EE2092!3!2011 Network Theorems

Network Theorems Professor J R Lucas 1 May 2011
3 Network Theorems J . R. Lucas

Fundamental laws that govern electric circuits are
- Ohms Law and
- Kirchoffs Laws.

Ohms Law
v(t) i(t)
v(t) = R . i(t)
Can be extended to cover inductances and capacitors
under alternating current conditions
under transient conditions.
R
v(t)

i(t)

Generalised Ohms Law
Stated as
v(t) = Z(p) . i(t)
where p = d/dt = differential operator
Z(p) Impedance function of the circuit
The differential equation governs behaviour of circuit.
For a resistor, Z(p) = R
For an inductor Z(p) = L p
For a capacitor, Z(p) =
p C
1

Z(p)
v(t)

i(t)

With alternating current,
p = je
so that governing circuit behaviour is written as
V = Z(je) . I
For a resistor, Z(je) = R
For an inductor Z(je) = je L
For a capacitor, Z(je) =
C je
1

Cannot analyse electric circuits using Ohms Law only.
Need Kirchoffs current law and Kirchoffs voltage law.

Kirchoffs Current Law
Based on the principle of conservation of charge.
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.

0 0 = =

dt
dq
q

Total rate of change of charge must add up to zero.

= = 0 I I
dt
dq
Kirchoffs current law
algebraic sum of currents meeting at a point is zero.
at a node, E I
r
= 0,
where I
r
currents in branches meeting at node
Sometimes stated as sum of the currents entering a node is
equal to sum of currents leaving the node.
Theorem applicable not only to node, but to closed system.

i
1
+ i
2
i
3
+ i
4
i
5
= 0 i
a
i
b
+ i
c
i
d
i
e
= 0
or i
1
+ i
2
+ i
4
= i
3
+ i
5

i
1
i
2
i
3
i
5
i
4
i
a
i
d
i
b
i
e
i
c
Kirchoffs Voltage Law
Based on principle of conservation of energy.
Requires that the total work done in taking a unit positive
charge around a closed path and ending up at the original
point is zero.
Algebraic sum of potential differences taken round a closed
loop is zero.
E V
r
= 0
where V
r
branch voltages
v
a
+ v
b
+ v
c
+ v
d
v
e
= 0
Sometimes stated as sum of
emfs taken around a closed
loop is equal to sum of voltage
drops around loop.
v
a
v
d
v
b
v
e
v
c
loop

Using only Ohms Law and Kirchoffs laws, would be tedious.
Network theorems are formulated to simplify calculations.
Although followings examples are with resistive circuits with d.c., for
simplicity, the laws are applicable to a.c. as well.
Example 1
Using Ohms Law and Kirchoffs Laws to solve current I in 160 O.
I = I
1
I
2

100 = 20 I
1
+ 160 (I
1
I
2
)
10 = 18 I
1
16 I
2
70 = 20 I
2
160 (I
1
I
2
)
7 = 16 I
1
18 I
2
I
1
= 1 A, I
2
= 0.5 A
I = 0.5A.
I
1
I
2
I

E
1
= 100V
20 O 20 O
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
Superposition Theorem
If a network comprises of more than one source,
resulting currents and voltages in network determined
by taking each source independently, and
superposing the results.

r(t) = r
1
(t) + r
2
(t)
Excitations k
1
e
1
(t)and k
2
e
2
(t) response k
1
r
1
(t) + k
2
r
2
(t)
+

Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
e
1
(t)

e
2
(t)

r(t)

Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
e
1
(t)

r
1
(t)

Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
e
2
(t)

r
2
(t)

Example 2
Solve earlier problem using Superposition theorem.

Solution

E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
+

E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

i
1
20 O 20 O
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
i
2
for circuit 1,

source current =

i
1
=2.647 = 0.294 A

Similarly for circuit 2,
source current =

i
2
= 1.853 = 0.206 A
unknown current i = i
1
+ i
2
= 0.294+ 0.206
= 0.500 A (same answer as before)
A 647 . 2
778 . 37
100
180
20 160
20
100
20 // 160 20
100
= =
+
=
+
180
20
A 853 . 1
778 . 37
70
180
20 160
20
70
20 // 160 20
70
= =
+
=
+
180
20

Thevenins Theorem (or Helmholtzs Theorem)
A linear, active, bilateral network across one port
replaced by Thevenins voltage source and
equivalent series impedance (Thevenins impedance).

Comparison under open circuit conditions
E
Thevenin
= V
oc
, and Z
Thevenin
= Z
in

Linear
Active
Bilateral
Network

Z
Thevenin
E
Thevenin
Z
in
V
oc
Example 3
Consider earlier example to illustrate Thevenins Theorem.

Solution
To calculate the current in 160 O,
find the Thevenins equivalent
circuit across the terminals after
disconnecting (open circuiting)
the 160 O resistor.
E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
A

B

E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
Under open circuit conditions,
Current flowing = (100 70)/40 = 0.75 A
V
oc,AB
= 100 0.75 20 = 85 V
E
Th
= 85 V
Input impedance across AB (with sources shorted)
= 20//20 = 10 O.
Z
Th
= 10 O.
Thevenins equivalent circuit is
redrawn with branch AB
reintroduced.

i = (same result as earlier)
E
Th
= 85 V
Z
Th
=10 O
160 O

A

B

i

A 5 . 0
160 10
85
=
+
Nortons Theorem
Dual of Thevenins theorem
states that any linear, active, bilateral network,
considered across one of its ports, can be replaced by
Nortons current source and an equivalent shunt
admittance (Nortons Admittance).

I
norton
= I
sc
, and Y
norton
= Y
in

Y
Norton
I
Norton
Linear
Active
Bilateral
Network
Y
in
I
sc
Example 4
Consider same example to illustrate Nortons Theorem.

Solution
To calculate the current in the
160 O, find the Nortons
equivalent circuit across the
terminals after short-circuiting
the 160 O resistor.
E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
E
1
= 100 V
160 O

E
2
= 70 V
A

B

I
sc
20 O 20 O
Short circuit current I
sc
is given by
I
sc
= 100/20 + 70/20 = 8.5 A
I
norton
= 8.5 A
Nortons admittance = 1/20 + 1/20 = 0.1 S
Nortons equivalent circuit is

and the current in the unknown resistor is
A 5 . 0
00625 . 0 1 . 0
00625 . 0
5 . 8 =
+
(same result as before).

8.5 A

0.1 S

160 O

A

B

or
0.00625 S

Reciprocality Theorem
In a linear passive bilateral network an excitation and
the corresponding response may be interchanged.
In a two port network,
if e(t) at port (1) produces response r(t) at a port (2),
then if same e(t) is applied instead to port (2), same
response r(t) would occur at port (1).

Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
Port 1

Port 2

e(t)

r(t)

Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
Port 1

Port 2

e(t)

r(t)

Example 5
Consider earlier example, but
with one source and current in
the 160 O branch.
Verify reciprocality theorem.

Solution

E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

20 O 20 O
160 O

E
1
= 100 V
I
1
I
2
E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

For the original circuit,
current I
1
=
A 294 . 0
180 778 . 37
2000
160 20
20
20 // 160 20
100
=
=
+
+

similarly for the new circuit,
current I
2
=
A 294 . 0
40 170
2000
20 20
20
20 // 20 160
100
=
=
+
+

Currents are identical current verifying the reciprocality
theorem.
Advantage of theorem is when a circuit has already
been analysed for one solution, it may be possible to
find a corresponding solution without further work.
Compensation Theorem
After circuit is analysed, it is realised that only a small
change is required to a component to get desired result.
Compensation theorem allows us to compensate properly
for such changes (Z Z+AZ) without sacrificing accuracy.

+

Linear
Active
Bilateral
Network
Z

I

V

Linear
Passive
Bilateral
Network
Z+AZ

AI

I . AZ
AV

Linear
Active
Bilateral
Network
Z+AZ

I +AI

Linear
Active
Bilateral
Network
Z

I +AI

V+AV

I . AZ

Voltage drop across the modified branch
V +AV = (Z +AZ)( I +AI) = Z . I + AZ . I + (Z + AZ) . AI
from the original network, V = Z . I
AV = AZ . I + (Z + AZ) . AI
I already known from the earlier analysis,
change AZ also known,
I .AZ is a known fixed value of voltage, and may thus
be represented by a source of emf I. AZ .
Using superposition theorem,
original sources give rise to the original current I,
while change corresponding to the emf I. AZ must
produce the remaining changes in the network.
Example 6

From example 4, the current in 160 O resistor is 0.5 A.
It is required to change R by a quantity AR such that the
current in the 160 O resistor is 0.600 A.
I = 0.5
AI = 0.6 0.5 = 0.1 A
E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

I

E
2
= 70 V
20 O 20 O
(160+AR) O

I.AR

AI

20 // 20 160
5 . 0 ) (
+ A +
A
= A
R
R
I

i.e.
R
R
A +
A
=
170
5 . 0
) ( 1 . 0

17 + 0.1 AR = (-) 0.5 AR
i.e. AR = ()17/0.6 = () 28.333 O
Required R = 160 28.333 = 131.67 O
Checking with Thevenins theorem
From Example 2, Thevenins circuit with
the 160 O replaced by 131.67 O.
A i 6 . 0
667 . 131 10
85
=
+
=
(same result)
E
Th
= 85 V
Z
Th
=10 O
131.67O

A

B

i

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
A car battery is rated at 12 V but can have
open circuit voltage ~ 12.6 to13.8 V.
Similarly, if we take 9 pen-torch batteries,
they too will have a terminal voltage of
91.5 = 13.5 V.

You would be aware, that if your car battery is dead, you
cannot use 9 pen-torch batteries and start your car.
Why is that ?
Because pen-torch batteries, although having same open
circuit voltage does not have necessary power (or current
capacity) and hence required current could not be given.
Or if stated in different words,
Pen torch batteries have a high internal resistance
(say 90.5O)
car battery have a low internal resistance (say 0.05O)
so that with pen torch batteries voltage would drop
without giving necessary current.
For example, for a 12V, 5W bulb (current 0.4 A),
voltage of a car battery would drop by 0.02 V where as
that of the 9 torch batteries would drop by 1.8 V.
Both operate at near 12 V and would be satisfactory.

If instead, the starting current of a car (say 40A) is
supplied, the drop would be 2 V for the car battery,
which is acceptable.

15
13.5
10

5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 i(A)
(V)
Car battery
9 pen torch
batteries
v = E r i
Even the short-circuit current that can be supplied by
the 9 pen torch batteries is just 3A and hence in no way
can the 40 A current be supplied.
This means that a given battery (or any other energy
supply, such as the mains) can only give a limited
amount of power to a load.
Maximum power transfer theorem defines this power,
and tells us the condition at which this occurs.
For example, if we consider the above battery,
maximum voltage would be given when the current is
zero, and maximum current would be given when the
load is short-circuit (load voltage is zero).
Under both these conditions, there is no power
delivered to the load.
Thus obviously in between these two extremes must be
the point at which maximum power is delivered.
The Maximum Power Transfer theorem states that for
maximum active power to be delivered to the load, load
impedance must correspond to the conjugate of the
source impedance (or in the case of direct quantities, be
equal to the source impedance).
Let us analyse this, by first starting with the basic case
of a resistive load being supplied from a source with
only an internal resistance (this is the same as for d.c.)
Resistive Load supplied from a source with only an
internal resistance
Consider a source with an internal
emf of E and an internal
resistance of r and a load of
resistance R.

current I =

Load P = I
2
. R =

Only R is a variable.
r

R

E

I

V

P

R

r R
E
+
R
r R
E
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
To obtain maximum power transfer to the load,

| | 0 ) ( 2 1 ) (
) (
2
4
2
= + +
+
= r R R r R
r R
E
dR
dP

[Note: It is the maximum, rather than maximum or minimum,
because from physical considerations there must a maximum
power in the range. Second derivative is not required to see
whether it is maximum or minimum].
(R+r)
2
2R (R+r) = 0
or R + r 2R = 0
i.e. R = r for maximum power transfer.
value of maximum power =
r
E
r
r r
E
P
4
2
2
max
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=

load voltage at maximum power =
2
. .
E
r
r r
E
R
r R
E
=
+
=
+

Load supplied from a source with an internal
impedance
internal impedance z = (r + j x)
load of impedance Z = R + jX.
) ( ) ( X x j R r
E
jX R jx r
E
I
+ + +
=
+ + +
=

2 2
) ( ) ( X x R r
E
I
+ + +
=

Load Power P = |I|
2
. R =
R
X x R r
E
+ + +
2 2
2
) ( ) (

r + jx

R +jX

E

I

V

Since there are two variables R and X, for maximum
0 0 =
c
c
=
c
c
X
P
and
R
P

| |
| | | | | | 0 ) ( 2 1 ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 2
2
2 2
2
= + + + +
+ + +
R r R X x R r
X x R r
E

and
| |
| | ) ( 2
) ( ) (
2
2 2
2
X x R
X x R r
E
+
+ + +

The second equation gives x+ X = 0 or X = - x
Substituting in the first equation gives
(r+R)
2
R . 2(r+R) = 0
Since R cannot be negative,
r + R = 0.
r + R 2R = 0
i.e. R = r
Z = R + j X = r j x = z
*

Therefore for maximum power transfer, the load
impedance must be equal to the conjugate of the source
impedance.
Load of fixed power factor supplied from a source
with an internal impedance
Given power factor f
) ( ) ( X x j R r
E
jX R jx r
E
I
+ + +
=
+ + +
=

R and X are no longer independent

power factor f =

or X = = k . R
2 2 2 2
) . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( R k x R r
E
X x R r
E
I
+ + +
=
+ + +
=

r + jx

R +jX

E

I

V

2 2
X R
R
+
R
f
1
1
2
Load Power P = |I|
2
. R =
R
R k x R r
E
+ + +
2 2
2
) . ( ) (
for maximum power
0 =
dR
dP

| |
| | | | | | k R k x R r R R k x R r
R k x R r
E
). . ( 2 ) ( 2 1 ) . ( ) (
) . ( ) (
2 2
2
2 2
2
+ + + + + +
+ + +
= 0
(r+R)
2
+ (x+k.R)
2
2R(r+R) 2k.R(x+k.R) = 0
r
2
+ 2 r.R + R
2
+ x
2
+ 2k.x.R + k
2
.R
2
2 R.r 2 R
2
2k.R.x 2 k
2
.R
2
= 0
i.e. r
2
R
2
+ x
2
k
2
.R
2
= 0
i.e. R
2
+ k
2
R
2
= r
2
+ x
2
. i.e. R
2
+ X
2
= r
2
+ x
2

i.e. |Z | = |z|
Millmanns Theorem
For a number of admittances
Y
1
, Y
2
, Y
3
.Y
p
. Y
q
,
Y
n
are connected together
at a common point S.
If the voltages of the free
ends of the admittances with
respect to a common
reference N are known to be
V
1N
, V
2N
, V
3N
.V
pN
.
V
qN
, V
nN
, then Millmanns
theorem gives the voltage of the common point S with
respect to the reference N as follows.
S
Y
1

Y
2

Y
3

Y
p

Y
n

n
1
2
3
p
N
reference
Y
q

q
Applying Kirchoffs Current Law at node S

=
=
n
p
p
I
1
0
, I
p
= Y
p
(V
pN
V
SN
)
i.e.
=
=
n
p
SN pN p
V V Y
1
0 ) (
,
i.e.

= =
=
n
p
n
p
p SN pN p
Y V V Y
1 1 so that
=
=
=
n
p
p
n
p
pN p
SN
Y
V Y
V
1
1

An extension of the Millmann theorem is the
Equivalent generator theorem

For a system of voltage sources operating in parallel

=
=
=
n
k
k
n
k
k k
eq
Y
Y E
E
1
1
,
=
=
n
k
k eq
Y Y
1

E
1
Z
1
E
2
Z
2
E
k
Z
k
E
n
Z
n
E
e
q
Z
e
q
Z
L
I
L

Z
L
I
L
Example 6
Using Millmanns theorem
find the current I.

Solution
equivalent generator has
V E
eq
85
20
1
20
1
70
20
1
100
20
1
=
+
+
=

O =
+
= 10
20
1
20
1
1
eq
Z

Hence current I =
5 . 0
160 10
85
=
+
A (same answer)
E
1
= 100 V
20 O 20 O
160 O

I

E
2
= 70 V
Rosens Theorem
(Nodal-Mesh Transformation Theorem)

Transform Star-connected network mesh equivalent
External conditions, such as currents and voltages, are
not affected by transformation.
N

N

I
n
n

I
1
1

I
q
q

I
p
p

I
2
2

I
n
n

I
1
1

I
q
q

I
p
p

I
2
2

Y
1
Y
2
Y
p
Y
q
Y
n
Y
pq
S

For nodal network, from Millmanns theorem

, so that

I
q
= Y
q
(V
qN
V
SN
) = Y
q
.V
qN
Y
q
.

=
=
=
n
p
p
n
p
pN p
SN
Y
V Y
V
1
1
=
=
n
p
p
n
p
pN p
Y
V Y
1
1

=
=
=
= =
= =
n
p
p
pN
n
p
qN p q
n
p
p
n
p
pN p
n
p
p qN q
q
Y
V - V Y Y
Y
V Y - Y V Y
I
1
1
1
1 1
) (
For a definite summation, variable p or k is immaterial

=
= =
=
(
(
(
(
(
= =
n
p
p q
n
k
k
q p
n
k
k
pN
n
p
qN p q
q
V V
Y
Y Y
Y
V - V Y Y
I
1
1 1
1
) (
) (

For the mesh network,
Comparing equations,

statement of Rosens theorem

=
=
n
k
k
q p
pq
Y
Y Y
Y
1
=
=
n
p
p q pq q
V V Y I
1
) (
Star-Delta Transformation
Nodal-Mesh Transformation when n = 3

CS BS AS
AS CS
CA
CS BS AS
CS BS
BC
CS BS AS
BS AS
AB
Y Y Y
Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
Y Y
Y
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
.
,
.
,
.

Y
AB

Y
BC

Y
CA

A
B
C

Y
AS

Y
BS
Y
CS

A
B C
Delta-Star Transformation

In 3 node case, equal branches in both nodal network (known
as star) and mesh network (known as delta).
Thus delta connected network equivalent star
Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
AS
AB CA
AB BC CA
BS
AB BC
AB BC CA
CS
CA BC
AB BC CA
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
.
,
.
,
.

Z
AS

Z
BS
Z
CS

A
B C
Z
AB

Z
BC

Z
CA

A
B
C

Proof:
Compare the two networks
Z
CA
//(Z
AB
+ Z
BC
) = Z
CS
+ Z
AS

i.e.
AS CS
BC AB CA
BC AB CA
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
+ =
+ +
+ ) (

similarly
BS AS
CA BC AB
CA BC AB
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
+ =
+ +
+ ) (

and
CS BS
AB CA BC
AB CA BC
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
+ =
+ +
+ ) (

elimination of variables gives the desired results.

CA BC AB
BC AB
CA BC AB
CA AB
BS AS
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
+ +
+
+ +
= +
. .

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Network Theorems Professor J R Lucas 1 May 2011

3 Network Theorems J . R. Lucas

Network Theorems Professor J R Lucas 11 May 2011

(same result as before).

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