Andy Wilson

December 8, 2005

Dr. Rankin

Hist. 443

African Americans in World War II: Achieving the Double-V

World War II is generally seen as a battle between liberty and tyranny. It is a

conflict on a global scale, pitting the nations of democracy against those of Fascism and

totalitarianism. The war is, however, far more complicated than that. The United States,

while on the one had fighting against the evil despots of Germany and Japan in the name

of freedom and equality, were on the other hand denying the very rights that they

espoused from a group of their citizens: the African Americans.

African Americans during World War II faced the reality that they were fighting a

two-front war; one against the Axis powers and the other against Jim Crow in the United

States. On the battlefield and on the home front, African Americans faced racism and

degradation by their own countrymen. In the Armed Forces they were segregated and

forced to endure conditions far below those of other units; and on the home front they

endured continued segregation and discrimination as well. World War II, for many

African Americans brazenly and clearly demonstrated the horrible inequality that was

present throughout the nation. There was a general feeling that the system needed to

change and in order to do that action needed to be taken. These feelings led to the

development of the Double-V slogan; victory abroad and victory at home. The feeling
was that African Americans needed to fight the evils of Fascism while at the same time

fighting against the so called “American Hitler’s,” Jim Crow and rampant inequality

(Dalfiume). The actions of both African Americans in the war zone as well as those on

the home front made many strides in achieving the Double-V. In fact, the actions of the

Double-V campaign greatly influenced the later Civil Rights movement which succeeded

in achieving equal rights for all Americans. It is therefore of great import to examine

some of the events critical to the Double-V and how they influenced the Civil Rights

movement.

It was apparent to many African Americans that they were generally not wanted

by American society, especially when they were denied the ability to contribute to the

war effort by serving in the armed forces. During the war African Americans did not

enjoy the same treatment as their white counterparts. They served in separate units with

equipment that was sub-par when compared with that of white units. They also did not

get to decide which branch they wanted to serve in. The Marines simply refused to

accept African Americans. The Army and the Navy accepted African Americans but they

were generally forced to serve in auxiliary units, either as truck drivers, mess men, or

behind frontlines in a support position. There were examples of African American

combat troops, such as the 92nd Division and the Tuskegee Airmen, but most African

Americans were deemed unreliable and therefore not capable of frontline action. Often

African American troops, especially in the South, were forced to train under white

officers who horribly mistreated them, degrading them far more than other troops.

African Americans chaffed under these rules. They became disenfranchised

because they felt that since they could not receive both the responsibilities as well
privileges of being a citizen, they would never enjoy the rights they so desired.

Everywhere they turned the white system was keeping them down. These feelings of

ineptitude expressed themselves violently across the nation as African American troops,

especially in the South, reacted to a system which greatly frustrated them. Infuriated by

the poor facilities, racist officers and hostility by the local population, African American

troops became involved in over 20 episodes of violence or resistance across the nation

(Sandler).

One of the more significant incidents occurred at Freedman Field, Indiana, where

African American officers of the 477th Bombardment Group slipped into a white officers

club (Sandler). The white commanding officer of the 477th then made all officers sign an

order stating that they understood the allocation of base facilities. When the African

American officers refused to sign they were thrown in jail (Sandler). Eventually General

George Marshall ordered the release of all but three officers. Of these three, two were

released and the other was fined for forcing his way into the club.

The military eventually realized that they had wasted valuable resources in their

attempt to continue the segregation of African American troops. After the war, the U.S.

government examined the violent actions as well as other resistance by African

Americans. They concluded that segregation was not an efficient means of using its

manpower. By integrating units they would be able to avoid much of the conflict that had

plagued African American units. It is therefore easy to see that in some respects the

actions taken by these African American units convinced the Armed Forces to integrate.

This incident also foreshadowed the disciplined, non-violent action of Civil

Rights struggle of the 1950’s and 1960’s. The officers of 477th instead of violently
reacting to the arrests instead presented a peaceful unified front (Sandler). There was no

seizure of arms in resistance to their arrest. Instead, they allowed themselves to be

arrested and fight for their independence by working through the system, relying on

public pressure to aid them. By working this way they gave their cause legitimacy.

These methods would later be used in the 1950’s and 1960’s by Civil Rights leaders such

as Dr. Martin Luther King.

Another incident that is of significance to the Civil Rights movement is that of the

all African American 369th National Guard unit known as the “Harlem Hellfighters”

(Bailey). In 1942 the 369th was sent to Hawaii with orders to take up defensive positions

for an invasion (Bailey). On the islands the men of the 369th encountered racism from the

predominately white sailors. There were many incidents were Southern white sailors

would assault men of the 369th because they refused to respect the Southerners racism.

Many fights were started because a man from the 369th refused to step out of the way of a

sailor when they met on the street. Many white sailors also refused to salute African

Americans who were their superiors. They instead acted condescendingly or ran away

from the African American officer rather than show their subordination to him.

Eventually the actions of the white sailors on Hawaii became such a problem that

there was a need for action and the Military governor stepped in and instituted anti-racist

policies. Similar to the reactions to the “Freedman Field 101”, these policies were not

created in order to build equality but to mainly to maintain the practical matters of

winning the war. It was seen as necessary to the war effort that order be maintained

between the different American groups on the island and that rank be respected regardless
of color. In the eyes of the military, if these facts were ignored there would be a

breakdown the military functions on the Hawaii.

Regardless of why the policies were created they instilled in the men of 369th a

feeling that, for once, the system was on their side. For one of the first times they saw

federal officials back them up against the attacks of whites. If they pushed hard enough,

federal authorities treated their situation seriously and often they would be favorable to

their demands. Hawaii had taught them that the government would stand by its rules and

regulations but it was often up to the individual courage and initiative of African

Americans to cause change. The men of the 369th remembered these actions and brought

them back to the U.S. were they implemented, with success, during the Civil Rights

movement.

The reactions of those on the home front were of equal importance to those in

the Armed Forces. In 1940 during the massive military buildup prior to American

involvement, there was a huge demand by aircraft industries for workers. Yet when

African Americans applied for jobs they were told that they could only fill the positions

of “janitors and other similar positions” (Dalfiume). African Americans were also turned

away from giving blood because it was seen as inadvisable to mix African American

blood with that of Caucasians; even though there is no biological difference between the

two (Dalfiume). When the government issued orders to end such discrimination, they

were simply ignored.

There was also a good deal of cynicism and isolationism because of African

American experiences in the First World War. During World War I there was a large

amount of optimism and hope on the part of the African American community because
they saw the war as an opportunity to prove themselves, gain the rights that they so

desired, and become a member of a democratic order which espoused the equality of all

people. They believed the “close ranks” strategy proposed by W.E.B Dubois, who

believed in subduing racial agitation, believing it could be obtained after the war

(Dalfiume). However, instead of being treated as fellow citizens fighting for the good of

their country, African Americans were segregated, discriminated, and, in some of the

worst race riots in American history, lynched. This shocked the psyche of the African

American community which felt that they had made a mistake in believing that they

would be included in a society that apparently did not want them.

With the outbreak of World War II, many African Americans remembered what

had happened during World War I and reacted with cynicism and indifference towards the

war. For many African Americans the war was seen as the Hitlers of Germany fighting

those of the United States. They felt that if they again sacrificed their struggle for

equality to aid white America in their war against Fascism, the results would be the same

as those of World War I. They questioned the intentions of the U.S. and whether the war

was really over democracy and equality or whether it was the whites trying to save their

own hides. They did however recognize the threat that the Axis powers posed to the

world but instead of setting aside their struggle against racism at home, they decided to

fight both battles; hence the Double-V. African Americans therefore entered the war

years with a great deal of cynicism towards the government and its intentions but were

still willing to aid in the struggle.

The discrimination and segregation of both the armed forces and the home front

as well as the stigma of World War I greatly heightened the feelings of inequality and
disparity throughout the African American community throughout World War II. They

saw their earlier attempts as futile and realized that more forceful measures were needed.

Many African Americans desired a more militant approach to obtaining their goals. They

began forming organizations designed to further their cause and promote a more forward

approach. Mass protest meetings were held and, in 1943, there were massive riots

(Dalfiume). In the Northern states African Americans criticized themselves over their

long acceptance of segregation; and in the South, African Americans began to openly

question the policies which were enacted against them. In North Carolina a group of

African American leaders met and issued a statement concerning race relations

(Dalfiume). Southern African American college students were extremely discontent with

the status quo; and they were becoming more politically active. During the war years it is

quite evident that the African Americans began to flex some of their political muscle and

find their strength.

Of all the movements that occurred on the home front, there was one incident that

greatly foreshadowed the future Civil Rights movement. Agitation for mass protest had

grown since a group of African American leaders had failed to receive any concessions

from President Roosevelt in regards to defense discrimination. Groups such as the

NAACP, the Committee for Participation on Negroes in National Defense, and the Allied

Committees on National Defense all held mass protest rallies across the country

(Dalfiume). When these actions failed to create any sort of impact, African American

leaders decided that it was time for larger measures.

In 1941 an African American civil rights leader named A. Philip Randolph called

for a march on Washington with the intent of voicing African American grievances.
Upset over the rampant defense discrimination, Randolph called on 10,000 African

Americans to join together and march on Washington D.C. Randolph’s march touched a

chord with African American masses and he increased the number of marchers to 50,000

(Dalfiume). The march was scheduled for the July 1, 1941 (Dalfiume), but was canceled

when President Roosevelt issued an executive order establishing the President’s

Committee on Fair Employment Practices. The March on Washington Movement was a

momentous success for African Americans throughout the country. They had been able

to create a large amount of political pressure through a demonstration of African

American power. For many African Americans it was evident that a more militant

approach was indeed necessary in order to deal with the federal government.

With the success of the MOWM, other African American groups also began

exercising a more militant stance as their membership ballooned and became exceedingly

more vociferous. The NAACP exploded from 355 branches and 50,556 members in

1940, to 1,073 branches and a membership of slightly less than 450,000 (Goulden). The

MOWM created an excitement and captured the imagination of the African American

community that would carry over into the later Civil Rights movement.

The MOWM pioneered the spirit and tactics used by later Civil Rights leaders.

Randolph’s call to march can be seen as a predecessor to Martin Luther King’s march

twenty two years later. Both movements used the power of massed protest to try and

enact a change that they saw as necessary. The marches of the Civil Rights movement

also used many of the same tactics as the MOWM. A concentration of African American

protestors used to coerce action from the federal government and a focus on economic
problems of the average African American. The MOWM is of clear significance to the

future Civil Rights movement.

For African Americans the era of World War II is seen as crucial in the

development of the later Civil Rights movement. Actions by African Americans in many

different aspects created changes that would have ramifications for the future of the

movement. The war highlighted the horrible inequality that was present in the country

and forced many African Americans to work more forcefully for their rights. By striving

for the Double-V, African Americans may not have obtained the rights that they hoped for

with the end of the war but they set a precedent and indeed pioneered many of the

methods that would prove to be successful in future actions. African American soldiers

pioneered the use of passive resistance and began to create a faith in the American

system. The MOWM paved the way for the march of Martin Luther King as well as

many of the other marches during the Civil Rights movement. African American actions

in World War II began destroying the power of Jim Crow. They also began to see that

they did indeed have the power to change the system and become included in American

society. World War II and the Double-V campaign opened the door for the events that

would culminate in the Civil Rights movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s.
 Bibliography

Bailey, Beth, Farber, David, The “Double-V” Campaign in World War II Hawaii:
African-Americans, Racial Ideology, and Federal Power, The American
Experience in World War II, Rutledge, New York, 2003.

Dalfiume, Richard M., The “Forgotten Years” of the Negro Revolution, The American
Experience in World War II, Rutledge, New York, 2003.

Goulden, Marc, Magnusson, Sigurdur, Modell, John, World War II in the Lives of Black
Americans: Some Findings and interpretation, The American Experience in
World War II, Rutledge, New York, 2003.

Miller, Donald M., The Story of World War II, Touchstone, New York 2001.

Sandler, Stanley, Homefront Battlefront: Military Racial Disturbances in the Zone of the
Interior, 1941-1942, The American Experience in World War II, Rutledge, New
York, 2003.