LIVE LOADS.

LIVE LOADS FOR BUILDINGS ARE USUALLY SPECIFIED AS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED SURFACE LOADS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT OR KILOPASCALS. ANY MOVING OR MOVABLE LOAD ON A STRUCTURE RESULTING FROM OCCUPANCY, COLLECTED SNOW OR WATER, OR MOVING EQUIPMENT. A LIVE LOAD TYPICALLY A CTS VERTICALLY DOWNWARD, BUT MAY ACT HORIZONTALLY AS WELL TO REFLECT THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF A MOVING LOAD EXAMPLES: (1) PEOPLE, (2) FURNITURE, (3) MOVEABLE EQUIPMENT,(4) STORED MATERIALS, (5)
SNOW LOAD

WATER LOAD EARTH PRESURE

WATER PRESURE

DEAD LOADS. DEAD LOADS ARE GRAVITY LOADS OF CONSTANT MAGNITUDES AND FIXED POSITIONS THAT ACT PERMANENTLY ON THE STRUCTURE. SUCH LOADS CONSIST OF THE WEIGHTS OF THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM ITSELF AND OF ALL OTHER MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT PERMANENTLY ATTACHED TO THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM. EXAMPLES: (1) WEIGHTS OF FRAMES, (2)FRAMING AND BRACING SYSTEMS, (3)FLOORS,(4) ROOFS, (5)CEILINGS,(6) WALLS, (7)STAIRWAYS, (8) HEATING AND AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS, (9) PLUMBING, (10) ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS, ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS. THESE ARE LOADS THAT ACT AS A RESULT OF WEATHER, TOPOGRAPHY AND OTHER NATURAL PHENOMENA. EXAMPLES: (1) WIND LOADS, (2) SNOW LOADS, (3) SEISMIC LOADS, (4) THERMAL LOADS, (5) PONDING LOADS, (6) LATERAL PRESSURE OF SOIL, GROUND WATER OR BULK MATERIALS, (7) LOADS FROM FLUIDS OR FLOODS, (8) DUST LOADS WIND LOADS. WIND LOADS ARE PRODUCED BY THE FLOW OF WIND AROUND THE STRUCTURE. THE MAGNITUDES OF WIND LOADS THAT MAY ACT ON A STRUCTURE DEPEND ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE STRUCTURE, OBSTRUCTIONS IN ITS SURROUNDING TERRAIN, SUCH AS NEARBY BUILDINGS, AND THE GEOMETRY AND THE VIBRATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STRUCTURE ITSELF. SNOW LOADS. IN MANY PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD, SNOW LOADS MUST BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGNING STRUCTURES. THE DESIGN SNOW LOAD FOR A STRUCTURE IS BASED ON THE GROUND SNOW LOAD FOR

ITS GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION, WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED FROM BUILDING CODES OR METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR THAT REGION. EARTHQUAKE LOAD. AN EARTHQUAKE IS A SUDDEN UNDULATION OF A PORTION OF THE EARTHS SURFACE. ALTHOUGH THE GROUND SURFACE MOVES IN BOTH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DIRECTIONS DURING AN EARTHQUAKE, THE MAGNITUDE OF THE VERTICAL COMPONENT OF GROUND MOTION IS USUALLY SMALL AND DOES NOT HAVE A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON MOST STRUCTURES. IT IS THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF GROUND MOTION THAT CAUSES STRUCTURAL DAMAGE AND THAT MUST BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGNS OF STRUCTURES LOCATED IN EARTHQUAKE-PRONE AREAS. DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURE. A STRUCTURE IS STATICALLY DETERMINATE IF THE EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM ARE SUFFICIENT BY THEMSELVES TO DETERMINE ALL FORCES ACTING ON AND WITHIN A STRUCTURE. SOMETIMES IT IS USEFUL TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EXTERNAL DETERMINACY AND INTERNAL DETERMINACY. A STRUCTURE IS EXTERNALLY STATICALLY DETERMINATE IF ITS REACTIONS CAN BE COMPLETELY DETERMINED USING ONLY THE EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM. A STRUCTURE IS INTERNALLY STATICALLY DETERMINATE IF ALL MEMBER FORCES (NORMAL, SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENTS) CAN BE COMPLETELY DETERMINED USING ONLY THE EQUATIONS OF STATICS. THE DEGREE OF INDETERMINACY OF A STRUCTURE IS THE EXCESS NUMBER OF UNKNOWN QUANTITIES (REACTIONS AND INTERNAL FORCES) OVER THE NUMBER OF

INDEPENDENT EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM AVAILABLE TO SOLVE FOR THEM. IF THE DEGREE OF INDETERMINACY IS GREATER THAN 0, THE STRUCTURE IS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE. IF IT IS EQUAL TO 0, THE STRUCTURE IS STATICALLY DETERMINATE, BUT ONLY IF IT IS STABLE. IF THE DEGREE IS LESS THAN 0, THEN THE STRUCTURE IS UNSTABLE (SEE BELOW), AND ITS STATICAL DETERMINACY IS NOT VERY RELEVANT. TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE OF INDETERMINACY OF A STRUCTURE, WE SIMPLY COUNT THE NUMBER OF UNKNOWNS AND COMPARE TO THE NUMBER OF EQUATIONS AVAILABLE. THE FIGURE SHOWS THE MOST COMMON SUPPORT SYMBOLS AND THE INDEPENDENT REACTION COMPONENTS FOR EACH; COLUMN RC SHOWS THE CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT REACTION COMPONENTS. WE CAN DEFINE: R THE NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT REACTION COMPONENTS FOR THE ENTIRE STRUCTURE, R=RC OVER ALL OF THE SUPPORTS IN THE STRUCTURE. MEMBERS IN A BEAM OR FRAME STRUCTURE ARE THOSE PORTIONS THAT SPAN BETWEEN

SUPPORTS, OR JOINTS (CONNECTIONS TO OTHER MEMBERS), OR FREE ENDS. EACH MEMBER HAS EXACTLY TWO JOINTS AT EITHER END. IF THE THREE INTERNAL FORCE COMPONENTS -- NORMAL FORCE (N), SHEAR FORCE (V) AND BENDING MOMENT (M) ARE KNOWN AT A POINT IN A MEMBER, THEN THAT MEMBER IS COMPLETELY DETERMINED. THAT IS, WE CAN USE SIMPLE STATICS TO DETERMINE THE INTERNAL FORCES AT ANY OTHER POINT. IT CAN THUS BE SAID THAT THERE ARE 3 UNKNOWNS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH MEMBER -- 3 INDEPENDENT QUANTITIES THAT NEED BE DETERMINED BEFORE EVERYTHING IS 'KNOWN'. SO, DEFINING M THE NUMBER OF MEMBERS IN A STRUCTURE. THEN WE HAVE, AS THE NUMBER OF UNKNOWNS: NU=3M+R TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS THAT ARE AVAILABLE TO SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWNS, WE DEFINE: J THE NUMBER OF JOINTS IN THE STRUCTURE. EVERY MEMBER IS CONNECTED TO EXACTLY TWO JOINTS, ONE AT EACH END. C THE NUMBER OF INTERNAL RELEASE CONDITIONS. A CONDITION IS A CONSTRAINT THAT SPECIFIES THAT AN INTERNAL FORCE MUST BE A PARTICULAR NUMERICAL VALUE (ALMOST ALWAYS ZERO) AT A

POINT. AN EXAMPLE IS AN INTERNAL HINGE OR PIN THAT CONSTRAINS THE BENDING MOMENT TO 0. IT IS POSSIBLE TO WRITE 3 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM AT EACH JOINT, AND ONE MORE FOR EACH CONDITION. WE STATE WITHOUT PROOF, THEN, THAT THE NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS IS: NE=3J+C AND THE DEGREE OF STATICAL INDETERMINACY IS: NUNE=(3M+R)(3J+C) TO JUDGE DETERMINACY, WE HAVE THE FOLLOWING THREE CASES: UNKNOWNS VS EQUATIONS CASE MEANING (3M+R)<(3J+C) UNSTABLE (3M+R)=(3J+C) STATICALLY DETERMINATE, IF STABLE (3M+R)>(3J+C) STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

THE LATTER TWO CASES, (3M+R)(3J+C) ARE NECESSARY, BUT NOT SUFFICIENT, FOR STABILITY. RIGID. A RIGID BODY IS DEFINED AS A DEFINITE AMOUNT OF MATTER THE PARTS OF WHICH ARE FIXED IN POSITION RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER. ACTUALLY SOLID BODIES ARE NEVER RIGID; THEY DEFORM UNDER THE ACTION OF APPLIED FORCES. IN MANY CASES, THIS DEFORMATION IS NEGLIGIBLE COMPARED TO THE SIZE OF THE BODY AND

THEBODY MAY BE ASSUMED RIGID. BODIES MADE OF STEEL OR CAST IRON, FOR EXAMPLE, ARE OF THIS TYPE.

COLUMN. A RIGID, RELATIVELY SLENDER STRUCTURAL MEMPER DESIGNED PRIMARILY TO SUPPORT AXIAL COMPRESSIVE LOADS APPLIED AT THE MEMPER ENDS.THE TERM COLUMN IS LOOSELY USED IN A GENERAL SENSE FOR ANY SUPPORT LIKE POST OR A PIER. THE CHIEF PURPOSE OF A COLUMN IS TO SUPPORT A BEAM OR GIRDER, FLOOR OR ROOF AND ALSO AN ARCH. MOST COLUMNS ARE FREE STANDING WHILE SOME ARE INTEGRATED. THAT IS THE PART OF THE COLUMN WAS EMBEDDED IN A WALL BEAM. BEAM IS THE STRUCTURAL MEM BER SUPPORTING THE TRANSVERSE LOAD WITH EACH AND RESTING ON A SUPPORT. A RIGID STRUCTURAL MEMBER DESIGNED TO CARRY AND TRANSFER TRANVERSE LOADS ACROSS SPACE TO SUPPORTING ELEMENTS.GIRDER IS THE TERM APPLIED

TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR SMALLER BEAM. RIGID FRAMES ARE COMPOSED OF STRAIGHT MEMBERS CONNECTED TOGETHER EITHER BY RIGID (MOMENTRESISTING) CONNECTIONS OR BY HINGED CONNECTIONS TO FORM STABLE CONFIGURATIONS. UNLIKE TRUSSES, WHICH ARE SUBJECTED ONLY TO JOINT LOADS, THE EXTERNAL LOADS ON FRAMES MAY BE APPLIED ON THE MEMBERS AS WELL AS ON THE JOINTS. THE MEMBERS OF A RIGID FRAME ARE, IN GENERAL, SUBJECTED TO BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR, AND AXIAL COMPRESSION OR TENSION UNDER THE ACTION OF EXTERNAL LOADS. HOWEVER, THE DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL MEMBERS OR BEAMS OF RECTANGULAR FRAMES IS OFTEN GOVERNED BY BENDING AND SHEAR STRESSES ONLY, SINCE THE AXIAL FORCES IN SUCH MEMBERS ARE USUALLY SMALL. TRUSS. A STRUCTURAL FRAME BASED ON THE GEOMETRIC RIGIDITY OF THE TRIANGLE AND COMPOSED OF LINEAR MEMBERS SUBJECT ONLY TO AXIAL TENSION OR COMPRESSION. TRUSSES ARE COMPOSED OF STRAIGHT MEMBERS CONNECTED AT THEIR ENDS BY HINGED CONNECTIONS TO FORM A STABLE CONFIGURATION. WHEN THELOADS ARE APPLIED TO A TRUSS ONLY AT THE JOINTS, ITS MEMBERS EITHER ELONGATE OR SHORTEN. THUS, THE MEMBERS OF AN IDEAL TRUSS ARE ALWAYS EITHER IN UNIFORM TENSION OR IN UNIFORM COMPRESSION. REAL TRUSSES ARE USUALLY CONSTRUCTED BY CONNECTING MEMBERS TO GUSSET PLATES BY BOLTED OR WELDED CONNECTIONS. ALTHOUGH THE RIGID JOINTS THUS FORMED CAUSE SOME BENDING IN THE MEMBERS OF A TRUSS WHEN IT IS LOADED IN MOST CASES SUCH SECONDARY

BENDING STRESSES ARE SMALL, AND THE ASSUMPTION OF HINGED JOINTS YIELDS SATISFACTORY DESIGNS.

PLANE TRUSS

ARCH. AN ARCH IS A CURVED STRUCTURE, WITH A SHAPE SIMILAR TO THAT OF AN INVERTED CABLE. SUCH STRUCTURES ARE FREQUENTLY USED TO SUPPORT BRIDGES AND LONG-SPAN ROOFS. ARCHES DEVELOP MAINLY COMPRESSIVE STRESSES WHEN SUBJECTED TO LOADS AND ARE USUALLY DESIGNED SO THAT THEY WILL DEVELOP ONLY COMPRESSION UNDER A MAJOR DESIGN LOADING. HOWEVER, BECAUSE ARCHES ARE RIGID AND CANNOT CHANGE THEIR SHAPES AS CAN CABLES, OTHER LOADING CONDITIONS USUALLY PRODUCE SECONDARY BENDING AND SHEAR STRESSES IN THESE STRUCTURES, WHICH, IF SIGNIFICANT, SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN THEIR DESIGNS.

CABLES. TENSION STRUCTURES COMPOSED OF FLEXIBLE STEEL CABLES ARE FREQUENTLY EMPLOYED TO SUPPORT BRIDGES AND LONG-SPAN ROOFS. BECAUSE OF THEIR FLEXIBILITY, CABLES HAVE NEGLIGIBLE BENDING STIFFNESS AND CAN DEVELOP ONLY TENSION. THUS, UNDER EXTERNAL LOADS, A CABLE ADOPTS A SHAPE THAT ENABLES IT TO SUPPORT THE LOAD BY TENSILE FORCES ALONE. IN OTHER WORDS, THE SHAPE OF A CABLE CHANGES AS THE LOADS ACTING ON IT CHANGE. AS AN EXAMPLE, THE SHAPES THAT A SINGLE CABLE MAY ASSUME UNDER TWO DIERENT LOADING CONDITIONS.

THEORY. THEORY IS A SUPPOSITION OR A SYSTEM OF IDEAS INTENDED TO EXPLAIN SOMETHING, SUCH AS A SINGLE OR COLLECTION OF FACT(S), EVENT(S), OR PHENOMEN(A)(ON). TYPICALLY, A THEORY IS DEVELOPED THROUGH THE USE OF CONTEMPLATIVE AND RATIONAL FORMS OF ABSTRACT AND GENERALIZED THINKING. FURTHERMORE, A THEORY IS OFTEN BASED ON GENERAL PRINCIPLES THAT ARE INDEPENDENT OF THE THING BEING EXPLAINED. DEPENDING ON THE CONTEXT, THE RESULTS MIGHT FOR EXAMPLE INCLUDE GENERALIZED EXPLANATIONS OF HOW NATURE WORKS. THE WORD HAS ITS ROOTS IN ANCIENT GREEK, BUT IN MODERN USE IT HAS TAKEN ON SEVERAL DIFFERENT RELATED MEANINGS.

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA INTRAMUROS, MANILA

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE ANG URBAN PLANNING ARC 165 STRUCTURAL THEORY

SUBMITTED TO: ENGR. NIO JOSE BALAGTAS SUBMITTED BY: CORPUZ, ANGELA JEAN KIRBY B.

"IN MY HONOR AS A STUDENT OF PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA, I PLEDGE THAT I HAVE NOT COPIED ANY SOLUTION IN DOING THIS ASSIGNMENT OR PLATE."

JANUARY 6, 2014