PUMPS - Segundo Pumps are among the oldest mans aid.

Their origin is lost in antiquity, but we do know they were used to provide water for a ncient Egypt, China, India, Greece and Rome. In this much-talked about technological age, pumps have a place of importance comparable with that of the most used of all machines, the electric motor. HENRY ROSSITER WORTHINGTON -an American mechanical engineer who was invented the first directing-acting reciprocating steam pump for feeding water into boiler What is a Pump? A pump is an item of mechanical equipment that moves liquid from one area to another by increasing the pressure of the liquid to the amount needed to overcome the combined effects of friction, gravity and system. A machine for raising liquids in pipes, either by direct action or by atmospheric pressure, and also for exhausting air from vessels. o Pumps must have a mechanism which operates them, and consume energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid. The activating mechanism is often reciprocating or rotary. Pumps may be operated in many ways, including manual operation, electricity, an engine of some type, or wind action. Terms And Definition DISCHARGE-to relieve of a charge or load EXHAUST-the escape of steam or gases from the cylinder of an engine. LUBRICANT-a substance, as oil or grease, for lessening friction, especially in the working parts of a mechanism PACKING-material used to cushion or protect goods packed in a container. PISTON-a disk or cylindrical part tightly fitting and moving within a cylinder, either to compress or move a fluid collected in the cylinder, as air or water, or to transform energy imparted by a fluid entering or expanding inside the cylinder, as compressed air, explosive gases, or steam, into a rectilinear motion usually transformed into rotary motion by means of a connecting rod. PLUNGER- a piston-like reciprocating part moving within the cylinder of a pump or hydraulic device ROCKER-a small steel plate with one curved and toothed edge for roughening a copperplate VALVES-any device for halting or controlling the flow of a liquid, gas, or other material through a passage, pipe, inlet, outlet, etc SHAFT-a rotating or oscillating round, straight bar for transmitting motion and torque, usually supported on bearings and carrying gears, wheels. STEAM-water in the form of an invisible gas or vapor. SUCTION-the force that, by a pressure differential, attracts a substance or object to the region of lower pressure VANES-a blade, plate, sail, etc., in the wheel of a windmill, to be moved by the air. Types of Pump Reciprocating Pumps-are pumps consisting of a piston that moves back and forth or up and down in a cylinder. The cylinder is equipped with inlet (suction) and outlet( discharge) valves. On the intake stroke, the suction valves are opened, and fluid is drawn into the cylinder. On the discharge stroke, the suction valves close, the discharge valves open, and fluid is forced out of the cylinder. Two Kinds of Reciprocating Pumps 1. Steam-Driven Reciprocating Pumps- is used when steam is available and the exhaust can be used for heating or in process Classifications of Steam Driven Reciprocating Pumps Direct-Acting-is a pump in which the steam piston connects directly to the liquid piston or plunger through the piston rod. Simplex and Duplex-a single pump has one liquid piston or its equivalent single or double-acting plunger; a duplex pump has two liquid pistons or their equivalent single or double-acting plungers Sinking-is a contractors direct-acting, steam-driven differential-plunger sinking pumps used for removing water from excavations and other places where the lift is low and the water contains a good deal of sediment . 2.Motor-driven Reciprocating Pumps -are pumps where the pistons or plungers are connected to a crankshaft that is geared to a countershaft and connected to the driving motor by a flat belt gear, multiple V- belt or chain. Classifications of Steam Driven Reciprocating Pumps High-Pressure-pumps that is built for pressures up to 6000 pounds per square inches. Its cylindrical block is a one-piece still forging with all passages and the cylinder bored from solid metal Waterworks pumps where the valves are arranged in groups. Removable cast-iron cages are mounted on the valve decks so as to secure an easy and direct flow through the pump

Rotary Pumps-are by far the most prevalent kind of machine-powered pump in use today. It moves water using a part, or parts, that move in a circular motion. They use their rotating components in place of the piston found in reciprocating pumps. Moreover, unlike reciprocating pumps, rotary pumps have no valves to direct water flow. There are many varieties of rotary pumps that are used in wideranging applications. Kinds of Rotary Pumps

1. Spur-Gear-the gears rotate in the direction of the arrows and have very close clearance in casing. Where the gear teeth contact, they also form a fluid-tight joint. Spur-gears are intended for slow-speed operations up to 600 r.p.m. for handling fuel oil, lubricating oil or other thick and viscous liquids that have lubricating qualities. 2. Internal Gear-are pumps that are exceptionally versatile. While they are often used on thin liquids such as solvents and fuel oil, they excel at efficiently pumping thick liquids such as asphalt, chocolate, and adhesives. The rotor of this pump carries on its outer periphery what might be considered a gear which are supported at one end of the rotor disk. The rotor revolves concentrically in the casing. 3.Herringbone-Gear-pumps that operate at low speed and handle a liquid of a lubricating nature, whereas it operates at high speeds and can handle water, chemicals and other liquids of a non-lubricating character. 4.Lobe Type-these are usually of the two or three-lobe type and the equivalent of two or three-toothed gears. These operate like the gear type except that the fluid is delivered to the discharge in a smaller number of large quantities. 5. Swinging-Vane -the rotor consists of four arms that support swinging vanes. The rotor is smaller than the bore of the casing, but one side is closed with a crescent C. This crescent is solid between the intake and discharge and with the rotor arms, acts as a seal between the two. As the rotor turns, fluid flows from the intake into the space between the arms 6.Rollway -it comprises a casing or concentric roller inside of which is an eccentric roll. The latter is concentric in its construction but has rectangular hole through it. A square section on the shaft fits into this hole, and the roll is made eccentric with the shaft by a spiral spring that holds the shaft against one end of the rectangular hole

Centrifugal Pumps-are rotating machines in which flow and pressure are generated dynamically. The inlet is not walled off from the outlet as is the case with positive displacement pumps, whether they are reciprocating or rotary in configuration. Rather, a centrifugal pump delivers useful energy to the fluid or pumpage largely through velocity changes that occur as this fluid flows through the impeller and the associated fixed passageways of the pump; that is, it is a rotodynamic pump. All impeller pumps are rotodynamic, including those with radial-flow, mixed-flow, and axial-flow. Two Types of Centrifugal Pumps 1. Volute Type- is a pump where the impeller discharges into a progessively expanding spiral casing. This casing is proportioned as to produced equal-velocity flow around its circumference and to reduce gradually the velocity of the liquid as it flows from the impeller to the discharge, thus changing velocity head into pressure head Diffuse Type- pump where the runner of the diffuser-type pump is surrounded gradually expanding passages formed by stationary vanes.

2.

Turbine Pumps-is a combination of high discharge pressure of the rotary types with the flexible operation of centrifugals. Turbine pumps are known by several names, such as vortex, periphery and regenerative. Propeller Pumps-is a pump also called as axial-flow pump that propels or lifts action of the vanes on the liquid. It has a single inlet impeller with the flow entering axially and discharging nearly axially into a guide case Deep-Well Pumps-are multistage centrifugal pump for lifting water from deep, small-diameter wells; a surface electric motor operates the shaft. Also known as vertical turbine pump.

KINDS OF DEEP-WELL PUMPS 1.Jet Deep-well Pump-is a pump that has come into wide use for small capacities combines a single-stage centrifugal pump at the top of the well and an ejector or jet located down in the water. 2.Submersible Motor Pump-is a deep-well turbine pump in that the motor is below the turbine bowls. The propelling shaft is very short and the unusually long, small in diameter motor operates submerged at all times in the well water. Advantages Reciprocating pumps will deliver fluid at high pressure (High Delivery Head). They are 'Self-priming' - No need to fill the cylinders before starting. Disadvantages Reciprocating pumps give a pulsating flow. The suction stroke is difficult when pumping viscous liquids. The cost of producing piston pumps is high. This is due to the very accurate sizes of the cylinders and pistons. Also, the gearing needed to convert the rotation of the drive motor into a reciprocating action involves extra equipment and cost. The close fitting moving parts cause maintenance problems, especially when the pump is handling fluids containing suspended solids, as the particles can get into the small clearances and cause severe wear. The piston pump therefore, should not be used for slurries. Pump Installations Pipe Sizes- pipe must not be smaller than the pump nozzles, especially on the suction side. Usage of eccentric reducers from larger suction to the pump nozzle can prevent formation of air pockets in the pipe. Suitable tapered reducers on the suction and increasers on the discharge will ensure efficient flow on the system and conserve power. Suction Requirements-hot liquids can be handled only with a positive pressure on the pump suction. Keep suction lines as short and direct as possible and at least one or two sizes larger than the suction nozzle. A tight suction line is essential for proper operation of any pump. Air leaking into the suction line gets into the pump, reduces its capacity, and may cause it to stop pumping. A small air leak in the suction will cause trouble in any centrifugal pump. Direction of Pump Rotation- It should never be run in reverse rotation. Since it I sometimes difficult to determine the rotation of polyphase alternating-current motors in advance of operation, it is necessary to try them out for proper rotation before connecting them with the pump.

Packing- do not have the packing too tight. When first starting, back off on the stuffing-box-gland nuts until free leakage occurs. A slight leakage is required to lubricate the packing and to prevent scoring of the shaft sleeve. Do not use metallic packing on pumps handling liquids that contain grit or abrasives. Pumping-unit Bearings- bearings on the pumps and motors as shipped from the factory, are usually furnished with sufficient lubrication to last for 2 or 3 months of operation. Do not add more lubricant when first putting the unit into service. Injury to antifriction bearings is more likely to result from too much lubricant than from too little. Mechanical Seals- a seal of this type is made between two close-fitting surfaces, one running on the other. The surfaces are usually made of synthetic materials that are highly resistant to heat, chemicals and moisture and are highly polished and lapped.

AIRCONDITIONIG - Manalo A system for controlling the humidity, ventilation, and temperature in a building or vehicle, typically to maintain a cool atmosphere. It can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation or disinfection that modifies the condition of air, typically for thermal comfort. The more common use of air conditioning is to mean cooling and often dehumidification of indoor air, typically via refrigeration. HISTORY OF AIRCONDITIONING Dr. John Gorrie (1803-1855) an American physician, from Apalachicola, Florida. During his practice there in the 1830s, Dr. Gorrie creating an ice-making machine that essentially blew air over a bucket of ice for cooling hospital rooms of patients suffering from malaria and yellow fever.

In 1881, when President James Garfield was dying, naval engineers constructed a box-like structure containing cloths saturated with melted ice water, where a fan blew hot air overhead. This contraption was able to lower a room by 20 degrees Fahrenheit but consumed half a million pounds of ice in two months' time. A close ancestor to the modern air conditioner units was first made in 1902 by an American engineer by the name of Willis Carrier. The machine at that time was called "Apparatus for Treating Air" The first air-conditioned home was that of Charles Gates, son of gambler John "Bet a Million" Gates, in Minneapolis in 1914. In 1922, Carrier had two breakthroughs - he replaced the ammonia with the benign coolant dielene and added a central compressor to reduce the size of the unit. The next advance was when Carrier sold his invention to movie-theater operators, with a notable debut in 1925 at the Rivoli on Broadway in New York City. Principle Arrangement TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONERS Room air conditioners -use the standard compressor cycle and are sized to cool just one room. To cool an entire house, several room units are necessary. Heat pumps described in the heating section, use the compressor cycle, but it is reversible. In the summer, the heat pump transfers heat from indoors to outdoors. In the winter, the heat pump transfers heat from outdoors to indoors. Heat pumps may be powered by electricity or natural gas. Air Conditioning Room air conditioner Room air conditioners cool rooms rather than the entire home. Less expensive to operate than central units Their efficiency is generally lower than that of central air conditioners. Can be plugged into any 15- or 20-amp, 115-volt household circuit that is not shared with any other major appliances

Central Air conditioning Circulate cool air through a system of supply and return ducts. Supply ducts and registers (i.e., openings in the walls, floors, or ceilings covered by grills) carry cooled air from the air conditioner to the home. This cooled air becomes warmer as it circulates through the home; then it flows back to the central air conditioner through return ducts and registers Types of Central AC split-system an outdoor metal cabinet contains the condenser and compressor, and an indoor cabinet contains the evaporator .

Packaged the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all located in one cabinet Large air conditioning systems Outside air is drawn in, filtered and heated before it passes through the main air conditioning devices. The colored lines in the lower part of the diagram show the changes of temperature and of water vapor concentration (not RH) as the air flows through the system Total Air Conditioning Variable fresh air mixer and dust and pollutant filtration. Supplementary heating with radiators in the outer rooms and individual mini heater; and Humidifier in the air stream to each room. Sizing Air Conditioners how large your home is and how many windows it has; how much shade is on your home's windows, walls, and roof; how much insulation is in your home's ceiling and walls; how much air leaks into your home from the outside; and how much heat the occupants and appliances in your home generate Energy Consumption Air conditioners are rated by the number of British Thermal Units (Btu) of heat they can remove per hour. Another common rating term for air conditioning size is the "ton," which is 12,000 Btu per hour. Room air conditioners range from 5,500 Btu per hour to 14,000 Btu per hour. Energy Efficiency Today's best air conditioners use 30% to 50% less energy than 1970s Even if your air conditioner is only 10 years old, you may save 20% to 40% of your cooling energy costs by replacing it with a newer, more efficient model Energy Efficiency Rating is based on how many Btu per hour are removed for each watt of power it draws For room air conditioners, this efficiency rating is the Energy Efficiency Ratio, or EER For central air conditioners, it is the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio, or SEER Energy Saving Methods Locate the air conditioner in a window or wall area near the center of the room and on the shadiest side of the house. Minimize air leakage by fitting the room air conditioner snugly into its opening and sealing gaps with a foam weather stripping material.

REFRIGERATION - Mojica Refrigeration is the removal of heat from a material or space, so that its temperature is lower than that of its surroundings. The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work, but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means. The system maintained at the lower temperature is known as refrigerated system while equipment used to maintain this lower temperature is known as refrigerating equipment. Amount heat removed by refrigerating equipment from refrigerated system is known as refrigerating effect. Unit kJ/s. APPLICATIONS 1. 2. 3. Comfort air conditioning of auditoriums, hospitals, residents, offices, hotels etc. Manufacturing and preservation of medicine. Storage and transportation of food stuffs such as dairy products, fruits, vegetables, meat, fish etc.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Processing of textiles, printing work and photographic materials. Manufacturing of ice. Cooling of concrete for dam. Treatment of air for blast furnace. Processing of petroleum and other chemical products. Production of Rocket fuel. Computer functioning. HISTORY Ice harvesting Through the ages, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice was a regular practice of most of the ancient cultures: Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Persians. Ice and snow were stored in caves or dugouts lined with straw or other insulating materials. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a yakhchal. Rationing of the ice allowed the preservation of foods over the warm periods. 14. In the 16th century, the discovery of chemical refrigeration was one of the first steps toward artificial means of refrigeration. Sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate, when added to water, lowered the water temperature and created a sort of refrigeration bath for cooling substances. First refrigeration systems William Cullen-He demonstrated the first known method of artificial refrigeration at the University of Glasgow in Scotland in 1756. Cullen used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container of dimethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air. The experiment even created a small amount of ice, but had no practical application at that time Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley-They are professor of chemistry at Cambridge University in 1758. They conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed evaporation of highly volatile liquids, such as alcohol and ether, could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. Oliver Evans-American inventor, he designed, but never built, a refrigeration system based on the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle rather than chemical solutions or volatile liquids such as ethyl ether. Michael Faraday-British scientist who liquefied ammonia and other gases by using high pressures and low temperatures. Jacob Perkins-He obtained the first patent for a vapor-compression refrigeration system in 1834. Perkins built a prototype system and it actually worked, although it did not succeed commercially. REFRIGERATING MACHINE BY JACOB PERKINS John Gorrie -He designed the first system to refrigerate water to produce ice. He also conceived the idea of using his refrigeration system to cool the air for comfort in homes and hospitals (i.e., air conditioning). His system compressed air, then partly cooled the hot compressed air with water before allowing it to expand while doing part of the work needed to drive the air compressor. Carl von Linde -Linde's first refrigeration system used Dimethyl ether as the refrigerant and was built by Maschinenfabrik Augsburg (now MAN AG) for the Spaten Brewery in 1873. He quickly moved on to develop more reliable ammonia-based cycles. PARTS OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 1. EVAPORATOR The evaporator consists of a coil of copper, aluminum, or aluminum alloy tubing installed in the space to be refrigerated. Aluminum tubing with copper fins are used in ammonia systems. Warm air will pass over the coil which contains the refrigerant, then the refrigerant absorbs the heat, then the refrigerant is left with cold air which is distributed to the rooms that you are trying to cool.

2. COMPRESSOR This is the life force of the refrigeration cycle, is essentially a pump. It is used to pump heat uphill from the cold side to the hot side of the system EXPANSION VALVE regulates the amount of refrigerant to the cooling coil. The on the temperature of the space being cooled. amount of refrigerant needed in the coil depends, of course,

4.CONDENSER- This is the coil that is located outside on a central air conditioning through the refrigerant, forcing the hot air out.

system. It removes the heat that is carried

METHODS OF REFRIGERATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Non-cyclic Cyclic Thermoelectric Magnetic NON-CYCLIC REFRIGERATION In non-cyclic refrigeration, cooling is accomplished by melting ice or by subliming dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide). These methods are used for small-scale refrigeration such as in laboratories and workshops, or in portable coolers. Ice owes its effectiveness as a cooling agent to its melting point of 0 C (32 F) at sea level. To melt, ice must absorb 333.55 kJ/kg (about 144 Btu/lb) of heat. Foodstuffs maintained near this temperature have an increased storage life. Solid carbon dioxide has no liquid phase at normal atmospheric pressure, and sublimes directly from the solid to vapor phase at a temperature of -78.5 C (-109.3 F), and is effective for maintaining products at low temperatures during sublimation. Systems such as this where the refrigerant evaporates and is vented to the atmosphere are known as "total loss refrigeration".

CYCLIC REFRIGERATION-This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature source to the engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being rejected to a lowtemperature sink. This satisfies the second law of thermodynamics. Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as: Vapor cycle Vapor-compression refrigeration Vapor-absorption refrigeration Gas cycle Compression System

Absorption system

a) Uses low grade energy like heat. Therefore, may be worked on exhaust systems from I.C engines, etc.

a) Using high-grade energy like mechanical work.

b) Moving parts are only in the pump, which is a small element of the system. Hence operation is smooth.

b) Moving parts are in the compressor. Therefore, more wear, tear and noise.

c) The system can work on lower evaporator pressures also without affecting the COP.

c) The COP decreases considerably with decrease in evaporator pressure.

d) No effect of reducing the load on performance.

d) Performance is adversely affected at partial loads.

e) Liquid traces of refrigerant present in piping at the exit of evaporator constitute no danger.

e) Liquid traces in suction line may damage the compressor.

f) Automatic operation for controlling the capacity is easy.

f) It is difficult.

THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two different types of materials. This effect is commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and small instruments. MAGNETIC REFRIGERATION Magnetic refrigeration is a cooling technology based on the magneto caloric effect A strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant A heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off This increases the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the heat sink. REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE 1. The refrigerant absorbs heat isothermally from a low-temperature source at TL in the amount of QL in process (2-3). 2. The refrigerant is compressed adiabatically to state 4, and its temperature rises to T H. 3. Then the heat is rejected isothermally to a high-temperature sink at TH in the amount of QH in process (4-1). 4. Finally the refrigerant expands adiabatically to state 2, where the temperature drops to T L. Rock Crushing Plant - Hill The Phylogeny of Crusher The earliest U. S. patent on a crushing machine was issued in 1830. It covered a device which , in a crude way , incorporated the drop hammer principle later used in the famous stamp mill. Ten years later another patent was issued, which comprised a wooden box, containing a cylindrical drum-apparently of wood also- on which a number of iron knobs, or hammers, were fastened; the expectation was that this drum, when revolved at about 350 r.p.m. , would shatter the rock fed into the box. Eli Whitney Blake invented the first successful mechanical rock breaker-the Blake jaw crusher patented in 1858. Blake adopted a mechanical principle familiar to all students of mechanics, the powerful toggle linkage.

Crushing -refers to the process of reducing rock into smaller chunks. Rock crushing is a very complex process, as in the process of crushing, a number of factors will influence the crushing ratio. The main factors are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Material Resistance strength hardness toughness shape size humidity density homogeneity and;

11. external conditions, such as the instantaneous interaction and distribution of materials at the moment of crushing. General Classes of Rock Crushers ------ with respect to the manner in which they do their work: (1) Pressure Crusher. This category embraces the several types of gyratory crushers and jaw crushers, as wile as the double crushing rolls, with either smooth or corrugated shells. (2) Impact Crushers. This division is represented chiefly by the various styles of hammermill; also by the cage type disintegrator (3) Combination Impact and Sledging Crushers. In this class we have the single or double sledging roll crushers. An example of the former, the Edison roll crusher. Types of Crusher 1.Cone crusher 2.Double roll crusher 3.Double impeller impact breaker 4.Gyratory crusher 5.Hammer mill 6.Jaw crusher 7.Vertical shaft impactor Types of Crusher 1. Cone crusher: A crusher that breaks material by squeezing or compressing it between convex and concave shaped surfaces covered by manganese as the wear surface. Normally used as the second or third stage crusher. Uses compression to crush. Reduction ratio is 6-8 to 1. 2. Double impeller impact breaker: Operates much in the same method as a single impeller, with counter- rotating (two) impellers which not only impel the material against the breaker bars, but also impel material high inside the chamber to be fractured on other incoming feed. Uses impact to crush material. Reduction ratio is 20 to 1. 3. Double roll crusher: A crusher that breaks material by squeezing it between two revolving metal cylinders, with axes parallel to each other and separated by a space equal to the desired maximum size of the finished product. Uses compression to crush material. Reduction ratio is 2 to 2.5 to 1. 4. Gyratory crusher: Crusher with a central conical member having an eccentric motion in a circular chamber tapering from a wide top opening. 5. Hammer mill: A rock crusher that employs hammers or flails on a rapidly rotating axis. The hammers areusually made of manganese. Uses impact and attrition to crush material. Reduction ratio is 2 0 to 1. 6. Jaw crusher: A crusher that breaks material by squeezing or compressing it between two jaw plates, one moveable and one stationary. Normally used as a primary crusher. Uses compression and some attrition to crush material. Reduction ratio is 6 to 1. 7. Vertical shaft impactor: A crusher whose main mechanism rotates around a vertical axis. The rock is fed into the crusher and impacted or thrown by a table/ anvil configuration or anvil ring, and is crushed by impact either by manganese wear plates or rock-on-rock strikes. Often used to make fines or manufactured sand. Uses impact to crush materials. Reduction ratio of 4-8 to 1. Rock Crushing Plant Equipments : vibrating feeder jaw crusher impact crusher or cone crusher vibrating screen belt conveyor centrally electric controlling system, etc. vibrating feeder an instrument that uses vibration to "feed" material to a process or machine. Vibratory feeders use both vibration and gravity to move material. jaw crusher The jaws are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, forming a tapered chute so that the material is crushed progressively smaller and smaller as it travels downward until it is small enough to escape from the bottom opening. impact crusher involve the use of impact rather than pressure to crush material. The material is contained within a cage, with openings on the bottom, end, or side of the desired size to allow pulverized material to escape. vibrating screen Vibrating screen working principle: By the motor force and adjusting the amplitude of the eccentric shaft, vibrating screen moves quickly like a circle. Materials in the sieve case can be separated and screened from the sieve pore in this process. belt conveyor

consists of two or more pulleys, with a continuous loop of material - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them. Belt Conveyors are used in selfunloading bulk freighters and in live bottom trucks. Process of Rock Crushing The Big materials are fed to the jaw crusher evenly and gradually by vibrating feeder through a hopper for the primary crushing. After first crushing, the material will transferred to impact crusher or cone crusher by belt conveyor for secondary crush; the crushed materials will then transferred to vibrating screen for separating. After being separated, the parts that can meet standard will be taken away as final products, while the other parts will be returned to impact crusher, thus forming a closed circuit. Size of final products can be combined and graded according to customers specific requirement. We can also equip dust catc her system to protect environment. Design and Layout All components must work together to create a smooth flow, consistent production, and as uniform final products as possible. Primary rock crushing is normally done by horizontal shaft impact crusher, gyratory crushers, or jaw crushers, and sometimes cone crushers. Secondary rock crushing can be accomplished by using a jaw crusher, horizontal shaft impactor, or a cone crusher. Tertiary rock crushing is normally done using a fine, shorthead, or cone crusher, and vertical shaft impactor. The various types of equipment used in these plants include: hoppers, belt conveyors, screens, scrubbers, pumps, storage bins, crushers, jigs, screws, front end loaders, scrapers, trucks, engines, and generator. Design Parameter The principal design parameters that drive crushing plant selection and configuration include: Production requirements Capital cost Ore characteristics Safety and environment Project location Life of mine/expansion plans Operational considerations Maintenance requirements Applications and Features Rock crushing in quarries or construction sites Concrete crushing in recycling yards or demolition sites Asphalt Crushing On-site mobility and quick set-up time Impact crusher with up to 385 tons per hour output Larger feeder for higher material crushing ratio Produces an optimal, cubical end product Turns your waste materials into profits Saves trucking costs Cement and Cement Manufacturing Process CEMENT-It is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face of normal environmental effects. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CEMENT 1. Hydraulic Cement-Hardens because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur independently of the mixtures water content; they can harden even under water or constantly exposed to wet weather. 2. Non hydraulic Cement

Must be kept dry in order to retain their strength. ORIGIN AND EARLY USES OF CEMENT The word cement traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern c oncrete that was made from crushed rock with burn lime as binder. It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture, but concrete made from such mixtures was first used by the Ancient Macedonians and three centuries later on a large scale by Roman engineers. They used both natural pozzolans and artificial pozzolans (ground brick or pottery) in these concretes. Many excellent examples of structures made from these concretes are still standing, notably the huge dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla. TYPES OF CEMENT

1. 2.

Portland cement-is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. Portland cement Blends-are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement manufacturers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete mixing plant.

3.

Non-Portland Hydraulic Cements

CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Raw Materials 2/3 calcareous materials (lime bearing) limestone 1/3 argillaceous materials (silica, alumina, iron) clay

QUARRYING-Two types of materials are necessary for the production of cement: one rich in calcium or calcareous materials such as limestone, chalk, etc., and one that is rich in silica or argillaceous materials such as clay. Extensive quarry drilling and analysis are being undertaken to reduce the variability of the raw material quality. The quality check that starts from the quarry ensures optimization in the utilization of the reserves. Limestone and clay are either scraped or blasted from the quarry and then transported to the crusher. CRUSHING-The crusher is responsible for the primary size reduction of the quarried materials. Boulders as big as 1 meter are being crushed to material sizes less than 80 mm. PRE-BLENDING The crushed materials pass through an on-line analyzer to determine the pile composition. A stacker is then used to create different piles of materials and to reduce variation in material beds. RAW GRINDING AND BLENDING A belt conveyor transports the pre-blended piles into individual bins where a weighing feeder proportions it according to the type of clinker to be produced. The materials are then ground into the desired fineness by the raw mill equipment. BURNING AND CLINKER COOLING The homogenized raw mix is fed into the pre-heater, a heat exchange equipment composed of a series of cyclones wherein heat transfer between the raw mix feed and the counter current hot gases from the kiln take place. Calcination partially takes place in the pre-heater. Raw meal is fed directly from the pre-heater to the rotary kiln. The slight angle of inclination and rotation of the kiln causes the raw feed to slowly make its way through the kiln counter current to the burner flame. The heat of the kiln breaks the chemical components and brings the raw mix into a semi-molten state. FINISH GRINDING From the clinker silo, clinker is transferred to the clinker bin. It passes through the weighing feeder, which regulates its flow in proportion with the additive materials. At this stage, gypsum is added to the clinker and then fed to the finish grinding mills. Gypsum serves as a retarder in the too rapid setting or hardening of cement. Either the mixture of clinker and gypsum for Type-1 cement or the mixture of clinker, gypsum and pozzolan material for Type-P cement is pulverized in a closed circuit system in the finish mills to the desired fineness. Cement is now piped to cement silos. PACKAGING AND DISTRIBUTION The cement from the cement silos are packed into bags by rotary packers or loaded as bulk and are distributed either by land using forwarder trucks and bulk trucks or by sea using barges or bulk ships. Heavy Equiment- Albor and Agnes ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS OF MOVING EARTH In contract documents excavation is typically categorized as common , rock, muck or unclassified. Common refers to earth excavation , wherein the term unclassified reflects the lack of clear distinction between soil and rock. The specific engineering properties of the soil- plasticity , grain size distribution and so on- will influence the selection of the appropriate equipment and methods.

Rolling resistance-Is the resistance of a level surface to constant- velocity motion across it. This is sometimes referred to as wheel resistant or track resistant , which results from friction or flexing of the driving mechanism plus the force required to shear through or ride over supporting surface. A narrow-tread , high pressure tire gives lower rolling resistance than a broad tread , low-pressure tire on a hard-surfaces road. The rolling resistance of an earth-haul road probably will not remain constant under varying climatic conditions or for varying types of soil which exist along the road. If earth is stable, highly compacted and well maintained by a grader and if the moisture content is kept near optimum , it is possible to provide a surface with a rolling resistance about as low as that for concrete or asphalt. Rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting Bulldozer- A bulldozer is a tractor unit which has a blade attached to its fro nt. The blade is used to push , shear , cut , and roll material ahead of the tractor. The bulldozer is an effective and versatile earthmover. Bulldozers are used as both support and production machines on many construction projects , where they may be used from starts to finish for such operations as: 1. Clearing land of timber and stumps. 2. Opening up pilot roads through mountain and rock terrain. 3. Moving earth for short-haul distances, upto about 300 ft. 4. Spreading earth and rock fills. 5. Clearing the floors of borrows and quarry pits. BULLDOZER Stripping- Bulldozers are good machines for stripping , which is the removal of a thin layer of material. On most projects this is a term us used to describe the removal of topsoil. As with all earth-moving operations, stripping should be conducted in such a manner that pushes (haul) distances are minimized. Pioneering and Side hill Cuts- It is very difficult to develop the initial working table for excavations made on steep ground. Ditching- A bulldozer can be used to accomplished ditching, but this is a practical only for very rough ditch sections. Small shallow ditches are usually cut with a motor grader. If a dozer is used to cut rough ditches the machines pushes the material out of the cut by working perpendicular to the line of the ditch. Spreading- The spreading of material dumped by trucks or scrapers is a common bulldozer task. Blade-to-Blade dozing- Another technique used to increase bulldozer production is blade-to-blade dozing. The technique is sometimes referred to as side-by-side dozing. As the names imply, two machines maneuver so that their blades are right next to each other during the pushing phase of the production cycle. Blades-The blade attached to the tractor to create a bulldozer must be matched to the expected work task. Basic earth-moving blades are curved in the vertical plane in the shape a C. The configuration of the connection between the blade and the tractor can be varied to permit one or sometimes two of three possible operational adjustments. The three possible blade adjustments are tilt, pitch and angle. 1.Tilt Vertical movement of a blade end. 2.Pitch The control which allows the operator to vary the angle of attack of the blades cutting edge with the ground is pitch. 3.Angling Turning the blade so that it is not perpendicular to the direction of the tractors travel angling. This causes the pushed ma terial to roll off the trailing end of the blade. DUMP TRUCK A dump truck (or, UK, dumper truck) is a truck used for transporting loose material (such as sand, gravel, or dirt) for construction. A typical dump truck is equipped with a hydraulically operated open-box bed hinged at the rear, the front of which can be lifted to allow the contents to be deposited on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery. TYPES: 1. 2. 3. Standard dump truck-A standard dump truck is a truck chassis with a dump body mounted to the frame. Comet dump truck, -an example of a very basic 2 x 4 dump truck used for payloads of 10 metric tons(11.0 short tons; 9.8 long tons) A truck and pup-is very similar to a transfer dump. It consists of a standard dump truck pulling a dump trailer. The pup trailer, unlike the transfer, has its own hydraulic ram and is capable of self-unloading.

4.

A transfer dump is a standard dump truck which pulls a separate trailer which can also be loaded with aggregate (gravel, sand, asphalt, klinkers, snow, wood chips, triple mix, etc.)

Cranes are a broad class of construction equipment used to hoist and place loads. Each type of machine is designed and manufactured to work economically in a specific site situaction Concrete mixer-Concrete mixer is one of the most versatile and indispensable heavy equipment machinery used in most of the construction sites. It can be used for various types of construction works. The most important function of the concrete mixer is to mix cement, sand and water to form concrete. The mixer is combined in a revolving drum that constantly churns the mixture to form the right consistency. Grader-A grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader, a blade, a maintainer, or a motor grader, is a construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface. Typical models have three axles, with the engine and cab situated above the rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in between. Scraper-A scraper is a large piece of equipment used in the mines.The rear part has a vertically moveable hopper (also known as the bowl) with a sharp horizontal front edge. The hopper can be hydraulically lowered and raised. When the hopper is lowered, the front edge cuts into the soil or clay like a plane and fills the hopper. Petroleum Crude Oil Paglinawan The word petroleum means oil from the earth. It was derived from the Latin word Petra (rock) and oleum (oil). Petroleum is a thick, flammable and usually dark-colored liquid fuel found deep below the earth surface. It is compose mainly of complex combinations of hydrogen and carbon called hydrocarbons along with organic compounds containing sulfur and nitrogen in varying amounts. Oil Mining 1. Exploration -is the act of searching or traveling places for the purpose of discovery of resources or information. (places where crude oil or petroleum are available).

2. Seismic Surveying In this technique, sound waves generated by a mechanical or explosive source are directed into the earth, and the timing of the reflections of the waves from the numerous subsurface layers were recorded. The signals are then analyzed and a picture is built up of the geological structures below the surface. 3. Formation of Evaluation -At various stages during drilling, electronic probes (logging sondes) are lowered into a well to measure various characteristics of the rock layers such as resistivity, density and sonic velocity. 4. Drillings -In drilling, a hole is bored in the ground by rotary action using a cutting instrument called a drill bit attached to a length of drill pipe. Drill pipe is added on and on as the bore hole becomes deeper until hydrocarbon-bearing sands are reached. 5. Production engineering-In addition to the drilling aspects, offshore production requires the construction and installation of production platform, the laying of oil and gas storage tanks. All these engineering activities demand considerable expertise and require high capital investment.

6. Reservoir Engineering-Oil normally produces under its own natural drive, but the pressure in the reservoir may drop with time. Under these circumstances, water may be injected into the reservoir to boost pressure and increase production. 7. Dehydration-Oil and gas are normally found together and most of the time overlie water in the reservoir. When produce to surface, it is necessary to separate the components to enable the separate sales of oil and gas, each free of excess water. 8. Processing -In the fractionating column, the oil is heated, vaporized and condensed at various temperatures to produce. Refining Process Chemical engineering processes to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils. Crude oil can be made of a thousand to several hundred thousand different hydrocarbon compounds. Each of them has different characteristics, such as weight, viscosity, and boiling point. DISTILLATION Atmospheric distillation takes place in a distilling column at or near atmospheric pressure. The crude oil is heated to 350 - 400oC and the vapour and liquid are piped into the distilling column. The liquid falls to the bottom and the vapour rises, passing through a series of perforated trays (sieve trays). Heavier hydrocarbons condense more quickly and settle on lower trays and lighter hydrocarbons remain as a vapour longer and condense on higher trays. Residue drawn of the bottom may be burned as fuel, processed into lubricating oils, waxes and bitumen or used as feedstock for cracking units. To recover additional heavy distillates from this residue, it may be piped to a second distillation column where the process is repeated under vacuum, called vacuum distillation. This allows heavy hydrocarbons with boiling points of 450oC and higher to be separated without them partly cracking into unwanted products such as coke and gas. What is ASPHALT? Asphalt is a heavy, dark brown to black mineral substance, one of several mixtures of hydrocarbons called bitumens. Asphalt is a strong, versatile weather and chemical-resistant binding material which adapts itself to a variety of uses. Asphalt binds crushed stone and gravel (commonly known as aggregate) into firm, tough surfaces for roads, streets, and airport run-ways. Asphalt, also known as mineral pitch, is obtained from either natural deposits such as native asphalt or brea or as a byproduct of the petroleum industry (petroleum asphalt). Some important physical properties of petroleum asphalt There are a number of physical properties that are important to the end-users of petroleum asphalt, including: Softening Point: The range of temperatures at which the asphalt softens The softening point is sometimes thought of as the melting point. Penetration: The distance that a weighted needle or cone will sink into the asphalt during a set period of time at a prescribed temperature. Penetration results are presented in units of 0.1 mm. Thus, a penetration of 40 means the needle has penetrated 4 mm. Viscosity: An indication of how viscous the liquid asphalt is at various temperatures. Flash Point: The temperature at which that the heated asphalt will ignite briefly.

The softening point and penetration are the most commonly used measurements for classifying an asphalt's properties. Generally, as the softening point increases, the viscosity also increases, the penetration drops and the flash point rises Uses of petroleum asphalt The largest use of petroleum asphalt is for making asphaltic concrete for road construction and accounts for approximately 80% of the petroleum asphalt consumed in the United States. The asphalt is used as the binder or glue that holds together the aggregate of sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag or other material. There are various mixtures of asphalt with other materials that are used in road construction and other paving applications: Rolled asphaltic concrete that contains about 95% aggregate and 5% petroleum asphalt binder. Mastic asphalt that contains about 9093% aggregate and 710% petroleum asphalt binder. Asphalt emulsions that contain about 70% petroleum asphalt and 30% water plus a small amount of chemical additives. Cutback asphalt that contains petroleum solvents (referred to as cutbacks).

Only rarely, if ever, are air-blown asphalts used in asphalt-aggregate mixtures for paving purposes. The Manufacturing Process Petroleum crude oil is essentially a complex mixture of a great many hydrocarbons. There are a great many different crude oil sources and each of the crude oils from those sources has its own unique mixture of hydrocarbons. Upon being fed into a petroleum refinery, the crude oil is

initially distilled ( boiled) to remove and recover various products such as naphtha which is subsequently further refined to produce gasoline (petrol), jet fuel, diesel oil, fuel oil and so-called vacuum oils which may also be further refined to produce more gasoline. 1. Distillation -The initial distillation of the petroleum crude oil is done in two steps as shown in the diagram: The first step is atmospheric distillation, at an absolute pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure, after heating the crude oil in a process furnace to a temperature of about 395 C. That temperature cannot be exceeded because, above that temperature, the hydrocarbon molecules will crack (break) into smaller molecules and coke that is essentially solid carbon, which would plug up the furnace tubes The second step is vacuum distillation at an absolute pressure of 10 40 mmHg. The temperature must still be limited to being no higher than about 395 C. However, under the vacuum of 10 40 mmHg, that is equivalent to a boiling point of about 565 C at atmospheric pressure Crude petroleum is separated into its various fractions through a distillation process at the oil refinery. After separation, these fractions are further refined into other products which include asphalt, paraffin, gasoline, naphtha, lubricating oil, kerosene, and diesel oil. Since asphalt is the base or heavy constituent of crude petroleum, it does not evaporate or boil off during the distillation process. Asphalt is essentially the heavy residue of the oil refining process.

2. Cutting back -Asphalt may next be blended or "cut back" with a volatile substance, resulting in a product that is soft and workable at a lower temperature than pure asphalt cement. When the cut-back asphalt is used for paving or construction, the volatile element evaporates when exposed to air or heat, leaving the hard asphalt cement. The relative speed of evaporation or volatility of the cutting agent determines whether a cutback asphalt is classified as slow, medium, or rapid-curing. Heated asphalt cement is mixed with residual asphaltic oil from the earlier distillation process for a slow-curing asphalt, with kerosene for medium-curing, and with gasoline or naphtha for the rapid-curing asphalt. 3. Emulsifying -The asphalt cement may also be emulsified to produce a liquid that can be easily pumped through pipes, mixed with aggregate, or sprayed through nozzles. To emulsify, the asphalt cement is ground into globules 5 to 10 microns and smaller (one micron is equal to one millionth of a meter). This is mixed with water. An emulsifying agent is added, which reduces the tendency of the asphalt and water to separate. The emulsifying agent may be colloidal clay, soluble or insoluble silicates, soap, or sulphonated vegetable oils. 4. Pulverizing -Asphalt may also be pulverized to produce a powdered asphalt. The asphalt is crushed and passed through a series of fine mesh sieves to ensure uniform size of the granules. Powered asphalt can be mixed with road oil and aggregate for pavement construction. The heat and pressure in the road slowly amalgamates the powder with the aggregate and binding oil, and the substance hardens to a consistency similar to regular asphalt cement. Asphalt Paving Mixtures Paving asphalt is a mix of petroleum asphalt (commonly referred to as bitumen), aggregate and additives that is very commonly used as a top layer of pavement for roads. A typical paving asphalt consists to 90 to 95 percent by weight of aggregate and 5 to 10 % of bitumen.bPaving asphalt is sometimes referred to as asphaltic concrete and, when used to pave airports, may be referred to as tarmac. There are two types of asphalt mixes: a.) Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is commonly used for heavier traffic areas . ( is more commonly used ) b.) Cold-mix asphalt is used for secondary roads UNDER THE ASPHALT PAVING 1. Asphalt cement and aggregate are combined in a mixing facility where they are heated, proportioned, and mixed to produce the desired paving mixture. Hot-mix facilities may be permanently located (also called "stationary" facilities), or it may be portable and moved from job to job. Hot-mix facilities may be classified as either a batch facility or a drum-mix facility, both can be either stationary or portable. Batch-type hot-mixing facilities use different size fractions of hot aggregate which are drawn in proportional amounts from storage bins to make up one batch for mixing. 2. When the mixing is complete, the hot-mix is then transported to the paving site and spread in a partially compacted layer to a uniform, even surface with a paving machine. While still hot, the paving mixture is further compacted by heavy rolling machines to produce a smooth pavement surface. History of Compressed Air The earliest type of mechanical compressor was the hand-operated bellows. Historians estimate that these devices were being used as early as 3000 BC to support rudimentary metal smelting. In 1650, German physicist Otto Von Guericke invented what is recognized as the first air pump. He used his device to conduct studies on pressure, vacuum, combustion, and respiration. By late 1700s, blowers were in common us supplying forced air to metal furnaces and in the ventilation of large mining operations. By the early 1880s, engineers were considering the use of compressed air as a viable energy source. Another use for compressed air, which came about in the early 1800s, was for underwater diving.

In the early part of the 1800s, compressed air was starting to be utilized in mining and tunneling operations to power lightweight rock drills and hammers. By the mid-1800s, engineers were at odds with one another over whether electricity or compressed air should be the power source of the future. In 1888, an Austrian engineer named Viktor Pop installed a 1500-kW compression system in Paris. Existing sewers were used as a distribution system and Paris became the first city to offer compressed air as a public utility. In 1891, the Paris compressors had been increased in size to 18,000kW. The compressed air was used to activate 58,000 clocks and about 4000 elevators, as well as powering all sorts of industrial equipment. In 1845, Robert Thompson invented the pneumatic tire and was granted a patent on the idea. However, his design was costly and never became a success. In 1888, John Dunlop was granted a patent for the first practical pneumatic tire and his design was great success leading to the tire industry of today. During the later part of the 1880s, compressed air was limited to rather large companies and operations. This because the pumps required a power source, which was usually in the form of a stream boiler and engine. In early 1990s, several companies started to manufacture small, inexpensive air compressors that were aimed specifically at small business. The compressed air industry grew steadily during the first half of the 1900s. A 5-hp, 2 stage compressor manufactured in 1917 for small businesses. These units did not differ very much from the compressors of today. They typically came with a pump, electric motor, and receiver as a complete packaged unit.

What is Air Compressor? An Air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric motor, a diesel engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air, which, on command, can be released in quick bursts. TYPES OF AIR COMPRESSORS 1. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT compressors work on the principle of increasing the pressure of a definite volume of air by reducing that volume in an enclosed chamber. Positive Displacement compressors are subdivided into two groups: a. Reciprocating type b. Rotary type of Compressor 2. DYNAMIC (TURBO) COMPRESSOR employs rotating vanes or impellers to impart velocity and pressure to the flow of the air being handled. The pressure comes from the dynamic effects such as centrifugal force. COMPRESSOR CLASSIFICATION 1. As single or double acting compressor, by number of stages of compressors, viz. Single, two, three or multiple stages. 2. As per disposition of cylinders relative to crank shaft (i.e cylinders in vertical, in-line, horizontal, vee, radial position, etc,) 3. By geometry or cylinder arrangement used to achieve stage compressor, viz. Vertical, horizontal, V-type, etc. 4. By compressor drive or prime mover such as diesel engine driven, electrical motor driven, gas/turbine driven etc. 5. By condition of compressed air, viz lubricating oil contaminated air or oil free air. 6. By mounting and portability condition, viz. Portable compressor, stationary compressor or skid mounted compressor. 7. By cooling medium applied, viz. Air cooled, water cooled, liquid injected compressor, etc.

SINGLE ACTING Compression takes place in the space on one side piston with one compression stroke per stage for each revolution of shaft. DOUBLE ACTING Here the compression takes place on both the the piston giving two compression strokes for each rotation of the and crankshaft. Hence, with this type of arrangement, individual could be used as a multistage compressor if the compressed air from id fed to the other side of the piston.

of the crankfaces of crank cylinder one side

TYPES OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT AIR COMPRESSORS displacement compressors include reciprocating machines such as

Positive piston

and diaphragm types and rotating machines of the vane, gear, screw, and lobe types. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS 1. Piston-type Reciprocating Compressors are available in great variety, including special machines for unusual requirements. Maximum compression ratio may be as high as 10 per two-stage compressors are available for compression ratios greater than Multistaging can produce discharge pressures up to 300 kg/cm. But high pressure is hardly noted in pneumatic system. Three different types of piston type air compressor. As per cylinder arrangement these compressors generally available in vertical, horizontal, and radial designs. The most commonly used air compressor industry however is the air-cooled horizontal type reciprocating compressor for a pressure range of 7 to 12 kg/cm. They may be singleor multi-stage (usually two or three stages only). They stage; eight. such

in the stage

These 2. Diaphragm Type Compressors are limited to a very small capacity. Low initial cost is offset by limited life and frequent maintenance under severe service. Here the piston is separated from a friction chamber by a diaphragm, i.e., air does not come into contact with reciprocating parts. Thus the air is always kept free of oil. They are most suitable for food stuff, Pharmaceutical, Chemical and textile industries. ROTARY COMPRESSORS 1. Rotary Vane Compressor Rotary sliding-vane compressors can produce a compression ratio of about eight per stage. They perform efficiently over a wide range of pressure and flow rates, particularly for pressure ratios of two or greater. They are pulse free and therefore can be used without a receiver if needed. This type of air compressor is smaller in size and lighter in weight and work at high speed. The air discharge temperature is low and overall maintenance cost is very insignificant. It may not require expensive foundation also.

2. Liquid Ring Compressors The action of this compressor is similar to vane type employing in addition water or other low viscosity liquid to compress the gas trapped between blades and wall, therefore no lubrication or wear at these points. These single-stage compressor are available for a wide range of flow capacities, with compression ratios up to five. Special arrangement has to be made to maintain a constant liquid level. Maximum speed is limited due to cavitation erosion of mechanical parts. The pressure rating is about 6 bar.

3. Twin Lobe Compressor The air is transferred from suction side to the delivery side with continuous rotation of the two lobes. There is practically no volume charge. The pressure generated is generally very low and mostly used for a low pressure applications. No internal compression takes place takes place, but the impeller forces the air through the discharge opening against back pressure of the system. As in the screw-type rotor, clearance between impellers is fixed by timing gears, thus eliminating the need fo r internal lubrication. Compression ratios are limited to about 1.7 in a stage. A screw compressor is a compact refinement of lobe compressor.

single

In 4. Screw Compressor Screw compressor, two screws one with convex and the other with concave contour, mostly called male and female rotor respectively, are made to rotate by means of a gear train or other mode outside the compressor casing, thereby sucking the air through an inlet port in the chamber and then compressing the same.

TYPES OF DYNAMIC AIR COMPRESSORS Dynamic compressors include Centrifugal, Axial, and Injector Compressors. 1. Centrifugal Compressors There is continuous passage from inlet point to discharge point of compressor. The impeller, rotating a very high speeds, sometimes more that 50,000 rpm, imparts kinetic energy to air. High velocity air is passed through a diffuser

and scrolls where diverging passages convert kinetic energy of air dynamically into pressure head. The impellers rotate in closely tolerated space in the casing. Compressed air for these compressors is absolutely oil free and very high discharge pressure and capacity are achieved. The efficiency of these machines are higher than reciprocating machines in a large capacity range. 2. Axial Compressors These compressors are usually specified for the largest applications. Their cost-per-SCFM (standard cubic foot of air)is the lowest of all the compressor types. The compressor itself is very much like the compressor stage found in most commercial jet engines.

3. Injector Compressors These compressor are generally used for specialized process applications. However, there is at least one company manufacturing air compressors using this technology.

COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT Coal power is a rather simple process. In most coal fired power plants, chunks of coal are crushed into fine powder and are fed into a combustion unit where it is burned. Heat from the burning coal is used to generate steam that is used to spin one or more turbines to generate electricity.

History: Coal has played a major role in electrical production since the first power plants that were built in the United States in the1880's. The earliest power plants used hand fed wood or coal to heat a boiler and produce steam. This steam was used in reciprocating steam engines which turned generators to produce electricity. In 1884, the more efficient high speed steam turbine was developed by British engineer Charles A. Parsons which replaced the use of steam engines to generate electricity. In the 1920s, the pulverized coal firing was developed. This process brought advantages that included a higher combustion temperature, improved thermal efficiency and a lower requirement for excess air for combustion. In the 1940s, the cyclone furnace was developed. This new technology allowed the combustion of poorer grade of coal with less ash production and greater overall efficiency. Presently, coal power is still based on the same methods started over 100 years ago, but improvements in all areas have brought coal power to be the inexpensive power source used so widely today. Pulverized Coal Combustion System The illustration shows a simple schematic diagram for a typical pc combustion system. In this type of system, the coal is prepared by grinding to a very fine consistency for combustion. Typically, 70% of the coal is ground to pass through a mesh screen.

COAL FIRE POWER PLANT: DIFFERENT PARTS

Condenser Cooling Water A large amount of sea water is pumped through the condenser to take away latent heat of vaporization from steam. The large volume of water is important to ensure that the temperature rise of the water is not too high so that the habitat of the sea surrounding the power plant is not affected. Condenser In the condenser, sea water passing through metal pipes cools the hot steam outside the pipes, condensing it into water. The steam/ condensed water circulate separately from the cooling seawater to ensure that contaminants in the seawater do not come in contact with the working substance and the turbine of the power plant. Boiler Water from the condenser is pumped through the pipes to the boiler, coal is burnt and the chemical energy released heats up the water. Steam The steam generated in the boiler is transmitted through a series of pipes called the steam line to drive the turbine. Turbine A turbine is made up of stationary blades and rotating blades stacked alternatively. The stationary blades, which do not rotate, function to angle the steam onto the rotating blades. Generator In power plant generators, the conducting coils are stationary and it is the magnets that are turned. Also the magnetic field in power plant generators is proceeding by electromagnets with a current supplied by an external power source. Flue Gas Stack (chimney) A flue gas stack is a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called "flue gases" are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gas stacks are sometimes referred to as a "smokestacks". How Do Coal-Fired Plants Work? In a coal-fired steam stationmuch like a nuclear stationwater is turned into steam, which in turn drives turbine generators to produce electricity. Heres how the process works.

1. Heat is created Before the coal is burned, it is pulverized to the fineness of talcum powder. It is then mixed with hot air and blown into the firebox of the boiler. Burning in suspension, the coal/air mixture provides the most complete combustion and maximum heat possible. 2. Water turns to steam Highly purified water, pumped through pipes inside the boiler, is turned into steam by the heat. The steam reaches temperatures of up to 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit and pressures up to 3,500 pounds per square inch, and is piped to the turbine. 3. Steam turns the turbine The enormous pressure of the steam pushing against a series of giant turbine blades turns the turbine shaft. The turbine shaft is connected to the shaft of the generator, where magnets spin within wire coils to produce electricity. 4. Steam turns back into water After doing its work in the turbine, the steam is drawn into a condenser, a large chamber in the basement of the power plant. In this important step, millions of gallons of cool water from a nearby source (such as a river or lake) are pumped through a network of tubes running through the condenser. The cool water in the tubes converts the steam back into water that can be used over and over again in the plant. The cooling water is returned to its source without any contamination, and the steam water is returned to the boiler to repeat the cycle. Therefore, A coal-fired power plant produces electricity by the burning of coal and air in a steam generator, where it heats water to produce high pressure and high temperature steam. The steam flows through a series of steam turbines which spin an electrical generator to produce electricity. The exhaust steam from the turbines is cooled, condensed back into water, and returned to the steam generator to start the process over.

Steel Industry What is steel? Steel is an alloy of iron with about 1 percent carbon. It may also contain other elements, such as manganese. Whereas pure iron is a relatively soft metal that rusts easily, steel can be hard, tough, and corrosion-resistant. Used to make almost everything from skyscraper girders, automobiles, and appliances to thumb tacks and paper clips, steel is one of the world's most vital materials. Among all the metals, iron is second only to aluminum in

natural abundance, making up 4.7 percent of the earth's crust, and occurring mainly as its various oxides. The main product made from iron is steel, the least expensive and most widely used of all metals. History It appears that ancient peoples were using iron as early as 4000 B.C.E. for making various tools, weapons, and other objects. They apparently obtained the iron from meteorites. The composition of those earliest iron artifacts was higher in nickel than native iron ores on Earth, in keeping with the composition of meteorites. In fact, the word "iron" comes from an ancient term meaning "metal from the sky." It is interesting to note that when Admiral Robert Peary visited Greenland in the 1890s, he found that the Inuit had for many years been making iron tools from a 30-ton iron meteorite that had fallen there centuries earlier. While it is not known exactly when people learned how to remove iron from its ores, by 1200 B.C.E. iron ore was being mixed with burning wood or charcoal and turned into hot masses from which iron metal could be "wrought" by repeated hammering. Placing the iron back in burning charcoal seemed to make it harder and stronger. The iron picked up carbon from the charcoal, especially along its surface, turning it into the hard material that has come to be known as steel. During the first millennium B.C.E. a highly superior steel product was made in India, in a region near Hyderabad. Well known for its strength and its wavy patterned surface, it was especially desirable for making sword blades. Some think that the ore found in that area just happened to have the right impurities to give the steel special properties. The hot iron was repeatedly forged and folded to produce a metal of extremely high quality that became famous all over the ancient world. It was especially sought after by Europeans, who called it "wootz"; by Moors living in Spain, who used it to make their Toledo blades; and by Arabs, who used it in their famous Damascus swords. Steel Industry The steel industry is the worldwide heavy industry that produces steel. Most of the steel is used in construction of factories, office buildings and bridges, and in automobiles, appliances and machinery. Demand for steel fluctuates greatly. The u.S. Steel industry is a $75+ billion business with 1200 companies, comprising about 5% of U.S. Manufacturing. The steel industry (including iron production) uses 2-3% of all US energy consumption and has invested more than $7 billion in environmental controls. There are 20 large integrated mills producing steel in basic oxygen furnaces. The industry employs 154,000 people nationwide, with pay scales about 50% higher than average. Most grades of steel in use today particularly high-strength steels that are lighter and more versatile were not available ten years ago. Steel is the most recyclable and recycled material in north america, with an overall recycling rate of 68%. China has 71 major steel producers; they were growing very rapidly for seven years with very high profits until the financial crisis of 2008 hit; the industry in 2008 has an annual capacity of 400 million tons, far more than demand. While china has many large steelmakers, the industry is concentrated in most countries. In japan the top 6 producers account for 90% of the country's steel output. In south korea, posko steel processing center alone is responsible for 65% of the country's steel production. The top 6 steel producers in the european union produce 74% of its steel. Only one company arcelor produces almost all of the steel made in france. World Steel Production The three top steel producers in the world are china, the united states, and japan, in that order. The united states and japan each produce around 100 million tons (90 million metric tons) of steel per year, and china had an output in 2000 of about 140 million tons (127 million metric tons). Iron and steel make up approximately 90 percent of all the metal produced in the world. The largest steel company in the united states is united states steel, which produces about 20 percent of the country's steel. Making Steel Over the years various countries have excelled in making steel. During the eighteenth century a relatively small amount of steel was made, but sweden was the main producer. In the nineteenth century great britain became dominant. In the twentieth century the united states was the largest steel producer in the world until about 1970, when it was surpassed by the soviet union. At the start of the twenty-first century, china led the world in steel production. Three primary installations in an integrated steel plant are the blast furnace, the steel furnaces, and the rolling mills. The blast furnace converts iron ore to pig iron; the steel furnaces convert the pig iron to steel; and the rolling mills shape the steel into sheets, slabs, or bars. Blast furnace. A blast furnace is a chimney-like structure in which iron ores (mainly feo, fe 2 O 3 , and fe 3 O 4 ) are converted into iron metal. Iron ore, coke, and limestone are loaded into the top of the furnace, while air is blown in from below. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide (CO), which then acts as the reducing agent: 2 c + o 2 2 co 3 CO + fe 2 O 3 2 fe + 3 CO 2 The molten iron falls to the bottom of the furnace, and the limestone reacts with silicate impurities to form a molten slag, which floats on top of the iron. The two layers are drawn off separately, and the iron is poured into molds. Because the molten iron yields ingots that resemble little pigs, the product is referred to as "pig iron." Steel furnaces. In the steel furnace, sulfur and phosphorus impurities and excess carbon are burned away, and manganese and other alloying ingredients are added. During the nineteenth century most steel was made by the Bessemer process, using big pear-shaped converters. During the first half of the twentieth century, the open hearth furnace became the main type of steel furnace. This gave way mid-century to the basic oxygen process, which used pure oxygen instead of air, cutting the process time from all day to just a few hours. In

the twenty-first century, most new steel plants use electric furnaces, the most popular being the electric-arc furnace. It is cheaper to build and more efficient to operate than the basic oxygen furnace. In the electric-arc furnace a powerful electric current jumps (or arcs) between the electrodes, generating intense heat, which melts the iron scrap that is typically fed into it. The most modern process for making steel is the continuous process, which bypasses the energy requirements of the blast furnace. Instead of using coke, the iron ore is reduced by hydrogen and CO derived from natural gas. This direct reduction method is especially being used in developing countries where there are not any large steel plants already in operation. Finishing processes. A final step in processing steel is shaping. Liquid steel can be cast into ingots or various other forms. They can then be sent to rolling mills. There are hot rolling mills and cold rolling mills. Various kinds of steel slabs are rolled into sheets, strips, bars, or other kinds of products. Sometimes the steel is forged into shape with hammers or presses, or the hot steel is extruded through dies to give it some desired shape. For example, steel wire is made by drawing hot steel rods through smaller and smaller dies. Some steel is finished by grinding or polishing, and some is coated with zinc or electroplated with tin. Production of molten steel These diagrams show the steel making process.

TYPES OF STEEL Carbon Steel. This is the most widely used kind of steel. Its carbon content is under 2 percent and is usually less than 1 percent. It often also contains a little manganese. Commonly used in the construction of bridges, buildings and ships, it's also utilized in the fabrication of base plates, braces, liners, brackets and storage tanks. Stainless Steel. This is the most corrosion-resistant kind of steel. It normally contains at least 12 percent (and sometimes up to 30 percent) chromium, and it usually also contains nickel. A very popular stainless steel formulation is 18-8, 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. Alloy Steels. These contain a little carbon, and sometimes silicon, but they mainly contain added metals, such as manganese (hardness), nickel (strength), molybdenum (improved wear), tungsten (high temperature strength), chromium (corrosion resistance), and vanadium (toughness). Galvanized Steel. This steel is coated with zinc to protect against corrosion. The coating is usually done by a hot dip process. Electroplated Steel. This steel has a coating of another metal, usually tin, applied by the use of an electric current. Tin-plated steel is widely used for making cans and other containers. Tool Steel. This is very hard steel made by tempering (heating to a very high temperature and then quickly cooling). Damascus steel. This was a very high quality ancient steel with a beautiful wavy surface pattern used in making sword blades. It seems to have come mainly from india. Wootz steel. This was actually a european mispronunciation of ukku, the very fine steel made in ancient india that they called "wook." (It is probably the same material as damascus steel.) Structural steel is steel constructionmaterial, a profile, formed with a specificshape or cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and mechanical properties. Structural steel shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc., Is regulated in most industrialized countries.Structural steel members, such as i-beams, have high second moments of area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area.

Common structural shapes In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards, although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available. A steel i-beam, in this case used to support wood joists in a house.

I-beam (i-shaped cross-section - in britain these include universal beams (ub) and universal columns (uc); in europe it includes the ipe, he, hl, hd and other sections; in the us it includes wide flange (wf) and h sections) Z-shape (half a flange in opposite directions) Hss-shape (hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross sections) Angle (l-shaped cross-section) Channel, or C section, ( [-shaped cross-section) Tee (t-shaped cross-section) Rail profile (asymmetrical i-beam) Railway rail Vignoles rail Flanged T rail Grooved rail Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide so as to be called a sheet. Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and dowel. Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 14 in. Open web steel joist While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded). Steel vs. concrete As raw material prices fluctuate, often so does building design. During times of lower steel prices, more steel and less concrete is used, and vice versa. Each set of vendors and users typically maintain national industry associations that advocate the use of its materials versus the other. However, both materials are typically used together. Concrete without steel reinforcement (usually ribbed round bars called rebar) crumbles under tensile loads. Steel on its own, without composite or reinforced concrete floors, is likewise not a preferred building method. While rebar is almost always steel, it is not considered a structural steel and is described separately in the reinforcement bar and reinforced concrete articles. While both steel structures and reinforced concrete cement (r.C.C) structures have their pros and cons, the steel structures have better strength-toweight ratios than RCC and can be easily dismantled. Steel structures, which have bolted connections, can also be reused to some extent after dismantling. Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel Structures Advantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Lightness High strengh and stiffness per weight Ease of fabrication and mass production Fast and easy erection and installation Substantial elimination of delays due to weather More accurate detailing Nonshrinking and noncreeping at ambient temperature Formwork unneeded Termiteproof and rot proof Uniform quality Economy in transportation and handling 1. 2. 3. Disadvantages Susceptibility to corrosion Low fire resistance Buckling and high deformation due to small sizes of members

Batching Plant An operating installation of equipment including batchers and mixers as required for batching or for batching and mixing concrete materials; also called a mixing plant when mixing equipment is included. Concrete Plant A concrete plant, also known as a batch plant, is a device that combines various ingredients to form concrete. Some of these inputs include sand, water, aggregate (rocks, gravel, etc.), fly ash, potash, and cement. There are two types of concrete plants: ready mix plants and central mix plants. A concrete plant can have a variety of parts and accessories, including but not limited to: mixers (either tilt-up or horizontal or in some cases both), cement batchers, aggregate batchers, conveyors, radial stackers, aggregate bins, cement bins, heaters, chillers, cement silos, batch plant controls, and dust collectors (to minimize environmental pollution).

Three Types of Mixer The center of the concrete batching plant is the mixer.

There are three types of mixer: 1. Tilt - are known for speed and efficiency. Tilt Mixer

Tilt-Up Mixers are known for speed and efficiency. With 12 mixing blades and 4 capacity blades, tilt mixers provide a thorough mix load after load. All tilt mixers are equipped with emergency tilt, variable tilt-speed valve, and remote operation controls. Mixer drums are available in 6, 8, 10, 12, and 12L cubic yard capacities. Standard features include:

Single pivot tilt, with full 60 degrees Double speed drum return Top mounted NEMA B drive motors direct coupled to gear reducers Removable nose cone for easy servicing Self aligning tilt pins and cylinder heads Covered drum track and gear ring High pressure (psi) operating system Manual override control Optional equipment includes: Stationary mixing charging chute with replaceable seal Stationary mixing charging assembly for combination wet/dry plants Mixer dump cone for charging truck mixers Telescopic boot, air-operated with 18 vertical travel Drip stop for telescopic boot Steel tilt mixer support stand Drip pan Mixer maintenance platform (includes expanded metal walkway, rails and toe boards) Slump adjust water valve Badger water meter with impulse counter added in slump-adjust water line Nose cone shroud with provisions for 16 dust collection ducting Polyurethane liners (available for drum, cone, and blades) High Performance option includes two 100 HP reducers and drives, and spiral blades (available on 12 cubic yard mixer)

2.

Pan - is designed and constructed to deliver consistent quality in your end product each and every time.

Pan Mixers

Compulsory mixers mounted on batch plants are available in capacities from 2 to 5 cubic yards, with either a V-belt or direct drive transmission. The compulsory mixer is designed and constructed to deliver consistent quality in your end product each and every time. Paddle design and placement assures superior mixing, while eliminating dependence on gravity. Normal batch cycle time is 90 to 120 seconds. Batch cycle time may vary depending on type of material, and how fast you can handle the discharged material. Customize your compulsory mixer for your specific application. Your mixer and batch plant will provide optimum performance, and return on your investment. FEATURES:

Full height wall liners are reversible for extra wear and longer service life. Floor liners can be replaced without removing wall liners. Air activated rack and pinion assembly makes discharge door openings smooth and positive. One door standard, up to 3 doors optional Cushioned mixing power. Arms flex both up and back allowing

any material lodged under the paddles to be released. Increases productivity while reducing stress and wear on the mixer arms and liners. Compact profile and low headroom allows mixer to be installed in tight quarters. Both style transmissions use a flow through lubrication which keeps bearings and gears properly lubricated. Reduces heat build up and increases component life. Top dust cover panels provides dust free environment while allowing ample access for fast charging from any direction. Spinner assembly features unitized construction and ensures consistent high quality mix.

3.

Twin shaft mixer - their design and operation is extremely efficient and reliable. The twin shaft mixer can ensure an even mixture of concrete and large output, while the tilt mixer offers a consistent mix with much less maintenance labor and cost.

Types of Concrete Plant

A ready mix plant combines all ingredients except for water at the concrete plant. This mixture is then discharged into a ready mix truck (also known as a concrete transport truck). Water is then added to the mix in the truck and mixed during transport to the job site. A central mix plant combines some or all of the above ingredients (including water) at a central location. The final product is then transported to the job site. Central mix plants differ from ready mix plants in that they offer the end user a much more consistent product, since all the ingredient mixing is done in a central location and is computer-assisted to ensure uniformity of product.

A temporary batch plant is similar to the central batch plant but it can be constructed on a large job site. A concrete plant becomes central mix with the addition of a concrete mixer. Transit Mix Batch Plant

Portable or stationary, the reliability and modular design of the Transit Mix Batch Plants keep maintenance and installation time to a minimum. Flexible designs will meet your approval, while delivering 80 to 200 cubic yards per hour.

Custom Built Batch Plant

Specializes in the engineering of Custom Built Batch Plants. Wet or dry, single or dual lane, can customize your plant with larger capacity, gravity fed cement and aggregate storage bins to meet your production requirements.

Automation and Controls Modern concrete batch plants (both ready mix and central mix,) employ computer aided control to assist in fast, accurate measurement of input constituents or ingredients, as well as tie together the various parts and accessories for coordinated and safe operation. With concrete performance so dependent on accurate water measurement, systems will often use moisture probes to measure the amount of water that is part of the aggregate (sand and rock) material while it is being weighed, and then automatically compensate the mix design water target. Component of Concrete Plant Concrete mixing plant is mainly composed of material weighing systems, material handling systems, material storage system and control system and other ancillary facilities. The batching unit, aggregate conveying unit, water supplying and additive agent supplying system, scaling system, mixing system, electrical control system and pneumatic system are centralized in one trailer chassis.

Stationary Mixing Stationary Mixers Onsite or Central Mix R/M plant Used for complete or shrink mixing

Mixer Types up to 9m3 Tilting or non-tilting drum Open top revolving blade or paddle

Typical complete mixing times Minimum of 1 min. for up to 1 yd3 or less mixer capacity plus 15 sec. for each additional yd3 or fraction thereof.

Ready Mixed Concrete Shrink-mixed concrete mixed partially in a stationary mixer and completed in a truck mixer

Truck-mixed concrete mixed completely in a truck mixer

Central-mixed concrete mixed completely in a stationary mixer delivered in a truck agitator a truck mixer operating at agitating speed a no agitating truck

Ready Mix Plant

CONCRETE MIXING Concrete mixers are used for mixing all the ingredients of concrete to make a mix of specified consistency. MIXER SIZES B.S. 1305 specifies the following standard sizes for batch type mixers: Tilting mixers: 3.5 T, 5T, and 7T, Non-tilting mixers: 5NT. 7NT.10NT.14HNT 28NT. 56NT.

(The numbers indicate the mixed batch capacity in cubic feet.) MANUAL MIXING OF CONCRETE DISADVANTAGES OF MANUAL MIXING OF CONCRETE ARE IN MOST OF OUR SMALL PROJECTS THE MIXING OF CONCRETE IS MAINLY DONE MANUALLY. REDUCTION IN STRENGTH SEGREGATION OF COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATES INCOMPLETE MIXING CAUSES NON UNIFORMITY OF CEMENT IN CONCRETE. FALSE SET OF CEMENT WAISTAGE OF CEMENT SAND SLURRY REDUCTION IN WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete (HMA) Mix Designs The objective of HMA mix design is to develop an economical blend of aggregates and asphalt. In the developing of this blend the designer needs to consider both the first cost and the life cycle cost of the project. Considering only the first cost may result in a higher life cycle cost. Historically asphalt mix design has been accomplished using either the Marshall or the Hveem design method. The most common method was the Marshall. It had been used in about 75% of the DOTs throughout the US and by the FAA for the design of airfields. In 1995 the Superpave mix design procedure was introduced into use. It builds on the knowledge from Marshall and Hveem procedures. The primary differences between the three procedures are the machine used to compact the specimens and strength tests used to evaluate the mixes. The current plan is implement the Superpave procedures throughout the US for the design and quality control of HMA highway projects early in the next century. It appears that the Marshall method will continue to be used for airfield design for many years and that the Hveem procedure will continue to be used in California. Requirements in Common No matter which design procedure is going to be used the HMA mixture that is placed on the roadway must meet certain requirements.

The mix must have sufficient asphalt to ensure a durable, compacted pavement by thoroughly coating, bonding and waterproofing the aggregate. Enough stability to satisfy the demands of traffic without displacement or distortion (rutting). Sufficient voids to allow a slight amount of added compaction under traffic loading without bleeding and loss of stability. However, the volume of voids should be low enough to keep out harmful air and moisture. To accomplish this the mixes are usually designed by 4% VTM in the lab and compacted to less than 7% VTM in the field. Enough workability to permit placement and proper compaction without segregation.

Types of Plants There are two types of plants - the batch plant and the drum mixer plant. Both batch plants and drum mix plants are designed to accomplish this purpose. The difference between the two plants is that the batch plants dry and heats the aggregate and then in a separate mixer blend the aggregate and asphalt one batch at a time; drum mix plants dry the aggregate and blend it with asphalt in a continuous process and in the same piece of equipment. Basic Purpose of HMA Plants Regardless of the type of plant - the basic purpose is the same. It is as shown on this slide. Batch plant typical layout Todays batch plant has changed little since 1940.
Batch plant
ty pical lay out
Asphalt Storage Aggregate Bins Conveyor Belt

Dryer

Batch T ower

Burner Hot elevator

Storage Silo

Drum Mixer Plant typical layout Drum mix plants were first introduced about 1910. More than 100 small drum mix plants were operated until the mid-1930s. They were replaced by batch plants. They were resurrected in a revised form in the late 1960s. Introduced on a large scale in the 1970s about 70% of the plants now sold in the US are drum mix plants. They represent about 50% of the plants in the US.

Drum Mixer P lant

typical layout
Asphalt Storage
Aggregate Bins Conveyor Belts

Dryer

Burner

Storage Silo

Petroleum Crude Oil PAGLINAWAN Petroleum / Crude Oil The word petroleum means oil from the earth. It was derived from the Latin word Petra (rock) and oleum (oil).

Petroleum is a thick, flammable and usually dark-colored liquid fuel found deep below the earth surface. It is compose mainly of complex combinations of hydrogen and carbon called hydrocarbons along with organic compounds containing sulfur and nitrogen in varying amounts. Oil Mining 1. Exploration -is the act of searching or traveling places for the purpose of discovery of resources or information. (places where crude oil or petroleum are available).

2. Seismic Surveying In this technique, sound waves generated by a mechanical or explosive source are directed into the earth, and the timing of the reflections of the waves from the numerous subsurface layers were recorded. The signals are then analyzed and a picture is built up of the geological structures below the surface. When a structure is identified which potentially holds hydrocarbons drilling of an exploration well is then required to confirm the presence of the oil or gas. If the well is successful , further appraisal drilling will be done to evaluate the size of the discovery before a decision can be made to develop the field. 3. Formation of Evaluation At various stages during drilling, electronic probes (logging sondes) are lowered into a well to measure various characteri stics of the rock layers such as resistivity, density and sonic velocity. These data, together with core samples, are then used by the geologist and petro physicist to determine the nature of the oil and the gas reservoir and the fluids they contain. Decisions can then be taken on the completion of the current well and also where to site future wells. 4. Drillings In drilling, a hole is bored in the ground by rotary action using a cutting instrument called a drill bit attached to a length of drill pipe. Drill pipe is added on and on as the bore hole becomes deeper until hydrocarbon-bearing sands are reached. Wells can extend to four kilometers into the earth and from a single platform more than a dozen deviated wells can branch off in all directions to reach traps at various locations. Once well have been completed production can commence. 5. Production engineering In addition to the drilling aspects, offshore production requires the construction and installation of production platform, the laying of oil and gas storage tanks. All these engineering activities demand considerable expertise and require high capital investment. 6. Reservoir Engineering Oil normally produces under its own natural drive, but the pressure in the reservoir may drop with time. Under these circumstances, water may be injected into the reservoir to boost pressure and increase production. Alternatively, artificial lifts may be used to overcome declining reservoir pressure. The familiar nodding donkeys are used on many of the land wells to pump oil up to the surface whilst in other wells, both onshore and offshore, gas is injected into the well to help it to flow. 7. Dehydration Oil and gas are normally found together and most of the time overlie water in the reservoir. When produce to surface, it is necessary to separate the components to enable the separate sales of oil and gas, each free of excess water.

8. Processing

Oil Refining and Fractional distillation

In the fractionating column, the oil is heated, vaporized and condensed at various temperatures to produces;

The gas is de-acidized, dehydrated and separated from heavier hydrocarbons before it is sent to a cryogenic heat exchanger, it is cooled to minus 163 degrees Celsius at which it becomes liquid occupying one-six hundred of its normal volume. Refining Process Chemical engineering processes to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils. Crude oil can be made of a thousand to several hundred thousand different hydrocarbon compounds. Each of them has different characteristics, such as weight, viscosity, and boiling point. Crude oil will boil at approximately 150 degrees Fahrenheit, 450 degrees, 750 degrees, and 900 degrees. Each fraction vaporizes at these approximate temperatures, while others are left behind. When a container of crude is heated to a boil and held at one of the boiling temperatures, some of the crude will vaporize. This first boil is the lightest fraction (which may be butane or other light fractions.) The second boil will remove the gasoline, the third will remove naphtha and so on. This process of boiling and reboiling a batch of crude oil is the simplest form of refining, or distillation; it is commonly called batch distillation. DISTILLATION Atmospheric distillation takes place in a distilling column at or near atmospheric pressure. The crude oil is heated to 350 - 400oC and the vapour and liquid are piped into the distilling column. The liquid falls to the bottom and the vapour rises, passing through a series of perforated trays (sieve trays). Heavier hydrocarbons condense more quickly and settle on lower trays and lighter hydrocarbons remain as a vapour longer and condense on higher trays. Residue drawn of the bottom may be burned as fuel, processed into lubricating oils, waxes and bitumen or used as feedstock for cracking units. To recover additional heavy distillates from this residue, it may be piped to a second distillation column where the process is repeated under vacuum, called vacuum distillation. This allows heavy hydrocarbons with boiling points of 450oC and higher to be separated without them partly cracking into unwanted products such as coke and gas. What is ASPHALT? Asphalt is a heavy, dark brown to black mineral substance, one of several mixtures of hydrocarbons called bitumens. Asphalt is a strong, versatile weather and chemical-resistant binding material which adapts itself to a variety of uses. Asphalt binds crushed stone and gravel (commonly known as aggregate) into firm, tough surfaces for roads, streets, and airport run-ways. Asphalt, also known as mineral pitch, is obtained from either natural deposits such as native asphalt or brea or as a byproduct of the petroleum industry (petroleum asphalt). Some important physical properties of petroleum asphalt There are a number of physical properties that are important to the end-users of petroleum asphalt, including: Softening Point: The range of temperatures at which the asphalt softens The softening point is sometimes thought of as the melting point. Penetration: The distance that a weighted needle or cone will sink into the asphalt during a set period of time at a prescribed temperature. Penetration results are presented in units of 0.1 mm. Thus, a penetration of 40 means the needle has penetrated 4 mm. Viscosity: An indication of how viscous the liquid asphalt is at various temperatures. Flash Point: The temperature at which that the heated asphalt will ignite briefly.

The softening point and penetration are the most commonly used measurements for classifying an asphalt's properties. Generally, as the softening point increases, the viscosity also increases, the penetration drops and the flash point rises

Uses of petroleum asphalt The largest use of petroleum asphalt is for making asphaltic concrete for road construction and accounts for approximately 80% of the petroleum asphalt consumed in the United States. The asphalt is used as the binder or glue that holds together the aggregate of sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag or other material. There are various mixtures of asphalt with other materials that are used in road construction and other paving applications: Rolled asphaltic concrete that contains about 95% aggregate and 5% petroleum asphalt binder. Mastic asphalt that contains about 9093% aggregate and 710% petroleum asphalt binder. Asphalt emulsions that contain about 70% petroleum asphalt and 30% water plus a small amount of chemical additives. Cutback asphalt that contains petroleum solvents (referred to as cutbacks).

Only rarely, if ever, are air-blown asphalts used in asphalt-aggregate mixtures for paving purposes. The Manufacturing Process Petroleum crude oil is essentially a complex mixture of a great many hydrocarbons. There are a great many different crude oil sources and each of the crude oils from those sources has its own unique mixture of hydrocarbons. Upon being fed into a petroleum refinery, the crude oil is initially distilled ( boiled) to remove and recover various products such as naphtha which is subsequently further refined to produce gasoline (petrol), jet fuel, diesel oil, fuel oil and so-called vacuum oils which may also be further refined to produce more gasoline. 1. Distillation The initial distillation of the petroleum crude oil is done in two steps as shown in the diagram: The first step is atmospheric distillation, at an absolute pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure, after heating the crude oil in a process furnace to a temperature of about 395 C. That temperature cannot be exceeded because, above that temperature, the hydrocarbon molecules will crack (break) into smaller molecules and coke that is essentially solid carbon, which would plug up the furnace tubes The second step is vacuum distillation at an absolute pressure of 10 40 mmHg. The temperature must still be limited to being no higher than about 395 C. However, under the vacuum of 10 40 mmHg, that is equivalent to a boiling point of about 565 C at atmospheric pressure

Crude petroleum is separated into its various fractions through a distillation process at the oil refinery. After separation, these fractions are further refined into other products which include asphalt, paraffin, gasoline, naphtha, lubricating oil, kerosene, and diesel oil. Since asphalt is the base or heavy constituent of crude petroleum, it does not evaporate or boil off during the distillation process. Asphalt is essentially the heavy residue of the oil refining process. 2. Cutting back Asphalt may next be blended or "cut back" with a volatile substance, resulting in a product that is soft and workable at a lower temperature than pure asphalt cement. When the cut-back asphalt is used for paving or construction, the volatile element evaporates when exposed to air or heat, leaving the hard asphalt cement. The relative speed of evaporation or volatility of the cutting agent determines whether a cutback asphalt is classified as slow, medium, or rapid-curing. Heated asphalt cement is mixed with residual asphaltic oil from the earlier distillation process for a slow-curing asphalt, with kerosene for medium-curing, and with gasoline or naphtha for the rapid-curing asphalt. 3. Emulsifying The asphalt cement may also be emulsified to produce a liquid that can be easily pumped through pipes, mixed with aggregate, or sprayed through nozzles. To emulsify, the asphalt cement is ground into globules 5 to 10 microns and smaller (one micron is equal to one millionth of a meter). This is mixed with water. An emulsifying agent is added, which reduces the tendency of the asphalt and water to separate. The emulsifying agent may be colloidal clay, soluble or insoluble silicates, soap, or sulphonated vegetable oils. 4. Pulverizing Asphalt may also be pulverized to produce a powdered asphalt. The asphalt is crushed and passed through a series of fine mesh sieves to ensure uniform size of the granules. Powered asphalt can be mixed with road oil and aggregate for pavement construction. The

heat and pressure in the road slowly amalgamates the powder with the aggregate and binding oil, and the substance hardens to a consistency similar to regular asphalt cement. Asphalt Paving Mixtures Paving asphalt is a mix of petroleum asphalt (commonly referred to as bitumen), aggregate and additives that is very commonly used as a top layer of pavement for roads. A typical paving asphalt consists to 90 to 95 percent by weight of aggregate and 5 to 10 % of bitumen. Paving asphalt is sometimes referred to as asphaltic concrete and, when used to pave airports, may be referred to as tarmac. a.) Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is commonly used for heavier traffic areas . - is more commonly used b.) Cold-mix asphalt is used for UNDER THE ASPHALT PAVING 1. Asphalt cement and aggregate are combined in a mixing facility where they are heated, proportioned, and mixed to produce the desired paving mixture. Hot-mix facilities may be permanently located (also called "stationary" facilities), or it may be portable and moved from job to job. Hot-mix facilities may be classified as either a batch facility or a drum-mix facility, both can be either stationary or portable. Batch-type hot-mixing facilities use different size fractions of hot aggregate which are drawn in proportional amounts from storage bins to make up one batch for mixing. The combination of aggregates is dumped into a mixing chamber called a pugmill. The asphalt, which has also been weighed, is then thoroughly mixed with the aggregate in the pugmill. After mixing, the material is then emptied from the pugmill into trucks, storage silos, or surge bins. The drum-mixing process heats and blends the aggregate with asphalt all at the same time in the drum mixer. 2. When the mixing is complete, the hot-mix is then transported to the paving site and spread in a partially compacted layer to a uniform, even surface with a paving machine. While still hot, the paving mixture is further compacted by heavy rolling machines to produce a smooth pavement surface. secondary roads