1.What is language planning? 2. What are the types of language planning? 3. What are language planning goals? 4.

What are language planning processes? 5. What is linguistic interference? 6. What is language shift and death? 7. What are the reasons for Englishs vast borrowings? 8. What is standard language and what are its properties? 9. What is multilingualism? 10. What is bilingualism? 11. What are the causes for language death? 12. What is national language? 13. What is official language? 14. What are varieties and what are their types? 15. What is language contact? 16. What are the consequences of language contact? 17. What is variation and what are the types of variation? 18. What is written language and spoken language and what are the differences between them? 21.What are forms of language endangerement?
5. Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crossmeaning) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. 6. Language shift is the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialization within a community. Language death (also language extinction, linguistic extinction or linguicide,[1] and rarely also glottophagy[2]) is a process that affects speech communities where the level of linguistic competence that speakers possess of a given language variety is decreased, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety. 7. Reasons of vast borrowings in English: In the Middle Ages the Arabic world was advanced in

many sciences and thus, a lot of words have been passed on during this time to other languages and also to English (some of the best known examples are alchemy, alcohol, and algebra); the question of identity; prestige; need for a new word; a new product of the natural
world is encountered; Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the 6th century and 7th century brought with them Latin religious terms which entered the English language:

abbot, altar, apostle,candle, clerk, mass, minister, monk, nun, pope, priest, school, shrive; approximately 600 words were borrowed from Latin during the Old English period.[4] Often, the Latin word was severely restricted in sense, and was not widespread in use among the general populace. Latin words tended to be literary or scholarly terms and were not very common. The majority of them did not survive into the Middle English Period.; From 1066 until Henry IV of England ascended the throne in 1399, the royal court of England spoke a Norman language that became progressively Gallicised through contact with French.; By the time Middle English arose as the dominant language in the late 14th century, the Normans had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English of which 75% remain in use today. Continued use of Latin by the Church and centres of learning brought a steady, though dramatically reduced, influx of new Latin lexical borrowings. 8. A standard language (also standard dialect or standardized dialect) is a language variety used by a group of people in their public discourse. Standard languages commonly feature: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. A recognized dictionary (standardized spelling and vocabulary) A recognized grammar A standard pronunciation (educated speech) A linguistic institution defining usage norms, e.g. Acadmie franaise, or Real Academia Espaola Constitutional (legal) status (frequently as an official language) Effective public use (court, legislature, schools) A literary canon Convenience speaking Popularity and acceptance in the community and the last one is Population

9. Multilingualism is the act of using polyglotism, or using multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. 10. Bilingualism Using two languages in some proportion in order to facilitate learning by students who have a native proficiency in one language and are acquiring proficiency in the other. 11. Causes of language death: catastrophic natural causes (famine, drought, hurricane etc.), desertification, cultural assimilation, urbanization, bilingualism, denudation of most of language domains, language shift, negative attitude toward ones language. 12. A national language is a language (or language variant, i.e. dialect) which has some connectionde facto or de jurewith a people and perhaps by extension the territory they occupy. there are "four quite distinctive meanings" for national language in a polity: 10. 11. 12. 13. "Territorial language" (chthonolect, sometimes known as chtonolect) of a particular people "Regional language" (choralect) "Language-in-common or community language" (demolect) used throughout a country "Central language" (politolect) used by government and perhaps having a symbolic value.

13. An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically a country's official language refers to the language used within its government its courts, parliament, administration, etc. to run its operations and conduct its business 14. In sociolinguistics a variety, also called a lect, is a specific form of a language or language expression. Two broad types of varieties. "(1) user-related varieties, associated with particular people and often places, . . . [and] (2) use-related varieties, associated with function, such as legal English (the language of courts, contracts, etc.) and literary English (the typical usage of literary texts, conversations, etc.)." 15. Language contact occurs when two or more languages or varieties interact. Language contact occurs in a variety of phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing, and relexification. The most common products are pidgins, creoles, code-switching, and mixed languages. 16. Consequences of language contact are in two levels: phonetic/phonological level and lexical level. substratum influence 17. Variation any form of morphophonemic change, such as one involved in inflection, conjugation, or vowel mutation. Types of variation are: region, social group, field of discourse, medium attitude. 18. A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system. Spoken language is language produced in its spontaneous form. In spoken language, much of the meaning is determined by the context. Writing is usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been printed/written out. Speech is usually transient, unless recorded, and speakers can correct themselves and change their utterances as they go along. A written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the particular language and writing system is still understood. Speech is usually used for immediate interactions. 19. Youth migrate to Athens and assimilate as Greeks. Some cultural revival since the 1980s. Rapid language shift so regular use is probably confined to a much smaller number of people (2007). Older adults; few if any children learn the language. 20.Loanword a linguistic item taken from another language and completely or partially naturalized(used in its original form), whereas a calque is a compound word or a phrase borrowed from a foreign language by straightforward translation (calquing includes semantic translation, it does not consist of phonetic matching; is a related concept where the meaning or idiom is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself.)

21. An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out
or shift to speaking another language. three main criteria are used as guidelines: the number and age of current speakers, whether the youngest generations are acquiring fluency in the language. UNESCO distinguishes four levels of endangerment in languages, based on intergenerational transfer:[2] Vulnerable: Most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains

(e.g., home). Definitely endangered: Children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home. Severely endangered: Language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves. Critically endangered: The youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak the language partially and infrequently. There are those causes that put the populations that speak the languages in physical danger, such as: Natural disasters, famine, disease. An example of this is the languages spoken by the people of the Andaman Islands, who were seriously affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; War and genocide. Examples of this are the language(s) of the indigenous population of Tasmania who were wiped out by colonists, and many extinct and endangered languages of the Americas where indigenous peoples have been subjected to genocidal violence, or in the cases of the Miskito language in Nicaragua and the Mayan languages of Guatemala have been affected by civil war. Causes which prevent or discourage speakers from using a language, such as: Political repression. This has frequently happened when nation-states working to promote a single national culture limit the opportunities for using minority languages in the public sphere, schools, the media, and elsewhere, sometimes even prohibiting them altogether. Sometimes ethnic groups are forcibly resettled, or children may be removed to be schooled away from home, or otherwise have their chances of cultural and linguistic continuity disrupted. This has happened in the case of many Native American andAustralian languages, as well as European and Asian minority languages such as Breton or Alsatian in France and Kurdish in Turkey. Cultural/political/economic marginalization/hegemony. This happens when political and economical power is closely tied to a particular language and culture so that there is a strong incentive for individuals to abandon their language (on behalf of themselves and their children) in favor of another more prestigious one. This frequently happens when indigenous populations, in order to achieve a higher social status, adopt the cultural and linguistic traits of a people who have come to dominate them through colonisation, conquest, or invasion; examples of this kind of endangerment are the Welsh language in Great Britain, and Ainu in Japan. This is the most common cause of language endangerment.[1]
Language endangerment affects the community and the language.

There are three steps that can be taken in order to stabilize or rescue the language:

Language documentation is the documentation in writing and audio-visual recording of grammar, vocabulary, and oral traditions (e.g. stories, songs, religious texts) of endangered languages. It entails producing descriptive grammars, collections of texts and dictionaries of the languages, and it requires the establishment of a secure archive where the material can be stored once it is produced so that it can be accessed by future generations of speakers or scientists. [1] Language revitalization is the process by which a language community through political, community, and educational means attempts to increase the number of active speakers of the endangered language.[1] This process is also sometimes referred to as language revival or reversing language shift.[1] Vocabulary and courses are available online for a number of endangered languages.[31] Language maintenance refers to the support given to languages that need for their survival to be protected from outsiders who

can ultimately affect the number of speakers of a language.[1]