PERORMANCE ANALYSIS FOR HYDROGEN SUPPLEMENTED IN CI ENGINES

A MAJOR PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHAINCAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by: HARMAN SINGH (09109044) SURENDRA SINGH DHAKED (09109084) SURENDRA KUMAR MEENA (09109083) AVINASH KUMAR ROY (09109025) Under the guidance Of Dr. SARBJOT SINGH SANDHU Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JALANDHAR

(i)

CANDIDATES DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the Major Project report PERORMANCE FOR HYDROGEN SUPPLEMENTED IN CI ENGINES submitted towards the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar is an authentic record of our work carried out from August 2012 to May 2013 under the supervision of Dr. SARBJOT SINGH SANDHU, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar. The matter embodied in this Major Project report has not been submitted by us for any other degree or diploma.

Place: NIT Jalandhar Date: 29/05/2013

Harman Singh Surendra Singh Dhaked Surendra Kumar Meena Avinash Kumar Roy

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidates is correct to the best of my knowledge.

(Dr. Subash Chander) Head of the Department

(Dr.Sarbjot S.Sandhu) Assistant Professor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It was a great opportunity to undertake the project on PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS FOR HYDROGEN SUPPLEMENTED IN CI ENGINES. At the conclusion of the project, we would like to sincerely acknowledge the invaluable support of all those people without whom this would not have been accomplished. First of all, we wish to express our heartfelt thanks and deep sense of profound gratitude to Mr. Sarbjot Singh Sandhu, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical engineering, for providing invaluable guidance, keen interest, technical inputs and appropriate help. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to Dr. Subash Chander, Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering for giving us an opportunity to undertake such an interesting project. Finally, we are obliged to all our colleagues and well-wishers for their help and useful suggestions.

Harman Singh (09109044) Surendra Singh Dhaked (09109084) Avinash Kumar Roy (09109025) Surendra Kumar Meena (09109083)

INDEX 1 2 2.1 ABSTRACT....7 INTRODUCTION...8 LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1.1 THERMODYNAMICS OF CI ENGINE....9 2.1.2 COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES ....10 2.1.3 PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN...12 2.1.4 HYDROGEN SAFETY ISSUES ..15 2.1.5 FEATURES OF HYDROGEN FOR ENGINE APPLICATIONS17 2.1.6 LIMITATIONS OF HYDROGEN ENGINE APPLICATIONS .......18 2.1.7 FLASHBACK PREVENTION METHODS......19 2.1.8 FLASHBACK INTERRUPTION METHODS..18 2.1.9 SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH PAPERS...22. 3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP26 4.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE32 5.1 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS.34 6.1 REFERENCES.......37

List of Tables
2.1 Comparison of properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline 5.1 Brake Thermal efficiency of engine using diesel 5.2 Calculation of required hydrogen at different loads 5.3 Results of Hydrogen Supplementation 15 34 34 35

List of Figures 2.1 Indicator Diagram of a CI engine

2.2 P-v and T-s diagram of Dual Cycle 2.3 Fuel Jet of a CI engine 2.4 Cylinder pressure v/s cylinder pressure curve 2.5 Flame Arrestor with removable element from Enardo 2.6 Working of a flame arrestor 2.7 Detonation Arrestors 2.8 Example of Liquid seal flame arrestor 3.1 Schematic of Experimental Setup 3.2 Setup in Laboratory 3.3 Pressure regulator Used 3.4 Flow meter 3.5 CAD Model of Flame trap 3.6 Photo of Flame trap 5.1 Efficiency at different hydrogen supplementations 9 10 11 12 20 20 21 21 26 27 28 29 30 31 35

1.1 ABSTRACT:Hydrogen is a versatile fuel with the unique potential of providing an ultimate freedom from energy (fuel) crisis and environmental degradation. The Present work describes the potential of hydrogen to be used for stationary diesel engines or gensets which have agricultural applications. Hydrogen cannot be used directly in a diesel engine due to its auto ignition temperature higher than that of diesel fuel. One alternative method is to use hydrogen in enrichment in air mixture which could improve combustion efficiency of engine hence increasing its Brake thermal efficiency. To investigate the combustion characteristics of this dual fuel engine, a single cylinder diesel engine was modified to utilize hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen was introduced to the intake manifold before entering the combustion chamber. A flame trap was fabricated to inhibit any flashback if generated .Engine was run at a constant speed of 1500 rpm and variable electrical loads. At each load step the flow rate of hydrogen gas was varied. Fuel consumption, current and voltage output were measured .Introducing Hydrogen improved the brake thermal efficiency.

Chapter -2 Introduction

In the modern and fast moving world, petroleum based fuel have become important for a countrys development. Products derived from crude oil continued to be the major and critical source of energy for fuelling vehicles all over the world. At the current and projected rate of consumption of crude, it is estimated that these reserves will be badly depleted in due course and it may become impossible to meet the requirements.Fossil fuels possess very useful properties not shared by non-conventional energy sources that have made them popular during the last century. Diesel is mainly consumed in the transport, industries and agricultural sectors. In the existing engines that have been designed to operate on petroleum-based fuels. Developing countries, in particular, use small horsepower diesel engines for irrigation, pumping and other agricultural activities. Diesel gensets have been found to be very effective as decentralized energy units for various other applications. Unfortunately, fossil fuels are not renewable (Veziroglu TN. 1987) [1] in addition, the pollutants emitted by fossil energy systems (e.g. CO, CO2, CnHm, SOx, NOx, radioactivity, heavy metals, ashes, etc.) are harmful and are causing global environmental problems like climate change. Global warming and acid rains and more damaging than those that might be produced by a renewable based hydrogen energy system (Winter CJ. 1987) [2]. A lot of research is being carried out throughout the world to evaluate the performance, exhaust emission and combustion. characteristics of the existing engines using several alternative fuels such as hydrogen, compressed natural gas (CNG), alcohols (methanol and ethanol), LPG, biogas, producer gas, bio-diesels developed from vegetable oils, and a host of others. Practical implementation of a particular fuel depends to a large extent on its .field of application, production potential, utilization, and exhaust emission characteristics. There are other design-oriented problems such as fuel-induction technique and on-board storage methods that need to be addressed from a practical point of view. A detailed study on various alternative fuels is beyond the scope of this work. In the context of the present work, the discussions will be restricted to hydrogen. Generally, the arguments for and against hydrogen as an alternative fuel is based on some of its characteristics rather than on its Overall characteristics. Clean burning, High flammability, High Calorific Value, High flame speed and rapid recycling characteristics are on the positive side and the explosive characteristics are on the other side. With this concept hydrogen is expected to be the future fuel for the internal combustion engines. Therefore attempts have been made to utilize hydrogen in the compression ignition engine. But, hydrogen cannot be
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used as a sole fuel in compression ignition engine because of its high self-ignition temperature (858k), therefore diesel is used as a main fuel. While hydrogen was inducted by mixing with air into the engine In present work hydrogen is introduced in different equivalent energy ratios varying from 10 to 30 percent of diesel calorific value through the inlet manifold and varying its flow according to required calorific value. Due to high speed of flame flashback may rise which may be catastrophic if it reaches fuel tank.To prevent the back fire of the flame after the combustion is over from the engine combustion liquid seal based flame arrestor is be installed in the system

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1.1 Thermodynamics of Diesel Cycle [3]

Early CI engines injected fuel into the combustion chamber very late in the compression stroke, resulting in the indicator diagram shown in Figure 2.1. Due to ignition delay and the finite time required to inject the fuel, combustion lasted into the expansion stroke. This kept the pressure at peak levels well past TDC. This combustion process is best approximated as a constant-pressure heat input in an air-standard cycle, resulting in the diesel cycle shown in Figure 2.2. The rest of the cycle is similar to the air-standard otto cycle. The diesel cycle is sometimes called a constant pressure cycle.

Figure 2.1 Indicator Diagram of a CI engine

Figure 2.2 P-v and T-s diagram of Dual Cycle

2.1.2 Combustion Process

Combustion takes place in a CI engine in following steps:1. Atomization. Fuel drops break into very small droplets. The smaller the original drop size emitted by the injector, the quicker and more efficient will be this atomization process. 2. Vaporization. The small droplets of liquid fuel evaporate to vapour. This occurs very quickly due to the hot air temperatures created by the high compression of CI engines. High air temperature needed for this vaporization process requires a minimum compression ratio in CI engines of about 12:1. About 90% of the fuel injected into the cylinder has been vaporized within 0.001 second after injection. As the first fuel evaporates, the immediate surroundings are cooled by evaporative cooling. This greatly affects subsequent evaporation. Near the core of the fuel jet, the combination of high fuel concentration and evaporative cooling will cause adiabatic saturation of fuel to occur. Evaporation will stop in this region, and only after additional mixing and heating will this fuel be evaporated. 3. Mixing. After vaporization, the fuel vapour must mix with air to form a mixture within the AF range which is combustible. This mixing comes about because of the high fuel injection velocity added to the swirl and turbulence in the cylinder air Figure 2.3 shows the non-homogeneous distribution of air-fuel ratio that develops around the injected fuel jet. Combustion can occur within the equivalence ratio limits of cp = 1.8 (rich) and cp = 0.8 (lean).

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4. Self-Ignition. At about 8 bTDC , the air-fuel mixture starts to self-ignite. Actual combustion is preceded by secondary reactions, including breakdown of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller Species and some oxidation. These reactions, caused by the high-temperature air, are exothermic and further raise the air temperature in the immediate local vicinity. This finally leads to an actual sustained combustion process. 5. Combustion. Combustion starts from self-ignition simultaneously at many locations in the slightly rich zone of the fuel jet, where the equivalence ratio is <p = 1 to 1.5 (zone B in Fig.2.4). At this time, somewhere between 70% and 95% of the fuel in the combustion chamber is in the vapour state. When Combustion starts, multiple flame fronts spreading from the many self-ignition sites quickly consume all the gas mixture which is in a correct combustible Air-fuel ratio, even where self-ignition wouldn't occur. This gives a very quick rise in temperature and pressure within the cylinder, shown in Fig 2.4. The higher temperature and pressure reduce the vaporization time and ignition delay time for additional fuel particles and cause more self-ignition points to further increase the combustion process. Liquid fuel is still being injected into the cylinder after the first fuel is already burning. After the initial start of combustion when all the air-fuel mixture that is in a combustible state is quickly consumed, the rest of the combustion process is controlled by the rate at which fuel can be injected, atomized, vaporized, and mixed into the proper air fuel mixture. This rate of combustion, now controlled by injection rate, can be seen in Fig. 2.4 in the slower pressure rise that occurs after the initial fast rise. Combustion lasts for about 40 to 50 of engine rotation, much longer than the 20 of fuel injection. This is because some fuel particles take a long time to mix into a combustible mixture with the air, and combustion therefore lasts well into the power stroke. This can be seen in Fig 2.4, where the pressure remains high until the piston is 30--40 aTDC. About 60% of the fuel is burned in the first one-third of combustion time. Burning rate increases with engine speed, so the burn angle remains about constant. During the main part of the combustion process, anywhere from 10% to 35% of the fuel vapour in the cylinder will be in a combustible air fuel mixture.

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Figure 2.4 Cylinder pressure v/s crank angle curve

2.1.3 Properties of Hydrogen [4]

The properties that contribute to its use as a combustible fuel are its: Wide range of flammability Low ignition energy Small quenching distance High auto ignition temperature High flame speed at stoichiometric ratios High diffusivity Very low density Wide Range of Flammability Hydrogen has a wide flammability range in comparison with all other fuels. As a result, hydrogen can be combusted in an internal combustion engine over a wide range of fuel-air mixtures. A significant advantage of this is that hydrogen can run on a lean mixture. A lean mixture is one in which the amount of fuel is less than the theoretical, stoichiometric or chemically ideal amount needed for combustion with a given amount of air. This is why it is fairly easy to get an engine to start on hydrogen.
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Generally, fuel economy is greater and the combustion reaction is more complete when a vehicle is run on a lean mixture. Additionally, the final combustion temperature is generally lower, reducing the amount of pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, emitted in the exhaust. There is a limit to how lean the engine can be run, as lean operation can significantly reduce the power output due to a reduction in the volumetric heating value of the air/fuel mixture.

Low Ignition Energy Hydrogen has very low ignition energy. The amount of energy needed to ignite hydrogen is about one order of magnitude less than that required for gasoline. This enables hydrogen engines to ignite lean mixtures and ensures prompt ignition. Unfortunately, the low ignition energy means that hot gases and hot spots on the cylinder can serve as sources of ignition, creating problems of premature ignition and flashback. Preventing this is one of the challenges associated with running an engine on hydrogen. The wide flammability range of hydrogen means that almost any mixture can be ignited by a hot spot.

Small Quenching Distance Hydrogen has a small quenching distance, smaller than gasoline. Consequently, hydrogen flames travel closer to the cylinder wall than other fuels before they extinguish. Thus, it is more difficult to quench a hydrogen flame than a gasoline flame. The smaller quenching distance can also increase the tendency for backfire since the flame from a hydrogen-air mixture more readily passes a nearly closed intake valve, than a hydrocarbonair flame.

High Auto ignition Temperature Hydrogen has a relatively high auto ignition temperature. This has important implications when a hydrogenair mixture is compressed. In fact, the auto ignition temperature is an important factor in determining what compression ratio an engine can use, since the temperature rise during compression is related to the compression ratio. The temperature rise is shown by the equation 2.1

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(2.1) The temperature may not exceed hydrogens auto ignition temperature without causing premature ignition. Thus, the absolute final temperature limits the compression ratio. The high auto ignition temperature of hydrogen allows larger compression ratios to be used in a hydrogen engine than in a hydrocarbon engine. .

High Flame Speed Hydrogen has high flame speed at stoichiometric ratios. Under these conditions, the hydrogen flame speed is nearly an order of magnitude higher (faster) than that of gasoline. This means that hydrogen engines can more closely approach the thermodynamically ideal engine cycle. At leaner mixtures, however, the flame velocity decreases significantly.

High Diffusivity Hydrogen has very high diffusivity. This ability to disperse in air is considerably greater than gasoline and is advantageous for two main reasons. Firstly, it facilitates the formation of a uniform mixture of fuel and air. Secondly, if a hydrogen leak develops, the hydrogen disperses rapidly. Thus, unsafe conditions can either be avoided or minimized.

Low Density Hydrogen has very low density. This results in two problems when used in an internal combustion engine. Firstly, a very large volume is necessary to store enough hydrogen to give a vehicle an adequate driving range. Secondly, the energy density of a hydrogen-air mixture, and hence the power output, is reduced

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Table 2.1 Comparison of properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline

2.1.4 Hydrogen Safety Issues [5]

Like any other fuel or energy carrier hydrogen poses risks if not properly handled or controlled. The risk of hydrogen, therefore, must be considered relative to the common fuels such as gasoline, propane or natural gas. Since hydrogen has the smallest molecule it has a greater tendency to escape through small openings than other liquid or gaseous fuels. Based on properties of hydrogen such as density, viscosity and diffusion coefficient in air, the propensity of hydrogen to leak through holes or joints of low pressure fuel lines may be only 1.26 (laminar flow) to 2.8 (turbulent flow) times faster than a natural gas leak through the same hole (and not 3.8 times faster as frequently assumed based solely on diffusion coefficients). Since natural gas has over three times the energy density per unit volume the natural gas leak would result in more energy release than a hydrogen leak. For very large leaks from high pressure storage tanks, the leak rate is limited by sonic velocity. Due to higher sonic velocity (1308 m/s) hydrogen would initially escape much faster than natural gas (sonic velocity of natural gas is 449 m/s). Again, since natural gas has more than three times the energy density than hydrogen, a natural gas leak will always contain more energy. If a leak should occur for whatever reason, hydrogen will disperse much faster than any other fuel, thus reducing the hazard levels. Hydrogen is both more buoyant and more diffusive than either gasoline, propane or natural gas. Hydrogen/air mixture can burn in relatively wide volume ratios, between 4%and 75% of hydrogen in air. Other fuels have much lower flammability ranges, natural gas 5.3-15%, propane 2.1-10%, and gasoline 1.2-6%. However, the range has a little practical value. In many actual leak situations the key parameter that determines if a leak would ignite is the lower flammability limit, and hydrogens lower flammability limit is 4 times higher than that of gasoline, 1.9 times higher than that of propane and slightly lower than that of natural gas.

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Hydrogen has a very low ignition energy (0.02 mJ), about one order of magnitude lower than other fuels. The ignition energy is a function of fuel/air ratio, and for hydrogen it reaches minimum at about 25%-30% hydrogen content in air. Hydrogen has a flame velocity 6 times faster than that of natural gas or gasoline. A hydrogen flame would therefore be more likely to progress to a detonation than other fuels. However, the likelihood of a detonation depends in a complex manner on the exact fuel/air ratio, the temperature and particularly the geometry of the confined space. Hydrogen detonation in the open atmosphere is highly unlikely. The lower detonability fuel/air ratio for hydrogen is 13%-18%, which is two times higher than that of natural gas and 12 times higher than that of gasoline. Since the lower flammability limit is 4% an explosion is possible only under the most unusual scenarios, which is, hydrogen would first have to accumulate and reach 13% concentration in a closed space without ignition, and only then an ignition source would have to be triggered. Should an explosion occur, hydrogen has the lowest explosive energy per unit stored energy in the fuel, and a given volume of hydrogen would have 22 times less explosive energy than the same volume filled with gasoline vapour. Hydrogen flame is nearly invisible, which may be dangerous, because people in vicinity of a hydrogen flame may not even know there is a fire. This may be remedied by adding some chemicals that will provide the necessary luminosity. The low emissivity of hydrogen flames means that nearby materials and people will be much less likely to ignite and/or hurt by radiant heat transfer. The fumes and soot from a gasoline fire pose a risk to anyone inhaling the smoke, while hydrogen fires produce only water vapour (unless secondary materials begin to burn). Most of the above discussed failure modes may be either avoided or their occurrence and consequences minimized by leak prevention through a proper system design, selection of adequate equipment, allowing for tolerance of shocks and vibrations, locating a pressure relief device vent, protecting the high pressure lines, installing a normally closed solenoid valve on each tank feed line; leak detection by either a leak detector or by adding an odorant to the hydrogen fuel (this may be a problem for fuel cells); ignition prevention, through automatically disconnecting battery bank, thus eliminating source of electrical sparks which are the cause of 85% gasoline fires after a collision, by designing the fuel supply lines so that they are physically separated from all electrical devices, batteries, motors and wires to the maximum extent possible, and by designing the system for both active and passive ventilation (such as an opening to allow the hydrogen to escape upward).

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2.1.5 Features of Hydrogen for Engine Applications

In addition to the previous unique features associated almost exclusively with hydrogen, a number of others can be cited in support of hydrogen applications in engines. To list some of the main of these features less cyclic variations are encountered with hydrogen than with other fuels, even for very lean mixture operation. This leads to a reduction in emissions, improved efficiency, and quieter and smoother operation. Hydrogen can have a high effective octane number mainly because of its high burning rates and its slow resignation reactivity. Hydrogen has been shown to be an excellent additive in relatively small concentrations, to some common fuels such as methane. Its gaseous state permits excellent cold starting and engine operation. Hydrogen remains in gaseous state until it reaches its condensation point around 20 K. Hydrogen engines are more appropriate for high-speed engine operation mainly due to the associated fast burning rates. Less spark advance is usually needed, which contributes to better efficiencies and improved power output as the bulk of the heat release by combustion can be completed just after the TDC region. Hydrogen engine operation can be associated with less heat loss than with other fuels. Moderately high compression ratio operation is possible with lean mixtures of hydrogen in air, which permits higher efficiencies and increased power output. Hydrogen engines are very suitable for cogeneration applications since the energy transfer due to condensing some water vapour can add up significantly to the thermal load output and the corresponding energy efficiency. Hydrogen unlike most other commercial fuels is a pure fuel of well-known properties and characteristics, which permits continued and better optimization of engine performance. The reaction rates of hydrogen are sensitive to the presence of a wide range of catalysts. This feature helps to improve its combustion and the treatment of its exhaust emissions. The thermodynamic and heat transfer characteristics of hydrogen tend to produce high compression temperatures that contribute to improvements in engine efficiency and lean mixture operation. Hydrogen high burning rates make the hydrogen fuelled engine performance less sensitive to changes to the shape of the combustion chamber, level of turbulence and the intake charge swirling effect. Internal combustion engines can burn hydrogen in a wider range of fuel-air mixtures than with gasoline.

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2.1.6 Limitations Associated with Hydrogen Engine Applications

Much of the information reported in the open literature about the performance of engines on hydrogen as a fuel tends to highlight the positive features of hydrogen while de-emphasizing or even ignoring the many limitations associated with such fields of application. There is a need to focus equally well on these and suggest means for overcoming some of their negative aspects. Accordingly, the following is a listing of some features associated with hydrogen as an engine fuel that may be considered as requiring some remedial action. Hydrogen as a compressed gas at 200 atmospheres and atmospheric temperature merely occupy around 5% of the energy of gasoline of the same volume. This is a major shortcoming particularly for transport applications. Engines fuelled with hydrogen suffer from reduced power output, due mainly to the very low heating value of hydrogen on volume basis and resorting to lean mixture operation. The mass of the intake air is reduced for any engine size because of the relatively high stoichiometric hydrogen to air ratio. There are serious potential operational problems associated with the uncontrolled resignation and backfiring into the intake manifold of hydrogen engines. Hydrogen engines are prone to produce excessively high cylinder pressure and to the onset of knock. The equivalent octane number of hydrogen is rather low in comparison to common gasoline and methane. The high burning rates of hydrogen produce high pressures and temperatures during combustion in engines when operating near stoichiometric mixtures. This may lead to high exhaust emissions of oxides of nitrogen. There are serious limitations to the application of cold exhaust gas recirculation exhaust emissions control. Hydrogen engines may display some serious limitations to effective turbo charging. There is always some potential for increased safety problems with hydrogen operation. Hydrogen engine operation may be associated with increased noise and vibrations due mainly to the high rates of pressure rise resulting from fast burning. Great care is needed to avoid materials compatibility problems with hydrogen applications in engines. In certain applications, such as in very cold climates, the exhaust emission of steam can be an undesirable feature leading to poor visibility and increased icing problems.

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2.1.7 Flashback Prevention Methods [6]

Dilution By adding inerts such as N2 or CO2, the mixture can be brought to a non-flammable state. Cooling For a flashback to progress into equipment, combustion heat must be transferred into the combustible mixture. By passing a potentially flammable mixture through a water spray chamber or some sort of heat sink, a flashback can be stopped. Mechanical inline flame arrestors and detonation arrestors are common heat sinks

2.1.8 Flashback Interruption Methods:Many methods to stop flashbacks have been devised. "Active" methods require maintenance of certain parameters, such as liquid level or gas velocity. "Passive" methods require only routine inspection and typically have no moving parts or instrument requirements. Venturi type flame Arrestors (active) Venturi flame arrestors simply create a restriction in the hydrocarbon/air mixture delivery pipe so that the gas velocity is faster than the flame speed, preventing progression of a flashback upstream. Flashback in the direction of flow can still happen. Even a partly closed valve can create a high velocity for flashback prevention, but a Venturi shape creates much lower pressure drop. If gas flow stops, the venturi is no longer effective, so methods to measure flow and add makeup gas (nitrogen, for instance) are often included

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Inline flame arrestors (passive) Mechanical flame arrestors are filled with metal or ceramic, which absorbs heat from a flashback, quenching it to a temperature below what is needed for ignition. This stops the flame. With a low enough hydrocarbon/air mixture flow rate, if a flame travels to the face of the arrestor, it can become stable at that point. Heating of the arrestor body and internals results. Once the arrestor temperatures increase enough, ignition temperature can be reached on the upstream side of the arrestor and the flashback can proceed. For this reason, a temperature switch is often installed on the flame side of each arrestor (adding an "active" element). If an elevated temperature is detected, an alarm sounds and steps can be taken to stop flow completely. An Enardo flame arrestor is shown below

Figure 2.5 Flame arrestor with removable element from Enardo

Figure 2.6 How a Flame arrestor works

Inline detonation arrestors (passive)

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Detonation arrestors are stronger, more effective versions of standard flame arrestors. They are certified after extensive testing per U.S. Coast Guard standards, which specify piping arrangements certain to accelerate a normal flash back to detonation speeds. The certified detonation arrestor must stop the flash back without damage to the arrestor itself, so it can be used repeatedly if necessary.

FIGURE 2.7 Detonation arrestors from Protect seal

Liquid seal flame arrestors (active) This type of flame arrestor works by bubbling the hydrocarbon/air mixture upwards through a liquid bath (usually water), forming discrete bubbles. The gas exits above the liquid to the ignition source. A flash back is stopped when flame is unable to move from bubble to bubble in order to reach the upstream pipe. Some certification work has been done in Europe on this type arrestor, but so far there are no certified models on the market. A common liquid seal flame arrestor design is shown below. Note the water level must be maintained safely above the level of the safety at all times to insure bubbles.

FIGURE 2.8 Example of a Liquid seal flame arrestor

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2.1.9 SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH PAPERS ON SUBJECT

LM DAS [7] tells about various problems which arise in using H2 as fuel include abnormal pressure rise and preignition in combustion chamber at high loads and occasional backfire during idling. Due to its wide range of flammability ultra-lean mixtures have been achieved to reduce NOx. One of the major issue of research is induction technique for H2 Fuel to ensure that there is no backfire. The fundamental properties that cause backfire in a hydrogen engine system are its exceptionally low minimum ignition energy (0.02 mJ at 4 = 1) and the wide flammability limits (0.21 < (p < 7.34) of hydrogen-air mixture. Hydrogen is extremely useful for automobile use in any weather conditions because it is gas till -253 degree Celsius Hydrogen is the cleanest alternative fuel known. NO, is the only pollutant of concern in hydrogen engine and it has been found to be greatly reduced in low ranges of equivalence ratio. Choice of the appropriate lubricant for the hydrogen engine is also a very important factor. Sometimes particulate matter resulting from the pyrolysis of lubricating oil vapors could be the cause of hot-spot-induced backfire. So in IIT Delhi Charge Dilution technique has been used In Experiment by N. Saravanan, G. Nagarajan Dual Fuel Mode was tested for CI engine using timed manifold injection technique the hydrogen ow rate was varied in port injection system from 2 lpm to 9.5 lpm. With optimized start of injection 5 degree CA BGTDC and 30 degree CA injection duration, hydrogen ow rate was varied for optimization Experiments were carried out on a diesel engine with hydrogen in the dual fuel mode the optimum hydrogen ow rate was found to be 7.5 lpm based on the performance, combustion and emissions behavior of the engine. The brake thermal efciency for hydrogen diesel dual fuel operation increased by 17% compared to diesel at optimized timings. Broader ammability limits of premixed hydrogen ames than the hydrocarbon fuels resulted in leaner operation and hydrogen enhancing burning of the diesel fuel, increase efciency. The NOx emission is found to be similar at 75% load and full load for both hydrogen and diesel operation. However the concentration is lower at lower loads in hydrogen dual fuel operation due to lean mixture operation. The smoke emission reduces by 44% in hydrogen diesel dual operation compared to diesel operation. The CO and HC for hydrogen operation at optimized conditions are same as that of diesel emissions. The engine operated smoothly with hydrogen except at full load that resulted in knocking especially at high hydrogen ow rates. These experimental results can be used as a base for the dual fuel applications and can be further extended to automotive applications. It can further be extended to neat hydrogen application.

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Work by Toru Miyamoto , Hirokazu Hasegawa , Masato Mikami [8]. Experimentally investigated the performance and emission characteristics of the diesel engine with hydrogen added to the intake air at late diesel-fuel injection timings. The diesel-fuel injection timing and the hydrogen fraction in the intake mixture were varied while the available heat produced by diesel-fuel and hydrogen per second of diesel fuel and hydrogen was kept constant at a certain value. The main conclusions are as follows: 1. NO emission for hydrogen fraction of 8-10 vol. % was smaller than that without hydrogen at middle and high loads as the diesel-fuel injection timing was delayed until the expansion stroke 2. The maximum rate of in cylinder pressure rise decreased with increasing hydrogen fraction and attained minimum around 10 vol. % hydrogen fraction. 3. In the case of diesel-fuel injection timings of 4-6 degree ATDC and 10 vol. % hydrogen fraction, the maximum rate of in cylinder pressure rise was lower than 0.5 MPa/deg. 4. A combination of hydrogen addition and late diesel-fuel injection timing contributed to low temperature combustion, in which NO decreased without the increase in unburned fuel. 5. Smoke emission increased with EGR rate. Addition of 3.9 vol. % hydrogen to the intake air, however, decreased smoke emission by greater than 50%. The smoke reduction effect of hydrogen addition was greater for higher EGR rate and later diesel-fuel injection timing. 6. In the case of diesel-fuel injection timing of -2 degree ATDC with 3.9 vol. %hydrogen addition, smoke emission value was 0%, NO emission was low, the cyclic variation was low, and the maximum rate of in cylinder pressure rise was acceptable under a nearly stoichiometric condition without sacrificing indicated thermal efficiency. In investigations by Anil Singh Bika, Luke Franklin, David B. Kittelson [9] varying proportions of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (synthesis gas) have been investigated as a spark ignition (SI) engine fuel. A single cylinder cooperative fuels research (CFR) engine was used to investigate the knock and combustion characteristics of three blends of synthesis gas (H2/CO ratio); 1) 100/0, 2) 75/25, and 3) 50/50, by volume. These blends were tested at three compression ratios (6:1, 8:1, and 10:1), and three equivalence ratios (0.6, 0.7, and 0.8). It was revealed that the knock limited compression ratio (KLCR) of a H2/CO mixture increases with increasing CO fraction, for a given spark timing. For a given equivalence ratio and spark timing, a 50%/50% H2/CO mixture produced a KLCR of 8:1 compared to a 100% H2 condition, which produced a KLCR of 6:1. The burn duration and ignition lag also increased with increasing CO fraction. The results from this work were important for those considering using synthesis gas as a fuel in SI engines. It revealed that although CO is a slow burning fuel, higher CO fractions in synthesis gas can be beneficial, because of its increased resistance to knock, which gives it the potential of producing higher indicated efficiencies through the utilization of an engine with a higher compression ratio.
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In a work by D.B. Lata, Ashok Misra [10], experiments were performed on 4 cylinder turbocharged, intercooled with 62.5 kW gen-set diesel engine by using hydrogen, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and mixture of LPG and hydrogen as secondary fuels. The experiments were performed to measure ignition delay period at different load conditions and various diesel substitutions. It is found that ignition delay equation based on pressure, temperature and oxygen concentration for a dual fuel diesel engine run on diesel and biogas gives variation up to 6.56% and 14.6% from the present experimental results, while ignition delay equation for a pure diesel engine gives 7.55%and 33.3% variation at lower and higher gaseous fuel concentrations, respectively. It is observed that the ignition delay of dual fuel engine depends not only on the type of gaseous fuels and their concentrations but also on charge temperature, pressure and oxygen concentration Paper by C. Liew, H. Li, J. Nuszkowski, S. Liu, T. Gatts, R. Atkinson, N. Clark [11]investigated the effect of hydrogen (H2) addition on the combustion process of a heavy-duty diesel engine. The addition of a small amount of H2 was shown to have a mild effect on the cylinder pressure and combustion process. When operated at high load, the addition of a relatively large amount of H2 substantially increased the peak cylinder pressure and the peak heat release rate. Compared to the two-stage combustion process of diesel engines, a featured three-stage combustion process of the H2-diesel dual fuel engine was observed. The extremely high peak heat release rate represented a combination of diesel diffusion combustion and the premixed combustion of H2 consumed by multiple turbulent flames, which substantially enhanced the combustion process of H2diesel dual fuel engine. However, the addition of a relatively large amount of H2 at low load did not change the two-stage heat release process pattern. The premixed combustion was dramatically inhibited while the diffusion combustion was slightly enhanced and elongated. The substantially reduced peak cylinder pressure at low load was due to the deteriorated premixed combustion. In a paper by Andre Marcelino de Morais, Marco Aurelio Mendes Justino, Osmano Souza Valente, Sergio de Morais Hanriot, Jose Ricardo Sodre [12]investigates the performance and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from a stationary diesel engine fuelled with diesel oil (B5) and hydrogen (H2). The performance parameters investigated were specific fuel consumption, effective engine efficiency and volumetric efficiency. The engine was operated varying the nominal load from 0 kW to 40 kW, with diesel oil being directly injected in the combustion chamber. Hydrogen was injected in the intake manifold, substituting diesel oil in concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% on energy basis, keeping the original settings of diesel oil injection. The results show that partial substitution of diesel oil by hydrogen at the test conditions does not affect significantly specific fuel consumption and effective engine efficiency, and decreases the volumetric efficiency by up to 6%. On the other hand the use of hydrogen reduced CO2 emissions by up to 12%, indicating that it can be applied to engines to reduce global warming effects.

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In a paper by W. B. Santoso, R. A. Bakara, A. Nurb [13]presented at ICSEEA 2012, in the present study, hydrogen utilization as diesel engine fuel at low load operation was investigated. Hydrogen cannot be used directly in a diesel engine due to its auto ignition temperature higher than that of diesel fuel. One alternative method is to use hydrogen in enrichment or induction. To investigate the combustion characteristics of this dual fuel engine, a single cylinder diesel research engine was converted to utilize hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen was introduced to the intake manifold using a mixer before entering the combustion chamber. The engine was run at a constant speed of 2000 rpm and 10 Nm load. Hydrogen was introduced at the flow rate of 21.4, 36.2, and 49.6 liter/minute. Specific energy consumption, indicated efficiency, and cylinder pressure were investigated. At this low load, the hydrogen enrichment reduced the cylinder peak pressure and the engine efficiency.

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3.1 Experimental Setup

Our system consisted of following components Hydrogen Cylinder at 200 bar Pressure regulator Flow meter Flame arrestor Pressure Gauge Inlet manifold Single Cylinder engine Exhaust Hydraulic hoses

Figure 3.1 Experimental setup

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Figure 3.2 Setup in Laboratory

Hydrogen Cylinder: - Metal tank is used to contain hydrogen.it is cylindrical and manufactured from steel and contains H2 up to 200 bar

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Pressure regulator: - A pressure regulator is a self-contained mechanical control device that usually does not rely on any external power sources. This device employs a sensor, valve, and controller unit. Although the two are similar, it is important to make the distinction between a regulator and a control valve. Regulators tend to be less expensive and relatively easier to install and maintain. However, applications requiring larger valve sizes may be better served by control valve systems.

When working with compressed gas in cylinders or other containers, pressure regulators are vital for maintaining proper gas discharge. These regulators are employed for controlling both liquefied and nonliquefied gas forms. While there are numerous types of different gas regulators, most devices are selected based on their range of delivery pressures, their level of accuracy, the quality of their design and construction materials, and the flow rate involved in the project.

Fig 3.3 Pressure regulator Used

Flow meters Flow meters on modern anesthetic machines consist of a tapered glass tube containing a ball which floats on the stream of moving gas.

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Figure no. 3.4 Flow meter As the gas flow rate increases, the float is carried further up the tube, so indicating the flow rate.

Flow meters are specifically constructed for each gas, since the flow rate depends on both the viscosity and density of the gas.

Only the correct tube and bobbin or ball can be used to repair broken flow meters. Since the ball floats in the gas stream, flow meters will only function correctly if the tube is vertical. Flow meters will not function correctly if the tube is cracked.

Ball-float flow meter, reading 2 l/min

Inaccuracy in flow meters May be due to:

The tube not being vertical. Back-pressure from, for example, a ventilator. Static electricity causing the float to stick to the tube. Dirt causing the float to stick to the tube.
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Flame Trap fabrication:For the purpose of flashback arrestor, a liquid seal flame arrester flame trap was fabricated from sheet metal (Hot rolled steel) for 10 bar max. pressure Liquid seal of water was used and hydraulic hoses of R15 grade was inserted at inlet. Design of flame trap was conceptualized using eqn 4.1(pressure vessel) and dimensions were assumed to be 1 feet(300 mm) height and 1.5 feet(450 mm) diameter. To sustain 10 bar pressure required thickness of 1.5 mm if material was cold rolled steel/black sheet metal (strength =180Mpa) Sheet metal was developed as a cylinder and it was completed through gas welding .Then a quarter spherical flare stack was attached to cylinder using rubber sealing which was bonded together with steel using rubber adhesive At Inlet and outlet nuts were brazed and at outlet side a globe valve, pressure gauge and flow meter was installed

FIGURE NO 3.5 CAD MODEL OF FLAME TRAP

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Figure no 3.6 Photo of Flame trap

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4.1 Experimental Procedure

i) For the experiment first reading for performance were measured for diesel input and its brake thermal efficiency were calculated using eqn.4.1.It was measured against changing electrical loads from 200 W to 1000W. Current and voltage outputs are measure through direct display on dynamometer ii) Required hydrogen for corresponding loads were calculated using eqn. 4.2. iii) For hydrogen supplementation hydrogen flow rate calculated in 4.2 was introduced into system at 2 bars. Hydrogen flow rate is varied using valve at outlet of flame trap flow rate is measured through flow meter. Performance outputs were to be calculated and resultant was to be calculated using eqn 4.3.

4.1.1 Calculation of Brake thermal efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency for diesel is calculated.

=
Where V = output voltage I = output current = mass flow rate of diesel = efficiency of alternator

(4.1)

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4.2.2 Calculation of hydrogen for equivalent calorific value

As experiment is based on adding hydrogen at equivalent CV of diesel at 10, 15,20,25,30 percent of diesel using formula

() =
Where c = required percentage P = pressure

6109 .0823600

(4.2)

4.2.3 Calculation of brake thermal efficiency with Hydrogen While operating in hydrogen supplementation mode efficiency can be calculated as follows

+ ( )

(4.3)

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5.1 Calculations and Results

Required calculations have been made and graphs has been plotted as below 1) Brake thermal efficiency using diesel
output diesel Input power(W volume(c time ) c) taken 130.5556 10 88.14 348.4722 10 72.13 547.2222 10 66.16 742.5 10 57.8 957.6389 10 56.29

Load(W) V 200 400 600 800 1000

I 188 193 197 198 197 0.5 1.3 2 2.7 3.5

VI 94 250.9 394 534.6 689.5

fuel/s 0.113456 0.138639 0.151149 0.17301 0.177651

fuel/min 6.807352 8.318314 9.068924 10.38062 10.65909

input power 4065.577 4967.974 5416.264 6199.654 6365.962

Efficienc y%) 3.211243 7.014372 10.10332 11.97647 15.04311

Table 5.1 Brake thermal efficiency of engine using diesel

2) Calculation of Hydrogen required

Absolute Tempera Pressure Energy 5% H2 ture of of 5% Consump Substitut 5% Hydroge Hydroge H2 5% fuel flow tion ion (kg/ n (N/m2 n (K) (lpm) kg/hr (KJ/hr) hr) or Pa)

FUEL cc/min 6.807 8.318 9.068 10.38 10.65

0.338989 0.414236 0.451586 0.516924 0.53037

14237.52 17397.93 18966.63 21710.81 22275.54

0.005947 0.007267 0.007923 0.009069 0.009305

200000 200000 200000 200000 200000

298 298 298 298 298

0.575423 0.703154 0.766554 0.877463 0.900287

H2 at 10% by mass 0.011894 0.014535 0.015845 0.018138 0.018609

lpm at 10 1.150846 1.406307 1.533108 1.754925 1.800574

H2 at 15% by lpm mass at 15 0.017842 1.726268 0.021802 2.109461 0.023768 2.299662 0.027207 2.632388

H2 at 20% by lpm mass at 20 0.023789 2.301691 0.029069 2.812615 0.03169 3.066217 0.036275 3.509851

H2 at 25% by lpm mass 0.029736 2.877114 0.036337 3.515768 0.039613 3.832771 0.045344 4.387314

H2 at 30% by lpm mass 0.035683 3.452537 0.043604 4.218922 0.047535 4.599325 0.054413 5.264776

Table 5.2 Calculation of required hydrogen at different loads

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Discussion of Results
1) System did not performed as expected as flame trap could not sustain higher flow rates 2) Only readings at 200W loads were taken

hydrogen at 10 % Diesel input during diesel H2 energy supplementation(cc/s) input output(V) I 406.557749 0.038461538 1680.769231 190 496.7974491 541.6263603 619.9653979 hydrogen at 20 % diesel input(cc/s) power efficiency 813.1154981 0.037037 1618.519 131.944 5.426146 993.5948981 1083.252721 1239.930796

Power efficiency 0.5 131.9444 7.817683

Table 5.3 Results of hydrogen supplementation

16

efficiency at 0%

efficiency at 10 %

efficiency at 20%

14
12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Figure 5.1 Efficiency at different hydrogen supplementations

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Discussions:It is found that system gives optimum efficiency around 10% at lower loads and it is expected that it will be around 15-20% at higher loads Therefore, It is required to improve the system by refabricated the flame trap which can be done by using sheet metal of greater thickness and using welding to assemble flame trap rather than adhesive bonding

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References
[1] V. TN, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 12:99 INSPEC, 1987. [2] Winter CJ. 1987, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy . [3] W. J.Pulkrabek, Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines. [4] "Hydrogen Fuel cell and related technologies," December 2001. [5] W. K. Cox KE, Hydrogen: its technology and implications Vols. IV, 1977. [6] P. Dan Banks. [Online]. Available: http://www.banksengineering.com/about_flame_arrestors_and_detona.htm. [7] L. Das, "ON-BOARD HYDROGEN STORAGE SYSTEMS FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION," Int.J of Hydrogen energy, 1996. [8] T. MIYAMOTO, H. HASEGAWA, M. MIKAMI, N. KOJIMA, H. KABASHIMA and D. o. S. D. E. Yasuhiro URATA (Yamaguchi University, "Study on Hydrogen-Assist Diesel Combustion (2st Report, Investigation of Low Temperature Combustion with Hydrogen Addition to Intake Gas and High Rate EGR)," RANSACTIONS OF THE JAPAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS Series B, vol. 77, pp. 853-859, 2011. [9] L. F. D. B. K. Anil Singh Bika, "Engine knock and combustion characteristics of a spark ignition engine operating with varying hydrogen and carbon monoxide proportions," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 36, pp. 5143-5152, 2010. [10] D. M. A. Lata, "Theoretical and experimental investigations on the performance of dual fuel diesel engine with hydrogen and LPG as secondary fuels," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 35, no. 21, pp. 1191811931, 2010. [11] H. L. J. N. S. L. T. G. R. A. N. C. C. Liew, "An experimental investigation of the combustion process of a heavyduty diesel engine enriched with H2," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 35, no. 20, pp. Pages 11357-11365,, 2010. [12] M. A. M. J. O. S. V. S. d. M. H. J. R. S. Andr Marcelino de Morais, "Hydrogen impacts on performance and CO2 emissions from a diesel power generator," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 38, no. 16, pp. 68576864, 2013. [13] R. B. W.B. Santoso, "Combustion characteristics of diesel-hydrogen dual fuel engine at low load," in International Conference on Sustainable Energy Engineering and Application, 2012.

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