1.

Characterizing the essentials of methods Second language teaching is a field which provides an excellent meeting ground for many of the theoretical and practical aspects of psycholinguistics to come together. It is here that we have a chance to see how ideas of human language and human learning interconnect. In our view, language-teaching methods may be conveniently characterized according to five principal dimension (Steinberg, 1993) : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Language Focus : Speech Communication vs. Literacy Meaning Language : Direct experience vs. Translation Grammar Learning : Induction vs. Explication Psychological Orientation : Mentalist vs. Behaviorist Linguistics Orientation: Mentalist vs. Structuralist.

These dimensions involve theorist which have been realized in principal second-language teaching methods. A brief description of each of these dimensions, some aspects of which have been described elsewhere in this book. 1.1. Language Focus: Speech communication vs. Literacy Method can be divided into two categories of focus; those teach language through the speech of the target language and those which approach the target language through reading and writing. Except for grammar translation, which focuses on reading, writing, and the translation of written words, most other methods focus on speech and the use of speech in communication. The principle aim of grammar-translation is typically to get students to be able to read, and ultimately, to read literary works. Other proponents of the method see literacy as a foundation and a means for approaching speech communication. The problem with starting out with literacy when the goal a speech is that students may never get to the speech stage unless they go to university where they may come into contact with fluent instructors. Even at university, though, the focus may remain on literacy. Such is typically the case in Japan. Generally, the proponents of speech-based methods regard grammar translation as their ultimate enemy, since they consider speech communication to be primary in the learning of language. Speech-based method attempts to provide a speech environment in which students may learn the target language. Reading and writing may be used, but only to reinforce what is initially learned in speech.

1.2. Meaning Learning: Direct experience vs. Translation

COGNITIVE-CODE Cognitive-code is similar to grammar-translation except that it focuses on developing all four skills of language: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Communicative competence is focused upon. Since the cognitive-code approach provides more comprehensible input than grammar-translation does, it should produce more acquisition, but other newer methods provide even more and have better results. Learning is overemphasized with this method.

Community language learning

Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. Curran was a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at Loyola University, Chicago. His application of psychological counseling techniques to learning is known as Counseling-Learning. Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages. COMPARISON OF CLIENT-COUNSELOR RELATIONSHIPS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING AND CLL Psychological counseling (client-counselor) Community Language Learning (learnerknower) 1. Learner and knower agree to language learning. 2. Learner presents to the knower (in LI) a message he or she wishes to deliver to another. 3. Knower listens and other learners overhear.

1. Client and counselor agree [contract] to counseling. 2. Client articulates his or her problem in language of affect. 3. Counselor listens carefully. 4. Counselor restates client message in language 4. Knower restates learner's message in L2. of cognition. 5. Client evaluates the accuracy of counselor's 5. Learner repeats the L2 message form to its

message restatement. 6. Client reflects on the interaction of the counseling session.

addressee. 6. Learner raptors (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the messages exchanged during the language class.

CLL techniques also belong to a larger set of foreign language teaching practices sometimes described as humanistic techniques (Moskowitz 1978). Moskowitz defines humanistic techniques as those that blend what the student feels, thinks and knows with what he is learning in the target language. Rather than self-denial being the acceptable way of life, self-actualization and self-esteem are the ideals the exercises pursue. [The techniques] help build rapport, cohesiveness, and caring that far transcend what is already there... help students to be themselves, to accept themselves, and be proud of themselves... help foster a climate of caring and sharing in the foreign language class. (Moskowitz 1978: 2) http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Alternative%20methods/community%20language%20teaching.ht m

The silent way The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes

extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education. The method emphasizes the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation, and much time is spent practicing it each lesson.

The silent way makes use of specialized teaching materials: colored Cuisenaire rods, the sound-color chart, word charts, and Fidel charts. The Cuisenaire rods are wooden, and come in ten different lengths, but identical cross-section; each length has its own assigned color. The rods are used in a wide variety of situations in the classroom. At the beginning stages they can be used to practice colors and numbers, and later they can be used in more complex grammar. For example, to teach prepositions the teacher could use the statement "The blue rod is between the green one and the yellow one". They can also be used more abstractly, perhaps to represent a clock or the floor plan of a house. Total Physical Response Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California, it draws on several traditions, including developmental psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy, as well as on language teaching procedures proposed by Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925. Let us briefly consider these precedents to Total Physical Response. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE Total Physical Response, or TPR, involves the students listening and responding to commands given by the teacher such as "sit down" and "walk," with the complexity of the commands growing over time as the class acquires more language. Student speech is delayed, and once students indicate a willingness to talk them initially give commands to other students. Theory predicts that TPR should result in substantial language acquisition. Its content may not be

always interesting and relevant for the students, but should produce better results than the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods.

What is communicative language teaching? Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audio lingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics. Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use (function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5). How do the roles of the teacher and student change in communicative language teaching? Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening more Becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task. Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).

Berns, M. S. (1984). Functional approaches to language and language teaching: Another look. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of readings (pp. 3-21). Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley. THE NATURAL APPROACH In the Natural Approach the teacher speaks only the target language and class time is committed to providing input for acquisition. Students may use either the language being taught or their first language. Errors in speech are not corrected; however homework may include grammar exercises that will be corrected. Goals for the class emphasize the students being able use the language "to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems." This approach aims to fulfill the requirements for learning and acquisition, and does a great job in doing it. Its main weakness is that all classroom teaching is to some degree limited in its ability to be interesting and relevant to all students.