Combustion basics

Martti Aho VTT Processes, University of Jyvskyl

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

Fuels, basics

Composition of dry fuel:

Ash: Unburnt inorganic residue Si, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, K... Impurities: S, P, Cl... Nitrogen Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon

Organic part

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Fuels basics, unit wt%

Fuel Bark Forest resid Straw Oth. Agr. Peat Coals

C 51-56 51-53 47-50 40-50 52-56 65-88

O 39-42 40-42 40-42 30-40 34-39 5-30

H 5-6,5 5-6 5-5,5 4-6 5-5,5 0,5-5

N <0,5 <0,5 <0,5 <0,5 -5 1-3 0,5-2

S <0,5 <0,5 <0,5 <0,5-1 0,1-0.4 0,3-5

ash 2-4 2-4 3-7 3-20 2-8 5-20

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Energy units
toe toe = 1 MWh = 0,086 GJ = 0,02388 toe = ljyekvivalenttitonni k M G

MWh 11,63 1 0,2778

GJ 41,87 3,6 1

kilo mega giga MW = MJ/s

103 106 109

T P E

tera peta eksa

1012 1015 1018

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Important calculation basis

Heating values (H) of fuel (MJ/kg) Calorific heating value (dry basis) = Hcal Effective heating value (dry basis) = Heff Heff = Hcal - 8.939 * l25 * mH2 , where Constant = M H2O/ M H2 = 8.939 l25 vaporisation heat of water at 25 oC (2.443 MJ/kg) mH2 = mass of hydrogen in dry fuel (kg H2 / kg fuel) Heating value as received Hrec Hrec= Heff * (1-mH2O) - I25 * mH2O, where mH2O= mass of water in fuel (kg H2O/ kg fuel) For ideal gas: V2 = V1 x T2/ T1 , 1 mol = 22.4 dm3 NTP Atomic weights: H= 1.01 O= 16.00 S= 32.06 C= 12,01, N= 14.01

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Important calculation basis, continued

Energy from the fuel during complete combustion P (as MW): P = Hrec * mass flow of fuel (as kg/s) Energy content in fuel Q (as MWh): Q = Hrec * m / 3.600 MWh where m is the mass of fuel kg Energy density in the fuel E (as MWh/ m3): E = Hrec * Drec / 3600, where Drec is density of the fuel as received (kg/m3) Rough calorimetric heating value from elemental composition: Hcal = 0.34* C + 1.44*(H-O/8) + 0.094* S MJ/kg (elements in dry ashless fuel)

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Heating values of different fuels

Heff
fuel coal lignite peat crushed wood needles bark straw rape seed reed canary grass REF tyre waste pulp sludge black liquour manures
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min 24 22 18 18 20 20 17 26 17 20 31 14 11 14

MJ/kg dry max 33 30 23 22 21 23 19 27 18 24 33 16 14 16

Source: Taipale 1996

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Wood fuel properties. Source: Opet

Property Moisture content,w-% Lower heating value,dry, MJ/kg Logging residue chips 5060 Whole tree chips 4555 Chips for delimbed small trees 4055 Bark (soft wood) 5065 Bark (hard wood) 4555 Sawdust Pellets

45-50

8-10

18.5 20

18.5 20

18.5 20

18.5 20

21 23

19 19.2 19.0 19.2

Lower heating value, as received, MJ/kg Bulk density, 3 kg/m loose

69

710

7 11

59

8 11

6 10

16.9 18

250400

250350

250350

250350

300400

250350

650700

Energy density, 3 MWh/ loose m

0.7 0.9

0.7 0.9

0.7 0.9

0.5 0.7

0.6 0.9 0.45 0.7

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Combustion basics
Air composition: O2 20.9, N2 78.2 Ar 0.9 vol% Main stages of combustion:

Drying (<100 oC) Pyrolysis 160- (250-350) oC (heat destroys fuel structure liberating CO, CO2 and hydrocarbons as gas and tars) Ignition 250-350 oC (biomasses) Combustion (250 oC - , volatile combustion, char combustion)

Main combustion reactions:

C + O2 -> CO2 CO +1/2 O2 -> CO2 2H + 1/2 O2 -> H2O S + O2 -> SO2

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Combustion, basics

Direct oxidation C + O2 -> CO2 C +1/2O2 -> CO, CO+1/2O2->CO2

Volatile combustion
Pyrolysis C, H -> CO, CH4, CxHy... Oxidation: CO + 1/2O2-> CO2, CxHy + n O2 -> z CO2 + q H2O, glow= hot submicron C particles
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Char combustion

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Boiler efficiency:

N= boiler efficiency = 100% * (heat + electricity)/ fuel energy N= 100 - (qp + qs + qg + qr) % qp = losses from unburnt carbon fuel in the fly and bottom ash gs = losses of heat in the flue gases qg = losses from unburnt gaseous compounds in the flue gas qr = radiation and conduction losses Large power plants > 90%, modern stoves and fireplaces 70-80% Efficiency of electricity production (If CHP boiler) : 100% * electric power/fuel energy

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Fluidized bed combustion

Martti Aho VTT Processes, University of Jyvskyl

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Importance of fluidised bed combustion

In Finland, thousands of MWs heat and power are produced by fluidised bed technology Boilers with simultaneous heat and power production can convert >90% fuel energy to electricity + heat FB technology has many advantages in combustion of wet and inhomogeneous biomass High mass of hot material balances fluctuations in fuel quality Biomass mixtures are typical fuels Bubbling bed boilers (BFB) are simpler than circulating fluidised bed boilers (CFB), but sulphur capture is more effective in CFB boilers Many manufacturers of FB boilers operate in Finland

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Bubbling bed combustion

Flue gas cleaning Heat transfer Fuel

Bubbling sand

2-3 m/s
850-950 C

freeboard

950-1050 C 700-920 C

Secondary air Primary air

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Bubbling bed/ fuel handling, Rauhanlahti power plant

Co-firing of wood - Fuel Handling and Co-combustion

Source: Fortum

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Circulating fluidised bed combustion

heat
7-10 m/s
850-870 C

Return cyclon

sand fuel sek

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Primary air

Grate combustion
Martti Aho VTT Processes, University of Jyvskyl

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Main features of grate combustion

Traditional (old) combustion method for wet biomasses (bark etc) The fuel dries, pyrolyses ignites and burns on the grate There is ONLY FUEL on the grate (in contrast to FB combustion) There is high temperature distribution in the furnace (because balancing sand is missing) Good method in small scale combustion of wet biomass (< 10 MWth) FB boilers dominate at present in larger scale (10-500 MW) Please note: Many European counties are conservative: Grate combustion still largely used in large boilers and also in incineration plants

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Classification of grate boilers on size basis

Boiler type fuel power (kW Single house size 10-40 Large buildings 40-400 Regional and district heating 400-20 000 Industrial boilers 1 000-80 000 Boilers for urban waste 10 000-30 000* * = Abundant in Europe Class > 10 000 kW is dominated by FB

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Basis of fuel analysis

Kosteus Tuhka S N O H

Water Ash

Vola tiles
Haihtuvat aineet

Dry ashless
Kuiva, tuhkaton (daf)

Dry
Kuivaaineesta (d)

As received
Saapumiskosteudessa (ar)

Jaannos hiili

Residual carbon

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Grate combustion 1-30 MWth

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Wood chips: Most important fuel in biomass grate boilers

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Illustration of grate combustion

Moist fuel
Drying pyrolysis char combustion

Fuel layer

Radiation

Convection

Comb. air
Source: Poltto&palaminen 2002

(prim)

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Grate boiler furnace

Pre combustion furnace
Boiler

Furnace

Flue gas

Water tube boiler

Secon
Mecha ni cal ste p

dary a
grate

ir

Flue gases out

Primary air

EKOPOINT.DSF

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Modern grate furnace for moist fuel (Wrtsil)

To boiler

Refractory mass for stabilisation

Fuel feeding

Source: Wrtsil
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Grate heating boiler

Water tube boiler Hot water
Post comb. furnace

District heat

air
Precombustion furnace

air ash

Flue gas cleaning

Wet wood up to 65 wt% H2O

Source: Wrtsil

Ash container

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Small-scale combustion (< 1 MW)

Martti Aho VTT Processes, University of Jyvskyl

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Small-scale combustion (< 1 MWth)

Stokers (even > 1 MW!), stoves and fireplaces Fuel is fed continuously by screws in the stokers The most advanced stoves and fireplaces can also have continuous feeding (for example wood pellet stoves and fireplaces) However, they operate usually in batch basis Batch basis is very old way to add fuel: The same batch dries, ignites, burns in flame and as char before the next batch Such a continuous changing process is very challenging to control (produces higher emission levels unburnt ib fly ash etc.) The flue gas cleaning techniques cannot as effective as in large boilers (in smallest furnaces there is no flue gas cleaning, the largest can have multicyclons or even ESPs)

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Fire wood use in small scale combustion in Europe PJ year 1995

Polttopuun pienkytt
180 160 140 120 100 PJ/a 80 60 40 20 0

* lhde: ABF-net V, Export & Import and fuel prices ** lhde: EUROSTAT-tilastot vuodelta 1995

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an ja * La tv Al ia an * ko m Is aa ot* B r it an ni a ** Sl ov en ia * Ta ns ka * Ir l an ti * Sl ov ak Lu ia xe * m bu rg ** B el gi a *

ts i*

i*

**

* a ol

al i*

sa

lia

kk a

m an

Sa k

Ita

R uo

Su o

It va

tu g

an

Pu

Kr ei

Po r

Ro

Es p

Vi ro

sk a

ia

lta

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Use of firewood in small scale combustion per capita in EU

Polttopuun pienkytt asukasta kohti (keskim. 1,4 GJ/a)
14

12

10

8 GJ/a 6 4 2 0

* lhde: ABF-net V, Export & Import and fuel prices ** lhde: EUROSTAT-tilastot vuodelta 1995

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Ta ns ka * nk om aa t* Sl ov ak ia * Pu ol a * Es pa Is nj oa B * rit an ni a ** B el gi a * A la

* Su om i* Sl ov en ia * R uo ts i* K re ik ka ** La tv ia * It va lta * Po rt ug al i* R an sk a * R om an Lu ia xe * m bu rg ** Sa ks a *

Ita lia * Irl an ti *

Vi ro

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Importance of firewood as a heating source of houses in Finland

80 60 40
25 26

Osuus kiinteistst, %
68 64

Portion of individual houses

Puu plmmnlhde Puu lislmmnlhde 60 44 38

as a main heating source as an completing heatinmg source

20
93 90

20

80

82

Maatila

farm

Lhde: Tyteho seura 15/2002 (658) VTT PROCESSES

houses

Vapaa-ajan Omakotiasunto talo freetime single houses houses

Kaikki pientalot houses, total

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Chip stoker equipped with pre-furnace (200-1000 kW)

Fuel storage (wood chips) Unloader

* Continous feed
Pre-furnace Post-furnace

Source: Biomass handbook 2002

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Feeder

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Simpler chipstoker without pre-furnace (30-300 kW)

* Continuous feed

Tmax about 1000 C

Source: Biomass handbook 2002

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1. 2. 3. 4.

Combustion of wood in batch type stoves: continously changing process Drying

Pyrolysis Gas comb Char comb
Esimerkki puun panospoltosta
2. Kaasumaiset palavat ainekset vapautuvat kuivasta puusta. 3. Kaasut syttyvt ja palavat. 1. Puu kuivuu. Vesihyry vapautuu. 4. Jnnshiili palaa ja jljelle j tuhka

O2

O2 CO2, H2O

CO2

flame combustion
NO, ppm

Haihtuvien aineiden palaminen

Aika Jnnshiilen palaminen

char combustion
3 CO ja CxHy, %,

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

12

3
NO

CO up again!

CO

0:00

2:59

6:00

9:00

11:59

14:59

18:00

20:59

23:59

26:59

Aika, min:s

Source: H. Oravainen/ E. Alakangas VTT

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Pal_vaih.cdr/EAA/1003

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Two sequential batches

Esimerkki puun panospoltosta
Puupanos 3 kg
9000 7500 Kokonaishiilivedyt, mg/m
3

CO-pitoisuus, %

Nopea pyrolyysikaasun vapautuminen Nopea pyrolyysikaasun vapautuminen

3 2.5 2

1. batch
6000

2. batch
4500 3000 1500 0
Jnnshiilen palaminen Jnnshiilen palaminen

CO 1.5 1
Jnnshiilen palaminen

CxHy
11:52 12:02 12:12 12:22 12:32 12:42 11:46 11:49 11:56 11:59 12:06 12:09 12:16 12:19 12:26 12:29 12:36 12:39

0 .5 0

Aika

Source: Heikki Oravainen/Eija Alakanjas VTT

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PanoPoltto.cdr/EAA/1003

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Traditional co- or counter current stoves

Co-current (only batch) Counter current (continuos feeding possible!)

Prim. air

Batch: continu ously changing process!

Prim. Air!

Source: Poltto&Palaminen 2002

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Ready batch (5 kg) + ignition source

Source: Altener/E. Alakangas

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Hot gas circulation in stoves

Source: Tulikivi

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Wood pellets: promising fuel for small-scale combustion: Competitive price, low ash content, constant composition, high energy density, continuous feed => better combustion control

Origin: timber residue (sawdust)

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Pellet storage for a single house: Dimensions about 2.5 x2x2 m source: Biowatti

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Wood pellets: unloading and small hot water boiler

Pneumatic unload from truck Hot water Continuous feed*

Flame Tmax
about 1000 C

* Continous feed and constant fuel quality results in stable combustion

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Stages in single pellet combustion

Direct oxidation C + O2 -> CO2 C +1/2O2 -> CO, CO+1/2O2->CO2

Volatile combustion
Pyrolysis C, H -> CO, CH4, CxHy... Volatile oxidation
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Char combustion

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Types of pellet burners

Vertical
Blue arrows indicate combustion air

Horizontal

Source: Tullin/Oravainen

Cup
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Source: H. Oravainen

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