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[Na2,8]+ [F2,8]-
2. Covalent Bonds
Elements in the middle of the periodic table have a problem with electron affinity (EA) and ionization potential (IP):
Cov ale 4C nt Bon ds
(He)
4+
-4e
+4e
Compromise: electron-sharing
C 2 H2 + 4H + O2
H .. H C .. H H
.. HO .. H .. ..
.. ..
Polar Covalent
H : F:
:
!+ !!+
!+
A:B
!+
!-
I : Cl :
:
!-
H3C : F :
:
!-
push
pull
Increase
Decrease
":
0.3
Covalent
<
0.3 2.0
Polar Covalent
<
2.0
Ionic
Diatomics: linear (of course), e.g. H : H Triatomics: either linear (i.e. not bent), e.g. e.g
: : F: Be : F: : : : : :
Li : H : F: F:
: :
not
: F: Be:
F:
:
:
:
But other shapes are possible, when there are more electrons, e.g. in transition metals (octahedral etc.).
Rule 2: Count total number of valence electrons .. . . : .C. :Br . H. O . . Rule 3: Octet (Duet) Rule
: : : : Provide octets (duets for H) around all atoms : : F: F : :O H: H
Rule 4:
Take care of charges, if any. Charges occur when the formal effective electron count around the nucleus differs from valence electron count.
Valence electron count: Rule 2 (# of valence electrons). + H + .. :H : N:::O : H:O .. + + H3O NO : C:::O: CO +
16e total
Shortcut:
O C O .. ..
2. If there are e left, add them as lone pairs .. to any .. :O C O: atom to give it an octet until no e left. 3. If some atoms lack octet, move lone pairs into shared positions. .. .. .. ..
:O C O: .. ..
O .. .. C O
Resonance
Often several octet structures are possible for a molecule: Resonance forms Molecule is a superposition of these forms
Form A .. :O:
form B .. : O:
..
.. ..
.. .. ..
..
..
..
..
.. ..
- C O O
..
.. ..
..
..
..
Resonance Forms
The carbonate ion is delocalized:
symmetrical!
.. :O :
Electrostatic Potential Map: Red = relatively electron rich Blue = relatively electron poor
.. .. ..
..
..
major
6e
O C
major
O C+
6e
2. When there are two or more forms with complete octets: electronegativity rules.
Example: enolate ion
H H
C C
major
H H
C C
H O
But:
N
major
+ O
6e
+ N O
major
Formic acid
Note:
-: ::: + C O:
Rule 1 wins !
1927 Schrdinger: Wave equations for an electron moving around the nucleus
Orbitals: Solutions to wave equations (wavefunctions) Born: Square of a value of the wavefunction = probability of finding the electron there
Orbitals
Spherical (three-dimensional) shape. Contrast to mechanical waves (guitar string, rubber band) Two-dimensional wave:
amplitude 0
+
node
s Orbital ball
+ -
Actual solutions: 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz, 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz, etc.
#s are related to classical shells
(increasing energy)
The 1s Orbital
The 2s Orbital
Aufbau Principle
or: where the electrons go Energy diagram depicting solutions as energy levels:
2s 1s
px
py pz electrons (He)
1. Lower energy orbitals filled first (closed shell) 2. Pauli: Exclusion principle: 2e max 3. Hunds rule: Equal energy orbital (i.e. px,y,z) filled with one e each first
Energy E diagrams
2p
no e
bad
e go down
-Orbitals split energy levels when entering into overlap. -The better the overlap [e.g. same type of orbital, same energy (shell)], the larger the splitting. -For orbitals of unequal energy, the higher orbital goes up, the lower down.
good
1s
2p
Li : H 2s + 1s no shape issues
sp-Hybrid
We shall see next that other combinations of intraatomic overlap (hybridization) are possible:
sp2-Hybrid
sp3-Hybrid