, 2O1O). aei ank
asseiled lhal WikiIeaks nainlained a peisonaI
piesence in CaIifoinia, lul pioffeied no evidence lo
lhal effecl.
IinaIIy, lhe conslilulionaI piolIen is again
IikeIy piohililive. Al lhe oulsel of lhe anaIysis of lhe
loil on lhe eIenenls, concein foi lhe fieedon of
expiession puls a lhunl on lhe scaIe foi lhe
defendanl in al Ieasl lvo iespecls. Iiisl, lhe couil's
decision in SpieveII, foi exanpIe, iejecled inlenl
vilh iefeience lo lhe conslilulionaI iighl lo
|pulIishj nevsvoilhy infoinalion. TypicaIIy in
U.S. loil Iav, ieckIessness cones cIose enough lo
inlenl lo shoil ciicuil lhe anaIysis, vheie lhe civiI
slandaid foi inlenl is Ioosei lhan lhe sliingenl nens
iea anaIysis of ciininaI Iav. ul WikiIeaks's
possilIe ieckIessness did nol nake lhe cul,
suggesling lhe piessuie of fiee expiession-fiiendIy
pulIic poIicy. Second, loilious inleifeience iequiies
viongfuI oi inpiopei inlenlionaI inleifeience,
and lhal iequiienenl is siniIaiIy niligaled ly
pulIic poIicy. Inpiopiiely is deleinined vilh
iefeience lo six faclois: (a) lhe naluie of lhe
defendanl's conducl, (l) lhe defendanl's nolive, (c)
lhe inleiesls of lhe pIainliff vilh vhich lhe
defendanl inleifeies, (d) lhe inleiesls soughl lo le
advanced ly lhe defendanl, (e) lhe sociaI inleiesls in
piolecling lhe fieedon of aclion of lhe defendanl
and lhe econonic inleiesls of lhe pIainliff, (f) lhe
pioxinily oi ienoleness of lhe defendanl's conducl
lo lhe inleifeience, and (g) lhe ieIalions lelveen lhe
pailies (ALI, Reslalenenl 767, 2O1O). These faclois
anpIy peinil a couil lo considei lhe pioleclion of
fiee expiession and lhe ieIalive neiils of fieedon of
infoinalion vis-a-vis seciecy. A seeningIy coiiupl
coipoialion as pIainliff is highIy unIikeIy lo pievaiI
againsl a nass nedia oiganizalion acling vilhoul
piofil nolive and puipoiling lo acl in lhe pulIic
inleiesl.
The lhiusl of lhe conslilulionaI anaIysis cones
noieovei in lhe asseilion of lhe fieedon of
expiession as an affiinalive defense. The inpacl of
lhal asseilion in a case of loilious inleifeience is
uncIeai, vilhpiecedenls puII inopposile diieclions.
On lhe one hand is lhe docliine lioadIy idenlified
72
RICHARD }. ILLTZ
vilh Nev Yoik Tines Co. v. SuIIivan (1964) in lhe
defanalionaiea. The SuIIivandocliine dianalicaIIy
Iinils lhe polenliaI foi loil iecoveiy againsl a nedia
defendanl in nosl cases of pulIic inpoil ly
inposing speciaI iuIes, lolh pioceduiaI and
sulslanlive, pailicuIaiIy eIevalion of lhe iequisile
slandaid of fauIl lo acluaI naIice. AcluaI naIice
neans acluaI knovIedge of faIsily oi ieckIess
disiegaid of faIsily and is consliued as noie
sliingenl lhan oidinaiy ieckIessness in loil, if jusl
shy of inlenl. CiilicaIIy, SuIIivan piohilils IialiIily
foi lhe pulIicalion of liulh, shifling lhe luiden of
pioving faIsily lo lhe defanalion pIainliff. The U.S.
Supiene Couil has exlended lhe SuIIivan docliine
lo lhe loils of faIse Iighl invasion of piivacy and
inlenlionaI infIiclion of enolionaI disliess, opining
lhal lhe pioleclion of SuIIivan foi fiee expiession
shouId nol le sulveiled lhiough caiefuI pIeading.
ul lhe Couil has nol opined on lhe appIicalion of
SuIIivan lo loils such as negIigenl discIosuie
invasion of piivacy, noi loilious inleifeience vilh
conliacl. SignificanlIy in lhose loils, lhe pulIicalion
of liulh, and nol lhe connission of a fiaud, is lhe
veiy lhing lhal nakes lhe defendanl's conducl
injuiious. Hov SuIIivan vouId change lhe anaIysis
onlhose loils is uncIeai.
The opposing Iine of piecedenls nay le defined
lioadIy ly ianzluig v. Hayes (1972). In
ianzluig, lhe U.S. Supiene Couil iejecled a
jouinaIisl's piiviIege as a nallei of conslilulionaI
inpeialive. Wheie jouinaIisls veie caIIed lo give
evidence lo giand juiies, lhe Couil ieaffiined lhe
docliine lhal geneiaIIy appIicalIe iuIes of Iav appIy
lo jouinaIisls jusl as lo anyone eIse. The iighl of fiee
expiession nighl leai on lhe piopiiely of a
sulpoena, lul conpeIs no iecognilion of a
jouinaIisl-souice piiviIege nol olheivise piovided
ly connon Iav oi slalule. Moie lioadIy, lhen,
ianzluig slands foi lhe pioposilionlhal lheie is no
conslilulionaI iighl lo galhei nevs. If ianzluig is
lhe appiopiiale Iens lhiough vhich lo viev a nass
nedia defendanl aIIeged lo have inleifeied
loiliousIy vilh piospeclive econonic advanlage, oi
foi lhal nallei a nass nedia defendanl accused of
negIigenlIy discIosing infoinalion and lheiely
invading a pIainliff's piivacy, lhen lhe defendanl is
enlilIed lo no conslilulionaIIy lased piiviIege and is
suljecl loIialiIily onlhe sane leins as any peison.
When lhe aei ank couil iescinded ils
injunclion againsl WikiIeaks, lhe couil lased ils
decision in pail on conslilulionaI conceins and,
vilhoul pIainIy ciling lhe fieedon of expiession,
seened lo invoke a heighlened conslilulionaI
sciuliny knovn lo injunclion Iav and deiived fion
lhe Iav of piioi iesliainl. The injunclion vas
piolIenalic undei lhe couil's ovn anaIysis, in Iaige
neasuie lecause of lhe fuliIily piolIen. An oidei
againsl fiee expiession nusl diieclIy advance lhe
goveinnenl inleiesl al slake, and lhe couil's oidei
had lhe opposile effecl, onIy exaggeialing lhe nass
disseninalion of aei ank's seciels. SignificanlIy,
lhen, civiI ienedies againsl WikiIeaks viII le
difficuIl lo juslify if any heighlened conslilulionaI
sciuliny appIies, vhelhei undei lhe SuIIivan
fianevoik oi undei lhe piioi iesliainl fianevoik.
Theiefoie Iike lhe espionage Iav, loilious
inleifeience is sinpIy a lad fil vilh WikiIeaks. The
ciininaI paiadign is insliuclive again in finding a
lellei piospecl foi civiI iecoveiy againsl WikiIeaks
in lhe sinpIe loil of conveision. Conveision in
connon Iav (ALI, Reslalenenl 222A) is IooseIy
consliued lo peinil IialiIily even vheie lhe
defendanl's use of piopeily has inleifeied vilh lhe
piopeily iighls of lhe ovnei, shoil of a conpIele
laking, and lhe iequisile inlenl aiises sinpIy fion
lhe laking oi use. ul conveision poses seiious
Iinilalions anaIogous lo lhose piesenled ly lhe
piospecl of ciininaI pioseculion foi lhefl of
piopeily. Danages aie Iiniled lo lhe acluaI vaIue of
lhe piopeily Iossappioaching zeio vheie eIeclionic
iecoids have leen copiedand consequenliaI speciaI
danages. As a nallei of IegaI cause, leyond neie
facluaI cause, injuiy lo lhe iepulalion of aei ank,
foi exanpIe, seens faiiIy liacealIe onIy lo lhe
financiaI iiieguIaiilies lhal veie exposed, nol lo lhe
acl of Ieaking lhe iecoids, Iel aIone iepulIishing
iecoids aIieady Ieaked. Ieihaps noie inpoilanlIy,
again as in lhe ciininaI anaIysis, a conveision
pIainliff seeking a nodesl iecoveiy vouId have lo
considei lhe counleivaiIing poIilicaI cosl in pulIic
opinion, nagnified ly lhe Slieisand effecl.
ConcIusion
The HoIIyvood novie The Insidei (iugge,
1999) loId lhe liue sloiy of lhe U.S. nevsnagazine
6O Minules, lhiealened vilh IialiIily foi loilious
inleifeience foi pulIicalion of an inleiviev vilh a
ig Tolacco vhislIelIovei. When in lhe
ficlionaIized veision of evenls lhe lioadcasl
nelvoik counseI expIained lhal lhe liulh of lhe
pulIicalion in facl deleinined lhe quanlun of
danages, lhe iepoilei pIayed ly AI Iacino asked,
Is lhis AIice in WondeiIand` Indeed, lhe piospecl
of ciininaI pioseculion oi civiI IialiIily foi lhe
pulIicalion of liulhfuI infoinalion IavfuIIy
ollained seens inconsislenl vilh hunan iighls
noins inlhe fieedon of expiessionand lhe fiee fIov
of infoinalion.
73
ul WikiIeaks poses an unpiecedenled lesl lo
lhe Iallei haIf of lhe naxinIavfuIIy ollainedand
piesenls open queslions as lo lhe IegaI
iesponsiliIily of lhe nass nedia iecipienl and
iepulIishei of Ieaked infoinalion. The piospecl of
espionage pioseculion in lhe Uniled Slales foi lhe
ieveIalion of goveinnenl seciels is IikeIy lo iun
agiound on lhe shoaIs of scienlei, exlialeiiiloiiaIily
and juiisdiclion, and conslilulionaIily. Al lesl lhe
goveinnenl nighl piosecule successfuIIy foi lhefl,
lul lhal pioseculion pionises Iiniled ienedies and
possilIy piohililive poIilicaI cosls. The piospecl foi
lusiness loil IialiIily in lhe Uniled Slales foi lhe
ieveIalion of lusiness seciels seens fainl
anaIogousIy uponpiolIens of scienlei, juiisdiclion,
and especiaIIy conslilulionaIily, lhough lhe
appIicaliIily of piecedenls is fai fion ceilain. Like
in lhe ciininaI aiea, a civiI suil foi conveision seens
noie pionising, lul poses possilIy piohililive
iepulalionaI iisks foi vouId-le pIainliffs. In sun,
din piospecl foi civiI IialiIily counseI caulion lo
coipoialions in lhe nainlenance and nanagenenl
of seciels.
Il neiils consideialion lhal lhis sludy of
polenliaI U.S. lusiness loil IialiIily foi an enlily
such as WikiIeaks leais inpoilanl Iinilalions. This
papei on lusiness loil IialiIily did nol exanine
anciIIaiy loil docliines such as civiI conspiiacy.
Moie inpoilanlIy, lhis papei exanined onIy
lusiness loil IialiIily in lhe Uniled Slales. CiviI
IialiIily iegines vaiy giealIy aiound lhe voiId, and
WikiIeaks nighl as IikeIy le haiIed inlo couil
anyvheie a lusiness suffeis iepulalionaI hain.
Moieovei, olhei IegaI iegines have iejecled lhe
conslilulionaI docliines of lolh SuIIivan, as
oveipioleclive of fiee expiession, and ianzluig, as
undei-pioleclive of fiee expiession. Thus a
conpiehensive picluie of civiI exposuie voiIdvide
foi WikiIeaks denands fuilhei ieseaich.
keferences
18 U.S.C. 641 (2O11). Reliieved fion WeslIav, 18 USC s 641
ALI (Aneiican Lav Inslilule). (2O1O). Reslalenenl (Second)
Toils, 222A. Reliieved fion WeslIav, RLST 2d TORTS s
222A.
ALI (Aneiican Lav Inslilule). (2O1O). Reslalenenl (Second)
Toils, 767. Reliieved fion WeslIav, RLST2d TORTS s 767.
oveis, S. (2OO9, Augusl 4). ConfidenliaI Kauplhing coipoiale
Ioan delaiIs Ieaked on lhe inleinel. The Cuaidian (U.K.).
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Vanily Iaii, p. 92.
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in AflonlIadel |OnIine coIunnj. TiansIaled ly CoogIe
T i a n s I a l e . R e l i i e v e d f i o n
hllp://lIogg.aflonlIadel.se/janheIin/2O1O/O8/daifoi-
lIii-juIian-assange-koIunnisl-i-aflonlIadel
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}ouinaI, p. A6.
Kovnei, V.A., McNanaia, L.A., TeIsey, S.L., SuIIivan, T., Davis
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WeslIav, 1O28 ILI/Ial 281
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seciels of lhe Ienlagon, Sviss lanks, scienloIogy, and Saiah
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nony-lhe-econony-of-vikiIeaks/
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INTLRILR s 49.
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WLNR 24OOO964
74
RICHARD }. ILLTZ
75
Vob||e ou|na||m |VOO :
O|||n and Sp|ead /|ound the \o||d
5tcphcn QuInn, PhD
The Univeisily of Nollinghan Ninglo China
MoliIe phones offei oppoilunilies foi nedia conpanies aiound lhe voiId lo gel nuIlinedia conlenl onlo lhe vel aInosl innedialeIy.
}ouinaIisls vho use onIy a noliIe phone foi nevsgalheiing aie caIIed nojos, an acionyn fion noliIe jouinaIisn. Mojos sliean video
Iive lolhe vel, viile lexl sloiies vilha poilalIe keyloaid, lake sliII inages, and iecoid and sliean audioinleivievs using onIy a noliIe
phone. This papei desciiles lhe oiigins of lhe nojo and ils spiead aiound lhe voiId. Il consideis lhe foices diiving lhe adoplion of lhis
innovalive appioachlonevsgalheiing, and concIudes ly consideiing lhe inpIicalions foi jouinaIisn and jouinaIisn educalion.
Kcqucrds. MoliIe phones, noliIe jouinaIisn(nojo), nevsgalheiing, jouinaIisn educalion
lntroduction
}ouinaIisn vas a IeisuieIy affaii unliI lhe aiiivaI
of lhe leIegiaph. efoie lhe lechnoIogy Slandage
dulled lhe Vicloiian Inleinel lecane videIy
avaiIalIe fion aloul lhe 188Os, edilois pulIished
foieign nevs onIy aflei ships aiiived (1998: 1O).
Repoileis ioved lo nevIy aiiived vesseIs lo secuie
lhe Ialesl nevs, even lhough lhal nevs vas in
nevspapeis lhal veie nonlhs oId. Doneslic nevs
liaveIIed onIy as fasl as a hoise couId gaIIop, and
nosl nevs vas necessaiiIy IocaI. The pigeons aion
Reulei inlioduced inlhe 185Os acceIeialed lhe speed
of nevsgalheiing, lul pigeons had Iiniled iange
and scope. The aiiivaI of lhe leIegiaph vas a
valeished foi jouinaIisn lecause il vas lhe fiisl
gIolaI lechnoIogy lhal acceIeialed lhe iepoiling
piocess.
Wai has aIvays focused jouinaIisls' allenlion
on lhe speed and ieIialiIily of lechnoIogy (Quinn in
eiengei 2OO6: 39). SchvaizIose nainlained lhal lhe
leIegiaph luined Aneiican jouinaIisn inlo a
nevs-hungiy indusliy piioi lo and duiing lhe
Aneiican CiviI Wai of 1861-65: A ciaving foi lhe
fieshesl nevs giev hand-in-hand vilh lhe nev
lechnoIogies of slean and eIecliicily (1974: 595).
Livingslon suggesled lhe leIegiaph vas lhe nosl
significanl inleinalionaI connunicalion nediun
aiound lhe voiId lelveen lhe nid 184Os and lhe
192Os. Indeed, he aigued lhis peiiod vas lhe age of
lhe leIegiaph. In a ieIaliveIy shoil line lhe
leIegiaph's viies enconpassed lhe voiId, loosled
ly iilish capilaI, Ialoui and enleipiise. Lines of
calIe ieached oul fion lhe voiId's gieal conneiciaI
and dipIonalic cenlies, fosleiing lhe giovlh of
nalionaIisn vilhin counliies, aIong vilh faslei
lusiness and nedia liansaclions (1996: 6). Kieve
nainlained lhe leIegiaph's gIoiy days veie
lelveen185O and 1914 (1973: 268).
y lhe end of lhe nineleenlh cenluiy lhe
conneiciaI voiId had ieaIised lhe leIegiaph's
significance, goveinnenls lecane avaie of ils
slialegic inpIicalions, and lhe piess vas
avakening lo ils polenliaI (Kieve 1973: 44-45). On
3 }anuaiy 1845, a nevs sloiy nade lhe leIegiaph
fanous in LngIand. }ohn TaveII nuideied his
nisliess in lhe lovn of SIough, aloul 24 kiIonelies
vesl of London. SIough vas one of lhe slalions on
lhe Cieal Weslein RaiIvay, and lhe leIegiaph had
leen inslaIIed aIongside lhe iaiIvay Iines. TaveII
fIed ly liain lo lhe anonynily of London, diessed as
a Quakei. ul poIice aiiesled hin al London's
Iaddinglonslalion. Kieve said lhal lhe liansnission
of TaveII's desciiplion ly leIegiaph lo Iaddinglon
vas IaigeIy iesponsilIe foi his iapid aiiesl.
IulIicily aiound lhe aiiesl heighlened pulIic
avaieness of lhe nev lechnoIogy and lhe leIegiaph
lecane fanous as lhe coids lhal hung }ohn
TaveII (1973: 39).
This nevs evenl vas nolalIe lecause
infoinalion liaveIIed sIovIy in lhe eighleenlh and
nineleenlh cenluiies conpaied vilh vhal ve
expeiience loday. Aneiica's DecIaialion of
Independence on 4 }uIy 1776, foi exanpIe, vas nol
iepoiled in LngIand unliI Augusl 21. IeopIe in
LngIand onIy lecane avaie of NeIson's vicloiy al
TiafaIgai on 21 Oclolei 18O5 on Novenlei 2
(Kieve 1973: 39). Conpaie lhe sIovness of lhese
evenls vilh lhe speed al vhich nevs and
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 75-81
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
" Professor of ]ourna|lsm, The Unlterslt of
Nottlngham Nlngbo Chlna
infoinalion liaveise lhe voiId in seconds nov.
DelaiIs of lhe Haili eailhquake oi lhe Moscov
sulvay lonlings in 2O1O veie avaiIalIe via
Tvillei and lexl nessage (SMS) seconds aflei lhey
happened.
ArrivaI of the mojo
The noliIe jouinaIisl oi nojo heiaIds anolhei
valeished nonenl foi jouinaIisn as ve nove inlo
lhe second decade of lhe lvenly-fiisl cenluiy.
Hisloiy shovs lhal jouinaIisls adopl nev
lechnoIogies foi nevsgalheiing if lhose looIs aie
easy lo use, if lhey enhance lhe sloiyleIIing piocess,
and if lhey acceIeiale lhe galheiing of nevs. The
ieveise aIso appIies: Repoileis viII iejecl
nevsgalheiing lechnoIogies if lhose looIs aie loo
conpIicaled lo use. }ouinaIisls aie unviIIing lo
vasle line vilhconpIex lechnoIogies. The conslanl
lick of lhe cIock nakes ediloiiaI slaff avaie of
deadIines, and lhose deadIines have incieased in
nunlei vilhlhe advenl of lhe 24/7 nevsioon.
AII of lhe lechnoIogies lhal jouinaIisn has
enliaced since lhe leIegiaph have iefIecled lhe
lvin desiies foi speed and incieased efficiencies
(Kieve 1973, SchvaizIose 1974, Slephens 1989,
Livingslon 1996). The hisloiy of jouinaIisls' use of
nevsgalheiing lechnoIogies iIIusliales lhis poinl:
looIs Iike lhe lypeviilei, Iong-dislance leIephony,
lhe saleIIile phone and poilalIe eIeclionic
nevsgalheiing kils used in Iiaq aII iepiesenl
exanpIes of lhis evoIulion.
This papei iejecls lechnoIogicaI deleininisl
aigunenls, and nainlains lhal peopIe choose looIs
lhal enhance lheii Iife, lhal is, hunan leings adopl
usefuI looIs and iejecl lhose lhal aie iiieIevanl oi
conpIicaled. In lhe yeais since lhe leIegiaph
acceIeialed lhe nevsgalheiing piocess, iepoileis
have incieasingIy soughl vays lo galhei nevs and
gel il lack lo lheii edilois as quickIy as possilIe.
Thal deveIopnenl has leen noie naiked in lhe
iecenl decade vilh lhe spiead of conveiged
nevsioons and lhe 24/7 nevs cycIe. The aiiivaI in
Iale 2OO7 of lhe nojo oi noliIe jouinaIisl lhe
iepoilei vho uses onIy a noliIe phone lo galhei
and liansnil nevs is a significanl deveIopnenl in
lhe evoIulion of iepoiling looIs. A nojo slieans
video Iive lo lhe vel, iecoids audio inleivievs vilh
lhe phone's luiIl-in iecoidei, lakes sliII inages, and
viiles lexl nessages vilh foId-avay keyloaids
lefoie sending conlenl viieIessIy lolhe office.
The lein nojo has nany neanings aiound lhe
voiId. In lhe voiId of popuIai cuIluie, if youi nojo
is voiking you have sex appeaI. The void hinls of
povei and nagic. In lhe conlexl of iepoilage,
noliIe jouinaIisn is pioducing poveifuI changes
lo lhe vay onIine siles iepoil. The noliIe phone
offeis jouinaIisn unique nevsgalheiing polenliaI:
OnIine nevs siles concenliale on lieaking nevs
lecause ieseaich shovs lhis foin of nevs luiIds
audiences. OnIine ievenues aie lased aInosl
enliieIy on adveilising and lhe cIicksliean (lhe
nunlei of peopIe vho visil lhe sile) so lieaking
nevs, especiaIIy nuIlinedia foins such as video,
lecone vilaI lecause lhey offei lhe lesl vays lo
luiId audiences, vhich can le soId lo adveiliseis
(vanNiekeik 2OO8).
The oiigins of lhe void nojo aie uncIeai, lul il
appeais lo have cone fion noco'o, anAfiicanvoid
neaning a peison vho voiks nagic. Thal lein is
fion lhe IuIa oi IuIfuIde Ianguage, a nenlei of lhe
IuIani lianch of lhe Nigei-Congo Ianguage faniIy.
Il enleied lhe LngIish Ianguage duiing lhe sIaveiy
eia in lhe Uniled Slales (Wikipedia). In lhe conlexl
of jouinaIisn, lhe void nojo appeais lo have
leen coined ly slaff al Cannell nevspapeis in lhe
Uniled Slales in 2OO5. Il vas lhe codenane foi a
piojecl al The Nevs-Iiess al Ioil Myeis in IIoiida,
vheie iepoileis galheied and disliiluled nevs in
nev vays. The ain vas aIso lo ollain conlenl fion
lhe audience as veII as lhe papei's iepoileis. Kale
Maiynonl, execulive ediloi and vice piesidenl of
nevs foi The Nevs-Iiess, said lhe nojo expeiinenl
vas designed lo cieale neighlouihood-focused
aieas vilhin lhe nevspapei's velsile (vvv.nevs-
piess.con) lo deIivei lieaking nevs lhioughoul lhe
day. She noled: We anlicipale lheie viII nol le a
dislinclionlelveennojos and olhei iepoileis inlhe
neai fuluie (Maiynonl 2OO6).
The nunlei of nojos voiIdvide is ieIaliveIy
snaII, accoiding lo Ifia Magazine, lhe aulhoiilalive
souice foi lhe nevspapei lusiness pulIished in
Ceinany and disliiluled in six Ianguages aiound
lhe voiId foi lhe WoiId Associalion of Nevspapei
(Ifia and WAN neiged in 2OO9). Senioi ediloi iian
VeseIing noled lhal liue noliIe jouinaIisn effoils
fion nevspapei pulIisheis ienained iaie lul
veie gioving iapidIy. OnIy a fev pulIisheis
appeai lo le aggiessiveIy puisuing Iaige-scaIe
noliIe iepoiling piojecls. Anong lhese, lvo of lhe
nosl pioninenl aie AusliaIia's Iaiifax Media and
lhe Cannell gioup in lhe Uniled Slales (VeseIing
2OO8: 23 and 2O1O). Nevspapei pulIisheis, ieIuclanl
loinvesl duiing lhe gIolaI financiaI ciisis, have leen
sIov lo deveIop nojo piojecls. ul olhei nedia
conpanies, especiaIIy lIog siles, have adopled lhis
76
STLIHLN QUINN
innovalion. Reseaich lhe aulhoi has conducled
aiound lhe voiId shovs lhe nunlei of nojos is
iising diieclIy infIuenced ly lhe avaiIaliIily of 3C
and vifi nelvoiks lecause lhese aie needed lo
deIivei conlenl lolhe nevsioon fion lhe fieId.
The nunlei of usei-fiiendIy snailphones
such as lhe iIhone and lhe Iackleiiy, pIus
inpiovenenls in noliIe leIephone nelvoiks, has
acceIeialed lhe spiead of nojos since nid lo Iale
2OO9. Snailphone is lhe geneiaI lein foi noliIe
phones vilh high-end piocessing chips. IeopIe use
lhen lo access lhe Inleinel, send and ieceive enaiI,
and conducl a iange of lusiness-ieIaled lasks.
IeopIe geneiaIIy choose a Snailphone lecause lhey
vanl loaccess lhe Inleinel via lheii noliIe phone. In
2OO9, despile lhe gIolaI financiaI ciisis, Snailphone
nanufacluieis soId 174 niIIion unils gIolaIIy, an
inciease of 15 pei cenl on lhe 151 niIIion soId in
2OO8. In lhe fiisl quailei of 2O1O lhe gIolaI snail
phone naikel giev ly noie lhan 5O pei cenl
conpaied vilh lhe sane peiiod in 2OO9, Reseaich
Conpany IDC iepoiled in May 2O1O. Snailphone
vendois shipped 54.7 niIIion unils in lhal quailei.
Ranon LIanas, a senioi ieseaich anaIysl al IDC,
said 2O1O vouId le anolhei yeai of Iaige-scaIe
consunei adoplion of conveiged noliIe devices
(IDC 2O1O). AppIe soId noie lhan one niIIion iIads
in lhe fiisl nonlh lhe device vas offeied in ApiiI
2O1O. Ioi one in lhiee noliIe phone useis in }apan,
lheii handsel has iepIaced lhe peisonaI conpulei as
lhe vay lhey go onIine (Covey 2OO8: 4). Lven duiing
lhe 2OO8-2OO9 gIolaI financiaI ciisis, ITU Secielaiy-
CeneiaI Di Hanadoun Touie said he had seen no
diop in denand foi connunicalions seivices. I an
confidenl lhal ve viII conlinue lo see a iapid uplake
in noliIe ceIIuIai seivices in pailicuIai in 2O1O, vilh
nany noie peopIe using lheii phones lo access lhe
Inleinel, he loId lhe MoliIe WoiId Congiess in
aiceIona inIeliuaiy 2O1O.
Anol hei si gni f i canl dii vei has leen
leIeconnunicalions conpanies' piovision of
unIiniled dala packages. Wilh lhese packages,
consuneis pay a fixed anounl each nonlh foi
phone caIIs, lexl nessages and dala. Video and
audio fion a nojoaie liansnilled as dala, nol voice.
Il is vilaI lo have a dala pIan vhen slieaning video
lo lhe vel lecause lhe piocess can invoIve huge
anounls of dala. A one-ninule video shol on a
noliIe phone consunes al Ieasl 4Ml of dala vhen
slieaned. LaiIy in 2O1O lhe Svedish noliIe phone
nanufacluiei Liicsson caIcuIaled lhal dala liaffic
on noliIe phones exceeded voice liaffic foi lhe fiisl
line in Decenlei 2OO9. Liicsson said dala liaffic
gIolaIIy giev 28O pei cenl in each of lhe pievious
lvo yeais, and vas foiecasl lo doulIe annuaIIy ovei
lhe nexl five yeais. The nain ieason vas lhe giovlh
of lhe use of snail phones, and lhe popuIaiily of
sociaI nelvoiking siles on noliIe devices (Vesl leig
2O1O).
In Singapoie an unIiniled dala package cosls
$S6O ($US43) a nonlh. In MaIaysia lhe chaige is 8O
iingill ($US25). Inlhe UK anunIiniled dala package
cosls aloul 3O pounds a nonlh ($US45). In lhe
Uniled Slales consuneis lypicaIIy pay $7O a nonlh
foi an unIiniled dala package. In counliies Iike
AusliaIia, use of lhe noliIe phone lo sliean Iive
video is iaie. As of Maich 2O1O fev of lhe counliy's
leIeconnunicalions conpanies offeied unIiniled
dala packages and dala liansnission fees veie
expensive. MeanvhiIe, advanced nalions Iike Soulh
Koiea offei najoi innovalions in leins of dala
liansnission foi lhe noliIe phone. Soulh Koieans
can sulsciile lo a nonlhIy vide aiea lioadland
package knovn as an Lgg. Il consisls of a noden
vilh a vifi caid on il, pIus a lalleiy. This effecliveIy
piovides lhen vilh an individuaI ioving vifi
holspol giving Inleinel access of 5O C al any line
and any pIace foi onIy $2O a nonlh(Ciuen2O1O).
Mojo ioneers
Aiound lhe voiId, gioups of innovalive
jouinaIisls and oiganisalions have enliaced
snailphones foi deIiveiing inages and video as
veII as lexl lo lhe vel. The Thonson Reuleis nevs
agency has leen a nojo pioneei fion ils Luiopean
headquaileis in London, equipping ils jouinaIisls
vilh a noliIe jouinaIisn looIkil since 2OO7. Maik
}ones, ediloi of Reuleis' lieaking nevs seivice
Nevs AIeil, said lhe conpany vas Iooking lo lhe
fuluie: We veie lhinking aloul nev vays lo
iepoil. }ones said his ioIe vas lo le noie avaiIalIe
lo lhe audience, pIus he vanled lo give jouinaIisls
lechnoIogy lhal vas poilalIe and fIexilIe (}ones
2OO8).
IIicco LIia, head of Consunei MoliIe foi
Reuleis Media, said lhe nojo piojecl vas lhe slail of
a nev vay lo leII sloiies. MoliIe phones aIIov
jouinaIisls lo svap lheii heavy caneia equipnenl
foi a snaIIei device, he said. LIia said lhe nojo
piojecl's iniliaI ain vas lo lake a noliIe phone off
lhe sheIf and see if il couId le adapled foi iepoiling.
Nokia asked lo le invoIved and nade sone
enhancenenls lo lhe device. Nokia aIso offeied a
lIueloolh-enalIed keyloaid and nodified a
niciophone lo piovide inpioved sound quaIily foi
77
inleivievs. Ovei lhe nexl fev yeais Nokia vouId
pioduce noliIe phones capalIe of laking inages of
lhe sane quaIily as high definilion leIevision
caneias, LIia said. This viII open up huge
possiliIilies foi jouinaIisls (LIia 2OO8).
Mall Covan, a nedia iepoilei foi Thonson
Reuleis in Luiope, said lhe nev lechnoIogy vas Iess
i nl iusi ve l han l iadi l i onaI caneias and
niciophones. Whal's anazing is lhal you can sidIe
up lo soneone and lake picluies and video, vhich
peopIe find suipiising. Il has ieaI polenliaI lo
capluie peopIe's lhoughls in pIaces vheie you
vouId nol have a fuII ciev. Ils poilaliIily is vhal
nakes il so exciling (Covan 2OO8). Reuleis' chief
scienlisl Nic IuIlon said his conpany and Nokia
had decided lo voik on a nuIli-hoiizon slialegy,
Iooking al vhal lhey couId do innedialeIy, lul aIso
vhal lhey couId do in lhe neai fuluie and fuilhei
dovn lhe Iine. MoliIe lechnoIogy vas evoIving
exlieneIy fasl. Iive, nayle even lhiee yeais oul,
noliIe phones couId have HD |high definilionj
video capaliIily and lhey couId have exlieneIy
poveifuI VIUs |piocessoisj and keyloaids. You
nighl say il's a Iaplop. I sliII lhink lhal il viII
uIlinaleIy le a veiy peisonaI noliIe device. So
cIeaiIy lheie is polenliaI foi il lo have quile a
liansfoinalive effecl onjouinaIisn (IuIlon2OO8).
Daiien Waleis vas lhe C's lechnoIogy ediloi
unliI nid 2OO9 lefoie he lecane nanaging diiecloi
of a nedia ieIalions conpany in London. Waleis
expeiinenled vilh fiIing nojo iepoils fion vaiious
pails of Luiope fion eaiIy 2OO8. In Ieliuaiy and
Maich of lhal yeai he used a Nokia noliIe phone lo
iepoil fion lhe voiId noliIe phone congiess in
aiceIona as an expeiinenl. The video quaIily vas
fine foi vhal ve vanled lo do on a lIog, he said.
ul lhe sound quaIily fion lhe inleinaI niciophone
vas jusl avfuI. Il vas acceplalIe if lhe iepoilei
gol vilhin a coupIe of nelies of lhe suljecl lul any
fuilhei avay and lhe sound vas a piolIen. Waleis
sunnaiised his findings in a iepoil foi his
coIIeagues: Duiing lhe expeiinenl lhe picluie
quaIily vas indiffeienl, lhe sound quaIily vas
iopey, and lhe conlenl vas so-so. Il vas a liiunph.
Waleis said duiing lhe liiaI he Ieained a Iol aloul
lhe lechnoIogy lul aIso aloul hov using a noliIe
phone infIuenced lhe voikfIov foi iepoiling. He
aIso discoveied lhe kinds of video peopIe vanled lo
valch on a lIog oi vel sile, and vhal conlenl
audiences vanled. The videos lhal ended lo voik,
lo gel Iols of hils, lended lo le excIusives, oi
sponlaneous nevs, oi quiiky evenls, vhich is
peifecl foi noliIe jouinaIisn. Waleis said he
Ieained lo shool discieel lIocks of video and Iols
of shoil inleivievs. Sone of lhen veie veiy duII.
They veie loo Iong, oi lhey ianlIed, oi ve veie loo
fai avay fion lhe suljecl foi good sound quaIily.
ul sone veie inleiesling lecause lhe inleivievees
veie inleiesling. The inpoilanl lhing foi us is lhal
vilhoul lhe caneia ve vouId nol have had any
video. So lhe caneia gave us an exlia Iayei of
naleiiaI (Waleis 2OO8).
In Noivay, Iiank ailh-NiIsen iuns lhe
ediloiiaI liaining depailnenl foi NRK, lhe nalionaI
lioadcaslei. ailh-NiIsen is an advocale foi nojo
and viiles a lIog on lhe suljecl. He said NRK's
vaiious depailnenls pIanned lo use nojo conlenl
foi nainsliean pIalfoins Iike leIevision. A Iol of
olhei lioadcasleis and nevspapeis aie inleiesled in
oui findings, he said. We'ie luiIding a looIkil foi
oui jouinaIisls, focusing on speed and usaliIily.
We'ie aIsoIooking inlohov lhe nev lechnoIogy viII
change loday's vay of sloiyleIIing. He uses his
lIog, Mojo LvoIulion, lo shaie knovIedge gIolaIIy
(ailh-NiIsenpeisonaI connunicalion2OO9).
Repoileis al Inquiiei.nel, lhe onIine sile of lhe
IhiIippines DaiIy Inquiiei in ManiIa in lhe
IhiIippines, have leen fiIing sloiies ienoleIy via
noliIe phones since 2OO7. }VRufino, lhe conpany's
vice-piesidenl foi noliIe, said il vas easy lo send
phologiaphs and lexl via naiiovland Inleinel. ul
video sonelines vas a sIighl piolIen lecause lhe
fiIes aie so nuch Iaigei. We cannol send video in
ieaI line, il lends lo le a gap of anyvheie lelveen
haIf an houi and seveiaI houis. Repoileis have lo go
lo an Inleinel cafe oi lack hone lo gel a faslei
conneclion. Oi iepoileis have lo conpiess lhe video
loa nanagealIe size onlheii nolelook |snaII Iaplop
conpuleisj lo nake il liansnillalIe. They have had
lo Ieain hov lo do sone posl-piocessing voik lo
nake lhe fiIes snaIIei, logel lhe fiIes dovnlo4Ml lo
6Ml. Sone iepoileis onIy send a fev seIecled
video cIips lecause lhal vas nuch faslei, Rufino
said. The cIips veie neanl lo acconpany an ailicIe
foi lhe vel, and nol sland aIone. The faslesl ve
have had sonelhing on lhe vel is aloul 2O ninules
fion lhe line il happened (Rufino2OO8).
The aulhoi of lhis papei has voiked as a nojo
and liained jouinaIisls as nojo in six counliies since
2OO8. In Seplenlei 2OO8 he senl a Iive video sliean
fion a piess confeience piioi lo a najoi spoiling
evenl in Vicloiia in AusliaIia. This is leIieved lo le
lhe fiisl exanpIe of Iive nojo voik in AusliaIia. He
slieaned segnenls of video lo lhe vel sile of lhe
IocaI daiIy nevspapei, lhe CeeIong Adveilisei,
fion oulside a spoils giound in lhe Iead up lo lhe
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STLIHLN QUINN
giand finaI of lhe AusliaIian IoollaII League. He
aIso secuied lhe onIy inleiviev vilhlhe peisonvho
gave l he pi ess conf ei ence, despi l e an
announcenenl of no peisonaI oi individuaI
inleivievs. This vas an exanpIe of lhe discieel
naluie of noliIe jouinaIisn, vheie lhe peopIe
laking pail do nol leIieve lhal video is leing
slieaned Iive lolhe vel.
Changing roIes for journaIists
Al Ieasl six conpanies offei soflvaie foi
slieaning Iive video fion a noliIe phone lo lhe
vel. This soflvaie is cuiienlIy fiee. One of lhe lesl
knovn is Qik, lased in San Iiancisco, vhich lhe
aulhoi has used exlensiveIy in seveiaI counliies.
The soflvaie enalIes peopIe lo sliean videos
diieclIy fion lheii phone lo lhe vel. Repoileis can
use lheii noliIe phone Iike a cancoidei lo capluie
nevs and go Iive (see hllp://vvv.qik.con). }in
Long, a phologiaphei vilh NC Nevs, vas in
Afiica in Ieliuaiy 2OO8 coveiing a visil ly lhen
piesidenl Ceoige ush. Long used a Nokia phone
connecled vilh Qik soflvaie lo lioadcasl an
inleiviev vilh Sii ol CeIdof, lhe hunanilaiian
and foinei iock slai. No Iaige lioadcasl quaIily
caneia oi a saleIIile upIink. Noediling oi -ioII. }usl
lhe nevs (Long 2OO8).
On 2O Augusl 2OO9, leIevision iepoilei }eieny
}ojoIa used aniIhone and Qik soflvaie inslead of an
oulside lioadcasl liuck lo covei a sloiy foi KO-TV
in AIluqueique, Nev Mexico. TechnoIogies Iike
Qik and lhe iIhone aie changing lhe vay jouinaIisls
iepoil Iive leIevision. The aulhoi voiked as a
leIevision jouinaIisl in lhe Uniled Kingdon, Nev
ZeaIand, AusliaIia, and lhe Uniled Aial Lniiales.
Celling an oulside lioadcasl liuck lo a lieaking
nevs scene foi a Iive lioadcasl invoIves a Iol of line
and noney. An oulside lioadcasl liuck cosls
seveiaI niIIion doIIais, needs a ciev of al Ieasl lvo,
and cosls lhousands of doIIais an houi lo iun and
nainlain. The cosl of an iIhone vilh fiee soflvaie is
aInosl negIigilIe ly conpaiison. }ojoIa said he vas
vailing foi lhe day vhen he vouId le alIe lo
iepoil Iive lieaking nevs fion lhe scene vilhoul a
phologiaphei oi an expensive Iive liuck. I have a
feeIing lhal day is going lo happen veiy, veiy soon.
The lechnoIogy is cheapei and faslei |lhan
liadilionaI leIevision equipnenlj, and il's onIy
going lo gel lellei, he said. Whal nevs nanagei
isn'l going lo Iike lhal, }ojoIa asked iheloiicaIIy
(Quinn2OO9: 8).
The noliIe phone conlined vilh fiee soflvaie
Iike Qik nakes nojo voik possilIe. ul as vilh aII
looIs, a peison nakes lhe choice lo use oi iejecl lhal
lechnoIogy. As veII as lechnoIogy choice, lhe issues
of changing jol ioIes and lhe difficuIlies associaled
vilh leing a jack-of-aII liades aIvays suiface
vhenevei noliIe jouinaIisn is discussed. ShouId
and canone peisondo eveiylhing` Is il faii lo expecl
one peison lo voik Iong houis lo pioduce conlenl
foi nany nedia` These aie queslions lhal viII le
iesoIved vilh line. MeanvhiIe, lhe lechnoIogy jusl
gels lellei.
In Ieliuaiy 2O1O sludenls fion Canadian and
Aneiican univeisily jouinaIisn piogians iepoiled
fion lhe fieId duiing lhe Winlei OIynpic Canes in
Vancouvei in Canada. They used iIhones vilh
VeiiCoidei soflvaie lo cieale nuIlinedia sloiies
lhal veie sulnilled viieIessIy fion lhe fieId lo lhe
nevsioon. The sloiies incoipoialed sound and sliII
inages inlo sIideshovs. VeiiCoidei is a Canadian
soflvaie conpany lhal speciaIizes in iIhone apps.
LxanpIes of lhe sludenls' nuIlinedia sloiies aie
avaiIalIe al hllp://vvv.nojo-ievoIulion.con.
Tvo nonlhs Ialei, jouinaIisn sludenls Liica
Zucco and iian IeIIol fion lhe Univeisily of
Missouii voiked as leIevision iepoileis al lhe
NalionaI Associalion of ioadcasleis' (NA) shov
in Las Vegas. They coveied lhe shov foi lhe DaiIy
uzz vel sile using onIy an iIhone, a snaII
niciophone, an OvIe ulo nelaI case foi lhe
iIhone and 1sl Video soflvaie fion Veiicoidei. The
sludenls iecoided, ediled and posled video duiing
lhe shov soIeIy fion lheii iIhones. Theii leachei,
Iiofessoi Kaien MilcheII, said lhe fuluie of
jouinaIisn vas shifling, and leconing noie and
noie |focused onj noliIe. This vouId uIlinaleIy
pioduce a shifl in lhe vay conpanies lhoughl of
jouinaIisn equipnenl, she said (Huisl 2O1O).
Veiicoidei CLO Caiy Synons vas a foinei
invesligalive iepoilei vilh lhe Canadian
ioadcasling Coipoialion lefoie slailing lhe
conpany in 2OO9: VeiiCoidei TechnoIogy
pioduces lhe voiId's nosl advanced snailphone
noliIe nedia appIicalions foi iecoiding, ediling,
and sending audio, video and pholo fiIes. Oui
nuIli-nedia conveigence looIs pul a poilalIe audio
and video-ediling sludioinlhe paIn of youi hand.
journaIism education and mojos
Maik CIasei, vhoviiles lhe MediaShifl lIog foi
IS, Aneiica's pulIic lioadcaslei, leIieves
jouinaIisls nusl enliace nuIli-nedia: Il's nol
enough lo le a lioadcasl jouinaIisl, a piinl
79
jouinaIisl oi a pholojouinaIisl in lhe digilaI age.
Nov, jouinaIisls need lo Ieain a hosl of skiIIs lo
ieach diffeienl audiences. A sludenl sludying piinl
jouinaIisn shouId Ieain hov lo le on caneia and
hov lo shool video and pholos. A peison sludying
lioadcasl jouinaIisn shouId Ieain hov lo viile foi
lhe vel, and hov lo nodeiale an onIine foiun.
CIasei said nev giaduales vilh nuIli-pIalfoin
skiIIs vouId le in denand al liadilionaI nedia
oulIels. This is lhe lesl line in hisloiy foi nev
jouinaIisls lo nake lheii ovn vay, slail lheii ovn
nedia oulIel and gel noliced (CIasei peisonaI
connunicalion2OO8).
}eff }aivis iuns lhe inleiaclive nedia sliand al
lhe giaduale schooI of jouinaIisn al lhe Cily
Univeisily of Nev Yoik. Aflei spending a veek as a
noliIe jouinaIisl al lhe WoiId Lcononic Ioiun in
Davos in SvilzeiIand in 2OO8, he concIuded lhal aII
jouinaIisls shouId le equipped as nojos. Al Davos
Reuleis suppIied aloul 2O deIegales vilh Nokia
N82 phones. We aIieady knov lhal caneia-phones
in lhe hands of vilnesses have leen changing nevs.
Theie is no lellei iIIuslialion of lhal, so fai, lhan lhe
7/7 |Londonj lonlings. ul I nov see lhal lhis
sane device nay change lhe jol of lhe jouinaIisl in
vays noie iadicaI lhan I couId have inagined unliI
I slailed iepoiling vilhone, }aivis said. The noliIe
phone vouId change lhe ioIe of lhe jouinaIisl, he
concIuded, and ieconnended Nokia noliIe
phones lecause lhey aIIoved iepoileis lo upIoad oi
lioadcasl vhiIe noliIe and couId aIso le used lo
send pholos lo IIicki and lveels lo Tvillei (shoil-
foin jouinaIisn, Iike iepoiling via SMS). A viied
jouinaIisl vilhoul a caneia and conneclivily vas
Iike a hack vilhoul a penciI (}aivis 2OO8).
The lenefils of lhe noliIe phone as a
nevsgalheiing looI seened consideialIe, }aivis
said: They veie conpacl, Iighl, alIe lo use
unolliusiveIy, peopIe did nol lake lhen seiiousIy,
and nedia oiganisalions veie alIe lo spiead lhe
nevsgalheiing oplions ly giving phones lo seveiaI
peopIe. The onIy diavlacks he couId see veie lhe
cosl of lhe phone pIus dala chaiges lecause
leIecons conpanies chaige foi dala liansfeiied
ialhei lhan line onIine. Sone inleivievees vouId
nol lake lhe nojo seiiousIy lecause of lhe snaII size
of lhe caneia. They nainlained lhal lhe snaII phone
did nol Iook piofessionaI, }aivis said. AII
iepoileis aie onIine iepoileis nov. I'd vanl any
iepoilei vho couId iepoil Iive lo have il |a vel-
connecled noliIe phonej. In 2OO8 }aivis's
jouinaIisn piogian puichased five Nokia N95
phones and paid foi lhe dala chaiges lecause lhe
schooI leIieved il vas inpoilanl foi sludenls lo
expeiience using lhe lechnoIogy foi nevsgalheiing:
I have no doull lhal in a veiy shoil line, vhen lhe
nexl lig nevs sloiy lieaks vilh iepoils coning
fion lhe scene and fion vilnesses, il viII le Iive.
Inagine if }anaI AIlaughouli's seninaI caneia-
phone video/audio of lhe shooling al Viiginia Tech
|on 16 ApiiI 2OO7j had cone in Iive, as lechnoIogy
nov aIIovs (}aivis 2OO8).
ConcIusion
Il is inpoilanl lo nole lhe conpIenenlaiy
naluie of nojo voik. Il is nol designed lo iepIace
high-end video caneias foi lioadcasl leIevision, oi
high-end digilaI sliIIs caneias, oi lioadcasl-quaIily
audio iecoideis. ul il offeis a Sviss ainy knife
oplion foi pioducing nuIli-nedia conlenl vhen no
olhei lechnoIogy is avaiIalIe. Mojos aie an ideaI
vay lo gel video onlo a vel foi lieaking nevs. Said
Covanof Reuleis: I don'l lhink lhis is lhe vay ve'II
aII le iepoiling. ul il viII le an inciedilIy
inpoilanl looI lhal pIays inlo hov ve iepoil sloiies.
Il injecls a kind of dynanisn (Covan2OO8).
Daiien Waleis, foineiIy of lhe C, aIso sav
lhe polenliaI of nojo voik. The lhing lhal sliuck
ne aloul noliIe jouinaIisn is lhal oppoilunily pIus
capaliIily is lhe key. If you have gol lhe phone in
youi pockel and lhe syslens in pIace lo le alIe lo
send video, lhen you can iepoil al any line. You do
nol have lhal Iuxuiy vhen you aie ieIying on a
caneianan, oi need lo sel up youi ovn caneia.
And vilh excIusive video, audiences do nol nind if
lhe caneia voik is a lil iough aiound lhe edges.
Waleis said noliIe video vouId nevei iepIace
piofessionaI caneianen vho ciealed piofessionaI
nevs packages. ul lechnoIogy vas evoIving fasl.
Whal is inleiesling is lhe speed of deveIopnenl.
We aie IikeIy lo gel noliIe phones lhal caniecoid in
high definilion in lhe nexl yeai (Waleis peisonaI
connunicalion2OO8).
Daiien Wal eis lesl sunnaii sed hi s
oiganisalion's appioach: Iion lhe C's
peispeclive, if ve do nol engage in lhis |nojo voikj
soon, soneone eIse viII. Iulling syslens in pIace
and liaining jouinaIisls vilh lhe lechnoIogy needs
lo happen soon. SiniIaiIy, Kevin Andievs, foinei
lIogs ediloi foi The Cuaidian, sees gieal polenliaI
foi lhe nojo concepl. MoliIe lechnoIogy Iels
jouinaIisls slay cIosei lo lhe sloiy and connecled nol
onIy lo oui office lul aIso lo oui audience. Nevs
oiganisalions lhal expeiinenl nov viII le lesl
pIaced lo lake advanlage of lhe jouinaIislic
8O
STLIHLN QUINN
possiliIilies lhal evei advancing noliIe lechnoIogy
aIIovs(Andievs 2OO8).
The nojo-equipped iepoilei viII lecone noie
alliaclive as a nevsgalheiing oplion, especiaIIy in
lhe vake of lhe gIolaI financiaI ciisis as nedia
conpanies Iook foi noie vays lo save noney.
CeilainIy ve aie IikeIy lo see nedia conpanies
nake noie use of audience-geneialed conlenl
lecause nosl of lhal conlenl is piovided fiee. ul
audience-geneialed conlenl liings ils ovn gioup of
piolIens, such as ciediliIily and accuiacy and lhe
iisk of defanalion. Thal is lhe lopic of anolhei
papei.
In a lighl jol naikel, sludenls seeking jols as
iepoileis viII incieasingIy need lo have sone soil of
unique seIIing poinl (oi USI, lo use naikeling
jaigon). Mojo skiIIs offei one lype of USI.
MeanvhiIe, lhe desiie lo enliace lechnoIogies lhal
save line and acceIeiale lhe nevsgalheiing piocess
viII conlinue lo push jouinaIisn inlo nev aieas and
encouiage nev aieas of innovalion.
keferences
Andievs, K. (2OO8). IeisonaI Inleiviev in MeIlouine 29 }uIy
2OO8.
ailh-NiIsen, I. (2OO9). IeisonaI inleiviev in OsIo 18 }une 2OO9.
ailh-NiIsen has eslalIished a lIog foi shaiing ideas, caIIed
MojoLvoIulion(hllp://nojoevoIulion.con/).
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|accessed 5 Seplenlei 2OO8j.
Covan, M. (2OO8). LnaiI inleivievs Seplenlei 2OO8.
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conveisalions inIeliuaiy and Maich2O1O.
IuIlon, N. (2OO8). LnaiI inleivievs Seplenlei 2OO8.
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2OO8.
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1872 Nev Yoik: Haipei and iolheis.
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}ones, M. (2OO8). IeisonaI inleiviev inLondon3O May 2OO8.
Kieve, }. (1973). LIecliic TeIegiaph: A SociaI and Lcononic
Hisloiy. Devon, UK: David & ChaiIes.
Life in lhe CIicksliean (2OO8). IulIished 14 Oclolei 2OO8 al
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Maiynonl, K. (2OO6). Hov lhey did il: Ioil Myeis' 'nojo'
jouinaIisls seaich oul nevs al lhe neighlouihood IeveI,
idenlify connunily conliilulois found onIine al
hllp://vvv.gannell.con/go/nevsvalch/2OO6/feliuaiy
/nvO21O-2.hln |accessed 1 Ieliuaiy 2OO9j.
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SaleIIile. Nev Yoik: Ienguin.
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VeseIing, . (2OO8). Iiinl lakes a page fion lioadcasl in Ifia
Magazine, Maich 2OO8, pages 23-25. AIso enaiI inleivievs
May 2O1O.
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A i l i c I e a v a i I a l I e o n I i n e
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Woids: 5,275
81
|CC |n the /me||can and /|ab Ved|a \eb|te
E!saycd BckhIt
Univeisily of Shaijah,UAL
The phenonenonof usei-geneialed conlenl is ciealing nev chaIIenges and oppoilunilies foi nainsliean nedia. Today, onIine velsiles
cieale incieased oppoilunilies foi jouinaIisls and cilizens loconnunicale easiIy. This sludy anaIyzes lhe disliilulionof usei-geneialed
conlenl inilialives al nainsliean Aial and Aneiican nevs velsiles lhiough using of conlenl anaIysis, suiveys, exanining edilois' and
velsiles' adninislialois' alliludes lo 'usei-geneialed conlenl, and expIoiing lheii pulIicalions' expeiinenls vilh ieadei pailicipalion
lhiough quanlilalive ieseaich inleivievs. Il aIso exanines lhe useis' alliludes lovaids lheii conliilulions in nevs velsiles. The sludy
shovs lhal fev of Aial useis aie conliiluling inpioducing nedia velsiles' conlenl. Mosl of lheii conliilulions aie neieIy connenling
onsone nevs sloiies, inages and ailicIes, vilhoul a ieaI pioduclionof nedia conlenl. Il aIsoshovs lhal nosl of Aial nedia velsiles do
nol offei piopei fealuies of useis' geneialed conlenl. The conliilulions of useis in geneialing nedia conlenl aie noie olvious in lhe
Aneiican nedia lhan in lhe Aial nedia velsiles. The sludy iIIusliales lhal Aial onIine jouinaIisls have a hesilaled and anliguous
vision of useis' geneialed conlenl. Despile lhey considei il usefuI and vilaI conponenl of velsiles, lhey do nol uliIize il. Aial onIine
jouinaIisls nenlioned nany faclois lhal hindei lheii uliIizalionof useis geneialed conlenls suchas lhe oiganizalionaI faclois and Iack of
avaieness of hov lhese oiganizalions canlenefil fion lhe inleinel onnedia and econonic IeveIs.
Kcqucrds. Useis geneialed conlenl. cnIine jouinaIisn. aial nedia. cilizenand pailicipaloiy jouinaIisn
The phenonenon of usei-geneialed conlenl is
ciealing nev chaIIenges and oppoilunilies foi
nainsliean nedia. Today, onIine velsiles cieale
incieased oppoilunilies foi jouinaIisls and cilizens
lo connunicale easiIy. Thiough onIine nedia,
cilizens aie alIe lo pulIish conlenl in a vaiiely of
foinals onnainsliean nedia oiganizalions' siles.
AIlhough a kind of consensus seens lo have
giovn anong nedia piofessionaIs lhal usei-
geneialed conlenl is sonelhing lhey have lo
enliace, lhe cuiienl inilialives laken ly
nainsliean nedia lo pionole pailicipaloiy
jouinaIisn suggesl lhal piofessionaI jouinaIisls sliII
lend lo le iesislanl lo lhe idea of opening up lhe
nevs naking piocess louseis.
The Iileialuie ieviev of pailicipaloiy
jouinaIisn, cilizen }ouinaIisn, lIogs, onIine
gal ekeepi ng, c oI I aloi al i ve j oui naI i s n,
ciovdsouicing jouinaIisn, and onIine nevsioons
innovalions, shov lhal nainsliean nedia aie
ieacling lo lhe liend of usei geneialed conlenl in a
hesilanl vay.
Yel, scaice lul gioving ieseaich on
pailicipaloiy jouinaIisn suggesls lhal lhe adoplion
of usei-geneialed conlenl in lhe nevsioon is
hindeied ly seveiaI conlexluaI faclois on diffeienl
IeveIs of lhe nevsioon oiganizalion.
Iev sludies have leen conducled on lhe
siniIaiilies and diffeiences of UCC in diffeienl
nedia enviionnenl. No Aial sludy has leen
conducled on lhe adoplion of UCC in Aial nevs
velsiles and lhe conlexluaI faclois, vhich affecl ils
adoplion.
This sludy viII quanlify and anaIyze lhe
disliilulion of usei-geneialed conlenl inilialives al
nainsliean Aial and Aneiican nevs velsiles
lhiough using of conlenl anaIysis, suiveys,
exanining edilois' and velsiles' adninislialois'
alliludes lo 'usei-geneialed conlenl, and expIoiing
lheii pulIicalions' expeiinenls vilh ieadei
pailicipalion lhiough quanlilalive ieseaich
inleivievs. Il aIso exanines lhe useis' alliludes
lovaids lheii conliilulions innevs velsiles.
The sludy liy lo gain a lellei undeislanding of
vhal faclois aie shaping lhe adoplion of usei
geneialed conlenl in Aial nevs velsiles and hov.
Il lakes inlo consideialion lhe oiganizalionaI
sliucluies, and ioIe peiceplions in lhe nevsioon,
cuIluie and poIilicaI syslens.
To iIIusliale lhe vhoIe fealuies of UCC, lhe
sludy conpaies lhe use of UCC inAial loAneiican
nevs velsiles.
This papei Iooks al lhe chaIIenges and
oppoilunilies posed ly usei-geneialed conlenl lo
piofessionaI nainsliean nedia. This neans lhal lhe
" Assoclate Professor, Unlterslt of Shar]ah, UAE
82
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 82-87
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
focus is nol on lhe liails of cilizen jouinaIisn as
such, lul on lhe vays in vhich liadilionaI
nevsioons nake use of and ieacl lo lhe inciease in
usei-geneialed conlenl. In oidei lo expIoie lhe
oiganizalionaI and piofessionaI faclois infIuencing
lhe adoplion of usei-geneialed conlenl in
piofessionaI nevsioons, lhis papei liy lo coIIecl
enpiiicaI evidence lhiough inleivievs vilh lhe
nevsioon slaff of seveiaI Aial nevs velsiles and a
suivey vilhlhe useis of Aial nevs velsiles.
1he study Objectives
- Revieving lhe iecenl liends inUCC lo define ils
nev appIicalions.
- Revieving lhe lheoielicaI appioaches of UCC lo
define lhe suilalIe nelhodoIogy of anaIyzing
lhe use of UCC in Aial and Aneiican onIine
velsiles.
- Lxanining lhe UCC in Aial and Aneiican
velsiles in lhiee IeveIs: (1) AnaIyzing lhe
conlenl of lhese velsiles lased on seveiaI
ciileiia deiived fion lhe pievious Iileialuie and
a piIol sludy. (2) conducling inleivievs vilh
Aial nedia velnasleis and conlenl pioduceis
lo poiliay lheii peiceplions of UCC (3)
inpIenenling a suivey vilh useis of Aial
nedia velsiles lo iIIusliale lheii conliilulions
and lhe faclois shaping lhen.
- Conpaiing lhe siniIaiilies and diffeiences
lelveen Aial and Aneiican nedia velsiles of
UCC fealuies.
- Discussing lhe oveiaII iesuIls lased on lhe
faclois shaping onIine conlenl indusliy in Aial
nedia.
The reasons for deflnlng these ob]ectltes are:
(1) The Iack of ievieving of Aial nedia velsiles'
conliilulions inpionoling UCC
(2) The Iack of sludies lhal conline seveiaI
nylhoIogicaI lechniques and seek lo inleipiel
lhe oveiaII conliilulions of UCC fion lhe sociaI
consliuclivisl appioach.
(3) The iaiily of lhe sludies lhe conline lhe
lheoielicaI and piaclicaI Iook of UCC, and lhe
iaiily of lhe conpaialive sludies of UCC lhal
anaIyze lhe pailneis of UCC
Research Questlons:
- The sludy queslions lackIe lvo aspecls, lhe fiisl
one is ieIaled lo lhe lheoielicaI pail and liy lo
define lhe nosl pioninenl fealuies of UCC and
lhe ioIes of useis and lhe lheoielicaI appioaches
of UCC.
- The appIicalion aspecl conpiises lhiee IeveIs of
queslions: (1) lhe size of velsiles' inleiesl of
UCC, conpaiing lhe Aneiicanand Aial nedia
velsiles. The ieason of conpaiisonis lhe desiie
of shoving lhe exlenl lo vhich lhe nedia
velsiles can lenefil fion UCC in lvo diffeienl
onIine nedia enviionnenl.
- The second IeveI of piaclicaI queslions lackIe
issues ieIaled lo velsiles adninislialois and
velnasleis and liy lo define lheii peiceplions
of UCC, lheii ciileiia of adoplion UCC and lhe
faclois shaping UCC conliilulions.
- The lhiid pail of queslions ieIales lo useis of
nedia velsiles and seeks lo ansvei queslions
ieIaled lo lhe peiceplions of lheii conliilulions
and lhe faclois shaping lhen.
Research Methodo|og
The sludy uses seveiaI lechniques:
- Quanlilalive anaIysis of Aial and Aneiican
nedia velsiles lo define lhe quanlily of lheii
use of UCC, lhe used looIs, and a conpaiison of
lhe siniIaiilies and diffeiences lelveen Aial
and Aneiicanvelsiles, ly using 48 calegoiies.
- AnaIyzing lhe Iileialuie of UCC lo define lhe
nainliends of iecenl UCC.
- Tvo queslionnaiies: one vilh nedia velsiles
adninislialois lo define lheii peiceplions of
UCC and lhe second one vilhusei.
The Stud Sam|e:
- The sludy anaIyzes lhe conlenl of nainsliean
Aial and Aneiican nevs velsiles (5O Aial
velsiles, and 5O Aneiican velsiles). Il viII
incIude nevspapeis and TV slalions velsiles.
The sanpIe viII iepiesenl lhe veII-knovn
Aneiican nevs velsiles and viII seIecl lvo oi
lhiee velsiles fion noie lhan Tvenly Aial
counliies.
- Anong Aial nevs velsiles vhich viII le
anaIyzed aie: AIhaian, AI}uneiiah, AIIilihad,
LIaph, LIshaiak AIAosal, AIjazeeiah, MC elc.
Anong Aneiican nevs velsiles, vhich viII le
anaIyazed, aie: Nev Yoik Tines, Los AngIes,
CNN, AC, NC, CS, Nevsveek, Chicago
Tiilune, WashinglonIosl, elc.
83
- The sludy viII depend ononIine suivey lo ieach
Aial nevs velsiles' adninislialois and
velnasleis. A piinled and onIine suivey viII
le disliiluled on lhe useis of nevs velsiles. To
Iocale nevs nedia useis, ve viII dig lhiough
lhe velsiles' connenl aiea and lIogs, elc. lo
connunicale diieclIy vilhlhen.
(1) Uscrs' CnntrIbutInns and WcbsItcs
Fcaturcs
TalIe (1) shovs lhal connenling on nevs is lhe
nosl used fealuies on Aial nedia velsiles (68.3),
lhen lhe nosl iead ilens (58.4), connenling on
ailicIes (56.4), looknaiking (56.7), and poIIs
(44.7). Iealuies such as useis' nevs sloiies (8.9),
shaiing and challing (5) aie lhe Ieasl used fealuies.
The pievious iesuIls shov lhal velsiles do nol
aIIov useis lo pailicipale heaviIy as pioduceis of
conlenl.
The lalIe aIso shovs lhal Aneiican nedia
velsiles aie noie inleiesled in Iive discussion,
connenls on jouinaIisls' lIogs, useis' lIogs,
looknaiking, voling, lul Aial nedia velsiles aie
inleiesled in poIIs, ialing and ilens evaIualion,
videos connenls, nevs, challing, voling. Hovevei,
Aial nedia velsiles do nol aIIov useis lo le
pioduceis of nedia conlenl.
The lalIe aIso shovs lhal sone fealuies veie
used heaviIy lhan olheis, especiaIIy useis and
jouinaIisls' lIogs, connenls on ailicIes, Iive
discussion, useis' pholos and looknaiking.
Hovevei, Aneiican nedia velsiles shov posilive
alliludes lovaids hosling lIogs, posling connenls
and conducling Iive discussion.
Media velsiles aIIov useis lo shaie conlenl
vilh olhei sociaI nelvoiks (6O.4),use RSS (66.3),
cIaiify lheii piivacy poIicy (5O.5), posl
looknaiking (57.4), highIighl lhe nosl iead ilens
(58.4) and connenls (52.5).
The Aneiican nedia velsiles aie inleiesled in
shaiing conlenl vilh olhei sociaI nelvoiks, Iive
discussion, podcasl, inleiaclive fealuies, copyiighls
agieenenls, looknaiking and jouinaIisls' lIogs
lhanAial nedia velsiles.
(2) Uscrs' PcrccptInns nf Uscrs Gcncratcd
Cnntcnt
84
TalIe (2) shovs lhal useis of Aial nedia velsiles do nol have posilive allilude lovaid pIaying lhe ioIe
of pioduceis of conlenl. Mosl of lhen piefei lhe ioIe of iecipienl and connenlalois lhan lhe ioIe of
pioduceis. They do nol expiess posilive allilude lovaids nosl of lhe fealuies. Iev of lhen pioduce nevs
sloiies (M=1.8), upIoading pholos (M=2.6), UpIoading videos (M=2.3), viiling ailicIes (M=2.O).
On lhe olhei hand, useis expiess negalive alliludes lovaids olhei fealuies, especiaIIy voling on nevs
(M=2.6), Iive discussion and challing (M=2.3), lIogs connenls (M=2.5), shaiing infoinalion vilh sociaI
nelvoiks (M=2.3), poIIs (M=2.4), upIoading videos (M=2.3). Hovevei, sulnilling nevs (M=2.9), connenl
onnevs (M=2.7) aie lhe Ieasl fealuies.
T-test
37.849
3o.903
31.o97
33.113
25.740
30.111
27.400
30.700
25.811
29.103
29.710
24.328
$0
.89942
.84o48
.93500
.89502
1.13180
.94938
1.02151
.88312
1.03338
.89008
.84099
.97455
Hean
3.7143
3.3882
3.2530
3.2530
3.178o
3.1190
3.0723
2.9759
2.9277
2.8434
2.72o2
2.o024
d|sagree
13.1
13
18.1
20.5
31.4
27.4
33.7
34.9
39.7
41
45.3
53
To
somewhat
15.5
38.8
38.o
39.8
20.2
33.3
24.1
33.7
22.95
33.7
3o.9
24.1
agree
71.4
48.3
43.4
39.7
4o.4
39.3
42.2
31.3
57.3
25.3
17.9
47
users Percept|ons
ll |s uselu| lo de|ele l|e |rdecerl corlerl
Lsers gereraled corlerl |s uselu|
Lser gereraled corlerl |ac|s Cred|o|||ly ard oojecl|v|ly
Too ousy lo suor|l corlerl
Reg|slral|or |s recessary lo ror|lor d|scuss|or
Jourra||sls' corlerl |s oeller l|ar users' corlerl
weos|les'' lreedor ol express|or |s ||r|led
Vosl ol L0C |s superl|c|a|
l preler posl|rg ry corlerl or ry o|og
0or'l |ave W|al deserves lo oe s|ared
l dor'l Wasle ry l|re read|rg ol|ers' correrls
|o rea| oerel|l ol suor|ll|rg corlerl
Table ( 2) shcWs bsers' percepticrs
LLSAYLD LKHIT
85
(3) Factnrs EffcctIng Uscrs Rn!cs
T-test
35.79o
34.738
30.o12
29.110
28.o58
29.o51
27.o53
27.408
25.490
23.9o2
22.344
20.715
$0
.8oo03
.88o94
.99799
1.01531
.99873
.98101
.94904
1.00347
1.0o574
1.01459
1.01292
1.08309
Hean
3.4444
3.4024
3.3333
3.2840
3.2000
3.1928
3.1594
3.0750
3.0000
2.9701
2.724o
2.o081
0oesn't
effect
13.5
18.3
22.7
27.1
31.3
4.8
29
31.3
34.2
37.3
49.3
50
To
somewhat
35.8
20.7
19
1o
1o.3
25.3
2o.1
2o.3
24.4
29.9
21.7
25.7
0oes
effect
50.o
o1
58.4
5o.8
52.5
49.4
44.9
42.5
41.4
32.9
28.9
24.3
Factors Effect|ng users Po|es
|o l|re ava||ao|e lor corlr|oul|rg
|o pr|vacy Po||cy ollered
Reslr|cl|ors or oppos|l|or op|r|ors
|o C|ar|l|cal|or ol weos|les po||cy
|o lealures ollered lor users parl|c|pal|or
Slr|cl Po||cy ol red|a Weos|les
|o guararlee lor copyr|g|ls prolecl|or
|o c|ar|l|cal|or lor Ways ol suor|ll|rg corlerl
|o reWard lor corlerl corlr|oul|or
|o |ao|ls lor suor|ll|rg corlerl
Lac| ol reed equ|prerls
Lac| ol |roW|edge ol Ways ol suor|ll|rg corlerl
Table ( 8) shcWs Factcrs Effectir bsers Pcles
TalIe (3) shovs lhal lhe nain faclois lehind lhe
Iov piesence of useis geneialed conlenl on nedia
velsiles aie lhe anliguily of velsiles' poIicy
lovaid lhe useis' piivacy ( M=3. 4), lhe
unveIconing of useis' opinions (M=3.3), lhe
unavaiIaliIily of neans of pulIishing useis' conlenl
(M=3.2), lhe velsiles' sliicl poIicy iegaiding
addiessing sone issues (M=3.1), lhe Iack of
pioleclionof useis geneialed conlenl (M=3.1)
The useis shov posilive alliludes lovaid lhe
slalenenls saying lhal lhey do nol have spaie line
lo shaie lheii nevs and connenls vilh olheis
(M=3.4)
In geneiaI, lhe nain ieasons foi lhe Iov
piesence of useis' geneialed conlenl aie due lo
velsiles ieIaled faclois, noie lhan faclois ieIaled lo
useis.
The useis shov aIso neuliaI alliludes lovaid
lhe Iack of cIaiificalion of vays of sulnilling
naleiiaIs ( M=3.O), lhe Iack of ievaiding poIicy of
useis' conliilulion(M=3.O).
On lhe olhei hand, lhe lalIe shovs lhal useis
have negalive alliludes lovaid faclois ieIaled lo
lhe unfaniIiaiily vilh sulnilling conlenl lo
velsiles ( M=2.6), lhe Iack of knovIedge of vays of
sulnilling conlenl lo velsiles ( M=2.7), lhe Iack of
needed equipnenls losulnil conlenl ( M=2.9)
TalIe (4) shovs lhal onIine jouinaIisls have a
posilive allilude lovaids UCC. They considei il
usefuI (M=4.O), offeis iich opinions (M=4.2). They
aIso have posilive allilude lovaid lhe ioIe of
lechnoIogy in faciIilaling useis geneialed conlenl
(M=3.7).
On lhe olhei hand, lhey confess lhal lhey do nol
use useis' geneialed conlenl heaviIy eilhei foi lhe
iesliiclion of velsiles' poIicy oi Iack of
quaIificalions.
The onIine jouinaIisls agiee lhal Aial nedia
velsiles do nol piepaie useis lo voik as jouinaIisls
and lIoggeis (M=3.8). They do nol veIcone useis'
pholos and nevs (M=3.6). They appIy a
convenlionaI nelhod vhen deaIing vilh useis
geneialed conlenl (M=3.8). In addilion, Aial nedia
velsiles do nol have a cIeai poIicy iegaiding useis
geneialed conlenl (M=3.4), Iack fealuies vhich
aIIov useis loconliilule (M=3.3).
Hovevei, jouinaIisls alliiluled lhe Iov
piesence of useis geneialed conlenl lo lhe
nevsvoilhiness of useis' conlenl (M=3.5), lhe
difficuIly of veiifying useis' naleiiaIs (M=3.6).
AIlhough lhe jouinaIisls considei lhal useis'
geneialed conlenl is usefuI, lhey say lhal il Iacks
nevsvoilhy.
On lhe olhei hand, onIine jouinaIisls shoved
sone posilive alliludes lovaid lhe use of useis
geneialed conlenl (M=2.9), lhe useis' vioIalion of
copyiighls (M=2.7). Hovevei, lhey did nol agiee
vilh lhe slalenenl saying lhal useis geneialed
conlenl do nol eniich discussion (M=2.O), oi
iepiesenl dislinguished voiks (M=2.7)
In geneiaI, lhey have uncIeai vision lovaid lhe
usefuIness of useis' geneialed conlenl. WhiIe lhey
considei il usefuI, lhey donol use il.
Discussion
The sludy shoved lhal fev of Aial useis aie
conliiluling in pioducing nedia velsiles' conlenl.
Mosl of lheii conliilulions aie neieIy connenling
on sone nevs sloiies, inages and ailicIes, vilhoul a
ieaI pioduclionof nedia conlenl.
Il aIsoshoved lhal nosl of Aial nedia velsiles
do nol offei piopei fealuies of useis' geneialed
conlenl.
They did nol faciIilale useis' conliilulions on
lheii velsiles, did nol aIIov lhen lo upIoad lheii
naleiiaIs, and did nol hosl lIogs. Many inleiaclive
fealuies veie nissing onlheii velsiles.
The conliilulions of useis in geneialing nedia
conlenl veie noie olvious in lhe Aneiican nedia
lhan in lhe Aial nedia velsiles. They offei nany
fealuies lo useis lo add lheii ovn conlenl, such as
Iive discussions, connenls, lIogs, voling elc.
Welsiles aIIoved useis lo shaie conlenl vilh
seveiaI sociaI nedia nelvoiks, piovided podcasls,
and cIaiified lhe copyiighls iuIes, used
looknaiking and lags. They inviled useis lo
pailicipale, aIIoved lhen lo navigale lhe velsiles
lhioughlheii noliIe phones, elc.
The sludy shoved lhal Aial onIine jouinaIisls
have a hesilaled and anliguous vision of useis'
geneialed conlenl. Despile lhey consideid il usefuI
and vilaI conponenl of velsiles, lhey do nol uliIize
il.
Aial onIine jouinaIisls nenlioned nany faclois
lhal hindei lheii uliIizalion of useis geneialed
conlenls such as lhe oiganizalionaI faclois and Iack
of avaieness of hov lhese oiganizalions can lenefil
86
(3) On!Inc Jnurna!Ists' PcrccptInns nf Uscr Gcncratcd Cnntcnt
T-Test
24.059
18.330
10.717
11.o35
11.297
13.5o9
23.008
13.817
12.oo5
12.oo5
14.349
13.25o
10.330
o.918
9.918
o.703
10.250
10.044
11.374
o.441
Hean
4.2000
4.0000
3.8000
3.8000
3.7333
3.ooo7
3.ooo7
3.5333
3.4oo7
3.4oo7
3.3333
3.1333
2.9333
2.8000
2.7857
2.o000
2.7333
2.3333
2.0oo7
1.8000
0|sagree
20
20
13.3
o.7
13.3
20
13.3
40
53.3
42.9
2o.7
4o.7
37.3
8o.o
80
To
somewhat
13.3
33.3
20
2o.7
13.3
33.3
40
40
33.3
33.3
33.3
o0
2o.7
o.7
35.7
40
33.3
20
7.o
o.7
Agree
8o.7
oo.7
80
53.3
oo.7
53.3
o0
53.3
53.3
4o.7
4o.7
2o.7
33.3
40
21.4
20
20
o.7
7.o
13.3
0n||ne Journa||sts' Percept|ons
Lsers gereraled op|r|ors are uselu|
Lsers gereraled reWs ard p|cs are uselu|
Corverl|ora| rerla||ly are dor|ral|rg l|e Way ol |ard||rg L0C
Vosl Arao red|a Weos|les dor'l prepare users as jourra||sls
Tec|ro|ogy lac|||lales jourra||sls ro|es |r ul|||z|rg L0C
Vosl Arao red|a Weos|les dor'l |rv|le users lo s|are l|e|r corlerl
Vosl ol Arao users dor'l preler s|ar|rg l|e|r oWr corlerl
FeW L0C are ava||ao|e or Arao red|a Weos|les
T|e |ac| ol ver|l|cal|or ol L0C reduces l|e|r c|arces lo oe puo||s|ed
Arao red|a weos|les' po||cy dor'l slard or us|rg L0C
Arao red|a weos|les dor'l oller lealures lor L0C
L0C |ac| reWs qua||l|cal|ors
ll |s |ard lo deperd or L0C lo err|c| l|e Weos|les
we d|d rol posl L0C yel
L0C |s rol ur|que lror jourra||sl|c perspecl|ve
L0C |eads lo s|oWress l|e Wor|l|oW
Vosl ol L0C v|o|ale ol|ers' copyr|g|l
L0C |eads lo rarg|ra||zal|or ol jourra||sls' ro|e
Posled correrls dor'l err|c| Weos|les' corlerl
we d|dr'l posl users' correrl yel
Table (4) shcWs Drlire Jccrralists' Percepticrs
LLSAYLD LKHIT
fion lhe inleinel on nedia and econonic IeveIs.
They aIso slaled lhal lhese velsiles do nol posl usei
agieenenls, do nol ievaid useis, financiaIIy oi
noiaIIy, do nol offei usei geneialed conlenl
fealuies, do nol have a speciaIized lean lo deaI vilh
useis' geneialed conlenl
The Iack of jouinaIislic nevsvoilhy of useis'
geneialed conlenl is aIso pIay a ioIe in lhe Iov
piesence of useis' geneialed conlenl.
In addilion, lhe poIilicaI and cuIluiaI
enviionnenl does nol encouiage lhe use of lhis
conlenl and do nol cieale a posilive diaIogue lo
lenefil fion lhe conlenl of useis.
The iesuIls shoved lhal onIine jouinaIisls have
a negalive allilude lovaids lhe inpoilance of useis
geneialed conlenl, lhey consliained lhe use of useis
geneialed conlenl on connenling on lhe nevs, nol
onpioducing nevs conlenl.
The sludy shoved lhal lhe Aial useis do nol
have posilive alliludes lovaids useis' geneialed
conlenl foi nedia velsiles. They confined useis lo
lhe iecipienl ioIe and sonelines lo lhe
connenlaloi ioIe, nol lo lhe ioIe of conlenl
pioducei.
The ieasons of lhe Iov piesence of useis geneialed
conlenl onAial nedia velsiles aie:
(1) The oiganizalionaI faclois such as lhe Iack of
useis geneialed conlenl fealuies, lhe
anliguous poIicy of sulnilling naleiiaIs, and
lhe sliicl ediloiiaI poIicy, lhe olIigalion of
iegislialion poIicy, lhe use of galekeepei
pioceduies, lhe alsence of lhe ieaI inleiaclivily
lelveenlhe onIine jouinaIisls and lhe useis
(2) Useis ieIaled faclois suchas lhe unavaieness of
vays of sulnilling conlenl, lhe feai of
consequences of conliilulion in geneialing
conlenl foi nedia velsiles, lhe unpopuIaiily of
infoinalion shaiing cuIluie, lhe iaiily of
ievaiding poIicy foi lhose vho conliilule in
geneialing conlenl, and lhe unavaiIaliIily of
needed equipnenls.
(3) The poIilicaI faclois such as lhe Iack of
denociacy, lhe disengagenenl of peopIe in lhe
decision-naking piocess and lhe doninalion of
one fIov vay of connunicalion veie iefIecled
on lhe nedia vays of deaIing vilh useis'
geneialed conlenl. Coveinnenls uliIize nedia
velsiles lo pionole lheii ovn agenda, in
addilion lo lhe feai of foinuIaling onIine
opposilionconnunilies.
(4) The econonic faclois such as lhe deleiioialion
of nedia inslilulions' financiaI slalus, lhe
econoni c suffeii ng of nosl of Aial
popuIalions, and lhe Iack of needed equipnenls
lo gel access lo lhe inleinel aie aIso pIay a ioIe in
hindeiing lhe use of useis geneialed conlenl.
(5) The Iack of lhe adaplionof lhe iecenl lechnoIogy
in Aial nedia velsiles and lhe Iack of
inleiaclivily have a gieal inpacl on
encouiaging useis lo geneiale conlenl foi
nedia velsiles. Aial inleinel useis aIso suffei
fion lhe sIov conneclion, lhe unsophislicaled
infiasliucluie, and lhe spiead of lechnoIogicaI
ignoiance.
(6) The cuIluiaI faclois such as lhe veakness of
pailicipaloiy cuIluie, especiaIIy in lhe poIilicaI
and connunicalion fieIds, lhe doninance of
one vay of connunicalion fIov, lhe adaplion
of one side's vision, and lhe alsence of diaIogue
cuIluie do nol encouiage noie useis'
pailicipalion in pioducing conlenl foi nedia
velsiles.
In lhe end, lhe sludy addiessed a nev lopic in Aial
nedia sludies, and highIighled lhe cuiienl
slalus of useis geneialed conlenl in Aial nedia
velsiles
87
Nevs and infoinalion in lhe nev age suppoil
lhe facl lhal lhe sociely is lIaned foi civic apalhy,
disiIIusionnenl vilh poIilics and non-seiious
invoIvenenl in nalion's poIilicaI piocess. DigilaI
nedia, vilhils unique fealuies, canpIay vilaI ioIe in
ciealing denocialic avaieness and fianing
sociely's inleiesls inlhe denocialic piocess.
The look A Iiivale Spheie: Denociacy in a
DigilaI Age (DigilaI Media and Sociely) ly Zizi
Iapachaiissi deaIs vilh lhe conlenpoiaiy issues
and conceins Iinked vilh DigilaI Media in
Denocialic Socielies. Il piesenls lhe viev lhal nev
nedia piovides an inleiaclive pIalfoin foi lhe
socielies and aIso infIuences lheii denocialic
lehavioi. The aulhoi is a Iiofessoi in lhe
Depailnenl of Connunicalion al UIC and has
pulIished videIy on lhe sociaI and poIilicaI
consequences of onIine nedia. She has ieileialed
lhal pulIic inleiesl in lIogging, onIine nevs, nel-
lased aclivisn, coIIaloialive nevs fiIleiing, and
onIine nelvoiking ieveaI an eIecloiale lhal is nol
disinleiesled, lul ialhei, faligued vilh poIilicaI
convenlions of lhe nainsliean. She aigues lhal,
lhe conveigence of lechnoIogy, piaclices and
spaces is opening a piivale spheie as lhe Iocus foi
ievoiked nodes of cilizenship is an inliiguing and
inpoilanl one.
A consideiale invesligalion of cilizenship in
ieIalion vilh infoinalion-lechnoIogy in an eia of
high voIaliIily, lhe look, addiesses lhe issues vilh
iespecl lo onIine lechnoIogies and lhe civic funclion
in conlenpoiaiy denociacies aIong vilh 'lhe
concepl of 'IulIic' and 'Iiivale' in digilaIized
denoc i ac i es ' , ' undei s l andi ng of c i vi c
iesponsiliIilies in conpaie lo cilizens of lhe pasl',
'conneiciaIizalion, conveigence and lheii inpacl
on pulIic/piivale ioIes of an individuaIs' and 'key
causes iesuIling specific poIilicaI lehaviois'.
An encapsuIalion of lvo hundied pages vilh a
division of six chapleis, lhe look ilseIf is a yeonan
seivice foi schoIais. The fiisl chaplei is on
Conlenpoiaiy Denociacies, Civic Lngagenenl
and lhe Media lhal exanines lhe denocialic selup,
piaclices in conlenpoiaiy socielies & lhe ioIe of
nedia in loosling civic pailicipalion in lhe sane
vhiIe second deaIs vilh IulIic and Iiivale
Lxpiession in Conlenpoiaiy Denociacies
iedefining lhe leins 'IulIic' and 'Iiivale'.
Conveiged Media, Conveiged Audiences and
Conveiged IulIics aie deaIl in Ienglh in chaplei
lhiid vilh The Queslion of Cilizenship in a
Conveiged Lnviionnenl inchaplei foui.
Iioviding an epiIogue lo lhe conlenls, chaplei
five laIks on The IulIic Spheie, Lxpiied` The
chaplei, anaIylicaIIy exanines lhe inpacl of
conveigence on civic piaclices asking do lhe nev
nedia enpovei us oi do lhey liap us in oui ovn
cocoons, culling us off fion neaningfuI conlacl
vilholheis`
Casling Iighl on hei nind, lhe aulhoi in lhe Iasl
chaplei, A Iiivale Spheie, iaises genuineIy
inpoilanl queslions Iike, vhy aie lIogs so
naicissislic` and vhal happens poIilicaIIy vhen
sociaI siles Iike You Tule goleyond lhe paIe`
The look is lhoughlfuI piece of voik. Sludenls
and schoIais of nedia sludies, poIilicaI science, and
ciilicaI lheoiy viII find lhis lo le a fieshengagenenl
vilh sone of lhe nosl inpoilanl queslions facing
denociacies inlhe age of digilaI nedia.
JayatI M. 5harma
Si. Lecluiei, ASCO
Anily Univeisily Rajaslhan
bOOl kl\ll\
Name of Book: Prltate Shere: Democrac ln a Dlglta| Age (Dlglta| Medla and Soclet)
Name of Author: Zltl Paacharlssl
No. of Iages: Iage2OO
Nane of IulIishei: IoIily Iiess Canliidge
ISN: 978O745645254
Ldilion: 2O1O
Iiice :Rs.3O49
88
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 88
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
Ani|q ]curna| cf Mcdia c Ccnnunica|icn S|udics
2011, Vc|. 1, Nc. 1, 89-90
Ccpqrign| 2011 oq ASCO,
Ani|q Unitcrsi|q Rajas|nan (|SSN 2231-1033)
'Media in lhe DigilaI Age' viillen ly }ohn V.
IavIik, uniaveIs lhe nev and inleiesling voiId of
digilaI nedia and ils innense lenefils acioss
diffeienl IeveIs. }ohn V. IavIik is Iiofessoi and
Chaii of lhe Depailnenl of }ouinaIisn and Media
Sludies al Rulgeis Univeisily. His ailicIes have
eaiIiei appeaied on CNN.con and TeIevision
QuaileiIy, anong olheis, and his looks incIude
' Conveiging Media: Inlioduclion lo Mass
Connunicalion in lhe DigilaI Age', '}ouinaIisn and
Nev Media', and 'Nev Media TechnoIogy: CuIluiaI
and ConneiciaI Ieispeclives'.
This look discusses lhe lienendous inpacl of
digilizalion and nassive conpuleiisalion. Il
conducls an invesligalive anaIysis of hov lhese
advanced lechnoIogies have inpacled oui Iives al
lhe veiy fundanenlaI IeveI. One of lhe nosl
fascinaling and unique fealuies of lhe look is lhal il
lakes us inlo an anazing jouiney of knovIedge,
expIoiing lhe nev inleiesling eIenenls of digilaI
voiId, ils vaiious gadgels, lheii pioduceis, ils
conlenl, ils lenefils, and al lhe sane line pioviding
a discouise onlhe vaiious issues associaled vilhlhe
videspiead use of digilaI lechnoIogy. On lhe vhoIe
il piovides a laIanced picluie of lolh lhe posilive
and negalive inpacl of digilaI nedia.
The look is indeed infoinalive foi ieadeis
vho vanl lo luiId a lody of knovIedge on vaiious
iecenl innovalive digilaI lechnoIogies Iike lIogs,
podcasls, peei-lo-peei fiIe shaiing, on-denand
enleilainnenl, and aIso lhe digilizalion of
leIevision, iadio, and saleIIiles. Il piovides a fuII
picluie of lhe ievoIulionaiy changes in loday's
nedia Iandscape aflei lhe davn of lhe digilaI age.
The look focuses on hov lhe innovalive digilaI
lechnoIogies have conpIeleIy liansfoined lhe
nannei in vhich ve galhei, edil, disliilule, sloie,
and access infoinalion in loday's lines. The look
discusses lhe paiadign shifl lhal has cone in lhe
concepl of 'sloiy leIIing' lecause of nedia
digilisalion. Sloiy- leIIing has lecone shoilei and
ciispei. The look pioles vaiious genies of sloiy-
leIIing and lhiovs Iighl on lechniques Iike silualion
docunenlaiies, Iocalion lased nedia Iike CoogIe
Lailh, and aIso pIalfoins lhal enled nuIlinedia
sloiies inlolhe ieaI voiId.
The look discusses DigilaI Media TechnoIogy
as lhe soIe nediun lhal has lioughl lhe enliie
voiId logelhei as cIoseIy-knil sociely, lhus keeping
lhe pulIic invoIved in an infoined discouise on
nal l eis of pulI i c i npoil ance. A naj oi
dislinguishing chaiacleiislic of lhe look is aIso lhal
lhe aulhoi lakes us inlo lhe voiId of fuluie
inpIicalions of lhe videspiead use of DigilaI
TechnoIogies. In lhe piocess, he highIighls lhe
concepls of a highIy fiagnenled audience, and
lienendous nedia conpelilion. The aulhoi in a
veiy sinpIislic nannei aIso nakes lhe ieadeis
avaie of lhe chaIIenges posed ly DigilaI
TechnoIogy incIuding nalionaI secuiily and piivacy
issues.
The look is nol onIy usefuI foi jusl nedia
sludenls, lul aIso foi aII olheis vho use lhis
lechnoIogy in lheii day-loday Iife and lheiefoie il is
exlieneIy necessaiy foi lhen lo undeisland lhe
inpIicalions of lhis lechnoIogy. The aulhoi aIso
enphasizes on a veiy inpoilanl aspecl ievoIving
aiound lhe use of digilaI lechnoIogy vhich is
'Iileiacy'. y sinpIy slaling Iileiacy is a pie-iequisile
lo nake peopIe ieaIise and undeisland lhe naluie,
giannai, consequences, and inpIicalions of DigilaI
TechnoIogy, }ohn IavIik's look is a vondeifuI
bOOl kl\ll\
Name of Book: Medla ln the Dlglta| Age
Name of Author: ]ohn V. Pat|lk
No. of Iages: 36O
Nane of IulIishei: CoIunlia Univeisily Iiess
ISN: 978-O-231-142O9-O
Ldilion: 2OO8
Iiice: Rs.1361
89
9O
allenpl lo geneiale lhis lasic knovIedge anongsl
lhe useis.
In nulsheII, lhe look focusses on lhe ioIe and
inpacl of digilaI lechnoIogy in nedia, lhus naking
loday's jouinaIisn noie inleiaclive, pailicipaloiy
and inleiesling .The look is exlieneIy infoinalive
and inleiesling in aII ils aspecls Iike conlenl,
Ianguage and slyIe of piesenlalion.
Tanushrcc Mukhcrjcc
Lecluiei, ASCO
Anily Univeisily
TANUSHRLL MUKHLR}LL
GuIdc!Incs fnr CnntrIbutnrs
The ediloiiaI loaid of Anily }ouinaI of Media & Connunicalion Sludies, Rajaslhan vouId Iike lo invile
vaIualIe conliilulion of ieseaich papeis/ ailicIes fion schoIais lo lhe naking of nexl Issue of Anily }ouinaI
of Media & Connunicalion Sludies AUR, }aipui. This jouinaI ains al pulIishing oiiginaI, ieseaich-lased
papeis and ailicIes on lopic such as, DigilaI Media Vs TiadilionaI Media, OnIine Media: Scope & ChaIIenges,
RoIe of DigilaI Media in iand Iionolions, Media and Denociacy, Media and Llhics, RoIe of Media in
Coveinance, Media vis-a-vis Lavs & ReguIalions, Media and Coipoiale SociaI ResponsiliIily, DigilaI Media
as a TooI of Adveilising, SociaI Media foi iand Iionolion, TechnoIogy & Media, Conlenpoiaiy Cinena,
Issues in IulIic ReIalion & Coipoiale Connunicalion, Cendei & Media, Cuiienl Adveilising Iiaclices in
lhe Indian and gIolaI conlexl. The }ouinaI is eslalIished as a neans lo disseninale lhe Ialesl infoinalion and
findings of lolhlhe acadenic and nedia Indusliy, and loacl as a liidge lelveenlhen.
Thc Jnurna! Is Intcrcstcd In rcscarch whIch:
1. IoinuIales and expIoies nev concepluaI nodeIs.
2. Repoils ieIevanl suivey ieseaichfindings.
3. Inlegiales oi synlhesizes diffeienl fieIds of undeislanding.
4. Tesls voik-ieIaled hypolheses of piaclicaI significance.
5. LvaIuales lhe iesuIls of fieId expeiinenls and case sludies.
6. Sunnaiizes and evaIuales aieas of nev undeislanding.
7. Iiesenls nev insighls inlonajoi issues vilhinlhe nedia and connunicalion.
5ubmIssInns wI!! bc cva!uatcd wIth rcspcct tn thc fn!!nwIng crItcrIa:
1. ReIevance. The pioposed nanusciipl shouId lhoioughIy ieviev a significanl and inpoilanl ieseaich
aiea vilhinlhe oiganizalionaI sciences.
2. VialiIily. The pioposaI shouId iepiesenl anachievalIe piojecl vilhinlhe lighl line consliainls iequiied.
Moie delaiI onlhe lineIine is piovided leIov.
3. Scope of Inleiesl. Iapeis of lioad inleiesl loschoIais ina vaiiely of speciaIly aieas aie giealIy piefeiied.
4. Oiganizalion and Coheience. The pioposaI shouId foIIov a IogicaI sliucluie, iead cIeaiIy, and
lhoioughIy iepiesenl lhe avaiIalIe ieseaich.
5. Insighl foi Iuluie Woik. The pioposaI shouId convey inpoilanl inpIicalions foi fuluie nedia schoIais.
WhiIe sending conliilulions, lhe foIIoving guideIines nusl le sliiclIy foIIoved. Conliilulions lhal do nol
adheie lolhe guideIines viII nol le consideied.
GuIdc!Incs fnr Abstract 5ubmIssInn
The aulhoi(s) shouId cIeaiIy nenlion undei vhal aiea of inleiesl lhe alsliacl is lo le incIuded. Alsliacl shaII
le conlinuous lexl vilhoul any paiagiaphs / seclions and iefeiences. Il shouId incIude nane of lhe aulhois
vilhdesignalionand voikpIace and aIsoa phologiaph. They shouId adheie lolhe foIIoving:
Lcngth 25O lo4OO voids excIuding lilIe/covei page andiefeiences
MargIns 2.5 cn. oi 1 inch
Fnnt Tines Nev Ronan, 12 poinl
5pacIng 1.5 Lines
TIt!c pagc TilIe, aulhoi(s), affiIialion(s), conlacl delaiIs
Kcy wnrds Ioui
Alsliacls viII le lIind ievieved and onIy lhose alsliacls appioved ly lhe ievieveis viII le seIecled.
GuIdc!Incs fnr Fu!! Papcr submIssInn
Manusciipls sulnilled is expecled lo conlain oiiginaI voik, vhich has nol leen pulIished eIsevheie in any
foin aliidged oi olheivise.
Aulhois aie iequiied lo sulnil lheii fuII papeis, nol exceeding 3OOO voids, ly eIeclionic sulnission in lhe
foin of a void fiIe onIy as ane-naiI allachnenl.
The papei shouId le naiIed lolhe Ldiloi al ediloiajncsjpi.anily.edu, nveinajpi.anily.edu
AII papeis accepled ly lhe ediloiiaI connillee viII le consideied foi lhe pulIicalioninlhe }ouinaI.
KInd!y Inc!udcthc fn!!nwIng In thc hcadcr nf thc dctaI!cd transcrIpt:
The puipose and piospeclive ieadeis foi vhon lhe ailicIe has leenlaigeled.
The significance of youi conliilulion.
IiaclicaIily and usefuIness of youi voik.
InpIicalions of lhe sludy and idenlificalionof fuluie aieas of voik.
5ub-hcadIngs wIthIn thc bndy
Iiisl IeveI sulheading shouId le Iefl-juslified, in uppei and Iovei case, and piinled in 14-poinl Tines
Nev Ronan, loIdface.
Second IeveI sulheadings shouId le Iefl-juslified, in uppei and Iovei case, in 12-poinl Tines Nev Ronan
ilaIics loId face.
Thiid IeveI sul-headings, if necessaiy, aie indenled, in uppei case on lhe fiisl void in 1O poinl Tines
Nev Ronan ilaIics loId face vilh no punclualion al lhe end. The paiagiaph legins iighl aflei lhe sul-
heading. Headings and sul-headings viII nol caiiy any nunleiing.
Nev paiagiaphs shaII le Iefl-juslified.
Bndy
The lody of lhe papei shouId foIIov innedialeIy lhe Alsliacl insingIe space in12 poinl Tines Nev Ronan.
Indenl eveiy paiagiaph.
5pacIng
Use singIe space foi lhe lody of lhe lexl. Use doulIe space lefoie fiisl oi second IeveI sul-headings (in olhei
voids, Ieave one lIank Iine). Sul-headings lhal lake noie lhan one Iine shouId le singIe-spaced. Do nol use
doulIe space lelveenpaiagiaphs.
FIgurcs and Tab!cs
Iiguies and TalIes shouId appeai as Appendices and shouId le nunleied conseculiveIy. The figuie oi lalIe
nunleis and desciiplion shouId appeai Iefl-juslified in 1O poinl Tines Nev Ronan, loId face al lhe lop of
IIIuslialions, synloIs, oi pails of a figuie shouId le pioduced giaphicaIIy.
Rcfcrcnccs
The iefeiences seclion, incIuding aII cilalions used nusl le incIuded inlhe conliilulion(AIA SlyIe onIy)
|or further detal|s, contact:
ediloiajncsjpi.anily.edu, nveinajpi.anily.edu
AmIty Jnurna! nf McdIa & CnmmunIcatInn 5tudIcs
VoIune 1 }an - }uIy 2O11
5ubscrIptInn Fnrm
I vish lo sulsciile ny sulsciiplion lo Anily }ouinaI of Media & Connunicalion
Sludies foi Rs. 5OO/- (AnnuaI Sulsciiplion Iee).
A diafl/cheque leiing no...................... daled................
Ioi Rs. 5OO/- diavninfavoui of Anily Univeisily Rajaslhan, }aipui is encIosed.
Nane : ..................................................................................................................
Addiess : ..................................................................................................................
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Cily : ........................................................................ Iin:................................
Counliy : ..................................................................................................................
LnaiI Addiess : ..................................................................................................................
Signaluie : ..................................................................................................................
Fnrm - IV
(RuIe 8)
1. IIace of IulIicalion : }aipui
2. Ieiiodicily of ils IulIicalion : i-annuaI
3. Iiinlei's Nane : Venus Offsel Ivl. Lld.
Whelhei cilizen of India : Yes
Addiess : D- 7/1, okhIa IndusliiaI Aiea,
Ihase II, Nev DeIhi-11OO2O
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Whelhei cilizen of India : Yes
Addiess : Cily Addiess: Anily House,
14, CopaI aii, Ajnei Road, }aipuii
5. Ldiloi's Nane : Iiof. Manish Veina
Whelhei cilizen of India : Yes
Addiess : Anily SchooI of Connunicalion
Anily Univeisily Rajaslhan
I Manish Veina heiely decIaie lhal lhe pailicuIais given aie liue lo lhe lesl of ny knovIedge and
leIief.
(Sd/-)
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(Signaluie of lhe Ldiloi)
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