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3H IJ ?
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CAM AJHE ? AH D A A?
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= ANAJXI K A J I IJD = @
2x y = 1 x + y = 5
=F @ @E=B HAJE ? =F OAE? 2H J= AMH A X A CH= AN IMID GMHEIJX 0 FH JD CH=
2x y = 1
F=HEIJX AE E= AK A = IJ AF FA@ y XN = IJ 1 0 @A JAHD CH= JD AK A = F K J AE J
x XN = IJ 1/2 =E J
x + y = 5
F=HEIJX AE JD AK A = F K J AE J x XN = IJ 5 =E J y XN = IJ 5 -X E @ AK A A? J J=E FM? IJ F=HX@AEC = J I IJD = ANEI IAM GAE =@E ID JE? IK JAJ=C A? (x, y ) J K ID A K IJ F J J=E E @ AK A A? 5A =KJ J F=HX@AEC = J ID A (2, 3) 6E X F HA = IK >A , @E=B HAJE ? AK A A? IA = AF FA@ A JA J J=E A JA A =E F=HX D A? -X E AK A A? A =E F=HX D A? FM? IJ F=HX@AEC =
2x y = 1 4x + 2y = 0
J I IJD = @A GAE = = ID -X E AK A A? IK F FJ K FM? IJ F=HX@AEC =
2x y = 1 4x + 2y = 2
J I IJD = GAE F ? IAE? E IK JAJ=C =F JA IAE? J K IKIJ =J ? ! A? (x, y ) M JM ID A M JD? AK A =?
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HKBA?
2 1
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5A =KJ JD FH I CCEID = = DJ A = IK @K=I JM @E= KI XJM IJD IJD =HEI JAH F AKHX JD? AN IMID? A =JX D K? IK JA AIJ ? x =E y F K = @ AE JD @ANEX F AKHX /AM AJHE X =KJ @ @AJ=E =F J = = J K F=H= D CHX K =E D ID A =E =@E AX J= @E= I =J= IJ A? =F JA F AKH ? F=H= D CHX K @D =@ AX @A A =E IKCCH= E X 6 X F HA = IK >A -X J= @E= I =J= IJ A? A =E IKCCH= E X J JA @A IGD =J K F=H= D CH= -X J @EX KI = IJD @ANEX F AKHX A =E AF ID? IKCCH= E J JA KFXHG K XFAEHA? IAE? -X J @EX KI = IJ= @ANEX @A A =E IKCCH= E A J= X = @ J JA @A KFXHGAE = = ID )? @ A JE IK >= AE IJE? ! @E=IJXIAE? AMH A J I IJD = ANEI IAM
2u + v + w = 5 4u 6v = 2 2u + 7v + 2w = 9
-NAJX K A FH J= X A CH= AN IMID 0 FH JD CH= F=HEIJX AE J AF FA@ F K J AE J K? XN A? IJ= ID A = ( 5 , 0 , 0) (0 , 5 , 0) (0 , 0 , 5) 0 @A JAHD CH= F=HEIJX AE J 2 1 1 AF FA@ F K J AE J K? u =E v XN A? IJ= ID A = ( 2 , 0, 0) =E (0, 3 , 0) J= >X K A u = 0 =E v = 0 J JA F= H K A 0w = 2 F K @A GAE ID 5K AF ? J AF FA@ F K = JEIJ EGA IJD @A JAHD CH= A =E F=HX D FH ? J w XN = 2X JM? J= @ AF FA@= J J=E IA E= AK A = 0 JH JD CH= F=HEIJX AE FX E = AF FA@ F K J AE =KJ JD AK A = IA = ID A E IK JAJ=C A? =KJ J K ID A K @ @ K JD ID J K IKIJ =J ? 5J F=HX@AEC = A =E J ID A (1, 1, 2) 6E X F HA = IK >A = D J J=E J= JH = AF FA@= IA = =@E ID A 5JE? JHAE? @E=IJXIAE? =KJ F HA = IK >A A FAHEII JAH K? JH F K?
J= JH = AFEFA@= = A =E F=HX D = @
AF FA@= = A =E F=HX D = =E = J= J J=E = = @ J=E IA E= AE J JH J IA @ F=HX D A? AK A A?
J= JH = AF FA@= = J J= JH = AF FA@= = J @
IA JHAE? F=HX E AK A =
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5JE? JHAE? FH JA? FAHEFJ IAE? J I IJD = @A GAE ID IJE? X A? JHAE? GAE XFAEHA? IAE? F H A = EJXN K A =E FX E J I IJD = M? E= @E= KI =JE AN IMID
2 1 1 5 u 4 + v 6 + w 0 = 2 . 2 7 2 9
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
K A = >H A J K? IK JA AIJ ? u, v =E w IJA IK @K=I ? IJ= =HEIJAHX = A =E I ? A J @EX KI = IJ= @ANEX /AM AJHE X J X H EI = JHE @E= KI XJM IJ R3 A =E D @E=C E ? J K F=H= D AFEF @ K A = ? J= JH = @E= I =J= -JIE AX J= JH = @E= I =J= =F JA = ? A ? F=H= D AFEF @ K J JA KFXHGAE =@E ID IA =KJ JD FAH FJMID (u, v, w) = (1, 1, 2) 6 X F HA = IK >A -X J= JH = @E= I =J= @A =F JA = ? A ? F=H= D AFEF @ K = X >H I J=E =E J= JH = IA = AF FA@ J JA J I IJD = GAE ID AX =E J @EX KI = IJ= @ANEX >H I AJ=E IJ @E AF FA@ ,E=B HAJE X @A GAE ID -NAJX K A J F=HX@AEC = 1 1 1 u 2 + v 0 + w 3 = b. 3 1 4 -X
2 b= 5 7
ID -X
J JA D AN IMID GAE
2 b= 5 6
J JA D AN IMID @A GAE ID * F K A JE KFXHG K @ @E=B HAJE ? CAM AJHE ? AH D A A? JM IKIJD XJM CH= E ANEI IAM A @ =E JHAE? =C IJ K? 0 FH IA JE = X KID = =F = OAE JD IG ID = X AI= IJE? @ FH IACC IAE? F K A JD @E=EI = =IJA @A A =E A = JD FH I@E H I K A = HE> ? 6 FE ID = JE A =E JE = =? A AK AH IAE =F J K? FAHE HEI ? JD? CAM AJHE ? @E= I DID? =E = =? AFEJH OAE = A AJ I K A IKIJ =J= F ANEI IAM A F ? =C IJ K?
=HJAIE=
AF FA@ JE? AK A A?
x + 2y = 2 x y = 1
= *HA JA =F J IG > 7F = JE? IK JAJ=C A? J K ID A K J =J ? JIE IJA E @ AK A A? = ? JM @ AK AE
C IJA = CA>HE X JD
ID J K IKIJ
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2u + v + w = 5 4u + 2v + 2w = 6 2u + 7v + 2w = 9 u + v + w = 2 2u + + 3w = 5 3u + v + 4w = 6
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u + v + w = 2 2u + + 3w = 5 3u + v + 4w = 7
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Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n} .
6= IJ EGA = J K Rn = J= X K A @E= I =J= =E J I Rn = J =F = G H CH= E G H @E= KI =JE G H E FH=C =JE =HE x1 , . . . , x n n J=E IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) R
6= @E= I =J= F H A = J= B= J= =IJA M? ID A = A ? G H K FM? =HJAIE= ? JHE@EXIJ=J ? G H ? J=KJ J=? J @EX KI = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) A J ID A A JE? @EA? =HJA IE= ? IK JAJ=C A? F H A AF ID? = J= B= J= =IJA M? > D A =HG IJD =HG JM =N M (0, 0, 0) =E J ? IJ ID A (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ) X C= A JD FAH IJ=ID F HA D = D X D AH D A = = A =E FE GH IE D 5A X A FAH FJMID = @EX KI = IJ Rn A =E = @E=JAJ=C D n X@= FH=C =JE =HE x = ( x1 , x 2 , . . . , x n ) 5A =KJ J X D = IK M? = F=HEIJX K A J= @E= I =J= M? IJ A? x1 x2 x= , xn = =E CE= C K? JKF CH=BE ? E =? = EX B HX = CHXB K A JE? IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? GMHEI A? A = HE JE= IA F=HA IAE? (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) n 5J I R JM @E= KI XJM A n IK EIJ IA? H K A @ FHXNAE? JD FH I AID @E= KI XJM =E J F =F =IE=I @E= I =J ? A FH=C =JE =HE 0 FH I AID C AJ=E IK EIJ I= FH ? IK EIJ I= FM? IJ F=HX@AEC = 1 2 3 2 0 2 + 3 1 = 4 . 4 5 1
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
/A E X
x1 + y1 y1 x1 x2 y2 x2 + y2 = + xn + yn xn yn .
.
C AJ=E AF ID? =JX IK EIJ I=
x1 x1 x2 x2 = . xn xn
- =? CH= =F =IE=I
A FH=C =JE x1 y1 x2 y2 + xn yn
? IK @K=I
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x y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + + xn yn .
- = I IJD = n ANEI IAM JH F K? A n =C IJ K? F H A AF ID? = J I= IJ Rn ID A AMH I K A A @ =E J I IJD = GAE
= AF FA@ J=E IA =
0 X A IJ D F=HEIJX AE = @EX KI = =E = = DJ A J K? IK JA AIJ ? A ? CH= E IK @K=I JM @E= KI XJM IJD =HEIJAH F AKHX IJA = A =E I ? A J @EX KI = IJD @ANEX F AKHX
J= y1 , y2 , y3
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3 1 2
? IK @K=I
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n 1!
) CA>H=
> 0 FH JD IK EIJ I= = A =E 2 =E D @A JAHD IK EIJ I= = A =E 2 C 0 FH JD IK EIJ I= = A =E 2 =E D @A JAHD IK EIJ I= = A =E 2 @ 0 JH JD IK EIJ I= = A =E 1 - =E =KJX J= =F JA I =J= =@E X ? JM JHE AFEF @M IJ JAJH=@EXIJ=J G H
u + v + w + z = 6 u + w + z = 4 u + w = 2.
)F JA A J=E =F = AK A = = ID A J A E X> K A =E J J J=HJ AF FA@ u = 1 *HA JA ID I 2 EX A =E D J X IK FAH = J J=HJD AN IMID IJA = D KFXHGAE G H J J=E IA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = IK @K=IJ CE= = F=H=CXC K 0, 0) (1, 1, 0, 0) (1, 1, 1, 0) =E IIAHAE? ANEI IAE? A =C IJ K?
)I DID %
= E X " AF FA@= IJ JAJH=@EXIJ=J = E X " @E= I =J= IJ JAJ=@EXIJ=J G H F H F E @ F JA b 2 E ? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM (1, 0, (1, 1, 1, 1) F=HXCAE J b = (3, 3, 3, 2) 2 E ? A =E E J x, y, z, t F K FH FAE = K
)F=
EB Gauss
7FXHG K F ? @ E CE= JD AF KID IKIJD XJM CH= E ANEI IAM = A AJ I K A JD @ JD? =F= EB ? Gauss (Gauss elimination) D F = A =E =JX D D CE= JD AF KID ACX M IKIJD XJM A F ? ANEI IAE? =E F ? =C IJ K? ) =E = ANAJXI K A JD =F= EB Gauss IJ =F F=HX@AEC = JHE ANEI IAM A JHA ? =C IJ K? J K IKIJ =J ? K A =@ A IKIJD =JE X J= > =J= JD? A @ K IJA = F H A = J= AB=H I K A =E IA F AC= JAH= IKIJ =J= A JD > AE= D A JH E KF CEIJ
2u + v + w = 5 4u 6v = 2 2u + 7v + 2w = 9
2=H=JDH A JE IK JA AIJ ? J K u IJD FH JD AN IMID @A A =E )H= AX =B=EH I K A =JX D = F =F XIE= JD? FH JD? AN IMID? =F A? JE? X A? F H A = X K A J K? IK JA AIJ ? J K u IA A? JE? ANEI IAE? A J ? =F JD FH JD I K? A @D =@ = =F= A O K A J u =F =KJ ? JE? ANEI IAE? 5KC A HE =
)B=EH
A 2 B H ? JD FH JD AN IMID =F JD @A JAHD
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
'
D D@A E ? IK JA AIJ ? J K u IJD FH JD AN IMID X AJ=E FH J ? @DC ? *H = A J K? F =F =IE=IJ ? 2 =E 1 @E=EH J=? J K? IK JA AIJ ? J K u IJD @A JAH D =E JD JH JD AN IMID A J FH J @DC 2H FJAE J I IJD =
2u +
v + w = 5 8v 2w = 12 8v + 3w = 14
u GAE D@A E IK JA AIJ IA A? JE? ANEI IAE? A J ? =F JD FH JD A JE IK JA AIJ ? J K v IJD @A JAHD AN IMID @A A =E )KJ ? A =E @A JAH ? @DC ? J F = GHDIE F E I K A CE= = =F= A O K A J v =F JD JH JD AN IMID )B=EH
)KJ J > = A 1 B HX JD @A JAHD AN IMID =F JD JH JD DH AE JD =F= EB Gauss 2H FJAE J I IJD =
IJ F 2=H=JDH
2u +
v + w = 5 8v 2w = 12 w = 2
IJ F @A JAHD - =E A
v GAE D@A E IK JA AIJ IA A? JE? ANEI IAE? A J ? =F JD FH JD =E JD IK JA AIJ ? J K w IJD JH JD AN IMID @A A =E =E A =E JH J ? @DC ? = I K A =KJ J I IJD = )F JD JH JD AN IMID G K A w = 2.
) JE = EIJ
v = 1.
) JE = EIJ A J= v =E w IJD FH JD AN IMID 2u + 1 + 2 = 5 XH=
u = 1.
)KJ D @E=@E =I = X AJ=E = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID (back substitution) 0 =F= EB Gauss >=I AJ=E IJD F=H=J HDID JE AX XF EA? JE ? JM u, v =E w E = F E = I IJD = ANEI IAM J JA = HE> ? E @EA? JE ? E = F E =E X A I IJD = F K FH FJAE =F J =HGE A = =F J K? = K K? @ JH F K?
-X = XN K A JD IAEHX A JD
=JX JD =F= EB Gauss AF= = = >X K A IKIJD =JE X =KJX J= @ > =J= IJA = =J= N K A IA = =F IJAH I IJD = CE= J F F H A A = = >H A J I IAM =J=CHXB K A FE E E X JD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? GHDIE F E J=? = F = = A J K? IK JA AIJ ? JD? AN IMID? =E JD @ANEX F AKHX 2 1 1 5 2 1 1 5 2 1 1 5 4 6 0 2 0 8 2 12 0 8 2 12 2 7 2 9 0 8 3 14 0 0 1 2
) CA>H=
E @DC F K A B= J=E A F=GEX IJ EGA = IJ F = = FH FAE = D D@A J=E AB I K A = @E=EH I K A A =KJ ? -= EF IJD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? IA = I IJD = n ANEI IAM A n =C IJ K? A B= J=E n D D@A E @DC J JA KFXHGAE E= =E =@E ID J K IKIJ =J ? JD F = >H I K A A = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID -X IA XF E > = JD? @E=@E =I =? =F= J JA KFXHG K @ A @AG A = EB ? A B= AJ=E D@ IJD ID A ? @DC
-X KFXHGAE D D@A E ? IK JA AIJ ? IA XF E= FE XJM ID IJD IJ D F K ANA JX K A J JA = X K A JD IAEHX JM ANEI IAM @D =@ A = XII K A JE? CH= ? J K F = = IJA = B H K A J D D@A E IK JA AIJ IJD ID J K @DC /E= J I IJD = ANEI IAM u + v + w = a 2u + 2v + 5w = b ! 4u + 6v + 8w = c G K A
1 1 1 a 1 1 1 a 1 1 1 a 2 2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b 0 2 4 4a + c 0 0 3 2a + b 0 2 4 4a + c 4 6 8 c
@DC =E J I IJD = GAE =@E ID K A A =E D@ X AJ=E E@E
-JIE G K A F HA? I
u + v + w = a 2u + 2v + 5w = b 4u + 4v + 8w = c
AJX JD =F= EB JM IK 1 2 4
1 1 a 1 1 1 a 2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b 4 8 c 0 0 4 4a + c
A = = GAE
JA AIJ
J Ku
G K A
=E @A =@E XFAEHA?
F H A = AB=H I K A JD = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID CE= = >H ID - = E@E HB I IJD = F HA = D GAE = = ID IAE? )KJ AN=HJXJ=E =F JD @ANEX F AKHX
-X 2a + b = 6 =E 4a + c = 7 J JA G K A 3w = 6 4w = 7
=E @A KFXHGAE ID 6 I IJD = A =E
=I
>=J
-X
M? 2a + b = 6 =E 4a + c = 8 J JA G K A
3w = 6 4w = 8
=E w = 2 ) X D FH JD AN IMID @A F HA = FH I@E H IAE =E J u =E J v /E= X A JE J K u KFXHGAE =E = JE J K v F K @ AE ID 6 I IJD = GAE XFAEHA? IAE? =E A =E =FH I@E HEIJ
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
AMH
2u 3v = 3 4u 5v + w = 7 2u v 3w = 5
= X A AN IMID F=HEIJX AE = AF FA@ IJ JHE@EXIJ=J G H A I IJD = IK JAJ=C M u, v, w *HA JA J= ID A = J ? X A AFEF @ K A J K? XN A? =E FH IF= IJA = IGA@EXIAJA H ? JM JHE AFEF @M IJ IG = I=?
> -B=H IJA JD @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? Gauss CE= = >HA JA JD ID J K IKIJ =J ? =B=EH IJA = F =F XIE JD? FH JD? AN IMID? =F JD @A JAHD JIE IJA = D @A EIJA IK JA AIJ ? J K u IJD @A JAHD AN IMID X AJA J @E CE= JD JH JD AN IMID =J FE =B=EH IJA = F =F XIE JD? =? @A JAHD? AN IMID? =F JD = JH JD AN IMID JIE IJA = D@A EIJA IK JA AIJ ? J K v IJD JH JD AN IMID *HA JA J w =E AB=H IJA = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID CE= = >HA JA J v =E J u
J K b GHAEX AJ=E =HC JAH= = X K A A = =C CH= /E= F EX JE J K b @A KFXHGAE XF E ? @DC ? 5A =KJ JD E@E HBD FAH FJMID >HA JA = D D@A E ID CE= J= x, y, z
x + by z = 0 x 2y z = 0 y + z = 0
)I DID
AMH
u + v + w = 2 3u + 3v w = 6 u v + w = 1
= -B=H IJA =F= EB Gauss IJ F=H=FX M I IJD = F HA JD IAEHX JM ANEI IAM IA XF E > = > ) XNJA J IK JA AIJ J K v IJD JH JD AN IMID @A GAE ID = GHAE=IJA == XNAJA
IJA = FXHAJA
= I IJD = F K
= GAE = HE> ? D = ? J K?
)I DID
*HA JA J K? @DC
2x + y x + 2y + z y + 2z + t z + 2t
= = = =
0 0 0 5.
) CA>H=
=I
A? E =
IK JA AIJ
> -X D JH JD AN IMID GAE D@A E @A JAH IK JA AIJ J JA @A =B=EHA J=E F IE JD? AN IMID? =F JD AN IMID ! C -X D JH JD AN IMID GAE D@A E J=E F =F XIE JD? AN IMID?
2 = A?
/E= AC= JAH= IKIJ =J= @A A =E FH= JE = CHXB K A = = KJE X X A AN IMID =E = =J=CHXB K A JD =F= EB IK > EI ? FE X M A =E F GH IE ? 5JD @ANEX F AKHX E=? AN IMID? G K A = @EX KI = IJ D b 5J F=HX@AEC = 5 b = 2 . 9 5JD =HEIJAH F AKHX @EX KI = IJ D G K A J K? =C IJ K? J K? F K? AF ID? CHXB K A M? =
u x= v . w
K? CHXB K A M? =F = =
2 1 1 A = 4 6 0 . 2 7 2
#
)KJ ? A =E
=? JAJH=CM E
HEI
? - =? m AF n F = =? CH=
E F = A? FH IJ A J=E =JX IK EIJ I= =E F =F =IEX J=E A =HE ? = HE> ? FM? J= @E= I =J= 5KG X = AMH A = n @EX KI = ? = n 1 F = = F H A = FH I I K A @ F = A? AX G K JE? @EA? @E=IJXIAE? @D =@ J @E =HE CH= =E J @E =HE IJD /E= F=HX@AEC = 2 1 1 6 5 5 1 + 6 4 3 = . + 4 6 0 2 7 2 2 1 2
2 1 1 4 6 0
6 3 3 12 18 0
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
!
(B )ij = bij .
- @= A JE D IK @K=I ? JM x " 6 J E E AJ=N FE X M =HEIJAH F AKHX JD? AN IMID? F HA = AMHD A M? CH= E ? IJD J K F = = A # A IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? IK @K=I A B= J=E IKG X =E =? @DC = H I K A E= FHXND =E @E= KI XJM
2=HX@AEC = 6 CE
= ! @EX KI =
X J CE
? JM IJD
J K
6 12 3 = 6 . 4 7
"
) CA>H=
>
IKG X GHDIE
F E
A J IK
(Ax)i =
j =1
aij xj .
= FH IF= I K A = A BHXI K A JD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? IM FE X M - = @E=B HAJE A @ ? CE K @E= I =J ? A F = = F K J H= CHXB K A J @EX KI = M? CH= =E IJ= =HEIJAHX J K F = = A =E D = K D 2 1 1 4 6 0 = 0 8 2 . 2 1 0 2 7 2 0 X A IK EIJ I= JD? CH= ? IJ= @ANEX A CH= A JD = J IJ EGD IJ D J K F = = @ANEX A =E J =F J AI = J K = =B=EH I K A @A JAHD @D =@ = HE> ? =KJ F K X = A IJD 0 0 1 J @E = = A JD CH= 2 1 4 6 0 0 1 2 7 =E J AIMJAHE CE A J K @E= I =J ? 2=H=JDH A JE DHD D CH= IJ= B H ? JD FH JD CH= J K F = = =F JD =F= EB IJ I IJD = -B=H K A
1 0 = 2
2 7 2
.
=IJA J K
6 =F J AI = A =E D JH JD CH= J K F = = )F =KJ ? JE? F=H=JDH IAE? @DC IJD @K =J JDJ= = A BHXI K A J FH J > = JD? =F= EB ? IM F =F =IE=I F = =A A = F = =E 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 E A = 2 1 0 4 6 0 = 0 8 2 0 0 1 2 7 2 2 7 2 AMH A J m n F = = A =E J n p F = = B 6 m p F = =? F ? GAE IJ EGA IJD ID ij J AIMJAHE CE J K A =E JD? j IJ D? J K B
n
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HEI
CE
AB A =E JD? i CH= ?
(AB )ij =
k=1
A 2
2=HX@AEC =
F = =B
=F =IE=I
? AJ
2 2 F = = I =B AE = AJX> DJ J = 2 3 7 4 6 0 .
23
IB =
1 0 0 1
2 3 7 4 6 0
2=HX@AEC = !
H J=E =E E @
? =
D =E J=
AB =
1 6
2 1
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
#
BA=
2 1
1 6
2 12 1 6
2=HX@AEC = " 2
CH= ?J KB F
PB=
0 1 1 0 2 3 7 8
2 3 7 8 0 1 1 0
7 8 2 3 3 2 8 7
BP =
- J ? =F J HEI AMH IAE? A =E IKG X F
.
E = K A? @ JM
J K F =F =IE=I GH IE A?
FE X M F K @ I= A
2H J=ID
CH=
0 i CH= J K F = = AB A =E ID A J CH= E IK @K=I J K B A IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? JD? i CH= ?JKA IK @K=I JM IJD
JKA A
)F @AEND 0 i CH=
(AB )i1 . . . (AB )ip
/HXOJA J = X C KF
J K AB A =E
n
=
CEI
n k=1
aik bk1 . . .
A?
n k=1
aik bkp
=
k=1
aik
bk1 . . . bkp
CE= JE? IJ
2H J=ID
(A + B )C = AC + BC .
G K A
(A(CE ))ij =
k=1 n
=
k=1 n
aik
t=1 p
=
k=1 t=1
$ = X F H A == XN K A JD IAEHX A JD
p
) CA>H=
F = F= H
n
K A J= = H I =J=
(A(CE ))ij = =
t=1 p
aik ckt
k=1
etj
=
t=1
= ((AC )E )ij .
0 AF= AKID JD? AFE AHEIJE ? E@E JDJ=? A =E =F IJAHD =E =B AJ=E M? XI DID A FE X M
3 5 1
)I DID # 7F
)I DID $ 7F
D@A E @EX KI =
=J ? Ax =
bij =
1 . j
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
%
= J > J C 6 @ J
FH J F
@A JAH
@DC ? J K CE K EA =E JE? IJ A? J K AE J=
E=
1 7 0 1
)I DID
AMH A JE E IJ A? J K n n F = = A A =E J= @E= I =J= c1 , c2 , . . . , cn =E E CH= ? J K n n F = = B A =E J= @E= I =J= CH= ? r1 , r2 , . . . , rn 6 CE A ci ri A =E =? n n F = =? @A JA J 2=HX@AEC = ! - BHXIJA J CE A AB M? X H EI = J J EM FE X M
E@E JDJ= J K F
=F =IE=I
FE X M GHDIE
)I DID
F
KF CEI J K CE K AB =F=EJ J=E mnr F =F =IE=I =HE 5A =KJ J FH > D = @A =? =F=IG A =HE ? JM FH I IAM -X C A =E F = =? r p >HA JA F I EF =F =IE=I =HE =F=EJ J=E CE= J KF CEI JM CE M (AB )C =E A(BC )
)I DID # , @ J=E F = A? A, B, C, D A J= = K = AC D A : 5 14 B : 14 87 C : 87 3 =E D : 3 42 *HA JA F I E F =F =IE=I =F=EJ J=E CE= = KF C IAJA J CE A ABCD A J K? = K K? JH F K?
= (A(BC ))D > A(B (CD))
&
) CA>H=
EB ?
IM FE X M
IM
FM? A @= A IJ $ J FH J > = JD? =F= EB ? IJ I IJD = FAHECHXBAJ=E F =F =IE=I =F =HEIJAHX J K F = = IK JA AIJ A =JX D F = =
HEI ? F = =? F K GAE 1 IJD @E=C E =E 0 IA A? JE? X A? IAE? X AJ=E J=KJ JE ? F = =? F = =? F K GAE 1 IJD @E=C E =E = 0 IA XF E= ID ij CE= i = j A GAE 0 IJE? KF EFA? IAE? X AJ=E IJ EGAE @D? F = =? =E
IK > AJ=E Eij () J= F =F =IEX K A = F = = A =F J= =HEIJAHX A J Eij () J =F J AI = A =E = =B=EH A B H ? JD CH= j =F JD CH= iJ KA J= F =F =IEX K A = F = = A =F J= @ANEX A J Eij () J =F J AI = A =E = =B=EH A B H ? JD IJ D i =F JD IJ D j J K A 2H I NJA JD @E=B HX IJD @EXJ=ND JM @AE J )? AB=H I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IJ I IJD = >X @ANEX? F AKHX? IJ AF=KND F = = 2 1 1 5 4 6 0 2 . 2 7 2 9 )B=EH J=? =E J @EX KI = b JD?
A 2 B H ? JD FH JD CH= =F JD @A JAHD 2 1 1 5 1 0 0 2 1 1 5 0 8 2 12 = 2 1 0 4 6 0 2 2 7 2 9 0 0 1 2 7 2 9
0 0 2 1 1 5 1 0 4 6 0 2 0 1 2 7 2 9 = 0 0 1 J
* F K A JE J K F = = A =F F =F =IE=I ? J= =HEIJAHX FH J= A J E 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 =J FE A J F = 0 1 0 =E J ? A J G = 0 1 0 0 1 (1) 0 1 0 (1) GAE J @E =F J AI = A JD =F= EB Gauss 6 @E F H A = X K A =E A @EX KI = b 0 =F= EB Gauss C AJ=E
[A b] E [A b] F E [A b] GF E [A b] .
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
'
3HDIE F E J=? JD FH IAJ=EHEIJE E@E JDJ= =J= C K A JE F H A = A BHXI K A JD =F= EB M? F =F =IE=I J K F = = A =E J K @E= I =J ? b A J CE A GF E 6 =HGE I IJD = AX = b C AJ=E
GF EAx = GF Eb .
- =? XJM =F JD @E=C - =? F = =? A = @E=C E A =E I=
HEI
F = =? A = [aij ] X AJ=E X M JHECM E ? AX = J= IJ EGA = E A =E I= A 0 @D =@ AX aij = 0 J= i > j [aij ] X AJ=E XJM JHECM E ? AX = J= IJ EGA = FX M =F JD A 0 @D =@ AX aij = 0 J= i < j ? F = =? =E G K A
) X CH= CH=
AJ=E A = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID =E GAE = HE> ? J @E I IAM A J I IJD = H A = = =EH I K A J= > =J= JD? =F= EB ? CE= = FX A =F J F = = U I FH FAE = = =EH I K A = = > = A JD = J IJH BD IAEHX - =E B= AH JE = =EH I K A J =F J AI = J K F =F =IE=I A J G =H A = F =F =IEX A J F = = F K FH I JAE (1) B H ? JD @A JAHD CH= IJD JH JD J F 1 K AG 1 0 0 G1 = 0 1 0 . 0 1 1 1 0 0 C= H K A J F = = F 1 = 0 1 0 F K FH I JAE (1) B HX JD FH JD 1 0 1 1 0 0 IJD JH JD =E J F = = E 1 = 2 1 0 F K FH I JAE B H ? JD FH JD 0 0 1 IJD @A JAHD =E G K A
E 1 F 1 G1 U = A .
6 CE A
E 1 F 1 G1 J IK >
K A L -G K A CHXOAE J
F = = A I= CE
A = LU .
F H A = A JA I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IA F E @ F JA JAJH=CM E n n F = = =H A J= IJ EGA = F K A B= J=E IJD @E=C E =JX JD =F= EB = D A =E D@ 5A =KJ JD FAH FJMID A JE D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? >H I AE = F HA? I @DC
)I DID $ 7F
C IJA J CE
L = E 1 F 1 G1
* F K A JE L IJ F=HX@AEC = A =E XJM JHECM E ? A IJD @E=C E =E J K? F =F =IE=IJ ? XJM =F JD @E=C E = @A N K A JE =KJ @A A =E JKG= L A =E 1 1 1 1 J CE A E F G JM FE X M F K = =EH J= > =J= JD? =F= EB ? G A =E IJ EGAE @D? F = =? E32 (1) A J = J IJ EG F =F =IE=IJ 32 = 1 IJD ID 3 2 F 1 A =E IJ EGAE @D? F = =? E31 (1) A J = J IJ EG F =F =IE=IJ 31 = 1
) CA>H=
? J K E32 (1) A J E31 (1) =F J= =HEIJAHX FH I JAE K E32 IJD JH JD CH= ) X D FH JD CH= A =E [1 0 0] ? = A B= EIJA F =F =IE=IJ ? 31 IJD ID 3 1 J K
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0 . 1 0 32 1 31 32 1
F =F =IE=IJ 21 IJD
2H J=ID ! -X IJ n n I IJD = Ax = b D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? >H I AE = F HA? I @DC GMH ? = GHAE=IJA = X K A A = =C ? CH= J JA F = =? A CHXBA J=E M? CE A A = LU F K
L A =E XJM JHECM E JD @E=C E U A =E X M JHECM E
? ? A 1 IJD @E=C E =E J K? F E =? JH F ? =F =IE=IJ ? ij XJM =F
LU x = b.
) X AX CHXO K A c = U x ANEI IAE? F H A = = JE =J=IJ I K A JD =HGE AN IMID A JE? @
LC = b,
-JIE CE= = I K A JD =HGE Lc = b =E =J FE J x F K E = @ IKIJ =J= A =E JHECM E X D AN IMID Lc = b C AJ=E 1 2 1 @D =@
U x = c.
0 0 1 0 1 1
5 c1 c2 = 2 c3 9
c1 = 5 2c1 + c2 = 2 c1 c2 + c3 = 9
=F F K G K A A AK A = = JE =JXIJ=ID c1 = 5, c2 = 12, c3 = 2
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
0 AN IMID U x = c J H= C AJ=E 2 1 1 0 8 2 0 0 1 JD
x 5 y = 12 z 2
K JE =KJX J= IKIJ =J= G K
Ux = b
GAE =@E ID 6 @E EIG AE CE= XJM JHECM E IJ EGA = A =E D D@A E X F = =JK F K = J= @E=C E=
- J ? =F JD F=H=C J F DID A = LU = EX B HX GHDIE F E A E= FE IK AJHE F=H=C J F DID CHXB K A J U M? CE A A ? @E=C E K F = = D A J K? @DC ? IJD @E=C E =E A ? X M JHECM E F = = U A 1 IJD @E=C E
2=H F K D IAEHX A JD F = X K A J= > =J= JD? =F= EB ? GMH ? A = =C ? F HA = = XNAE J JA E =F J AI = A =E =@E FM? = @A NAJA IJD )I DID !
)I DID % 6 CE
A @ XJM JHECM E FE X M A =E FX E XJM JHECM E ? F = =? = J= IJ EGA = FX M =F JD HE= @E=C E A =E D@ -N= HE> IJA JE EIG AE A = F=HX@AEC = FE X M 3 3 =E =J FE ANDC IJA =KJ J =F J AI = GHDIE F E J=? J K? = A? J K F =F =IE=I FE X M
)I DID & -B=H IJA =F= EB CE= = >HA JA J K? F=HXC JA? L =E U JM FE X M
2 1 8 7 , 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 , 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 4 8
IJA JD 1 1 1
AN IMID 0 0 2 4 4 u 2 1 0 0 1 2 v = 0 0 1 0 0 1 w 2
= =
JX? JD IA @
) CA>H=
=@E
)I DID ! 7F
E
C IJA J= CE
1 2 1 F = 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 G= 0 2 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 . H= 0 0 1 0 0 2 1
)I DID !
JHECM E
u 2 2 3 3 v = 2 . Ax = 0 5 7 5 6 9 8 w
AMH
AJ
X M JHECM E
F = =
d1 a b U = 0 d2 c 0 0 d3
=E KF J K A JE KFXHGAE F = =? V J J E ? IJA V U = I ,A NJA JE d1 d2 d3 = 0 =E JE V A =E AF ID? X M JHECM E ?
- =
=C ? CH=
5J I IJD = ANEI IAM ! GHAEXIJD A = = XN K A JD IAEHX JM ANEI IAM CE= = >H A = F HA? I @DC 2 ? F H A = F=H=IJ I K A IM FE X M JE? A = =C ? CH=
2=HX@AEC = #
2 3 7 8 = 7 8 2 3 1 0 0 1 5 4 1 5 4 P23 A = 0 0 1 0 2 3 = 7 1 8 , 0 1 0 7 1 8 0 2 3 0 1 1 0
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
! J K F = = A J= F
X K A F = = A = =C ? Pij J F = = F K A = XIAE JD i CH= =E JD j CH= J K F = = A J= F =F =IEX K A J A A J Pij =F J= =HEIJAHX F = =? Pij GAE 1 IJE? IAE? ij =E ji =E IJD @E=C E A J ? =F JE? IAE? ii =E jj A GAE 0 IJE? KF EFA? IAE? J= F =F =IEX K A J F = = A =F J= @ANEX A J F = = A = =C ? Pij J =F J AI = A =E D A = =C JM IJD i =E j J K A 6 CE A FE X M A = =C ? X AJ=E F = =? AJ= IAM? J= F =F =IEX K A J F = = A =F J= =HEIJAHX A = F = = AJ= IAM? J =F J AI = A =E = AJX AID JM CH= J K F = = A J= F =F =IEX K A J F = = A =F J= @ANEX A = F = = AJ= IAM? J =F J AI = A =E = AJX AID JM IJD J KA /E= = n n F = = A KF J K A JE IJD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? Gauss J K A GHAEX AJ=E = X K A @E=@ GE X JE? A = =C ? CH= F K F=HEIJX J=E =F J K? F = A? Pi1 j1 Pi2 j2 . . . , Pik jk AMHDJE X = F H I= A = X K A A? JE? A = =C ? CH= IJD =HG GHDIE F E J=? J CE A JM FE X M A = =C ? P = Pik jk . . . Pi1 j1 =E =J FE = NA E I K A JD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? IJ F = = P A = =F @A N A =KJ J EIGKHEI IJ A HD = = X @A JA =E JD )I DID !$ 5J P A D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? >H I AE = F HA? I @DC GMH ? = GHAE=IJA = X K A A = =C ? CH= =E IK AF ? G K A F=H=C J F DID
HEI
P A = LU .
J= 6 H= F H A = @ I K A = HEI J K E@E GHE J H= =F JA I =J= IA = A HD = =J= CAE E ) JE AE = F CAE GAE HB K F = = =E = = = AB= =E I K A
=F= EB ? A A = =C ? CH= I JAH= D@A E X IJ EGA = IJD @E=C AX D @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? >H I M E ? F = =? U IJ F =J= J 0
HEI
? - =? JAJH=CM E ? n n F = =? A A =E E@E
IA = X M JHECM E F = = A = FAHEI JM? F = =? A CAJ=E D E@E HB ? HA? I @DC @D =@ AX X M JHEC = J= IJ EGA = IJD @E=C E @E=B HAJE X =F
HB ? AX D @E=@E =I = JD?
A n =C
IJ K?
@A
F HA
-X F = =? A @A A =E E@E HB ? J JA KFXHGAE =? F = =? AJ= IAM? P J J E ? IJA IJD @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? J K P A @A A B= J=E D@A E X IJD ID JM @DC 5A =KJ JD FAH FJMID =@E ID D F = KF = 6 I IJD = GAE =E = X@H D? = JE =JXIJ=ID? > F = =? P A F=H=C J F EA J=E M? CE A C AJ=E A JD @E=@E =I = =F= EB ?
P A = LDU
"
) CA>H=
F K L A =E XJM JHECM E ? A 1 IJD @E=C E D A =E @E=C E ? F = =? A J K? @DC ? IJD @E=C E =E U A =E X M JHECM E ? A 1 IJD @E=C E 0 F=H=C J F DID IA F = A? A =KJ ? JE? E@E JDJA? A =E =@E
)I DID !#
K = IKIJ
=J= A =F=
EB
J=? A =
=C CH=
u + 4 v + 2w = 2 2u 8v + 3w = 32 v + w = 1
*HA JA J K? F = A? AJ= IAM F K GHAEX
,
J=E
v + w = 0 u + v = 0 u + v + w = 1
=E
P E = EP
)I DID !%
J=KJ JE
=J=CHXOAJA J K? $ F = A? AJ= IAM 3 3 IK FAHE = >= F = = 1 *HA JA J= = J IJH B= J K? J= F = A =E AF ID? F = A? AJ= ID J K = K K IKIJ C IAJA J CE A LU 2 4 4 1 0 0 LU x = 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 =J ? AFE J=? J= @
KJ K IAM?
JHECM E X
2 u v = 0 . 2 w
1 1 A IA X M JHECM E HB E32 E21 A = U 2 =F =IEXIJA A J K? F = A? E32 =E E21 1 1 E32 U CE= = F=H=C J F E IAJA J A IA LU = E21 1 1 1 A = 2 4 5 . 0 4 0
L =E U CE= J IK AJHE a a b b . c c c d
F = =
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
# F E J= a, b, c, d CE= = GAE
A? F K FH FAE = E =
A = LU
-X F = =? A GAE @DC ? 2, 7 =E 6 GMH ? A = =C ? CH= F E J K 2 2 KF F = = B IJD X M =HEIJAH F AKHX -NDC IJA J IK F H=I X
P A X M JHECM E =F =IE=I ? A J
2 E F = A? P2 IJ= @ANEX
) J IJH B E F = A?
5A =KJ JD F=HXCH=B FAHE HE =IJA IA JAJH=CM E X AJ=E =E ? F = A? F = =? B J J E ? IJA - =? J J E ? F = =? B IJ
HEI
? - =? JAJH=CM E ? F = =? A
BA = I
X AJ=E
= JEIJH OE
? AX KFXHGAE
=?
AB = I .
AJ=E A1 = = =F @A N K A
= J IJH B ? J K A =E IK >
IK A? 5KC A HE
2H J=ID % -X
A A =E = JEIJH OE
? J JA
= J IJH B ? F = =? A =E
=@E
=E
AX a = 0
= [1/a]
=@E
ID JD? AN IMID?
) CA>H=
0 F=H=FX M FH J=ID =? AE JE AX A A =E = JEIJH OE ? KFXHGAE FX J= =@E ID JD? Ax = b CE= X A b M? @A GHAEX AJ=E = >H A J = J IJH B CE= = KF C I K A JD ID IK J JAH ? JH F ? = >H A JD ID A =E D =F= EB Gauss =E D = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID CE= JD F = =F=EJ J=E FAH F K J = JH J JM FHXNAM F K =F=EJ J=E CE= J KF CEI J K = JEIJH B K
2H J=ID ' 6 CE
=E
= JEIJH OE M FE X M A =E B A =E = JEIJH OE
? F = =?
(AB )1 = B 1 A1 .
)H A = @A N K A JE B 1 A1 E = F EA JE? IG IAE? F K H K J =
)F @AEND
J IJH B
(AB )(B 1 A1 ) = A(BB 1 )A1 = (AI )A1 = AA1 = I , (B 1 A1 )(AB ) = B 1 (A1 A)B = B 1 IB = B 1 B = I .
F 1 G1 (GF EA)A1 = E
AX =E AX
a b c d
1 adbc
A =E = JEIJH OE
? AX
=E
d b c a
=E AX = J IJH B ?
? =F J K? I
=E I
E F
ABX =E
2 = A? =E )F=
EB Gauss
Axj = ej
j = 1, . . . , n.
,D =@ CE= = KF C I K A J = J IJH B A1 FH FAE = I K A n IKIJ =J= n AN EI IAM A n =C IJ K? M? F = =? IK JA AIJ A A =E @E ? =E CE= J= n IKIJ =J= )H= D =F= EB Gauss F HA = C AE = B HX CE= = J= IKIJ =J= /E= = =J=CHXO K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = BJEXG K A J AF=KND F = = A JE? IJ A? J K A =E JE? IJ A? J K I
[A I ] = [A e1 e2 e3 ] 2 1 1 4 6 0 = 2 7 2 2 1 1 0 8 2 0 8 3 2 1 1 0 8 2 0 0 1 = U L1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 1
) J = FH GMH I K A IJD = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID A J IK D JH F IK AG K A JD =F= EB JM IJ EGA M FX M =F JD @E=C E NA E J=? =F JD JA AKJ= = IJ D 2H I J K A @ B H ? JD JH JD CH= IJD @A JAHD CH= =E =B=EH A = B HX JD JH JD CH= =F JD FH JD CH= 2 1 0 2 1 1 3 2 . U L1 0 8 0 4 0 0 1 1 1 1 2H I J K A 1/8 B H ? JD @A JAHD CH= IJD FH JD CH= 2 0 0 12 5 6 8 8 8 3 2 . 0 8 0 4 0 0 1 1 1 1 ,E=EH A A J K?
6 H= IJE? JHA ? IJ A? IJ= =HEIJAHX G K A = @E=C E F = = @DC ? CE= = FXH K A 1 IJE? JHAE? IJ A? IJ= =HEIJAHX 5 6 1 0 0 12 16 16 16 1 1 3 4 0 1 0 = [I B ] . 2 8 0 0 1 1 1 1
E IJ A? J K B A =E = HE> ? E IAE? JM ANEI IAM Axj = ej @D =@ AB = I EJ J=? J @E=B HAJE X X A > = JD? @E=@E =I =? F K = K I= A = JEIJ EGA IA
&
) CA>H=
F =F =IE=I =F J= =HEIJAHX A = F = = F1 , . . . , Fk )F J =HEIJAH H ? J K AF=KND K F = = G K A Fk . . . F1 A = I A =F J @AN H ? G K A Fk . . . F1 I = B 5K AF ? A1 = Fk . . . F1 = B 0 @E=@E =I = F K = K I= A X AJ=E =F= EB GaussJordan =E F HA = AB=H IJA IA X A D E@E HB F = = )H= G K A =F @A NAE JE X A D E@E HB ? F = =? A =E = JEIJH OE ? = @A N K A =E J = J IJH B =? E@E HB ? F = =? @A A =E = JEIJH OE ? )HGE X AMH A = X M JHECM E F = = X M JHECM E J JA @A A =E = JEIJH OE ?
= -X
? F = =? U GAE
D@A E
IJ EGA
IJD @E=C
)F @AEND
7F J K A JE F = =? U A =E X M JHECM E ? =E GAE = D@A E IJ EGA IJD @E=C E IJM J ukk = 0 )B=EH J=? F =F XIE JD? IJ D? k 1 =F JD IJ D k J K U F H A = D@A I K A J IJ EGA u(k1) k 5JD IK GAE= =B=EH J=? =JX D = F =F XIE= JM IJD k 2 k 3, . . . , 1 F H A = D@A I K A = J= IJ EGA = u(k2) k , u(k3) k , . . . , u1 k =J= C J=? IA = F = = W IJ F = J= IJ EGA = JD? IJ D? k A =E D@ 7FA K K A JE D =B= HAID A ? F =F =I K JD? IJ D? j A ? F = = =F JD IJ D k EI @K = A A F =F =IE=I =F J= @ANEX A J IJ EGAE @D F = = Ejk () -X M A =E J CE A =KJ JM IJ EGAEM@ FE X M G K A
W = UM .
/ MH K A JE F = =? M A =E AX = @A E IJ EGAE @AE? F =E = JEIJH OE ? W A =E = JEIJH A =E = JEIJH OE = A? A =E = JEIJH OE E 5K AF ? =F JD 2H J=ID ' )F J = F = =? U A =E = JEIJH OE ? AX OE ? ) X W GAE = IJ D D@A E =E =F J ?
A = P 1 LU .
? =F J = =J=
A HD = ! - =? F = =? A =E E@E
B K? JM F=H= XJM FE 1 1 2 X M
HB ? AX
=E
AX @A A =E = JEIJH OE
1 2 1 3 1 0 2 3 1
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b = 0.
6 H= ANAJX
Ax = b ,
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
"!
6 I IJD = GAE IAE? AX =E AX J b = AE IJ G H IJD J K A -X b R(A) J JA J I IJD = @A GAE ID =E A JE E ANEI IAE? A =E =I >=JA? -X b R(A) J JA D =F= EB =E D = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID @ @AE JE? IAE? )? ANAJXI K A J F=HX@AEC = -B=H J=? JD =F= EB =E IJD @ANEX F AKHX JD?
u 1 3 3 2 b1 v 2 6 9 5 w = b2 1 3 3 0 b3 y
F= H K A JD AN IMID
w = 1
y 3 u = 2 y 3v
CA E
ID A =E JD?
HB ?
u 2 3 1 v 0 1 0 x= w = 1 + v 0 + y 1 3 y 1 0 0
2=H=JDH A JE A =E J X H EI = E=? AE@E ? ID? =E JD? CA E ? ID? J K CA ? IKIJ =J ? Ax = 0 2HXC =JE AX Ax0 = 0 =E Ax1 = b J JA A(x0 + x1 ) = 0 + b = b /E= = >H A E= AE@E ID F H A = @ I K A IA A? JE? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? JD JE 0 0 AN IMID Ax = b GAE IAE? AX =E J K A -X x1 A =E = ID J JA D CA E ID xCA
A HD =
AX b = A =E JD?
AE IJ G H IJD HB ?
xCA
F K x0 A =E E= ID JD? CA
= x1 + x0 ,
? AN IMID? Ax = 0
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) CA>H=
2=H=JDH A JE J I JM IAM IJD FAH FJMID b = 0 @A A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? A =E D@A GMH ? J K A AJ=J FEI ? =JX JD AE@E ID X K A JXND J K F = = A J =HE r JM @DC F K A B= J=E IJD =F= EB -X KFXHG K r @DC J JA KFXHG K r >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? =E n r A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? - =E FH B= ? JE =HE ? JM @DC A =E I ? A J =HE JM D D@A E CH= IJ E = MJ F = = U -X r = n J JA @A KFXHG K A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? IK AF ? D@A GMH ? J K A n A =E {0 R } =E AX KFXHGAE XF E= ID =KJ A =E =@E -X r = m J JA @A A =E @ I =@ A JE = J= @E= I =J= J K Rm = K IJ G H IJD J K A =E IK AF ? D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID CE= X A b -X r = m = n J JA G K A JAJH=CM E D E@E HB F = = D AN IMID GAE FX J= = =E =@E ID
)I DID
JE? IK A? F K FH FAE = E = F E E IK EIJ IA? bi J K @E= I =J ? b IJA = GAE ID D AN IMID Ax = b 5A X A FAH FJMID AFE NJA = @EX KI = b F K E = F EA =KJ ? JE? IK A? =E >HA JA A? JE? IAE? J K IKIJ =J ? A =E J=KJ JE AC = I
$ -X A A =E 2 3 =E C A =E 3 2 F = A? @A NJA JE CA @A
? F = =? ANAJXIJA JD JXND J K CA *HA JA AMH IJA J E = MJ 1 U= 0 0 F = =
F HA = = F=HX@AEC = IJ F
%
3 3 2 0 3 1 . 0 0 0
K A JD =F= EB FH ? J= FX M IJA = D@A I K A J= IJ EGA = J K? @DC ? =E IJD IK GAE= = @E=EH I K A X A D D@A E @DC IJA = G K A IJD ID JM @DC 5J IKC A HE IJ F = = 1 3 0 1 R = 0 0 1 1 /3 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 2 4
>
1 2 3 5 2 4 8 12 3 6 7 13
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
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=E A
? rn F = =
? mr
A = (IJ A? J K ) F K FAHE G K
? J K R).
)I DID
b1 2 4 6 4 A = 2 5 7 6 b = b2 . 2 3 5 2 b3
*HA JA JE? IAE? JD? b = (4, 3, 5) CH= CA ? AN IMID? Ax = 0 =E JD CA E ID JD? Ax = b J= J KA 2 E
)I DID
E
IK @K=I
J K A @@ K 1 2 1 1 1 1 A = 2 6 3 , A = 1 2 4 0 2 5 2 4 8
J=E IJ G H IJD
)I DID
A? JE?
IAE?
2 E ? IK
2 4 5 9
A? IJ= b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 = EIJ
J I IJD = AFE IE
*HA JA
1 2 2 3
x1 x2
b1 b2 = b3 , b4
1 2 2 3
2 3 b1 x1 4 6 b2 x2 = b3 5 7 x3 9 12 b4
IE
)I DID
J AF=KND
2 EX IK F = = [A b]
:A E IJA A D
F EA J=E D IK
x + 2y 2z = b1 2x + 5y 4z = b2 4x + 9y 8z = b3
@E=B HAJE ?
AX C MH AJA JE = KFXHG K
A? JE? IG IAE? F K F HA JA = IK FAHX AJA CE= J= r, m =E n m n F = =? A GAE JXND r =E CE= JD AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID
XF E= b CE= J= F = @A
"$ > CE= X A b GAE XFAEHA? C KFXHGAE = HE> ? @ = HE> ? = = IAE? ID CE= XF E= b = =
) CA>H=
ID CE= XF E= X
=b
ID CE= X A b
)I DID
q = A =E @K =J
JIE
IJA D JXND JM FE X M
6 4 2 A = 3 2 1 , 9 6 q
B=
3 2 3 q 2 q
)I DID
(2, 3, 1, 0)
D@A G H ? A
)I DID
=E =EJE
CDID AX A =E = D
% - =E J= =
K == D
? F = =? @A ? F = =? @A
GAE A A GAE A A
C - =? m n F = =? @A @ - =? m n F = =? @A
GAE FAHEII JAHA? =F n >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? GAE FAHEII JAHA? =F m >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? ID J K IKIJ =J ?
)I DID
Ax = 1 0
& *HA JA J
A =E x =
1 0
F = = A AX C MH AJA JE D CA E 0 +c 1 K
)I DID
IJD CH=
D@A G H ? A =E I ? A J G H K? J K?
)I DID
E
? IK @K=I
(0, 1, 1) =E
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
"%
/H=
) AN=HJDI =
J= = A = >H A JE? IAE? JD? CA ? AN IMID? Ax = 0 CE= J F = = @ I= A IA = A A AHD AJ=> DJ JD JE =E IJD X D JD JE CE= >H A = ID =J FE @ I= A IJD FH JD A A AHD AJ=> DJ JD JE =E IJD X D JD JE CE= = >H A = @A JAHD ID ,A GHAEXIJD A = KF C I K A JE? IAE? CE= X K? IK @K=I ? CE= F=HX@AEC = = @ I K A JD JE =E IJE? @ A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? CE=J A? E X A? IAE? FH FJ K M? CH= E IK @K=I =KJ JM @ = JH JD ID @A FH IB HAE XJE FAHEII JAH IJ D@A G H J K F = = ) A =KJ JD E= A =E FAHEJJ AMH A J I IJD = CH= E ANEI IAM
3x + 5y + 2z = 0 2x + y z = 0 x + 4y + 3 z = 0
J F F H A = I K A =E = >H AJ I JM IAM
U = {(t, t, t) | t R}
-X J H= AMH I K A JE? @ FH JA? ANEI IAE? = @ A JE =E =KJ J I IJD = GAE M? I IAM J U 0 JH JD AN IMID A =E D @E=B HX JD? @A JAHD? =F JD FH JD =E JIE @A >X AE XF E AF F FAHE HEI IJ I IAM A =KJ JD E= D JH JD AN IMID A =E FAHEJJ )KJ D E= J K FAHEJJ CE= IAE? F K @A AC= K J G H JM IAM ANEI IAM E F A? @A J K FAHEII JAH K? FAHE HEI ? =F JA A = >=IE E= JD? /H= E ? ) CA>H=? JD F = X K A CH= E ANXHJDID = IK C @E= KI XJM A =E CH= E X AN=HJD D J= FAHE GAE FAHEJJX @E= I =J= - = I IJD = ANEI IAM A =E CH= E X AN=HJD J= FAHE GAE FAHEJJ ? ANEI IAE? 0 JXND A ? F = = A =E =HE ? F K =? @ @AE J FH=C =JE CA ? J K F = = AJHXAE J =HE JM D FAHEJJ ANEI IAM JM D D@A E CH= IJ E = MJ F = = -F ID? AJHXAE J =HE JM IJD A @DC ? =KJ F K FH=C =JE X IK AEIB H K IJ G H IJD /E= = =J= X> K A = JAH= JD ID =I = JD? JXND? A ? F = = GHAE= =IJA JD E= JD? CH= E ? = AN=HJDI =? AX
HEI
= =F =KJX F HA JM CH=
E X AN=HJD
FM
6 I
1 1 2 0 4 1 1 3 3
A =E CH= E X AN=HJD =B D JH JD CH= A =E ID A J X H EI = JM @ X M (1, 3, 3) = (1, 1, 2) + (0, 4, 1) )KJ GAE M? IK FAE= JE AX J @EX KI = (u, v, w) E = F EA JE? @ FH JA? =F JE? ANEI IAE? J K IKIJ =J ?
v + 2w = 0 4v + w = 0 , u + 3 v + 3w = 0
J JA E = F EA =E JD JH JD
"&
) CA>H=
- =I k @E= KI XJM J K Rn F K FAHE GAE J 0 A =E =F=H=EJ JM? CH= E X AN=HJD AX v1 = 0 J JA v1 = 0v2 + + 0vk = @ I K A = FE IK AJHE HEI JD? E=? JD? CH= E ? ANXHJDID? F K @A @E= H AJ=E XF E =F J= @E= I =J= CH= E IJA
HEI
? IK @K=I
E F
E X AN=HJD
E @A A =E
= AX KFXHGAE
D@
J J E ?
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ck vk = 0 .
)KJ ID = AE JE AX A A =E F = =? A IJ A? J= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vn J JA J CA ? n I IJD = Ax = 0 GAE IAE? x = (c1 , . . . , cn ) @E=B HAJE ? =F J 0 R 6= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vk J K Rn A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= AX @A A =E CH= E X AN=HJD = @D =@ AX =@E ? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM v1 , . . . , vk F K A =E I ? A D@ A =E JAJHE ? A K? J K? IK JA AIJ ? I K? A 0 5A =KJ JD FAH FJMID D =@E ID J K CA ? IKIJ =J ? Ax = 0 A =E D x = 0 Rn 5K F DH K A J AN=HJD AX u = 0 HEI CE= n = 1 C J=? JE J I =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ AX u = 0
{u} A =E CH= E X
2=HX@AEC = 2=HX@AEC =
CH= 0
D D@A E X @E= I =J= A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= J= @A A =E IKCCH= E X -X c1 v1 + c2 v2 = 0 = X @A KFXHGAE c J J E IJA v1 = cv2 v2 = cv1 J JA c1 = c2 = 0 E X AN=HJD
",
2=HX@AEC =
CH=
E X AN=HJD
5K AF ? CE= = A CN K A AX J= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vn Rm A =E CH= E X = ANXHJD J= IGD =J K A J m n F = = A IJ A? v1 , . . . , vn -X KFXHGAE = D D@A E @EX KI = c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) J J E IJA Ac = 0 J JA E IJ A? J K F = = A A =E CH= E X AN=HJD A? -X D =@E ID JD? Ax = 0 A =E D JAJHE D x = 0 Rn J JA E IJ A? J K F = = A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? -E@E JAH= E IJ A? A ? JHECM E F = = A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? AX =E AX = J= IJ EGA = IJD @E=C E A =E @E=B HAJE X =F J
2H J=ID
E X = ANXHJDJA? 6
! 5A = F = = IA
? A =E CH=
AMH A = m n F = = IA E = MJ HB A r D D@A E ? CH= ? =E @DC ? IJE? IJ A? j1 , j2 , . . . , jr 5K > K A U J r n F = = F K =F JA A J=E =F JE? D D@A E ? CH= ? =E c = (c1 , . . . , cr ) = @EX KI = J J E IJA cT U = 0 K A = @A N K A JE c = 0 -NAJX K A JD IJ D j1 6 IJ EGA a1j1 = 0 A = J= KF EF= A =E 0 )H= c1 a1j1 = 0 =E IK AF ? c1 = 0 7F J K A J H= JE c1 = c2 = . . . = ck = 0 CE= k < r =E = @A N K A JE ck+1 = 0 -NAJX K A JD IJ D jk+1 6 IJ EGA a(k+1)jk+1 = 0 A CE= p > k + 1 apjk+1 = 0 )H= ck+1 a(k+1)jk+1 = 0 =E IK AF ? ck+1 = 0 /E= = =F @A N K A JE E IJ A? F K FAHE G K @DC ? A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? ANAJX K A IAE? JD? AN IMID? U x = 0 CE= JE? F A? A? E A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? A =E
)F @AEND
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
"' ID x = 0 E X AN=HJD
0 0 = X@H
D = JE =JXIJ=ID J JA @ @AE JD
=@E
" -X n > m = I
A?
!! ,A NJA JE AX a = 0 d = 0 f = 0 J JA E IJ A? J K U A =E CH= E X
a b c U = 0 d e 0 0 f
)I DID
D
!" -X J= a, d, f IJD )I DID !! A =E = @E=B HAJE X =F J J JA D ID JD? AN IMID? U x = 0 A =E x = 0 E IJ A? J K U A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA?
!# -NAJXIJA AX A =E = ANXHJDJ= J= @E= I =J= = (0, 1), (1, 1) > (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0) C (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)
J= u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 A =E CH= E X AN=HJD = 1 1 u1 = 0 , u 2 = 1 , 0 0
)I DID
)I DID
A? *HA JA
2=H=CMC 7F GMH K
G H ? IJD A ? F = = A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm F K =F JA A J=E =F J= @E= I =J= F K CHXB J=E M? CH= E IK @K=I JM IJD J KF = = A JE E IJ A? J K F = = F=HXC K J G H IJD
#
) CA>H=
/A E JAH= = I @E= KI XJM S V F=HXCAE J KF GMH V AX J K V A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? @E= KI XJM J K S
X A @EX KI =
BH=ID M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? @A A =E A C AE - BHXIJA J @EX KI = (1, 2) M? CH= E IK @K=I JM F=H=FX M @E= KI XJM @E=B HAJE ? JH F K? = F=HXC K J R IK @K=I
b1 e1 + + bn en .
AMH A J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk J K Rn 6 I M JM @E= KI n XJM J K R F K A BHX J=E M? CH= E IK @K=I JM w1 , . . . , wk A =E =? @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rn AMH A J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk J K Rn KF GMH ? F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk A =E J I M JM @E= KI XJM J K Rn F K A BHX J=E M? CH= E IK @K=I JM w1 , . . . , wk G H ? IJD A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm F K F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? IJ A? J K A 5K >=JE X AMH A JE D@A E ? KF GMH ? {0 Rn } F=HXCAJ=E =F J A I
HEI
!' 6= @E= I =J= u + w =E u w A =E CH= E IK @K=I JM u =E w /HXOJA J= u =E w M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM u + w =E u w 6= @ A CD @E= KI XJM J @E KF GMH )F JA J= @ A CD >XIAE? J K KF GMH K " 2AHECHXOJA J
KF GMH J K R2 F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J=
= (0, 1), (1, 1) > (1, 1), (1, 1) C (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0)
)I DID
GE
J=?
I IJD = Ax = 0
E X = ANXHJDJ=
(1, 1, 0, 0) ,
(1, 0, 1, 0) ,
(0, 0, 1, 1) ,
(0, 1, 0, 1) .
> - CNJA AX J @EX KI = (0, 0, 0, 1) >H I AJ=E IJ G H F K F=HXC K J= F=H=FX M @E= I =J=
)I DID
"
2AHECHXOJA J
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
# @DC ?
C JE? IJ A? A @
? 35
E = MJ
F = = A A?
)I DID
IJA JE J F AJ A J= @E= I =J= JM F M K A =A C N K A JD CH= E = AN=HJDI = IJE? CH= ? =E GE IJE? IJ A? A ? F = = 2M? F H A = IK FAHX K A AX A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= =JX JD @EXH AE= JD? =F= EB ? =F J A IJ U
"! 7F
*XID A
J K Rn J
? @E= KI =JE
G H K
KF GMH K V Rn A =E =I @E= KI XJM
HEI
2=HXCAE J - =E CH=
)F @AEND 7F
J K A JE w1 , . . . , wk A =E >XID J K V
=E JE
b = a1 w1 + + ak wk = c1 w1 + + ck wk .
6 JA (a1 c1 )w1 + + (ak ck )wk = 0 = ANXHJDJ= E IK JA AIJ ? J K CH= E A0 =E =B J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk A =E CH= E X IK @K=I F K F=HEIJX AE J 0 A =E E EI E
>XID J K Rn A =E D >XID e1 , . . . , en D F = =F JA A J=E =F JE? IJ A? J K =@E= K F = = M? D >XID =KJ @A A =E =JX = = JH F =@E E IJ A? X A = JEIJH OE K n n F = = =F JA = >XID J K Rn
0 =
E IJ A? A ?
AMH
AJ
E = MJ 1 3 U= 0 0 0 0
3 3 0
c1 c2
=0
) CA>H=
G K A c1 + 3c2 = 0 =E 3c2 = 0 =E IK AF ? c2 = 0, c1 = 0 /E= = @A N K A JE E IJ A? A @DC ? F=HXC K J G H IJD =H A = A CN K A JE E KF EFA? IJ A? A BHX J=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD F K FAHE G K @DC ? 5J F = = U J K F=H=@A C =J ? AX v1 , . . . , v4 A =E E IJ A? J K U F=H=JDH A JE E IJ A? v2 =E v4 A BHX J=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I IJM v1 =E v3
v2 = 3 v1
=E
1 v4 = v3 + v1 . 3
,EXIJ=ID
X A CH= E ? KF GMH ? J K Rn @E=B HAJE ? =F J {0} >XIAE? M? A? E >XIAE? G K J @E =HE IJ EGA M GAE XFAEHA? @E=B H JE ? = >XID A k IJ EGA = J JA
2H J=ID
X AX
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)F @AEND 7F
J K A JE G K A >XIAE? v1 , . . . , vk =E w1 , . . . , wm J K V )B J= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vk =F JA >XID X A @EX KI = wj A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM vi wj = a1j v1 + + akj vk . ! -X
W = V A.
/E= F=HX@AEC = D FH JD IJ D J K V A A =E A IK JA AIJ ? a11 , . . . , ak1 CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J KV
a11 v1 + + ak1 vk = w1 .
F = =? A A =E k m -X k < m J JA KFXHGAE @EX KI = c = 0 J J E ) X J JA W c = V Ac = V 0 = 0, IJA Ac = 0
=E IK AF ? E IJ A? J K W @A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? )H= D KF AID k < m @A F HA = EIG AE =B W A =E >XID 2=H E= @A G K A JE @A F HA = EIG AE D KF AID k > m =E IK AF ? G K A k = m
HEI
? JM IJ EGA M JD? >XID? A ? CH= X AJ=E @EXIJ=ID J K V =E IK > AJ=E dim V G H ? Rn GAE @EXIJ=ID n D = ? KF GMH ? {0 Rn } GAE @EXIJ=ID 0 J A I
3
=HE
E E
2=HX@AEC =
D@A E
!
2=HX@AEC =
"
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
#!
/E= = >H A = >XID J K KF GMH K V J AMH A M? J D@A GMH N (A) J K F = = [ 3 1 0 ] -@ F = =? GAE = CH= D F = FAHE GAE J @DC ! )H= D JXND J K F = = A =E =E G K A @ A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? = >XID J K D@A GMH K GAE @ IJ EGA = IA? A =E E A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? =E IK AF ? D @EXIJ=ID J K V A =E FM? C MH K A =F JD ) = KJE /AM AJH = J I V F=HEIJX AE = AF FA@ IJ G H 2H I NJA JE D @EXIJ=ID = =B HAJ=E IJ KF GMH V =E GE IJ= A = @E= I =J= J KV X A IJ EGA v J K V GAE ! IK JAJ=C A? FHXC = F K ID = AE JE = AE IJ R3 , v R3 -JIE J @EX KI = v = (1, 3, 2) A =E IJ EGA J K G H K V F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID =E J K G H K R3 F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID ! ) X J v A =E AF ID? IJ EGA J K G H K W = {(t, 3t, 2t) : t R} F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID = @EX KI = x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 7FXHG K " AJ= IAE? JM IK JAJ=C M J K )KJX J= " @E= I =J= F=HXC K = KF G H V J K R4 *HA JA IKC A HE = @E= I =J= x J J E= IJA D @EXIJ=ID J K V = A =E = > C ! @ "
)I DID
"" -FE C K A
>HA JA = >XID CE= JD J =KJ J K AFEF @ K A J (x, y ) AF FA@ 6 >XID CE= J KF GMH JM @E= KI XJM F K A =E X AJ= IJ =HGE AF FA@ OAK@
"$ 7F
K = D
X A >XID J K S F HA @EX KI =
= @EX KI =
E IJ A? J K A A =E n @E= I =J= J K Rm 2 EX A =E D JXND J K A AX J= @E= I =J= A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= 2 EX AX J= @E= I =J= F=HXC K J Rm 2 EX AX J= @E= I =J= =F JA K >XID J K Rm
"%
K? KF GMH K? J K R4
E IK EIJ IA? G K X H EI =
)I DID
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J K A JE
V J JA =F JA
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A A E @AE? 7F GMH E A
?F = =
GHE J H= G K A @A F=H=@A C =J= >XIAM = X @A G K A = JH F = =J=I AKX I K A = >XID CE= F E=@ F JA CH= E KF GMH 5JD IK GAE= = @ A FM? NA E J=? =F = FAHECH=B A ? KF GMH K F H A = =J=I AKXI K A = >XID J K -G K A @A @ JH F K? = FAHECHXO K A = @E= KI =JE KF GMH F HA = C MH K A = I @E= KI XJM F K F=HXC K J KF GMH FM? G H ? IJD F K F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? IJ A? A ? F = = ,E=B HAJE X F HA = C MH K A IK A? JE? F A? FH FAE = E = F E J= @E= I =J= J K KF G H K FM? D@A G H ? A ? F = = A F K =F JA A J=E =F J= @E= I =J= F K E = F E JE? IK A? Ax = 0 5JD FH JD FAH FJMID F HA = FAHE G J=E FAHEJJX @E= I =J= IJ I F K F=HXCAE J KF GMH 5JD @A JAHD FAH FJMID F HA = FAHE = >X J=E FAHEJJ ? ANEI IAE? IJE? IK A? F K FH I@E H K J KF GMH = HC= I K A JD IK JDID C HM =F J K? J IIAHAE? A A E @AE? KF GMH K? F K IGAJ J=E A = F = = -G K A @D @A J D@A GMH =E J G H IJD M A ? F = = A = H I K A X K? @ G H K? E F E FH FJ K =F J A JIE IJA CE= X A m n F = = A = G K A J IIAHE? KF GMH K?
J KA
G H ? IJD
=E IK >
? F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? IJ A?
JD?
AJ=E
? =F JA A J=E =F JE?
IAE?
N (A) Rn
J K A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rn F ? F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? CH= ? J K A 2H B= ? IK F FJAE A J G H IJD J K = XIJH B K F = = AT =E IK > AJ=E R(AT ) Rn
G H ? CH=
N (AT ) Rm .
= A AJ I K A = = =F =KJ ? J K? G H K? = >H A JD @EXIJ=ID J K? =E = FAHECHXO K A >XIAE? GHDIE F E J=? J F = = A =E J E = MJ F = = U F K FH FJAE AJX JD =F= EB -FEIJH B K A IJ F=HX@AEC = =E AMH A J=KJ GH M? J K? F = A? A =E U
1 3 3 2 6 9 5 A= 2 1 3 3 0
1 3 3 2 U = 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
##
G H ? CH=
J K A, R(AT )
GAE M? >XID JE? D E X = ANXHJDJA? =E J F J= FAHEII JAH A J G H CH=
/E= = E = MJ F = = U A = > F K A JE G H ? CH= D@A E ? CH= ? J K U IJD 2H J=ID ! @A N= A JE A =E CH= F=HXC K J G H =B E D@A E ? CH= ? @A IK AEIB H K 0 ID = JE F=H=J HDID A =E JE G H ? CH= J K A A =E @E ? J KU
&
R(AT ) = R(U T ) .
X A CH= J K U FH FJAE =F CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM CH= J K A 5J F=HX@AEC = D D CH= J K U A =E D D CH= J K A A J @EF XIE JD? D? CH= ? J K A )H= =E F E I@ F JA CH= E ? IK @K=I ? CH= J K U F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? CH= J K A )H= G H ? CH= J K U FAHE GAJ=E IJ G H CH= J KA
)F @AEND
R(U T ) R(AT ) .
) X =B D @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? A =E = JEIJH OE D X A CH= J K A F HA A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM CH= J K U 5J F=HX@AEC = D D CH= J K A A =E D D CH= J K U IK J @EF XIE JD? D? CH= ?J KU )H= G H ? CH= J K U FAHE GAJ=E IJ G H CH= J KA =
R(AT ) R(U T ) .
5K FAH= K A JE
R(AT ) = R(U T ) .
9? >XID J K R(AT ) F H A = GHDIE F E I K A JE? D D@A E ? CH= ? J K U 6 F ? =KJ A =E I A JD JXND r J K F = = 5K FAH= K A JE D @EXIJ=ID J K G H K CH= A =E ID A JD JXND J K F = =
dim R(AT ) = r .
F H A = -X M? G J KF = =A =J=CHXB >H A = >XID J K G H K CH= F K = =F JA A J=E =F CH= ? J K A K KFXHNAE A = =C ? CH= IJD =F= EB Gauss E r FH JA? CH= ? F HA = D A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? K A JE? FH DC A A? F=H=JDH IAE? IJD = K D 2H J=ID
2H J=ID
'
=E GAE
R(AT ) Rn
dim R(AT ) = r
? J K = J IJ EG K E = MJ
#$
) CA>H=
2H J=ID
=E GAE
N (A) Rn
dim N (A) = n r .
G H ? IJD
)I DID
IJ 6 =
J K A, R(A)
= @EX KI = J K R(A) J K F=H=@A C =J ? F K @A = AE J K
R(U )
K
# *HA JA
J K A =E JM IJD =E
U
AX J = J IJ EG I =E U
- = I
)F @AEND -X A A =E F = =? F K F= H K A =F
F = =? =F JE? = J IJ EGA? IJ
J KA
A = P 1 L U
=E =B F = =? P 1 L A =E = JEIJH OE ? = @EX KI = x E = F EA JD A x = 0 AX =E AX E = F EA JD AN IMID U x = 0 -X E IJ A? J K U A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? J JA D =@E ID J K A =E D x = 0 =E IK AF ? D =@E ID J K A x = 0 A =E D x = 0 5K AF ? J K A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? E IK AF=CMC ? EIG K =E = J IJH B= AX E IJ A? J K A A =E CH= E X = A? J @E EIG AE CE= JE? IJ A? J K U AN IMID
Ux = 0 E IJ A?
ANXHJDJ
/ MH K A JE E r IJ A? F K FAHE G K @DC ? =F JA >XID J K R(U ) 5K AF ? E = J IJ EGA? r IJ A? j1 , . . . , jr J K F = = A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? -X D @EXIJ=ID J K R(A) J= AC= JAHD =F r J JA = KF HGA XF E= X D IJ D J K A D F = = A JE? j1 , . . . , jr = =F JA IA CH= E X = ANXHJDJ I ) X J JA E = J IJ EGA? r + 1 IJ A? J K U = J= CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? F K @A F HA = IK >A =B D @EXIJ=ID J K R(U ) A =E r 5K AF ? E IJ A? j1 , . . . , jr F=HXC K J R(A) =E =F JA >XID J K
ABX =E
2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE
7F GMH E
#% =E GAE
2H J=ID
R(A) Rm
= >XID J K R(A) =F JA A J=E =F JE? IJ F = = U F K FAHE G K @DC ? 5K FAE= JM 2H JXIAM J K A A =E I ' =E ? JM CH=
dim R(A) = r .
IJE? IJ A? J K E = MJ
A? F K = JEIJ EG K
A =E J =
A HD =
! 5A X A m n F = = A J F
AJ F
dim N (AT ) = m r .
/E= = FAHECHXO K A J= @E= I =J= y F K E = F E
P A = LU . L A =E = JEIJH OE
? =E G K A
L1 P A = U .
0 i CH= J K U A =E J CE A JD? i CH= ? J K L1 P A J F = = A E mr JA AKJ= A? CH= ? J K U A =E IA? A J D@ )H= E m r JA AKJ= A? CH= ? J K L1 P A =E @E= I =J= J K =HEIJAH D@A GMH K J K A )B F = =? L1 P A =E = JEIJH OE ? E CH= ? J K A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? )H= E m r JA AKJ= A? CH= ? J K L1 P A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= @E= I =J= J K G H K N (AT ) F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID m r =E IK AF ? =F JA = >XID J K G H K
2H J=ID
"
N (AT ) Rm
dim N (AT ) = m r
? J K F = = L1 P JD?
)I DID
F = =
J=E A J
#&
) CA>H=
)I DID
3 2 0 0
J K
)I DID
=
JM FE X M
>
A=
=E U =
A AB A =E D@A E ? F = =? AB = 0 @A NJA JE G H ? IJD J K F = = B FAHE GAJ=E IJ D@A G H J K A ,A NJA AF ID? JE G H ? CH= J K A FAHE GAJ=E IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K B F = =B F J= @E= I =J=
## -X J CE
#$ *HA JA = F = = A
? GAE J
1 1 1 1 , 2 , 5 0 0 0
GAJ=E IJ G H CH=
#& -X D AN IMID Ax = 0 GAE = D D@A E ID @A NJA JE KFXHG K @E= I =J= w CE= J= F = AT y = w @A GAE ID =J=I AKXIJA = J J E A =E w #' 3MH ? = F =F =IEXIAJA CE= A A EM@ KF G HM J K A 1 0 0 1 A= 6 1 0 0 9 8 1 0 $ -X A = XNAJA JE? @
= KF C IAJA J A >HA JA >XIAE? JM
2 3 4 1 2 3 . 0 1 8
)I DID
FH JA? CH= ? J K F = = A F E =F J K? J IIAHAE? KF GMH K? @A = X K -X y = (1, 2, 3, 4) A =E IJ EGA IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K A >HA JA = @EX KI = IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K KF = =
ABX =E ! 2 = A? =E /H=
/H= E ? =FAE IAE?
E ? )FAE
IAE?
LA : Rn Rm : x Ax .
2=HX@AEC = ! AMH
AJ
F = =
A=
c 0 0 c
/E= X A @EX KI = x R2 Ax = cx X A @EX KI = @E=IJ AJ=E A J IK JA AIJ c -X c > 1 J @EX KI = C AJ=E AC= JAH AX 0 < c < 1 J @EX KI = C AJ=E E H JAH 6 ? AX c < 0 J @EX KI = = X AE B HX
2=HX@AEC = !
AMH
AJ
F = =
A=
0 1 1 0
.
? A =KJ J F = =
2=HX@AEC = ! ! AMH
AJ
F = =
A=
0 1 1 0
.
=F =IE=I ? A =KJ J F = =
AJ
F = =
A=
1 0 0 0
.
=F =IE=I ? A =KJ J F = =
) CA>H=
=F =IE=I
=F = = -
6 0 FH FAE = =FAE
AJ=E IJ 0 LA (0) = 0 AB I
A0 = 0
=F XIE= @E
2 =F XIE= A ? @E= I =J ? FH FAE = =FAE J=E IJ= = J IJ EG= F JD? AE =? J K @E= I =J ? LA (cx) = c LA (x) AB I A(cx) = c(Ax)
x, y Rn
CH= E HEI ?
)FAE
AJ=IGD =JEI
J=E
CH=
E ? =FAE
IAE?
0 =FAE EID f : Rn Rm A =E =E X A c R
CH=
=FAE
EID AX CE= X A
f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) =E
f (cx) = c f (x)
/A E JAH= AX V =E W A =E @E= KI =JE KF GMH E J K Rn =E J K Rm = J IJ EG= = =FAE EID f : V W A =E CH= E AX E = F E J=E E F=H=FX M IK A? CE= X AvV - @= A JE CE= X A m n F = = A D =FAE EID LA A =E CH= E = @A N K A J H= JE = J IJH B= X A CH= E =FAE EID f : Rn Rm = JEIJ EGA IA = F = = 7FA K K A JE AX 1 , . . . , n A =E E IJ A? J K F = = A J JA u1 A = u1 1 + + un n . un
2H J=ID !
EID f : Rn Rm =E J F = = A A F K e1 , e2 , . . . , en A =E D = E >XID
0 2H J=ID ! F HA = CA E AK A M? AN ? E JE ? =? CH= E ? =FAE EID? f : V W IJ= @E= I =J= v1 , v2 , . . . , vk =? >XID? J K FA@ K HEI V = H K JD =FAE EID X A v V CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJ EGA M JD? >XID? v = c1 v1 + + ck vk =E J JA D CH= E JDJ= JD? f FH I@E H AE J @EX KI = f (v )
f (v ) = c1 f (v1 ) + + ck f (vk ) .
ABX =E !
2 = A? =E /H=
E ? )FAE
IAE?
$
2=HX@AEC = ! # -X f : R2 R3 A =E CH= E
A f (0, 1) = (0, 1, 1) J JA F H A = >H 2H FAE = E = F E J=E E IG IAE? 1 1 A = 1 =E 2 0 JE? F A? F H A = CHXO K A = M? AJ
0 1
0 = 1 , 1
A
)
1 0 2 1
1 0 = 1 1 . 0 1
X J= @E= I =J= (1, 2) =E (0, 1) A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= =F JA >XID J K R2 1 0 =E IK AF ? F = =? A =E = JEIJH OE ? 2 =F =IEX K A =F J= @ANEX A J 2 1 A1 =E G K A 1 0 1 1 0 . A= 1 1 2 1 0 1
2=HX@AEC = ! $ = @
A XF EA? =FAE
IAE? F K @A A =E CH=
E ?
g (x) = 2x + 1 ) =E J CHXBD = =KJ ? JD? IK XHJDID? A =E E= AK A = @A E = F EA JE? IK A? J K HEI g (u + v ) = 2u + 2v + 1 = (2u + 1) + (2v + 1) = g (u) + g (v )
(u1 , u2 ) (2u2 + 1, 0)
! (x, y ) (xy, x, y ) 0 FH IAJ=EHEIJE E@E JDJ= J K CE K FE X M AN=IB= E =FAE IAM A =E CH= E =E = JEIJ EGA IJ CE A AE JE D I AID @ JM FE X M CH=
2H J=ID !
CE A
-X A, B A =E F = A? m n =E n p = J IJ EG= C = AB J JA EIG AE LA LB = LC .
IJA = H AJ=E J
)F @AEND 2HXC =JE LC (v) = Cv = (AB )v = A(Bv ) = LA (LB (v)) = LA LB (v) )I DID ! *HA JA JD AE
CE= JE? =FAE = J K CA E ID A K (v1 , . . . , vn ) J K FA@ K HEI IAE? F K H J=E A F =F =IE=I =F J= =HEIJAHX A J F = = 1 1 1 2 2 A= B= 0 0 0 1 3
C=
3 0 1 4 2 0
1 0 2 1 D = 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 2
) CA>H=
)I DID !
*HA JA J
F = = A IJ
=FAE
EID
IAE? @A A =E CH=
E ?
AJ=IGD =JEI
> )FAE AE J= @E= I =J= (1, 0, 0) (0, 1, 0) =E (0, 0, 1) IJ= @E= I =J= (1, 5, 2, 9) (2, 6, 4, 7) =E ( 3, 3, 7, 1) = J IJ EG=
)I DID ! # -X
f g (u) A =E I
E =FAE A u u2 F E
IAE? f
=E g A =E CH=
E ?
=E f (u) = g (u) = u J JA
=FAE
EID J JA f 2 A =E
ABX =E !
2 = A? =E /H=
E ? )FAE
IAE?
$!
/H=
E ? =FAE
IAE? J K AFEF @ K
5J= F=H=@A C =J= F K @ I= A IJD =HG J K AB= = K AMH I= A JD FAHEIJH B J K AFEF @ K =JX = H CM = JD = X =ID IJD AK A = x = y =E JD FH > IJ x XN = M? F H A = G K A FAHEIJH B ? =JX =K = HAJA? CM A? =E FH > ? = = XIAE? IA F E=@ F JA AK A = F K FAHE GAE J 0 A? =KJ ? E =FAE IAE? A =E CH= E ? = >H A J K? F = =? F K JE? = =F=HEIJ GHDIE F E J=? JD = E 1 0 >XID =E J K R2 0 1 1 cos 0 FAHEIJH B =JX CM = =FAE AE J @EX KI = IJ @EX KI = =E 0 sin 0 sin J @EX KI = IJ @EX KI = @A? ID AE IAE? ) = KJE ? /AM AJH =? 1 cos )H= F = =? Q F K F=HEIJX AE JD FAHEIJH B J K AFEF @ K =JX CM = A =E
Q =
0 CAM AJHE @E= I DID =? GAE = J IJH B JD FAHEIJH B 2=H=JDH A JE
AE JE D FAHEIJH B =JX CM =
Q =
=E FHXC =JE
Q Q =
cos2 + sin2 cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin2 + cos2
1 0 0 1
.
A =
FAHEIJH B ? =JX CM = EI @K =
Q2 = Q2
=E JE D FAHEIJH B =J= CM = =E AJX =JX CM = EI @K = A =JX CM = + @D =@ JE Q Q = Q(+) . 0 FH XI = X A E= J F A JD FAHEIJH B
> J K @E= I =J ? (1, 0) IJD AK A = F K IGD =J AE CM = A J x XN = =? K A =KJ JD AK A = J XN = @ @AE = @EX KI = IKCCH= E A J (cos , sin ) 2 ? cos ,D =@ J (1, 0) FH >X AJ=E IJ @EX KI = (cos , cos sin ) 2=H @EX KI = (0, 1) FH >X AJ=E IJ @EX KI = (sin cos , sin2 ) = =? F K F=HEIJX AE JD FH > IJ XN = A =E EF
P =
.
J=E IJ
)KJ ? F = =? @A A =E = JEIJH OE ? 6= ID A = J K + XN = FH >X 2 D@A G H ? J K F = = =F JA A J=E =F J= F =F XIE= J K @E= I =J ? cos + , sin + 2 2 = ( sin , cos ) .
) CA>H=
K A@
B H ? J =F J AI = A =E
(P ) =
c2 cs cs s2
= P .
0 = X =ID IJ XN = =B AE = AJX> DJ= J= ID A = J K XN = =E IK AF ? J @EX KI = (cos , sin ) =FAE AJ=E IJ A=KJ J K - = @EX KI = X AJ IJ XN = =FAE AJ=E IJ = J AJ J K IK AF ? J ( sin , cos ) =FAE AJ=E IJ (sin , cos ) )H= F = =? H F K F=HEIJX AE JD = X =ID E = F EA
H
=E IK AF ?
c s s c
c s s c
H = =
c s s c
c s s c
.
J K F = = H
0 CAM AJHE @E= I DID =? AE JE @ = = XIAE? IJ @E XN = AF= =B H K JD =HGE AE = @D =@ (H )2 = I F H A = AF= D A I K A =KJ JD E@E JDJ= A =F AK A =? KF CEI - = = JE X F=H=JDH A JE H = 2P I =E IK AF ? G K A (H )2 = (2P I )2 = 2 2 4P 4P + I = I =B P = P
)I DID !
F = =? A =
)I DID ! ! 2
? F = =? F=HEIJX AE JD =FAE EID F K FAHEIJH BAE X A @EX KI = =E IJD IK GAE= FH >X AE FX M IJ xXN = 2 E ? F = =? EID F K FH >X AE IJ xXN = =E IJD IK GAE= FH >X AE FX M
1 0 F=HEIJX AE = shearing D F = =B AE J 3 1 y XN = = AJX> DJ= 5GA@EXIJA J =F J AI = =KJ ? JD? =FAE EID? IJ xXN = ID AE J=? JD AE = JM ID A M (1, 0), (2, 0) =E (1, 0) = ? =E JD AE = K J K xXN =
F = =? A =
)I DID ! # 2
= FH > > = X
E 3 3 F = A? F=HEIJX
K JE? =
K A? =FAE
IAE?
ABX =E !
2 = A? =E /H=
E ? )FAE
IAE?
J=E =F J XN = J K F K J= ID A = F=H= K = AJX> DJ= =E JD CM = FAHEIJH B ? *HA JA J XN = =E JD CM = FAHEIJH B ? JD? =FAE EID? F K =FAE AE J (x1 , x2 , x3 ) IJ (x2 , x3 , x1 ) AMH IJA JD J g (g (g (v ))) =E J g 100 (v ) K E =FAE EID q (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (v3 , v1 , v2 ) *HA JA
EID JF K IJ AE J (1, 0) IJ (2, 5) =E J (0, 1) IJ (1, 3) 2 E ? F = =? IJ AE J (2, 5) IJ (1, 0) =E J (1, 3) IJ (0, 1) /E=J @A KFXHGAE F = =? F K = =FAE AE J (2, 6) IJ (1, 0) =E J (1, 3) IJ (0, 1)
1, 0 x2 1} =E
{(x1 , x2 ) : 0 x1
= GAE D AE
? F = A? A A =E D AE ? F = A? A A =E D AE ? F = A? A GAE D AE
= JAJHXCM = = AK CH= I A1 J =
= A >=@
-E = =E = J IJH BD AE = J IJH B
LA : R R
= )HEIJAH
=E JD = J IJ EGD CH= E
=E @ANE
=FAE EID EID?
2H J=ID ! !
n m
AMH
AJ
mn F = = A
-X W A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rm J JA D = J IJH BD AE = J K W IM 1 n ? KF GMH ? JD? =FAE EID? LA L A (W ) = {v R | LA (v ) W } A =E @E= KI =JE n JKR
A w1 , w2 LA (V ) =E c R =E FH FAE = @A N K A JE w1 + w2 =E cw1 LA (V ) -B I w1 LA (V ) KFXHGAE v1 V J J E IJA LA (v1 ) = w1 =E = X C= CE= J w2 -B I V A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? v1 + v2 V =E LA (v1 + v2 ) = LA (v1 ) + LA (v2 ) = w1 + w2 XH= w1 + w2 LA (V ) 2=H E= cv1 V =E LA (cv1 ) = cLA (v1 ) = cw1 )H= cw1 LA (V ) 1 /E= J AMH A v1 , v2 L =E FH FAE = @A N K A JE v1 + v2 =E A (W ) =E c R 1 cv1 L ( W ) 7FXHG K w W J J E IJA L ( v ) =E = X C= CE= J w2 ) X 1 A 1 = w1 A J JA LA (v1 + v2 ) = w1 + w2 W =E LA (cv1 ) = cw1 W XH= v1 + v2 =E cv1 = K
$$
1 IJ L A (W )
) CA>H=
6 AF A AH JD = F K K A = ANAJXI K A A =E KF F A? IK A? A =E D =FAE EID LA A AE E AFAE E = BE I = JD 0 LA A =E A AE E AX CE= X A v1 , v2 Rn D KF AID LA (v1 ) = LA (v2 ) IK AFXCAJ=E JE v1 = v2 )KJ EIG AE AX =E AX EIG AE D IK AF=CMC Av1 = Av2 v1 = v2 EI @ = = AX A(v1 v2 ) = 0 v1 v2 = 0 ,D =@ D LA A =E A AE E AX =E n AX CE= X A x R Ax = 0 x = 0 @D =@ AX =E AX D =@E ID JD? AN IMID? Ax = 0 A =E D JAJHE D x = 0 ) X C MH K A JE D CA ? AN IMID GAE =@E ID JD JAJHE D = HE> ? J= @A KFXHG K A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? @D =@ J= D JXND J K F = = A =E r = n 0 LA A =E AFAE E AX CE= X A b Rm KFXHGAE v Rn J J E IJA LA (v ) = b m @D =@ J= D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID CE= X A b R )KJ EIG AE = HE> ? J= m G H ? IJD J K A A =E ? R @D =@ J= D JXND J K F = = A =E r = m -G K A =F @A NAE JD = K D FH J=ID
EID LA A =E
= JD AX
AX r = m = n
N M GAE =HEIJAH = J IJH B g : M N J J E =E AX D f A =E A AE E =E GAE @ANE = J IJH B IJA f h = idM AX =E AX D f A =E AFAE E @A? ? A E= JM = D =JE
HEI
? -X A A =E =? m n F = =?
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||x||2 = xT x .
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A J AF FA@ V F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J= v1 = (1, 0, 0, 0) =E v2 = (1, 1, 0, 0) 6 @EX KI = w = (0, 0, 4, 5) A =E H C E FH ? J= v1 =E v2 5K AF ? D AK A = W F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J w A =E KF GMH ? J K R4 H C E ? FH ? J V ) X I= IJ R4 KFXHGAE G H ? CE= = D = KF GMH H C E IJ K? V =E W J @EX KI = z = (0, 0, 5, 4) A =E H C E FH ? J= v1 v2 =E w 0 AK A = U F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J z A =E H C E= FH ? J K? KF GMH K? V =E W
U V , U W , V W .
R(AT ) N (A)
5J Rm G H ? IJD J K A A =E H C E ? IJ =HEIJAH D@A GMH J K A
R(A) N (AT ) .
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v T x = (AT z )T x = z T Ax = z T 0 = 0 .
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K A JE E @E=IJXIAE? =KJ
JM G HM E =
F E
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-G K A @A NAE JE
N (A) = R(AT ) .
= @A N K A JE =E G H ? CH= A =E J H C E IK F HM = J K D@A GMH K
R(AT ) = N (A) .
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.
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H C E IK F HM = J K AFEF @ K F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J= (1, 1, 2) =E (1, 2, 3) AMH IJA =KJX J= @E= I =J= M? CH= ? J K F = = A =E IJA JD AN IMID Ax = 0 K D A JA JE J IK F HM = A =E DHD AK A =
-X V =E W A =E H V W = {0}
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ID
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W = V @D =@ JE AX W A =E J J H C E IK F HM = J K W
CE= X A y F K E = F EA y A = 0
T
V A =E
AX y T b = 0
* JEIJA?
IAE? =E 2H >
-FEIJH B K A = D = B HX IJD AN IMID Ax = b -G K A @AE JE D AN IMID GAE IAE? J= J @EX KI = b = AE IJ G H IJD J K F = = A 5KG X M? K A = >H A JD = JAHD @K =J ID JD? AN IMID? = D =E J= J b @A = AE IJ R(A) )KJ IK >= AE IKG X IJD = X KID FAEH= =JE @A@ M F K CE= = FAHE H I K A JD FE = JDJ= JKG= K IBX =J ? F= H K A FAHEII JAHA? AJH IAE? 6 =F J AI = A =E = G K A = I IJD = A =H AJX FAHEII JAHA? ANEI IAE? F=HX =C IJ K? F K @A FAHE K A = KFXHGAE = HE> ? ID -X = JE =J=IJ I K A J b A = @EX KI = b J K G H K IJD R(A) J JA D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID F H A = >H A E= > JEIJD ID JD? AN IMID? AX = JE =J=IJ I K A J @EX KI = b A J @EX KI = J K G H K IJD J K A F K A =E F DIE IJAH IJ b =F X A X @EX KI = J K G H K IJD )KJ J @EX KI = A =E D H C E= FH > J K b IJ G H IJD -X IK > I K A p JD H C E= FH > J K b IJ G H IJD G K A = = AN IMID
Ax = p.
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b = a .
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2x = b1 3x = b2 4x = b3 .
M? =KJ J I IJD = GAE J K (2, 3, 4) 0 AN IMID ID J= J @EX KI = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) A =E =F =F XIE " ! /E= X A JE J Kx H K A
b1 2 3 x = b2 b3 4
AE IJ G H IJD
GAE ID J IBX =
J= J (b1 , b2 , b3 ) =
= ax b =
J F D@A AJ=E J= x =F JA A ID JD? AN IMID? " ! 5JD FAH FJMID F K D AN IMID " ! @A GAE ID AMH A JD > JEIJD ID JD JE J K x D F = X AE J IBX = I J @K =J E H JAH )KJ IK >= AE J= J @EX KI = ax A =E I A JD H C E= FH > J K @E= I =J ? b IJ G H IJD @D =@ J= ax b A =E X AJ IJ a
C IJA JD F=HXCMC ax b A =E X AJ IJ a
d (2 ) dx
=E @A NJA JE D@A
AJ=E = HE> ? J=
2H >
IA AK A =
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x R
K A JD AN IMID
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JD F = F H A = I K A CE= = >H AJ x
x =
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aT b . aT a
p=x a =
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D =E H ? CM A?
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K A = A BHXI K A JD FH > M? = CH= E =FAE EID =F J Rn IJ Rn D F = =FAE AE J Rn IJD AK A = V = {ta : t R} =E = >H A J = J IJ EG F = = 5J FH DC A KF CEI F H A = = JEIJH O K A JD @EXJ=ND J K a =E J Kx aT b p = ax =a T , a a =E = AB=H I K A JD FH IAJ=EHEIJE E@E JDJ=
p=
2=H=JDH IJA JE aT a A =E AJE JAJH=CM E ? F = =? 6 F = = ? =HE
1 aT a
aaT b .
J K K? J K a A
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aaT A =E
P =
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A b = (4, 6, 9) @D =@
AMH
AJ
2 4 3 x = 6 . 4 9
AE IJ G H F K F=HXCAE J (2, 3, 4)
2 3 = 0 , 4
x =
5K FAH= K A JE D > JEIJD JE 62 (4, 9) A =E = 29 F=HXCAJ=E =F J @EX KI = (1, 2)
)I DID " % *HA JA JD FH > )I DID " & *HA JA J )I DID " ' *HA JA J
=
JM @E= KI
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=F XIE J K (a = (1, 1, 1) A =E F DIE IJAH IJ ID A b = (2, 4, 4) *HA JA AF ID? J ID A IJD AK A = A @EA K ID b F K A =E F DIE IJAH IJ a
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cos sin 1 1
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1 0
1 1
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2H >
IA KF GMH
AMH A J H= J FH > D = IA FAHEII JAHA? @E=IJXIAE? K A = FH >X K A J @EX KI = b IA = KF GMH V @EXIJ=ID? k I= IJ Rm F H A CE= AK = = KF I K A JE k = 2 =E m = 3 GMH ? KIE=IJE @E=B HX IJD @E=@E =I = AMH A 3 EF @ @E= I =J= a1 =E a2 J K R J= F = =F JA >XID J K V =E J m k F = = A A IJ A? J= @E= I =J= ai JIE IJA V = R(A) )B D FH > p >H I AJ=E IJ G H IJD J KA G K A p = Ax
ABX =E "
D =E H ? CM A?
AT (b Ax ) = 0 .
-JIE G K A JD AN IMID
AT Ax = AT b ,
A = KF CI K A J p
x = (AT A)1 AT b ,
=E D FH > J K b IJ KF GMH V = R(A) A =E
p = Ax = A(AT A)1 AT b .
F = =? FH > ? A =E
P = A(AT A)1 AT .
5A =KJ JD BH=ID A A =E m k F = =? F JA AT A A =E JAJH=CM E ? k k F = =? =E P A =E m m F = =? ) IKC H K A A JD FAH FJMID JD? FH > ? IA AK A = F K k = 1 > F K A JE m 1 F = =? A A =E J @EX KI = a =E = JEIJH OE ? k k F = =? AT A A =E AJE ? 1 T =HE ? a a A = J IJH B aT a )KJ ? AJ=J AJ=E A J F = = A =E IK AF ? F H A = CHXO K A 1 a(aT a)1 aT = T aaT . a a T = @A N K A JE D KF AID FM? A A A =E = JEIJH OE ? E = F EA J=E FX J= J= E IJ A? J K A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? FM? IJD FAH FJMID F K =F JA >XID J K KF GMH K V
="#
F = =? AT A GAE J = J IJH B AC
@E AEI
D@A G H AMH
AJ AxJ J E
A
JE N (A) N (AT A) IJA AT Ax = 0 F JA
)F @AEND - =E FH B= ? JE AX Ax = 0 J JA AT Ax = 0 @D =@
/E= = @A N K A J
xT (AT Ax) = 0.
) X xT (AT Ax) = (xT AT )Ax = (Ax)T Ax = ||Ax||2 )H= J @EX KI = Ax GAE D@A E ? =E IK AF ? Ax = 0 @D =@ x N (A) ? IA = KF GMH J K Rm
AX
)F @AEND -IJM V
& = XIJH B ? J K P A =E F = =?
) CA>H=
AT
AT
= A(AAT )1 AT = P
) JEIJH BM? AX m m F = =? P E = F EA JE? IG IAE? P 2 = P =E P = P T = @A N K A JE P A =E F = =? FH > ? IJ G H IJD J K 2H B= ? CE= X A b Rm P b = AE IJ G H IJD J K P /E= = @A N K A JE P b A =E D FH > J K b IJ KF GMH V = R(P ) =H A = @A N K A JE b P b A =E H C E IJ V -IJM v @EX KI = J K V 6 JA v A =E CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J K P @D =@ m KFXHGAE c R J J E IJA v = P c =E G K A
(b P b)T v = = = =
) X PT = P
=E P 2 = P XH= P P T P = P P = 0 A b = (4, 6, 9) = X J H= KF J K A
2=HX@AEC = " $ 5K AG
b = a + .
A J= @E= @A@ = (2, 4) (3, 6) =E (4, 9) G = >H A J= =E 2x1 + x2 3x1 + x2 4x1 + x2 JE? F A? CHXB K A M? = I IJD = K A JHA ? ANEI IAE? A @ =C IJ K? CE=
= 4 = 6 = 9, 4 = 6 . 9
2 1 Ax = 3 1 4 1
x1 x2
6 @EX KI = (4, 6, 9) @A = AE IJ G H IJD J K F = = A =E J I IJD = @A GAE ID 6 IBX = = b Ax A =GEIJ F E J=E CE= JD JE x J K x = (x1 , x2 ) CE= JD F = J @EX KI = b Ax A =E H C E IJ G H IJD J K A -JIE G K A JD AN IMID A =G IJM JAJH=C M 4 2 1 2 3 4 x 1 6 3 1 AT (b Ax ) = = 0, 1 1 1 x 2 9 4 1 @D =@
62 19
29 9 9 3
x 1 x 2
=0
ABX =E "
D =E H ? CM A?
&
ID
x 1 x 2
)H= D > JEIJD AK A = F K =
1 6
3 9 9 29
62 19
15 6 7 6
6b = 15a + 7 .
p = Ax AX
ID A =G IJM JAJH=C
M JD? AN IMID? Ax = b
1 0 A= 0 1 1 1
-F= D A IJA JE J @E= KI =JE IBX
1 =E b = 1 . 0
C E IJE? IJ A? J K A =E >HA JA JE?
= e = b p A =E H
=J ? 2 = ||Ax b||2
1 0 A = 0 1 , x = 1 1
u v
1 =E b = 3 . 4
I=JA JE? F=H=C C K? IA? A D@ =E IKC H AJA A JE? ANEI IAE? AT Ax = AT b CE= = @A NAJA JE CEI ? =E D CAM AJH = =J= C K IJE? @EA? ANEI IAE? 7F C IJA J x =E JD FH > p = Ax /E=J A =E p = b
J K b = (4, 3, 1, 0) FX M IJ G H IJD
J K
1 2 1 1 . A= 1 0 1 2
ID A =G IJM JAJH=C M x J K IKIJ =J ? AN EI IAM 3x = 10 =E 4x = 5 2 E A =E J JAJHXCM J K IBX =J ? 2 F K A =GEIJ F EA J=E -F= D A IJA JE J @E= KI =JE IBX = e = (10 3 x, 5 4 x) A =E H C E IJD IJ D (3, 4)
*HA JA JD FH >
J K b IJ G H IJD
J KA
1 1 A = 1 1 2 4
1 b = 2 . 7
C E FH ?
&
) CA>H=
D@A E
F = = FH >
? IJ AF FA@
=E
= D D@A E
C J @EX KI = IJ V J
FH >
D@A G H J K A
J KA
A J
KF GMH V J K R4 F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J=
(1, 2, 0, 3),
= *HA JA J H C E IK F
(2, 1, 1, 2) (1, 4, 2, 5)
HM = V J K V F K v V =E
ABX =E # H
/ MH
KIA?
H KI=?
K A JD H KI= FE X M 2 2 : AX
1 3 2 4
1 3 2 4
/E= = CA E
= 1 4 3 2 = 4 6 = 2.
KI= A =E
22 F = = D H
a b c d
= ad bc
a+a c
b+b d
= (a + a )d (b + b )c = (ad bc) + (a d b c) a b a b = + , c d c d
=E
ta tb c d
= tad tbc = t a b . c d
XII K A JE? CH= ?J KF = =
> 6 FH ID
JD? H
KI=? =
X AE J= A =
c d a b
= cb da =
&!
a b . c d
) CA>H=
E X =F JD @A JAHD CH=
a c+c
b d+d
= = =
c+c a
d+d b
c d c d a b a b .
a b a b + c d c d
C 0 H
KI= J K J=KJ JE
F = = A =E
1 0 0 1
= 1.
/E= = AFA JA K A JD E= JD? H KI=? IA n n F = A? = GHDIE F E I K A =KJ ? JE? E@E JDJA? = @A N K A JE =KJ ? E JHA ? E@E JDJA? G=H= JDH K A =@E JH F JD H KI= A ? n n F = =
HEI
KI=
X AJ=E
= IK XHJDID IJ I
Mn, n JM n n FE X M
det : Mn, n R ,
D F = IK > AJ=E det A = 0 det AN=HJXJ=E CH=
|A| =E E = F EA JE? E@E JDJA? E X =F JD FH JD CH= J KF = = a11 . . . a1n a21 . . . a2n an1 . . . ann a11 . . . a1n a21 . . . a2n an1 . . . ann
F = = A A A = =C @ CH= J JA
...
=t
> -X
F = =? B FH
det B = det A .
C 0 H KI= J K n n J=KJ JE F = = A =E
1 det In = 0
0 = 1. 1
)F =KJ ? JE? JHAE? E@E JDJA? = IK FAHX K A @EXB HA? X A? E@E JDJA? JM HE KI F K = =? AFEJH O K = @A N K A JE KFXHGAE = HE> ? E= IK XHJDID F K E = F EA JE? JHAE? E@E JDJA? @ -X @ CH= ? J K F = = A A =E IA? J JA det A = 0
ABX =E #
KIA?
&#
2HXC =JE AX A = XN K A JE? @ IA? CH= ? F = =? @A = X AE = X =F J > D H KI= = X AE FH ID )H= det A = det A =E IK AF ? det A = 0 A J= =B=EH AF =F XIE =? CH= ? =F = X D D H KI= J K F = = @A = X AE -X A? E CH= ? J K F = = B A =E IA? A =KJ ? J K F = = A A J ? =F JD CH= i D F = A =E ID A JD CH= j = i J K F = = A J JA D H KI= J K F = = F K FH FJAE J= =B=EH I K A =F JD i CH= JD j CH= F =F =IE=I D AF A =E ID A det A det B = X det B = 0
F = =
a+c b+d c d
)I DID # ,E=JKF IJA J A A J IK > EI (aij ) 2=H=J HDID )F J= > =E A FH FJAE JE D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? Gauss @A
= X AE JD JE JD? H KI=? F=HX -X F = =? A GAE = D@A E A = =F J= @ =E A -X D A =E @E=C E ? F = =? d1 0 J JA det D = d1 d2 . . . dn . 2HXC =JE M? FH ? J FH ID CH= J JA det A = 0 FM? =F @AE AJ=E
0 dn
d1 d2 0
0 = d1 dn =
1 d2 0
dn
1 = d1 d2 . . . dn 0
0 1
D -X A A =E JHECM E ? J JA D H KI= A =E J CE A JM IJ EGA M JD? @E=CM K -X d1 , . . . , dn A =E J= IJ EGA = JD? @E=CM K =E d1 , d2 , . . . , dn = 0 J JA =B=EH J=? F =F XIE= =? CH= ? =F =X D F H A = B H K A J F = = IA @E=C E= HB A J= d1 , . . . , dn IJD @E=C E )H= det A = d1 d2 . . . dn -X XF E =F J= di A =E D@ J JA D =F= EB Gauss @ @AE = F = = A = D@A E CH= )H= det A = 0 6 H= F H A = @A N K A JE KFXHGAE =@E IK XHJDID IJ I JM JAJH=C M E n n FE X M D F = = E = F EA JE? E@E JDJA? = > =E C -JIE D H KI=
&$
) CA>H=
A =E = X HEI D 2HXC =JE C MH K A JE F H A A =F= EB Gauss = AJ=JH O K A J F = = A IJ X M JHECM E F = = U )F J A D H KI= J K U A =E ID A J CE A JM @DC ) X =F J > D H KI= J K A @E=B HAE I J FH ID =F JD H KI= J K U AX X = A k A = =C ? =JX JD =F= EB J JA det A = (1)k det U /E= = A =E D H KI= J K A =@E X FH I@E HEI D FH FAE = k @A N K A JE J FH ID (1) A =E =@E X FH I@E HEI ,D =@ JE @A A =E @K =J = XHJE F ? A = =C =E = FAHEJJ F ? A = =C = @ K JD @E= AJX AID JM CH= J K F = = A )KJ =F @AE AJ=E IJ = # IJ J ? J K AB= = K B ?
A HD = # 0 H KI= det A A =E D@
AX
=E
AX
F = =? A A =E E@E
)F @AEND -X
A A =E E@E HB ? J JA D =F= EB @DCA IA F = = A = D@A E CH= XH= det A = 0 ) J IJH B= AX A @A A =E E@E HB ? D =F= EB @DCA IA X M JHECM E F = = A D D@A E X IJ EGA = IJD @E=C E =E det A = d1 d2 . . . dn = 0
A HD = # )F @AEND -X
-X A, B A =E n n F = A?
d(A) =
det(AB ) . det B
= @A N K A JE d(A) E = F EA JE? E@E JDJA? = > C =E IK AF ? H AE = IK XHJDID D F = AX AFA J= A A JD JE 0 CE= E@E HB K? F = A? A =E ID A JD H KI= 0 E@E JDJ= C AX A = I
d(I ) =
0 E@E JDJ=> AX A = XN K A @ CH= ? J K A A = XII J=E E = J IJ EGA? CH= ? J K AB )H= = X AE J FH ID J K det AB =E IK AF ? J FH ID J K d(A) 0 E@E JDJ== AMH A F = A? C = (cij ) =E D = (dij ) J J E K? IJA CE= j = 1, . . . , n, a1j = sc1j + td1j =E CE= i > 1
a1k bkj = s
k=1 k=1
c1k bkj + t
d1k bkj
=E EIG AE det AB = s det CB + t det DB =E IK AF ? d(A) = s d(C ) + td(D). )H= D d(A) AN=HJXJ=E CH= E X =F JD FH JD CH= J KA
ABX =E #
KIA?
&%
7F
/ MH HB
CEI
? JD?
KI=?
=@E JH F IJD
K A JE X A D E@E
HB ? n n F = =? F=H=C J F EA J=E A
A = P 1 L D U ,
F K P A =E F = =? AJ= IAM? L A =E XJM JHECM E ? F = =? A 1 IJD @E=C E D A =E @E=C E ? F = =? A J K? @DC ? IJD @E=C E =E U A =E X M JHECM E ? F = =? A 1 IJD @E=C E )F J= FH DC A = G K A det P = 1 det L = det U = 1 =E det D EI J=E A J CE A JM @DC )H=
a b c d
= =
a 0 0 b + c d c d
a 0 a 0 0 b 0 b + + + c 0 0 d c 0 0 d = 0 + ad + (bc) + 0
) AB=H I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IA = n n F = = G K A CE= JD FH JD CH=
&&
) CA>H=
H KI= J K F = = @A D@A AJ=E J= D = JEIJ EG = i ji A =E = BE I = JD @D =@ AX A =E AJX AID J K IK K {1, , n} / MH K A JE KFXHG K n! AJ= IAE? =E IK AF ? n! =F JE? nn H KIA? F HA = D A =E IA? A D@ )? AB=H I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IA = 3 3 F = =
0 0 a13 0 a12 0 a11 0 0 0 a22 0 0 0 + 0 0 a23 + a21 + a31 0 0 0 0 a33 0 a32 0 = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 a13 a22 a31 .
) IK > I K A = AJX AID J K {1, 2, 3} G K A
det A =
A HD = # ! -X A = (aij ) A =E n n F = =?
det A =
#
F K J X H EI = = >X AJ=E FX M =F J I
AMH A JE? AJ= IAE? CE= JE? F A? (1) = 1 # FAHE G K J F=HXC J= a11 *CX K A J a11 M? =E IK > K A C11 J X H EI =
E = J IJ EG E H E IJ X H EI = E F=HXC J= =KJ JM HM
E AJ= IAE? J K {1, 2, . . . , n} CE= JE? F A? (1) = 1 = JEIJ EG IA AJ= IAE? J K {2, 3, . . . , n} )H= J X H EI = C11 A =E = HE> ? D H KI= J K F = = A11 F K FH FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD FH JD CH= =E JD FH JD IJ D
C11 =
AJX AID J K {1, . . . , n}
(1)=1
6 H= AMH A JE? AJ= IAE? CE= JE? F A? (1) = 2 E = J IJ EG E H E IJ X H EI = # FAHE G K J F=HXC J= a12 *CX K A J a12 M? E F=HXC J= =KJ JM HM =E IK > K A C12 J X H EI =
ABX =E #
KIA?
&'
X A AJX AID J K {1, 2, . . . , n} CE= JD F = (1) = 2 = JEIJ EGA IA = = BE I = JD =FAE EID =F J {2, 3, . . . , n} IJ {1, 3, 4, . . . , n} =E J X H EI = C12 @E=B HAE M? FH ? J FH ID =F JD H KI= J K F = = A12 F K FH FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD FH JD CH= =E JD @A JAHD IJ D a21 a23 . . . a2n A12 = , an1 an3 . . . ann
C12 =
AJX AID J K{1, . . . , n}
(1)=2
/E= j = 1, . . . , n AMH
1 (i)
(k ) (k ) 1 i (k ) = (k + 1) (k + 1) 1
AX AX AX AX
k k k k
<i <i i i
=E =E =E =E
=#"
)F @AEND -X (n) = n A =E B= AH
det P =
Pn 1
= det Pn ,
AB I =F=EJA J=E @E ? =HE ? A = =C CH= =E IJD CE= = =J= N K A IJ J=KJ JE F = = 5JD CA E FAH FJMID CE= i {1, . . . , n} F = =? P AJ=JH FAJ=E A (ni) A = =C ? CH= =E (n (i)) A = =C ? IJD IJ
P F = = i 1 (n (i))A =
:
=C ? IJD
(i) 1
(n i)A
= =C ? CH=
(i)
Pi . n 1
' 5K AF ?
) CA>H=
AJ
F=H=FX M IK >
EI
C12 =
AJX AID J K {1, . . . , n}
(1)=2
a1 (1) 1 (1) a1 (n1) 1 (n1) (1)1+2 det P1 a1 (1) 2 (1) a1 (n1) 2 (n1) det P
AJX AID J K
{1, . . . , n 1}
= = det A12 .
IA AJ=
IAE?
= a1 j C1 j
6 X H EI = C1 j @E=B HAE M? FH ? J FH ID =F JD H KI= J K F = = A1j F K FH FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD FH JD CH= =E JD j IJ D
JE
a1 j
(1) = j
det A =
j =1
(1) = j
@D =@
HEI
F =
=? n n F = =? (n 1) (n 1) F = =? FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD i CH= =E JD j IJ D X AJ=E A =? J K IJ EGA K ai j J K A a11 a1 (j 1) a1 (j +1) a1 n a a a a (i1) 1 (i1) (j 1) (i1) (j +1) (i1) n Ai j = a(i+1) (j 1) a(i+1) (j +1) a(i+1) n a(i+1) 1
? -X A = (ai j ) A =E
XIIM
an 1
an (j 1)
an (j +1)
an n
ABX =E #
KIA?
' X AJ=E =
CA>HE
IK F
HM = IK F=HXC J=?
A D A JD CA E A AJ=E IJD =
n
K D FH J=ID
2H J=ID # #
/E= X A i = 1, . . . , n EIG AE
det A =
j =1
ai j Ci j
KI=? det A M? FH ? JD CH=
0 F=H=FX M
/E= X A j = 1, . . . , n EIG AE
det A =
j =1
ai j Ci j
KI=? det A M? FH ? JD IJ E KF = = Dj
0 F=H=FX M
2=HX@AEC = # = KF
2 1 1 2 A4 = 0 1 0 0
KI= J K JHE@E=C 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 2
=E
n n JHE@E=C K? EIG AE
E F = = An A
IJD
HE= @E=C
=E (1) IJE?
HEI ? AMH A J F = = C = (Ci j ) F K GAE M? IJ EGA IJD ID (i, j ) J IK F=HXC J= J K IJ EGA K ai j J K A = XIJH B ? =KJ J K F = = C T X AJ=E FH I=HJD ? F = =? IK KC ? F = =? J K A =E IK > AJ=E adj A, C11 Cn 1 adj A = C1 n Cn n
'
) CA>H=
IK F=HXCM J K IJ EGA K ai j
=E
b1 Ci 1 + b2 Ci 2 + + bn Ci n
A =E D H F = =A KI= J K F = = B i F K FH FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A J b IJD i CH= JK
a11
a1 n a(i 1) n bn a(i + 1) n an n
b1 C1 j + b2 C 2 j + + bn Cn j
A =E D H F = =A KI= J K F = = Bj F K FH FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A J b IJD j IJ DJK
Bj =
a11 a1 (j 1) b1 a1 (j + 1) a1 n an 1 an (j 1) bn an (j + 1) an n
J=E IJ K? IK F=HXC JA? C1 j , , Cn j 5K AF ? =KJ E IK F=HXC JA? A =E I E A J K? IK F=HXC JA? J K F = = Bj 6 = XFJKC = JD? H KI=? J K Bj M? FH ? JD j IJ D A =E
det Bj = b1 C1 j + b2 C2 j + + bn Cn j .
6 =F J AI = CE= J K? F = A? B i =F @AE AJ=E = X C=
2H J=ID # % -X A A =E n n F = =?
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = det A In .
ID (i , j ) J K CE
K A (adj A) A =E
ai 1 Cj 1 + ai 2 Cj 2 + + ai n Cj n.
2H I G IJD ID JM @AE J KFA K K A JE adj A = (Ci j )T -X i = j J X H EI = @ @AE JD H KI= J K F = = F K FH FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A JD i CH= J K A IJD j CH= J K A ) X =KJ ? F = =? GAE @ CH= ? IA? =E IK AF ? D H KI= J K A =E D@ )H= det A 0 A (adj A) = . 0 det A 0 =F @AEND CE= J (adj A) A A =E = X CD
ABX =E #
KIA?
'!
)KJ ? J F ? CE= J = J IJH B A ? n n F = = GAE AMHDJE A @E=B H = X @A =F JA A FH= JE JH F KF CEI J K = JEIJH B K = ? =F=EJA F FAHEII JAHA? FHXNAE? =F JE D @ ? Gauss - Jordan.
2=H=J HDID
A HD = # ' =
=? J K Cramer -X det A = 0 D
Ax = b
F K
ID JD? AN IMID?
A =E J @EX KI = x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
xj =
=E Bj A =E F = =? F K FH
det Bj det A
DJKA
)F @AEND -B I
det A = 0
A A =E D E@E
HB ?
=E
x = A1 b =
)H=
1 (adj A) b det A
xj =
2=H=JDH A JE = =? J K Cramer @A =F JA A FH= JE JH F KF CEI JD? ID? JD? AN IMID? Ax = b = ? =F=EJA F FAHEII JAHA? FHXNAE? =F JD @ JD? =F= EB ? Gauss -FEIJH B K A IJ =F K DH AE JD =F @AEND JE D H KI= A =E = X HEI D A = =C
= #
= AJX AID F HA = X GE =E J= @
= A BH=IJA M? I
AID XHJE K
FAHEJJ
K?
)F @AEND
AMH A = AJX AID : {1, . . . , n} {1, . . . , n} =E H K A J =HE N = A =E J F ? JM AKC (i, j ) CE= J= F = i < j =E (i) > (j ) = @A N K A JE X A A = =C = X AE J N =JX = FAHEJJ =HE )H A = F=H=JDH I K A JE D A = =C @ CAEJ E =HE = X AE J N =JX +1 1 =E JE D A = =C @ JKG= M =HE A BHX AJ=E M? I AID FAHEJJ =HE A = =C CAEJ E =HE
F = =
) CA>H=
1 2 3 6 . A= 5 0 7 1 4
)I DID # # 7F
2 0 1 5 8 1 2 1 . A= 4 3 5 0 1 4 8 2
E=
K A? AJ=
IAE? A =E XHJEA?
FAHEJJ ?
(4213) ,
(3142) ,
K
(4321) .
C IJA JE? H KIA? JM FE X M KI= = =FJ I
=E KF =E KF
JM IJD C IJA JD H
0 1 5 A= 1 1 6 2 2 7
1 3 2 B = 2 5 4 . 4 1 7
KI= J K 1, 1, 1 JHE@E=C
E K nn F = =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Dn = det . . . 1 1
,A NJA JE Dn = Dn1 + Dn2 . A =E F = =? n AF n
J= A
ABX =E #
KIA?
'#
4 0 > 6 KF = =U = 0 0
C 6 K F = = UT @ 6 K F = = U 1
4 1 0 0
8 2 2 0
8 2 6 2
0 0 A 6 KF = =M = 0 4
0 0 1 4
0 2 2 8
2 6 2 8 a mc b md c la d lb
FJAE J=
KI= J K F = = HE KI
GHDIE
F E
J=?
)I DID #
= JE = EIJX JD IJ
= @EX KI = x = (x1 , . . . , xn )
M =
x1 1 xj 1 xn 1
= *HA JA JD
> -X Ax = b @A NJA JE AM A =E
xj = det Bj , det A F K Bj =
= J K Cramer F= H
J K A GAE X H EI = IJ EGA M D@ @A NJA JE det A = 0 -X X A CH= GAE X H EI = IJ EGA M 1 @A NJA JE det(A I ) = 0 ,A NJA A XF E F=HX@AEC = JE J JA AKJ= @A ID = AE det A = 1 IJA JE CD = DC =E >HA JA J X ? IJ AF A 2= H J=? JE? H KIA? G K A (det C )(det D) = (det D) (det C ) XH= C =E D GAE D@A E H KI= 5K AF ? D CD = DC A =E @K =J D A =E E@E HB ? IK CEI =? =F J K? J= C
'$
) CA>H=
KI= J K F = = 3 2 2 A = 3 1 3 . 1 2 F = =? A = JEIJH OE ?
/EX F E ? JE ? J K A =E
4 1 1 B= 1 2 5 . 1 2 3
= 3HDIE F E IJA =JX D D FHXND AJ=N JM CH= J K B CE= = GAJA E= CH= A@ D@A E X =E GHDIE F E IJA J = XFJKC = JD? H KI=? M? FH ? JD CH= CE= = KF C IAJA JD H KI= J K B > 7F C IJA K? J K? IK F=HXC JA? J K F = = B 3HDIE IK F=H=C JM CE= = KF C IAJA J = J IJH B J K B F E IJA J K? F = A?