http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Principles_of_learning
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/index.html -- List of learning Theories

Educational psychologists and pedagogues have identified several principles of learning, also referred to as laws of learning, which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise, and effect. Since Thorndike set down his basic three laws in the early part of the twentieth century, five additional principles have been added: primacy, recency, intensity, freedom and requirement. The majority of these principles are widely applied in aerospace instruction, and some in many other fields, as outlined below:

Readiness[edit]
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructors responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lackmotivation. In other words, when students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructors job. Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are exhausted or in ill health cannot learn much. If they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, or worries, have overcrowded schedules, or otherunresolved issues, students may have little interest in learning.

Exercise[edit]
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure. Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall, review and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve to create learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this process is directed toward a goal.

Effect[edit]

The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The student will strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor should recognize and commend improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the students positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction. Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the classroom. One of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning situation in such a manner that each trainee will be able to see evidence of progress and achieve some degree of success. Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to teach advanced concepts on the initial engagement, the student is likely to feel inferior and be frustrated. Impressing upon students the difficulty of a task to be learned can make the teaching task difficult. Usually it is better to tell students that a problem or task, although difficult, is within their capability to understand or perform. Every learning experience does not have to be entirely successful, nor does the student have to master each lesson completely. However, every learning experience should contain elements that leave the student with some good feelings. A students chance of success is definitely increased if the learning experience is a pleasant one. Further information: Emotion and memory and Operant conditioning

Primacy[edit]
Not to be confused with Law of primacy in persuasion. Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right. Unteaching wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right the first time. If, for example, a student learns a faulty technique, the instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and reteaching correct ones. The student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow. What the student learns must be procedurally correct and applied the very first time. The instructor must present subject matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the students have already learned the preceding step. If the task is learned in isolation, is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it must be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing and following a lesson planfacilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the first time. Further information: Serial position effect

Recency[edit]
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.

Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarization help fix in the mind the material covered. Instructors recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan a summary for a lesson or learning situation. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes important points at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them. The principle of recency often determines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction. Further information: Serial position effect, Forgetting, and Forgetting curve

Intensity[edit]
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. For example, a student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it than by reading the script. Likewise, a student is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks by performing them rather than merely reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic the learning is to a real situation, the more impressive the learning is upon the student. Real world applications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are capable of learning will make a vivid impression on them. In contrast to practical instruction, the classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism that can be brought into teaching. The instructor needs to use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible. Classroom instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids, to improve realism, motivate learning, and challenge students. Instructors should emphasize important points of instruction with gestures, showmanship, and voice. Demonstrations, skits, and role playing do much to increase the learning experience of students. Examples, analogies, and personal experiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should make full use of the senses (hearing, sight, touch,taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth perception, and others).

Freedom[edit]
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the further a student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is learned. Compulsion and coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals within a society, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by society as a whole. Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom of choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of actionthese are the three great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility. If no freedom is granted, students may have little interest in learning.

Requirement[edit]
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting point or root is needed; for example, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials with which to draw, and you must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so on until you reach your goal, which is to draw a person.

Further information: Law of Requirement

aws of Learning Applied to Learning Games[edit]

The principles of learning have been presented as an explanation for why learning games (the use of games to introduce material, improve understanding, or increase retention) can show such incredible [1] results. In particular, the principles of learning present conditions which are very similar to a number of the design techniques used in games. Games use the technique of Flow, which is "the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it." (Mihly [2] Cskszentmihlyi) The primary aim of flow in games is to create intrinsically motivating experiences, which is a part of the principle of readiness. Games use many other techniques which tie to the principles of learning. They use practice to prolong game play, which is part of the principle of exercise. Game designers also place heavy emphasis on feedback, which goes with practice as part of exercise. Games use the technique of simplicity to reduce distractions, balance difficulty versus skill, and accurately correlate actions to corrective feedback. This impacts flow and motivation and increases the positive feelings toward the activity, which links back to the principles of exercise, readiness, and effect. Games use immersion and engagement as ways to create riveting experiences for players, which is part of the principle of intensity. Finally, part of the primary appeal of games is that they are fun. Although fun is hard to define, it is clear that it involves feelings such as engagement, satisfaction, pleasure, and enjoyment which are part of the principle of effect.
[1]

See also[edit]
Learning theory (education) Constructivism (learning theory) Radical behaviorism

Instructional design Instructional theory

http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/edref/traingde.htm -- Train the Trainer Guide

Learning theory (education)

Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed, and knowledge [1][2] and skills retained. Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than the environment, and in

particular the complexities of human memory. Humanists emphasize the importance of self-knowledge and relationships in the learning process. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and that the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction. Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience. As of 2012, such studies are beginning to support a theory of multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functional areas in the brain, each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner.

Behaviorism[edit]
Main article: Behaviorism (learning theory) Behaviorism, as a learning theory, is based on a change in knowledge through controlled stimulus/response conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an instructor for acquisition of knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate factual knowledge, then observe, measure, and modify behavioral changes in specified direction. This type of learning is a conditioned response or rote memorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The correct response is achieved through stimulation of senses. The focus of intelligence development is visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, and bodily/ kinesthetic intelligence. The purpose in education is to help a learner build initial schema by adopting knowledge from an instructor through use of the learners senses. This learning goal is the lowest order learning: factual knowledge, skill development, and training. The term "behaviorism" was coined by John Watson (18781959). Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or other subjective experiences was unscientific and insisted that psychology must focus on measurable [3] behaviors. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.

Conditioning[edit]
There are two types of conditioning: Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus. Operant conditioning, where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment.

Classical conditioning was noticed by Ivan Pavlov when he saw that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell, they will produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning regards this form of learning to be the same [4] whether in dogs or in humans. Operant conditioning, orradical behaviorism, reinforces this behavior with a reward or a punishment. A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment [5] decreases its likelihood. Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and will arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives,Competency-based learning, and skill [6] development and training. Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum-based [7] measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.

Cognitivism[edit]
Main article: Cognitivism (learning theory) Cognitivism, as a learning theory, is the theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of an individuals cognitive abilities, such as the mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, reflection, application, creation, understanding, and evaluation. The Cognitivists' learning process is adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization, and structure to develop internal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses in the brain. The learner requires assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. The purpose in education is to develop conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving using Verbal/Linguistic and Logical/Mathematical intelligences. The learner requires scaffolding to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The educators' role is pedagogical in that the instructor must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities. This theory relates to early stages of learning where the learner solves well defined problems through a series of stages. Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology, developed in Germany in the early 1900s and brought to America in the 1920s. The German word gestalt is roughly equivalent to the [8] English configuration or pattern and emphasizes the whole of human experience. Over the years, the Gestalt psychologists provided demonstrations and described principles to explain the way we organize [9] our sensations into perceptions. Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. [10] They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short term memory and long term [11] memory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory. They view learning as an internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory and perception) where the educator [6] focuses on building intelligence and cognitive development. The individual learner is more important than the environment. Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working [13] memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learning [14] play a role in influencing instructional design. Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.
[12]

Humanism[edit]
Main article: Humanism (learning theory) Humanism, as a learning theory, is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, and ultimately expertise through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. This self-directed learning is needs motivated, adaptive learning. Acquisition, development, and integration of knowledge occur through strategy, personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision-making. The learning goal is to become self-actualized with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment. This learner is able to adapt prior

knowledge to new experience. The educators role in humanistic learning is to encourage and enable the learner, andragogically, by providing access to appropriate resources without obtrusive interference. The learning goal is high order learning of procedural knowledge, strategy, reasoning, abstract analysis, and development of expertise. Humanists include Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Marie Montessori, and William Glasser.

Transformative learning[edit]
Main article: Transformative learning Transformative learning focuses upon the often-necessary change that is required in a learner's preconceptions and world view. Transformative learning seeks to explain how humans revise and [15] reinterpret meaning. Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of [16] reference. A frame of reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are often [17] involved. Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their particular values, [16] associations and concepts.

Constructivism[edit]
Main article: Constructivism (learning theory) Constructivism is a theory to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed by experiences. It has its roots in cognitive psychology and biology and an approach to education that lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created in order to adapt to the world. Constructs are the different types of filters we choose to place over our realities to change our reality from chaos to order. Von Glasersfeld describes constructivism as a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics.[1] Constructivism has implications for the theory of instruction. Discovery, hands-on, experiential, collaborative, project-based, and task-based learning are a number of applications that base teaching and learning on constructivism. Built on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, and building new ideas or concepts based upon current knowledge and past experience. It asks why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. To design effective teaching environments, it believes, one needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come into the classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on what the pupil already knows and [18] is allowed to develop with them. Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving [19] these problems. This requires an understanding of children's cognitive development, and constructivism draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development. The learning theories of John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb serve as the foundation of [20] constructivist learning theory. Constructivism has many varieties: Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building are three, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a given [21] framework or structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view. Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are harder to change than points of view. Habits of mind influence our point
[16]

of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, but points of view may change over [16] time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback. Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others the reasons presente d in support of competing interpretations, by [16] critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view. When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self[16] reflective, and integrative of experience.

Learning Style Theory vs Instructional Theory[edit]

Main article: Learning styles Learning style theory proposes that individuals learn in different ways, that there are four distinct learning styles feeling, watching, thinking and doing and that knowledge of a learner's preferred learning style [28] will lead to faster and more satisfactory improvement. Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes.Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections. Terms for Instructional theory are diaskagogy, pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy which relate to the maturity (age) of the learner.

Informal and post-modern theories[edit]

In theories that make use of cognitive restructuring, an informal curriculum promotes the use of prior [29] knowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of concepts. New knowledge cannot be told to students, it believes, but rather the students' current knowledge must be challenged. In this way, students [29] will adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts. By using this method students gain the broad understanding they're taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the concept or theory. This theory further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts and [30] the language of a subject should be split into multiple steps. Other informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning. Intrinsic motivation may [31] create a more self-regulated learner, yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that the average student learning in isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaboration [32] [33][34] and mediation. Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.

See also[edit]
Behaviorism (learning theory) Cognitivism (learning theory) Constructivism (learning theory) Cultural-historical psychology Instructional theory Humanism (learning theory) Instructional design Kinesthetic learning Learning by teaching Science, technology, society and environment education Connectivism (learning theory)

Evidence-based education

About accelerating the learning process cognitive acceleration spaced repetition incremental reading

About the mechanisms of memory and learning neural networks in the brain sleep and learning latent learning memory consolidation short-term memory versus working memory long-term memory declarative memory versus procedural memory the cerebellum and motor learning

About learning theories related to classroom learning Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process

http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/index.html -- List of learning Theories

Mastering Learning Styles

One of the first principles of instructional design is to know your audience. Understanding the various learning styles is critical in getting to know your audience. While there are many factors that impact how a person learns, there are basically three major categories of acquiring knowledge. These include auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. It is important to note that most people will gravitate to a mixture of these components in learning something new. Many will find a dominant learning style as they progress in life, but their preferences may change. For example, most children are more prone to the kinesthetic learning style. As they grow older, they tend to gravitate to the other two styles as well. As an instructional designer, it is extremely important to understand your audience and how they learn. A safe place to navigate in designing a course is to find balance among the three styles for your audience. Let's explore these three styles to help you better understand how people learn. Auditory Some studies have stated that approximately 30% of individuals are auditory learners. An auditory learner can retain information better when listening to instructions, hearing dialog, or conversing with another person. The auditory learner provides the following opportunities for the instructional designer.

The Auditory Learner: Visual Approximately 65% of the population are visual learners. These learners depend on pictures, graphs, or other imagery to help them understand concepts or topics. Another attribute of this type of learner is their ability to picture a concept in their mind first in order to explore a concept or to understand a principle or concept. They will often look up to the right or left to attempt to visualize a concept. The visual learner offers the following opportunities for instructional designers. The Visual Learner: Relates well to written instructions and can quickly understand graphs, maps, and diagrams Displays the potential for photographic memory Prefers written instructions over oral instructions Enjoys taking notes Focuses more on body language and facial expressions Finds it difficult to remember names Enjoys a quiet environment for studying Gravitates to structure and organization Avoids long lectures and discussions Enjoys reading Relates well to observation exercises and similar visual activities Tends to be more detail oriented Finds it difficult to remember names or lists of items Responds well to visual aids such as blackboards and flip charts Prefers independent learning versus group learning activities Requires constant visual stimulation Excels in learning through the use of music, jingles, or other auditory activities or methods Prefers discussions over written exercises Requires more time to digest visual aids such as graphs, maps, and diagrams Gravitates to scenario or story-based exercises (They love to hear a good story or joke) Finds it difficult to stay quiet in class Benefits more from reading out loud Displays excellent memorization skills Reads slowly Prefers to study in groups Likes to role-play or act out situations Displays excellent skills in speaking Enjoys interacting with others Reacts well to media that includes narration or similar audio presentations Displays a lack of interest in text-related instructions and often skims over the text Displays excellent grammar skills and good command of language (They can learn foreign languages more quickly than other learners.) Is more sensitive to the tone of voice by the person speaking Talks out loud and often talks to him/herself Requires to hear it in order to learn it

Learns better when activities involve writing and drawing Requires to see it in order to learn it

Kinesthetic. Approximately 5% of the population are kinesthetic learners. These learners require handson learning and often struggle in paying attention to lectures or long presentations. This learner enjoys to solve things on his or her own. They also have a sense of instinct for what they want or need to know and attempt to be independent in solving a problem. This type of learner offers the following opportunities. The Kinesthetic. Learner: Gravitates to the feeling, touching, and exploring aspects of learning Enjoys imitating demonstrations or hypothetical concepts Remembers more about what happened versus what was said or seen Displays a possible lack of grammar and spelling skills Excels when abstract concepts are applied to practical experiences Enjoys background music when studying or working on a problem Tends to be very active in sports Reacts well to simulations or role-playing Avoids sitting for long periods of time Uses hand gestures more often to communicate ideas Depends more on the environment of learning, including comfortable chairs, ability to move around, and the freedom to stand and walk Requires the opportunity to take breaks when studying Enjoys field trips and excursions Gravitates to constructive games, creating physical objects, and experiments Requires to do it in order to learn

Understanding these three components of learning will help you in finding the solutions to training issues or to create a successful course. As mentioned earlier, no one gravitates to only one of the three styles. Therefore, as you begin to know your audience, keep these learning styles in mind. You should always be asking yourself and your subject matter expert on how your audience likes to learn. This one simple question will open the doors to many opportunities to build a very successful course. Mastering the Learning Styles of how people learn is one of the first principles of the ADDIE process.