Leadership, Management and Command: The Officers trinity.

2
W B Howieson H !ahn

The acts of leading, managing and commanding (based on either philosophy or practice) have had to adapt throughout the history of the Royal Air Force, in concert with changing environments; these acts will have to change again in the 2 st century and will re!uire new s"ills, new attitudes and differing perspectives of the #fficer$s trinity% "#T$O%&CT"O# There is a plethora of literature on leadership, management and command. In the civilian (business) market, there are literally thousands of books on leadership; management; and leadership and management as a dual concept. !o"ever, there are no books in the business market on "hat the military call command .# In contrast, in the military domain, there are an e$ual amount of books on leadership; command; and leadership and command together. !o"ever, very little has been "ritten to date about military management; this represents a very serious limitation. %e" business practices and performance management systems no" re$uire capable senior managers and leaders and private sector organi&ations have found clear strategic benefit in providing a structured approach to the developmental needs of senior e'ecutives. (lthough it is recogni&ed that leadership, management and command are closely related (especially in the military environment), comparatively little has been "ritten on the nature and practice on the ) sub*ects as a state of being three$% This vie" has also been recognised in the recent +efence Training ,evie" ,eport "here it states- .The pressures of limited resources and increased accountability have placed ne" demands on /inistry of +efence leaders, as has the challenge of leading a more diverse "orkforce0in parallel, our studies sho"ed that "e must do more to prepare our people effectively, in the post12trategic +efence ,evie" environment, and, especially to improve management and leadership development, both civilian and military3. L'(%'$)H"*, M(#(+'M'#T (#% COMM(#% , TH' '-")T"#+ )"T&(T"O# (lthough military doctrine e'ists currently on leadership, management and command (for e'ample 4ritish +efence +octrine (4++)5 and the (rmy +octrine 6ublication 7olume 5- 8ommand ((+6))), it is in places limited. Indeed, the ,oyal %avy and ,oyal (ir 9orce (,(9) do not have any single1 2ervice doctrinal publications on this theme, at present. /oreover, the emphasis in the tri12ervice arena is clearly on command as the prominent component of the trinity and this is echoed in the teachings of the :unior ;fficers 8ommand 8ourse, the :oint 2ervices 8ommand and 2taff 8ollege and the !igher 8ommand and 2taff 8ourse. Therefore, most ;fficers hold a basic definition of each component of this trinity and indeed, ho" they are related to each other; this basic inter1relationship is sho"n in 9igure #.<.
5

In this conte't, trinity refers to the state of being three and it is not intended to replace or substitute The !oly Trinity.

9igure #.<- ( 2imple Interrelationship bet"een 8ommand, =eadership and /anagement WH(T '-(CTL. ") COMM(#%/ &#ne of the least controversial things that can be said about command and control is that it is poorly understood and sub'ect to wildly different interpretation% The term can mean almost everything from military computers to the art of generalship; whatever the user wishes it to mean%&( !enneth Mo00 2o "hat e'actly is command then> In the military literature, there are a vast amount of definitions of command.? Indeed, one1third of the @nited Aingdom +octrine for :oint and /ultinational ;perations is dedicated to 8ommand.B,C 9urthermore, in the Dueen s ,egulations for the ,(9,E the concept and act of commanding is e'plained at length; ho"ever, no formal definition for command e'ists. /oreover, command is also different at each level of "arF and this task becomes all the more difficult in *oint and multi1national operations, "here senior commanders may have to impose their "ill, in an atmosphere of political, legal and even moral confusion. In addition, the @A Glossary of Terms and +efinitions currently gives ? definitions of command- #< The authority vested in an individual of the (9s, for the direction, coordination and control of military forces. (n order given by a commander; that is, the "ill of the commander e'pressed for the purpose of bringing about a particular action. ( unit and organi&ation or an area under the command of an individual. To dominate by field or "eapon fire or by observation from a superior position. To e'ercise command.

Therefore, to address command properly, it must be considered on ) separate, but related, dimensions. (#) (5) =egal and 6rocess. Individual 8ommand. 5

())

;rgani&ational 8ommand. =HG(= (%+ 6,;8H22

9irstly, command has a legal and constitutional status, as codified in the Dueen s ,egulations. In the Dueen s ,egulations for the ,(9, it states that at the highest level- IThe government and command of each of the 2ervices is vested in !er /a*esty the Dueen, "ho has charged the 2ecretary of 2tate "ith general responsibility for the defence of the ,ealm and established a +efence 8ouncil having command and administration over !er (rmed 9orces;3 and, in turn, 8ommanders in 8hiefs "ho- Iin con*unction "ith other duties are operationally responsible to the +efence 8ouncil for command of personnel in their areaI. Therefore, command is vested in a commander by higher authority and gives him direction (often encapsulated in a mission) that assigns forces to him, to accomplish that mission. The concept of authority re$uires further definition- traditionalists define authority as the right to command and to induce compliance. They regard authority as a central feature of the structure of formal organi&ations that prescribe e'pectations that certain individuals should e'ert control and direction over others "ithin defined areas of competence. In this conte't, authority involves the right and freedom to use the po"er of command and ultimately to enforce obedience; "hilst a commander can devolve specific authority to subordinates to decide and to act "ithin their o"n areas of delegated responsibility, a commander retains overall responsibility for his command. This theme is espoused further in the Dueen s 8ommissioning 2croll, "here it states&And we do hereby )ommand them (#fficers, Airmen and Airwomen) to obey you as their superior #fficer and you to observe and follow such #rders and *irections as from time to time you shall receive from us, or any +uperior #fficer, according to the Rules and *iscipline of ,ar, in the pursuance of the Trust hereby reposed in you&% I%+I7I+@(= 8;//(%+ 2econdly, the e'ercise of command includes the process by "hich a commander makes decisions, impresses his "ill upon, and transmits (i.e. tells) his intention to his subordinates. It, therefore, encompasses the authority, responsibility and duty## to act. Therefore, individual command at all levels is defined as the art of decision1making, motivating and directing all ranks into actions to accomplish missions, "hilst at the same time maintaining accountability and control. In this conte't, accountability and control re$uire further analysis. (ccountability is a corollary to both responsibility and authority; it involves a liability and obligation to ans"er to a superior for the proper user of delegated responsibility, authority and resources. Thus, he "ho delegates responsibility should grant sufficient authority to a subordinate for him to carry out his task; the subordinate, mean"hile, remains accountable to his superior for its e'ecution. In addition, (rmed 9orces often use the acronym 8)I (command, control, communication and intelligence) and the addition of computers to the list of 8s to produce 8J. These definitions apply to command at every level- grand strategic, military strategic, operational and tactical. The German sociologist /a' Keber (#EBJ1#F5<) "as one of the most prolific and influential sociologists of the 5<th 8entury and he "as the first person to coin the phrase command and control . Three "ords describe his bureaucratic model- control, order and predict.#5 Therefore, control is the process through "hich the commander assisted by his staff organi&es, directs and co1ordinates his activities of the )

forces allocated to him. To achieve this, he and his staff employ a common doctrine for command and use standardi&ed procedures for control in con*unction "ith the e$uipment, communication and information systems available. 8ommand and control are thus ine'tricably linked "ith commanders re$uiring an understanding of both and the roles of each other if they are to perform their duties effectively. 8ommand and control, ho"ever, are not e$ual partners as control is merely one aspect of command. In essence, command re$uires a vision of the desired result; an understanding of the concepts, missions, priorities and the allocation of resources; an ability to assess people and risks; and a continual process of re1evaluating the situation. ( commander re$uires above all to decide on a course of action and to lead his command. ( simple "ay of understanding this one1"ay (order ) process is by reference to the classic model of leadership studies by Tannenbaum and 2chmidt#) at 9igure 5.<.

9igure 5.<- Individual 8ommand 9igure 5.< sho"s that an appro'imation for the various styles of command can be found from the above continuum. 9or ease of presentation, the styles listed may be substituted for the e'pressions boss1 centred and employee1centred used by Tannenbaum and 2chmidt in this classic continuum. 4roadly speaking then, there are 5 styles of individual command-#J -efehlsta"ti" is an infle'ible, authoritarian form of top1do"n command in "hich subordinates receive rigid orders, that leave little or no scope to e'ercise lo"1level initiative. 4y contrast, Auftragsta"ti" emphasi&es mission1type orders; the superior commander sets broad ob*ectives, but then allo"s subordinates to use their initiative to achieve their part of the plan in the "ay that they think best. The 4(9s version of Auftragsta"ti" is kno"n as /ission 8ommand. #? -efehlsta"ti" dictates not *ust "hat is to be done, but ho" it is to be done and can be represented by the e'treme left1end of the command circle in 9igure 5.< (i.e. tells ). Auftragsta"ti" can be represented by the right end of the command circle (i.e. shares the information). J

(lthough 4++ currently adopt /ission 8ommand (the commander defines the limits of the operation and then lets the subordinates take the appropriate action at the coal.face), -efehlsta"ti" is "holly appropriate in certain circumstances; in times of crisisLemergency, a one1"ay, directional and autocratic approach to command must al"ays be used. In this conte't, command1by1direction is a description of the method used by commanders "ho directly command subordinates before and during battle; the commander feels he has positive control over each element. 7an 8reveld#B describes this as a method, "hich prioritises uncertainty; the commander, accepting that he "ill never have perfect information, nevertheless brings all uncertainty to himself and deals "ith "hichever uncertainty assails him most at each moment. ;,G(%IM(TI;%(= 8;//(%+ Thirdly, organi&ational command is related to organi&ational design- human beings profit from living in structured groups and irrespective of the organi&ational design (for e'ample hierarchical, net"orkLcellular or indeed a combination of the both the matri'), organi&ations re$uire a structure so that "ork can be divided to achieve coordination among its various "ork activities.#C ;rgani&ational command, therefore, centres on the issues of-#E +ivision of labour. (llocation of authority. +epartmentalisation. 2pan of control.

In addition, 4urns and 2talker, 5 4ritish 2ocial 2cientists, labelled organi&ations as either mechanistic or organic.#F The ,(9 employs (at present) a mechanistic organi&ational structure, "hich could be argued consists of tight rules and policies; limited individual *ob discretion; and coordination, "hich is both formal and "ritten. In addition, mechanistic organi&ations also posses !igh divisions of labour. =o" delegation of authority. +epartments "ith great uniformity of "ork activities. %arro" spans of control.

(t the organi&ational level then, senior commanders make countless decision about the division of labour, delegation of authority, departmentalisation and span of control. ;ver time, these decisions result in the elaboration of the organi&ations structure. Therefore, organi&ational command is defined as the arrangement of roles and reporting relationships, "hich govern employee behaviour "ith t"o primary components of organi&ational structure, namely centrali&ation5< and co1ordination.5# This form of command (organi&ational) is sho"n in 9igure ).<, "here individual command is seen to operate at various levels "ithin organi&ational command. ?

9igure ).<- Individual and ;rgani&ational 8ommand M(#(+'M'#T &-eing a manager is the most infuriating, frustrating and demanding 'ob that anyone could as" for% /ou don$t get time for yourself and you are constantly 0on call%$ /ou always have to watch for everyone else% For these reasons, 1 wouldn$t do anything else%&22 $ %ai0ey /anagement is defined as the allocation and control of resources (human, material and financial) to achieve the goals and ob*ectives of the organi&ation and the measure of good management is the ability to achieve the right balance- neither an over1abundance nor a shortage of resources, either of "hich "ould undermine the concentration of effort on the main ob*ective, "hatever that may be.5) @nderstanding the roles of the /anager /int&berg5J analysed a managers *ob in terms of roles and identified #< managerial roles clustered around ) main categories (interpersonal, informational and decisional), "hich are described in Table #.< belo"-

"#T'$*'$)O#(L 9igurehead =eader

=iaison

%'C")"O#(L Hntrepreneurseeks change. +isseminator- shares information +isturbance "ith other people. handlerresponds to pressures and crisis. 2pokesperson- shares information ,esource "ith outsiders. allocator- gives resources to others. %egotiatorreaches agreement. Table #.<- The ,oles of the /anager

The Managers $o0e "#1O$M(T"O#(L /onitor- scans for information.

/anagement practices and procedures are largely a response to one of the most significant developments of the 5<th 8entury- the emergence of large organi&ations. Kithout good management, comple' enterprises in a fast1moving and dynamic environment tend to become chaotic in "ays that threaten their very e'istence and effective management, therefore, brings a degree of order and consistency to the key decisions made by managers. 9or e'ample, command1by1direction (see Individual 8ommand) is more orientated to concern for the task and management1by1people is closely orientated to the area of freedom for subordinates. These concepts are sho"n in 9igure J.<, Individual /anagement . In this diagram, !uman ,esource /anagement varies bet"een the right1hand end of the continuum (i.e. delegates ) and the selling end of the spectrum.

9igure J.<- Individual /anagement

L'(%'$)H"* &2eadership is intangible, and therefore no weapon ever designed can replace it&%23 +enera0 Omar Brad0ey =eadership has been closely studied over the years, both as a matter of academic interest and "ith an eye to making leadership easier and more effective in organi&ations. There is no formal and agreed definition of leadership (or even of its functions), although there are common features to many of the definitions available. In #FEE, Karren G 4ennis completed "riting his classic book #n -ecoming A 2eader%5B This richly praised book details- ho" people become leaders; ho" they lead; and ho" organi&ations encourage or indeed, stifle leaders. @nderlying the ho" s, he goes onto claim that leaders must understand the conte't in "hich they are "orking in and notes- IThe changes in the last generation have been so radical that it seems0not *ust that the rules have changed (but that) it is a different gameI.5C Indeed, for the ,(9, the pace of change in the last )< years alone has been e'traordinary, "ith simultaneous changes in both international security and domestic society. Therefore, in this dynamic and fast1changing environment, strong leadership is re$uired at every level of the organi&ation; there is nothing more important to an organi&ation than the $uality of its leadership and indeed, of its leadership philosophy. !o"ever, one criticism of today s organi&ations is that they are over managed and under led- they (organi&ations) are overly concerned "ith policies, practices, procedures and rule books and not concerned enough "ith the important issues like trust, mission and an overarching and compelling vision. Indeed, Karren 4ennis has detailed J things that people "ant from their leaders-24 6urpose, direction and meaning (a strong determination to achieve a goal). Trust. ( sense of "e1can1do1it (optimism). ,esults.

Hveryone kno"s that e'cellent leadership can be felt throughout an organi&ation; leadership gives pace and energy to the "ork and empo"ers the "orkforce, "hich is most evident in J themes- people feel significant (everyone feels that he or she makes a difference to the success of the organi&ation); learning and competence matter (leaders value learning and mastery and so do the people "ho "ork for leaders);25 people are part of the community ("here there is leadership, there is a team 6 a family a unit); and "ork is e'citing ("here there are leaders, "ork is stimulating, challenging, fascinating and fun). Therefore, in simple terms, leaders create vision, trust, meaning, success and healthy environments if they survive the bureaucracy.)< ( better definition of leadership, therefore, is ho" to achieve "orth"hile goals through other people via a vision.)#

8ritically, to survive in the 5#st 8entury, the ,(9 "ill re$uire a ne" generation of leaders leaders, not managers. This distinction is an important one- leaders con$uer the conte't, the volatile, turbulent, ambiguous surroundings that sometimes seem to conspire against the organi&ation, "hilst managers surrender to the bureaucracyN Hffective leadership, therefore, is very important to unlocking the immense talent in any organi&ation, including the ,(9. /oreover, organi&ational vision can also challenge people to stretch beyond their current capabilities and often beyond their limitations. (s %anus comments- IThere is no more po"erful engine driving an organi&ation to"ards e'cellence and long range success, than an attractive, "orth"hile and achievable vision of the future, that is "idely sharedI. )5 This vision must be alive in every command level of the ,(9 and a corporate vision must operate at ) levels 2trategic The ,(9 s overriding philosophy. ;perational That philosophy in action. Tactical That philosophy manifested in the behaviour of each airmanL"oman.

Thus, the leaders responsibilities include disseminating vision to all ) levels and this vision needs to permeate throughout the organi&ation. 9inally, leaders must evaluate vision, before the vision fails or is inade$uate to handle ne" challenges. 7ision needs constant attention in light of the dynamic environment in "hich "e live and "ork in and leaders "ho are not strategists are simply caretakers and gatekeepers. Though they may run efficient and effective organi&ations (i.e. they are managers), they do not really serve the long1term interests of their institutions unless they plan, set goals and provide strategic vision. =eaders "ho care about their missions and about their people normally "ant to leave their organi&ation in better shape and "ith a clearer strategic direction, than "hen they took over. In summary, the difference bet"een a good unit and a bad unit is leadership- sound leadership "ithin a dynamic environment, is at the heart of the ,(9 s institutional character. It is the most important bond among airmen and is the foundation for successful (ir 9orce achievements in peace and "ar; of the many skills and abilities used in the profession of arms, none is pri&ed more highly. Hnhancing leadership as "e transform to meet the challenges of this millennium can strengthen the foundation of mutual trust and respect among ranks and across the organi&ation as a "hole. HOW ($' L'(%'$)H"*, M(#(+'M'#T (#% COMM(#% $'L(T'% TO '(CH OTH'$/ =eadership, management and command are ) distinctive and complementary systems of action and the precise activities and the characteristics re$uired of each system are intensely human matters. 8ritically, leadership, management and command (as individual components, and as a trinity) are necessary for success in an increasingly comple' and volatile military environment. 9igure ?.< is a revision of the simple model of leadership, management and command sho"n at 9igure #.<. The main difference bet"een these 5 9igures (9igure #.< O 9igure ?.<) is that leadership is no" the dominant component of the trinity. F

9igure ?.<- ( ,evised /odel of =eadership, /anagement and 8ommand 6art of the reason leadership has become so important (and therefore, the dominant component of the trinity) in recent years, is that the macro1environment (consisting of political, economic, socio1cultural and technological dimensions) has become more competitive and more volatile. The net result is that doing "hat "as done yesterday or even doing it ?P better is no longer a formula for success. 9or e'ample, consider a simple military analogy- a peacetime (ir 9orce can usually survive "ith good command and management procedures up and do"n the hierarchy, coupled "ith good leadership at the very top. ( "artime (ir 9orce, ho"ever, needs competent leadership at all levels. %o one yet has figured out ho" to manage people effectively into battle; they must be led7 Indeed, in times of rapid change, there is no substitute for leadership. @nfortunately, most organi&ations are still based on the old1fashioned form of bureaucracy- the mind1 set of control, order and predict. Those are the things of command and management. If "e e'isted in an environment "here "e could control order and predict , a manager and commander "ould be a terrific thing and bureaucracy in a stable environment as in the 7ictorian era "ould be a great social invention. 4ut today, organi&ations have become unhinged - they are confusing, rapidly changing, unpredictable and full of surprises. This is "hy leadership is no" critical- it (leadership) moves people into the arena of creative solutions, by first breaking barriers that inhibit fresh and ne" unthinked thinking. Indeed, preparing airmen for future (rather than past "ars) involves constant encouragement of open1minded thinking to ensure intellectual gro"th. Thus the art of leadership involves moving people for"ard to"ards a goal and inspiring them to perform and succeed for the greater goal. In this sense, leadership cannot be besto"ed upon a person by higher authority. Therefore, it is misleading to think that leadership is only a characteristic of senior ranks or specific positions. =eadership is needed and must be practiced at every level of an organi&ation- great leaders understand that to achieve their vision and gain respect and authority, they must be "illing to give po"er (command authority) to others; they delegate responsibility to other individuals and give those individuals the kno"ledge and resources to succeed.)) =eadership and /anagement 9ield /arshal 2ir Killiam 2lim led the #Jth 4ritish (rmy from #FJ) to #FJ? in the recon$uest of 4urma from the :apanese one of the most epic campaigns of KKII. !e recogni&ed the distinction bet"een leaders and managers "hen he said#<

&8anagers are necessary; leaders are essential% 2eadership is of the spirit, compounded by personality% 8anagement is of the mind, more a matter of accurate calculation, statistics, methods, timetables and routine%9( /anagement develops the capacity to achieve its plan by organi:ing and staffing creating an organi&ational structure and a set of *obs for accomplishing the plan. The e$uivalent leadership activity, ho"ever, is aligning people- this means communicating a ne" direction to those "ho can create coalitions and "ho both understand the vision and are committed to its achievement. In addition, management ensures plan accomplishment by controlling and problem solving (monitoring the results versus the plan in some detail (both formally and informally) by means of reports, meetings and other tools; identifying deviations; and then planning and organi&ing to solve the problems). 4ut for leadership, achieving a vision re$uires motivating and inspiring despite ma*or obstacles to change by appealing to the basic, but often untapped, human needs, values and emotions.)? /ore than anything else, ho"ever, the difference bet"een the leader and the manger rests "ith the status $uo- managers are "illing to live "ith it and leaders are not. In summary, then, perhaps the best "ay to e'plain the difference bet"een leadership and management is by reference to Table 5.< (reproduced from 4ennis (#FFC)- /anaging 6eople is like !erding 8ats ). The Manager The manager administers The manager is a copy The manager maintains The manager controls The manager has a short1range vie" The Leader The leader innovates. The leader is an original. The leader develops. The leader inspires trust. The leader has a long1range perspective. The manager asks ho" and "hen The leader asks "hat and "hy. The manager has his or her eye on the The leader has his or her eye on the bottom line hori&on. The manager is the classic good soldier The leader is his or her o"n person. The manager does things right The leader does the right thing. Table. 5.<- The +ifference 4et"een =eadership and /anagement =eadership and 8ommand =eadership and headship are uni$uely different and it is al"ays important to focus on the leader as a person, and not those "ho merely serve as heads (commanders ) in positions of leadership. Khile many people regard command and leadership as much the same thing, it is more helpful to treat them as 5 separate but related functions.)B 2uccessful leaders persuade people "illingly to endure hardships (usually prolonged) and incur dangers (usually acute) that if left to themselves, they "ould do their utmost to avoid. =eadership is, therefore, concerned "ith inspiration and motivation. 8ommand, by contrast, is the direction, coordination and effective use of military force.I )C M(C$O2'#3"$O#M'#T(L CH(#+') TH(T H(3' "M*(CT'% %"$'CTL. O# C&$$'#T L'(%'$)H"*, M(#(+'M'#T (#% COMM(#% *H"LO)O*H"') (#% *$(CT"C').

##

6erhaps the single greatest difference to the environment affecting leadership, management and command philosophies, is that both leader and led are increasingly reflecting a diverging set of values and beliefs, to those traditionally held by the ,(9. In the last 5< years, there has been dynamic political, economic, socio1cultural and technological change in the "estern "orld. Indeed, ma*or changes to @A and Huropean legislation have reflected the gro"th of individualism "ithin society and, as a result, society is more Qpermissive,Q "ith the emphasis no" on individual rights rather than responsibility to"ards the community or traditional organi&ations such as the ,(9. This is derived, in part, from Huropean !uman ,ights =egislation and the distinction bet"een individualism and collectivism is "orthy of e'planation- individualism values loose linkages bet"een individuals, "ho vie" themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their o"n preferences, needs, rights and the contracts that they have established "ith others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others and emphasi&e rational analysis of the advantages and disadvantages to associating "ith others. 8ollectivism, on the other hand, values close linkages bet"een individuals, "ho see themselves as part of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by those collectives; are "illing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their o"n personal goals and emphasi&e their connectedness to members of these collectives. Table ).< summarises in broad terms the main changes in the macro1environment of the "estern "orld in the last )< years. 1rom 45678s9 To 428889 Industrial 2ociety. Information 2ociety. 9orced Technology. !igh TechL!igh Touch. %ational Hconomy. Korld Hconomy. 8entrali&ation. +ecentrali&ation. Institutional !elp. 2elf !elp. ,epresentative +emocracy. 6articipative +emocracy. !ierarchies. %et"orking. HitherL;r. /ultiple ;ptions. Table ).<- ( 2ummary of the /acro1Hnvironmental 8hanges in the Kestern Korld bet"een #FC< and 5<<< Therefore, the greatest challenge facing the ,(9 is that today s young ;fficers and non1commissioned ranks may simply not be "illing to accept the traditional leadership, management and command principles of the past. The po"er to make life or death decisions over subordinates runs contrary to the increasing emphasis on the rights of the individual, e'pressed by the society from "hich recruits are dra"n. ;f particular note is the tendency to"ards meritocracy in the last 5< years "hich can run contrary to the traditional function of rank. In essence, young people of today are increasingly reflecting the vie"s of "hat 4ett calls the post deferential society.)E In summary then, almost all organi&ations are no" caught bet"een 5 paradigms- ho" they are organi&ed and ho" they are led. ;n the one hand, "e have bureaucracy "ith the mindset of self1 control, order and predict "ith clear lines of distinction and no cross1functional "ork modes. ;n the other hand, "e have elo$uent stakeholders "hose voices have to be taken into account.

#5

(# (LT'$#(T"3' MO%'L 1O$ L'(%'$)H"*, M(#(+'M'#T (#% COMM(#% %OCT$"#' &A good soldier 6 whether he leads a platoon or an Army 6 is e;pected to loo" bac"ward as well as forward; but he must only thin" forward%&39 +enera0 %o:g0as Macarth:r ( %e" (pproach The "orld of "ork is changing at a rapid pace, greatly influenced by shifting societal trends, technology and globali&ation. These trends cannot be treated as separate issues; their interdependent effects "ill continue to e'ert po"erful influences on the ,(9, its culture and ho" leadership, management and command is vie"ed and practiced. Therefore, proactively adapting leadership, management and command philosophies to meet these challenges of this millennium "ill enhance the overall effectiveness of the ,(9. To date, ho"ever, the military style of leadership, management and command training (and doctrine) has often focused on hard skills such as planning, organi&ing and directing, all "ithin an impersonal hierarchical structure. !o"ever, current thinking (from both the corporate "orld and academia) is no" shifting to"ards an increase in the importance of soft skills such as communication and motivation. In addition, the supply of human capital is undergoing a pervasive and po"erful shift- the "orkforce in the @A today is a mosaic of individuals "ith varied ages, backgrounds, skills, aspirations and styles. Therefore, the definition of diversity "ill continue to evolve from merely race and gender to include age, disability, family structure, se'ual orientation, ethnic culture, language and religious affiliation. Thus, organi&ations that can lead, manage and command this diversity "ill have a greater opportunity to thrive in the years ahead. Indeed, research no" sho"s that respect for the differences in people is no" one of the most important $ualities in a leader.J< 9urther, the Industrial 2ociety has no" published research on the ? "eakest areas of the less successful leader-J# 9ailure to be sensitive to peoples feelings. 9ailure to recogni&e other peoples stress. 9ailure to develop and guide staff. 9ailure to encourage feedback on their o"n (the leader s) performance. 9ailure to consult those affected before making decisions.

(lthough the above list "as generated from Industrial leaders, it has e$ual applicability to the ,(9 and serves to reinforce previous arguments about the personal or human side to leadership, management and command- the above failures are all soft1skill orientated. Therefore, to undergo the necessary transformation in leadership, management and command philosophies and, therefore, to provide the relevant training, ;fficers "ill no" have to accept the #)

feasibility of "orking alliances "ith subordinates "ho $uestion old practices and propose ne" solutions and to think of the link bet"een them, as essential as the link bet"een strategy and operations. 9urthermore, it "ill be vital that too much emphasis is not put on leadership traits or leadership doctrine from the past- even successful organi&ations may undo themselves in the future if they continue to act today in the "ay they have acted in the past. ;rgani&ational =eadership =eadership e'ists at every level of the organi&ation and it is not a function of rank. 9rom the airmen in the ,(9 today, to the (ir /arshals at the corporate level, everybody has an individual leadership responsibility to those "ho serve under them. Indeed, given their generational characteristics, the recruits of tomorro" (both ;fficers and airmen) "ill likely have little organi&ational loyalty- they "ill vie" themselves as free agents "ho "ill only "ork for a leader "ho provides the most developmental challenges and opportunities, that focus on promoting commitment, involvement, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. Therefore, leaders "ill need to routinely ask for inputs from subordinates and share information freely "hile focusing on trust, respect and empo"erment that "ill help to strike a balance bet"een the leaders and those that they lead. =ike organi&ational command, organi&ational leadership "orks at every level of the ,(9; this situation is sho"n diagrammatically at 9igure B.<.

9igure B.<- ;rgani&ational =eadership =eadership and 2trategy &Tactics ma"e the steps from which operational leaps are assembled, strategy points out the path%&(2 ( ( );echin #J

The necessity to make the right decision and then carry it out in the right "ay, is reflected currently by the 2ervices formal decision1making tool, the 9ormal Hstimate. In essence, this estimate consists of J parts /ission (nalysis. Hvaluation of factors. 8onsideration of courses of action. 2election of the best course of action.

Khilst the format of the process and the language has a uni$ue military favour, the concept of "orking out "hat to do, analysing the relevant factors, and selecting a choice, is the basis for strategy in the civilian "orld. In this conte't, it is here that leadership is closely related to strategy.J) 2trategy is the *ob of pro*ecting into the future- surveying an organi&ational situation or problem and deciding bet"een alternative courses of action that have many possible conse$uences. (gain, strategic leadership e'ists at every level in the ,(9.JJ The ;fficer s trinity 8ombining leadership, management, command, organi&ational leadership and strategy, a revised model for the ;fficer s trinity is sho"n at 9igure C.<. 8reating a long1range, strategic vision for the ,(9 re$uires the leader to deal "ith issues that are more comple', conceptual and abstract than the tactical concerns of a unit commander. In this respect, leadership is a more intellectual activity.

#?

9igure C.<- The ;fficer s trinity CO#CL&)"O# ,ar is not the business of managers; it is the art of leaders% The most essential dynamic of combat power is competent and confident leadership% (s leadership is a dynamic process bet"een the leader and the led, airmen of today re$uire a subtly different approach in the "ays that they are led, managed and commanded if the ma'imum use is to be made of them as a human resource. The ,(9 has traditionally been able to rely on the fact that the subordinate "as going to do "hat heLshe "as told because the order came from someone senior- this is no longer an acceptable assumption. (irmen are no" more $uestioning and, therefore, "ill be more "illing to respond to leadership styles that involve them in the decision making process that e'plains the rationale behind that decision. Today, "e are moving to"ards organi&ations formed more like temporary systems net"orks and clusters- their mind set "ill be alignment, creativity and empo"erment.J? Therefore, in this post1bureaucratic "orld, the laurel "ill go to the leader "ho encourages healthy dissent and values follo"ers, brave enough to say no. 2uccessful leaders "ill have not the loudest voice but the readiest ear. (nd their genius may "ell lie not in personal achievements, but in understanding other people s talents.JB In addition, leaders, particularly military, are already re$uired to adapt to peer leadership, matri'1style management and team building that combines military and civilian efforts in *oint, coalition and inter1 agency activities, all in a fast1paced, high tempo environment. (t the same time, the leader must continuously and simultaneously design and implement plans, policies and practices to ma'imi&e group cohesion, subordinates potential and foster high professional ethics. These conditions, create a large dynamic, non1linear system- se$uential cause and effect are more difficult to track and predict and #B

leaders "ill increasingly need to pace and anticipate the changing comple'ity in order to provide subordinates "ith a shared vision and coherent direction, through a succession of organi&ational changes. This system "ill re$uire a holistic and multifaceted approach to leadership that stresses interactive participation, open communication and continuous learning for both the leaders and the follo"ers. The functions of leadership then become the creation of systems, structures and environments "here this interaction and learning can occurTherefore, the best leadership "ill not generate follo"ers; it "ill generate other leaders. Thus, the main ob*ective of the effective and successful leader "ill be to produce change, often dramatically and highly needed. =eaders "ill transform people and organi&ations by setting and articulating a clear vision and implementing effective strategies that inspire others by enabling them to reach their full potential. H'isting bureaucracies and pyramidal organi&ations are as inade$uate to a "orld of change and interdependence as the e'isting models of leaders and follo"ers. Traditional leadership metaphors such as rule and sub*ects and bosses and subordinates are all inappropriate for this ne" age of democracy, participation and empo"erment.

#C

'#%#OT')

#E

8ommand should be seen as more than a military e'pression; it has relevance to all employees "ho hold positions of supervisory responsibility, "hether they "ork in large or small organi&ations, public or private domains. 5 4ritish +efence +octrine R4++S 5nd Hdition- :oint Karfare 6ublication <1<#R:K6 <1<#S. ) (rmy +octrine 6ublication R(+6S 7olume 5- 8ommand (pril #FF?. J Duoted from Aenneth /oll R#FCES in The 8ommand and 8ontrol +ilemma- "hen Technology and ;rgani&ational ;rientation 8ollide, by =ieutenant 8olonel G ( ,oman @2(9- (ir Kar 8ollege /a'"ell 6aper %o E, /a'"ell (ir 9orce 4ase, (labama, /arch #FFC. ? 9or e'ample, (llied :oint +octrine (:61<# offers- 8ommanders Intent, 8ommand and 8ontrol R85S, 6rinciple of :oint and 8ombined 8ommand, 9ull 8ommand, ;perational 8ommand, Tactical 8ommand and 9unctional 8ommand. B 2ee :oint Karfare 6ublication <1#< R:K6 <1#<S, and in particular 6art 5- 8ommand including 8hapter J- The 8ommander and 8hapter ?- 8ommand and 8ontrol ;perations. C This vie" is also echoed by (ir 8ommodore 2tuart 6each in The (irmen s +ilemma- To 8ommand or to 8ontrol in (ir 6o"er 5# 8hallenges for the %e" 8entury Hdited by 6eter K Gray. ;n page #5? of this book, 6each describes the %(T; terms of command in detail. !o"ever, he goes on- &The problem is that these elegant terms no longer wor"%& 9urther reference should also be made again to The 8ommand and 8ontrol +ilemma"hen Technology and ;rgani&ational ;rientation 8ollide, by =ieutenant 8olonel G ( ,oman @2(9- (ir Kar 8ollege /a'"ell 6aper %o E, /a'"ell (ir 9orce 4ase, (labama, /arch #FFC. E Dueen s ,egulations RD,sS for The ,oyal (ir 9orce- 8hapter ) 1 General Instructions for ;fficers- 2ection # RInstructions for 8ommandersS. F 9or e'ample, see The =evels of Kar on p#15 of 4++- &8ilitary activities are conducted at different levels involving different people, from the senior political leadership of the state to the soldiers, sailors and airmen at the forefront of military operations% Traditionally, military activities were viewed as having either strategic or tactical !ualities% +ome eminent scholars discerned a level between those two 6 what <omini referred to as grand tactics 6 and, especially after ,,11, a higher political or grand strategic level has fre!uently been referred to% ,ithin =AT#, there are ( levels currently accepted as providing a framewor" for command and analysis> the grand strategic, the military strategic, the operational and the tactical&% #< @A Glossary of Terms and +efinitions :oint Karfare 6ublication R:K6 <1<#.#S, the :oint +efence and 8oncept 8entre. ## The ;'ford Hnglish +ictionary defines +uty as- &a moral or legal obligation&% #5 2ee From 8a; ,eber$ by Gerth, /ills O Turner R#FF#S for a selection of his key papers that describe bureaucratic society #) 9or a further analysis of this model, see =uthans 9. R5<<5S. #rgani:ational -ehaviour ?5th 1nternational @ditionA. %e" Tork- /cGra"1!ill, page B#).. #J 9or further analysis, see 2heffield G.+. RHdS. R#FFCS. 2eadership B )ommand> The Anglo.American @;perience since 4C . 4rassey s. #? 9or a full definition of /ission 8ommand see 4++, op. cit. page )1C. #B 7an 8reveld /.=. R#FEFS. Technology in ,ar. %e" Tork- The 9ree 6ress, 8hapters 51?. #C /int&berg !. R#FCFS. The +tructure of #rgani:ations% Hngle"ood 8liffs, %:- 6rentice !all. #E Ivancevich, :., and /atteson, T. R#FECS. #rgani:ational -ehaviour and 8anagement% 6lano, Te'4usiness 6ublications. #F 4urns T. and 2talker G. R#FB#S. The 8anagement of 1nnovation% =ondon- Tavistock. 5< 8entrali&ation refers to the retention of authority to make decisions by senior commanders; "hen an organi&ation is centrali&ed, all subordinates follo" uniform procedures and policies, "hich are formulated and enforced by higher commanders. ,ules and regulations direct subordinates to do certain things in specific "ays at certain times e.g. direct orders. /oreover, rules and regulations make subordinates tasks e'plicit and they shape the superior1subordinate relationship, "hich is essential to organi&ational command. If commanders establish many rules and regulations covering subordinate behaviours, then they maintain control over the subordinates tasks, "ork relationships and behaviour. Thus, decision1making remains centrali&ed through the formal system of rules and regulations. Indeed, highly centrali&ed organi&ations usually e'hibit high formali&ation R"hich is defined as "ritten documentation of rules, regulations and proceduresS. 5# 8oordination is a set of mechanisms, "hich commanders employ to link the actions of the organi&ational sub1units to achieve a pattern of consistent outcomes. 2everal vertical coordination mechanisms can be used including, direct supervision, standardi&ation of "ork groups, standardi&ation of outputs, performance appraisal and management information systems. 55 +ailey ,. R#FEES. Dnderstanding Eeople in #rgani:ations% 2t. 6aul, /inn- Kest. 5) /ost people believe that management is a science and can, therefore, be taught. There is a huge array of books in

5J 5? 5B 5C 5E 5F

)<

)#

)5 ))

)J

)?

)B )C )E )F J< J# J5

J)

JJ

J?

the field of management, ranging from accounting to strategic planning. In all respects, management thinking is no" high on all corporate agendas, especially "ithin the /inistry of +efence- today, all organi&ations, private or public, large or small, re$uire management e$uipped "ith the latest management skills. Indeed, the "hole thrust of the Government s financial management in the public sector in all "estern countries is to"ards those measures adopted and used by the private sector i.e. financial planning, performance management and budgetary control. /int&berg !. R#FC)S. The =ature of 8anagerial ,or"% Hngle"ood 8liffs, %:- 6rentice !all. General ;mar 4radley- 8ommand and General 2taff 8ollege, @2( #Bth /ay #FBC. 4ennis K G R#FEES #n -ecoming a 2eader %e" Tork- (ddison Kesley 6ublishing 8ompany. ibid, page 5. 4ennis K G R#FFCS. 8anaging Eeople is li"e Ferding )ats% =ondon- Aogan 6age =imited. The key to gaining competitive advantage today "ill be the ability of leaders to create an adaptive learning environment that encourages the development of intellectual capital that releases the creative po"er of individuals. 8anadian research, has suggested that potential recruits perceive military organi&ations as bureaucratic institutions that are authoritarian and coercive Rsee /a*or , = !ills, 5<<<- The military in a changing society> the impact of demographics on the )anadian forces% These facts have been echoed else"here- research by the (merican military also argues that (rmed 9orces must no", not only provide for the everyday sustenance needs of individuals, but must also liberate their creative drives, "hich can be difficult in rigid command and control, bureaucratic structures Rsee 8entre for 2trategic and International 2tudies R82I2S ,eport, 9ebruary 5<<<S. 7ision is the combined ability to conceptuali&e and to e'ecute. !aving a vision or a mission and communicating it effectively is essential. %anus 4. R#FF5S. Gisionary 2eadership% 2an 9rancisco, 8(- :ossey14ass 6ublishers This is the current thinking behind /ission 8ommand. 9urther reference should be made to 4++ op. cit. page )1C. 4ennis R#FFCS. op. cit. page B). Hmotional Intelligence is an area that is no" attracting huge interest in current leadership thinking. It is defined as- &The ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and e;press emotion; the ability to access andHor generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional "nowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth&% 9or a further analysis of this theme see + Goleman, @motional Intelligence R=ondon- 4loomsbury, #FFBS and Eost.8odern 8ilitary @ducation> Are ,e 8eeting the )hallengeI by (ir 7ice1/arshal 4rian 4urridge 84H ,(9 in *efence +tudies 7ol #, %o # spring 5<<#- The :ournal of the :oint 2ervices 8ommand and 2taff 8ollege. Taken from 2heffield. R#FFCS. op. cit. ibid. This term, no" "idely used, "as originally devised by 2ir /ichael 4ett 84H (ttributed to General +ouglas /acarthur. (le'ander :. O Kilson /. R#FFCS The #rgani:ation of the future> leading across cultures% 2ee """.indsoc.co.uk ( ( 2vechin taken from 8hapter ) ;perational (rt- @nited Aingdom +octrine for :oint and /ultinational ;perations R:K6 <1#<S. In this conte't, leadership and strategy are closely related. 2trategy consists of J basic elements- "ho decides to do "hat Ri.e. "hat are the ob*ectivesS, analysis and diagnosis of the problemLsituation Ranalysis of the macro1 environment, the industry environment, internal factors of the organi&ation and the organi&ation s competitive positionS, choice Rconsisting of generic strategy alternatives, strategy variations and strategy choiceS and implementation Rconsisting of resources and structures, resource allocation and evaluation and controlS combined "ith a feedback loop. 2ince strategic leadership is typically visuali&ed at the military strategic level of the ,(9, it could be argued that this is the domain of only (ir ,anking ;fficers and that 2enior and :unior ;fficers need not be concerned "ith such issues. !o"ever, there are potential returns to both the ,(9 and the individual from comprehension of strategic leadership at all ranks; some organi&ational behaviour e'perts maintain that it is not so much the e'istence of a strategy "hich benefits an organi&ation, but by the process by "hich the plan is developed- this approach leads to relationships among employees and approaches to the *ob "hich "ould other"ise be missing. ( leader empo"ers others to translate intention into reality and sustain it- this does not mean that leaders must relin$uish command or that follo"ers must continually challenge authority. It does mean, ho"ever, that command must become a unit of e'change an active, changing token in creative, productive and communicative transactions. Hffective leaders "ill ultimately reap the harvest of their efforts by the simple action of command s reciprocal empo"erment. It puts the duality back in motion- command to empo"erment and

JB

empo"erment back to command. ,ecent research Rby the +epartment of =eadership 2tudies at the @niversity of =eedsS has taken an upside1do"n approach to leadership study; instead of analy&ing the distant and mainly "hite men at the top of organi&ations, )?<< managers Rin the public sectorS "ere asked "hat they "anted from their immediate bosses. Their ans"er "as someone "ho "ill coach and encourage them and someone "ith the humility to admit to making mistakes. 6erhaps, then, the leader as a helper has superseded the heroic leader.