OBJECT – To determine the behaviour of a specimen while being

tested and to determine:-

1. Upper & lower yield points.
2. Ultimate strength.
3. Breaking point.
4. Percentage elongation of length.
5. Percentage reduction of cross section.
Specification of the specimen – mild steel specimen.

10cm

Apparatus used – Universal Testing Machine ZD-20 (capacity 20

tonne),
Micrometer, dividers steel rule, centres punch etc.
Universal Testing Machine:-
Universal Testing Machine otherwise known as a materials
testing machine/ test frame is used to test
the tensile and compressive properties of materials. Such
machines generally have two columns but single column types
are also available. Load cells and extensometers measure the
key parameters of force and deformation as the sample is
tested. These machines are widely used and would be found in
any materials testing laboratory.
A tension test is a destructive test in the sense that the
specimen is finally broken or fractured into two pieces. To
perform the tensile test, the universal testing machine should
be capable of applying that load which is required to break or
fracture the material. The test piece or specimen of the
material is generally a straight piece, uniform in the cross-
section over the test length and often with enlarged ends which
can be held in the machine holders. However, the machine can
hold the specimen without enlarged ends also. Two fine marks
are often made near the end of uniform test section of the
specimen and the distance between these points is termed
"gauge length". The gauge length is that length which is under
study or observation when the experiment on the specimen is
performed. The gauge length of a specimen bears a constant
standardized ratio to the cross-sectional dimension for certain
reasons. The specimen is placed in the machine between the
holders and any measuring device to record the change in
length is fitted on to the specimen between the gauge points. If
such a device, generally extensometer, is not fitted, the
machine itself can record the displacement between its cross
heads on which the specimen is held. Once the machine is
started it begins to apply a slowly increasing load on specimen.
At preset interval, the reading of the load and elongation of
specimen are recorded. Finally, the specimen breaks in the
form of cup and cone shape at the fracture point (for ductile
metals).Before breaking, the area of cross section becomes
very small, so a large stress is being produced. The maximum
stress which the specimen can bear is the "ultimate stress”. We
can also find the modulus of elasticity for the specimen.
Ultimate strength
The maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected
to tension, compression or shearing. It is the maximum stress
on the stress-strain curve.
Yield strength
The stress at which material strain changes from elastic
deformation to plastic deformation, causing it to deform
permanently.
Proportionality limit
Up to this amount of stress, stress is proportional to strain
(Hooke's law), so the stress-strain graph is a straight line, and
the gradient will be equal to the elastic modulus of the
material.
Breaking strength
The stress coordinates on the stress-strain curve at the point
of rupture.
Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of the specimen with the
micrometer. Make the 10cm gauge length with centre
punch in central zone of specimen.
2. Mount the appropriate jaws in the machine.
3. Place the fixed yoke in an appropriate position by
moving the frame guide spindles. Start the pump to
keep the movable yoke in a floating condition.
4. Bring the dial pointer to zero operating the zero
adjuster
5. Bring the movable yoke in a suitable position and stop
the pump.
6. Fix the specimen between the jaws taking care that the
grip is perfect and full, and put the scale to zero
position.
7. Start the plump.
8. Take reading up to destruction.
9. After failure, measure final diameter, and final gage
length, and observe the character of the fracture.

Precautions
1. After fixing the accessories cheek the zero position of
the indicator.
2. During the test the rate of loading must be kept
constant.

Mechanism:-
The tensile test fixture suits to perform a tensile test for a
specimen. The tensile test fixture includes a base, a pull bar
and a forcing member. The pull bar includes a limiting member,
a specimen-fixing member and a shaft member. Wherein, the
shaft member is connected between the position limiting
member and the specimen-fixing member, and the specimen is
fixed between the base and the specimen-fixing member.
Otherwise, the forcing member has a cavity, which includes an
opening. The shaft member passes through the opening, and
the position limiting member is located in the cavity. The
dimension of the limiting member is larger than the dimension
of the opening so that the limiting member is restricted within
the cavity. The forcing member is adopted to pull the limiting
member to perform a tensile test for the specimen.

Why commercial test is carried out?

One of the most important concerns when selecting a
material for a machine component is to ensure that the
material properties are appropriate for the operating conditions
of the component. Materials have both physical and
mechanical properties and the most common way of
distinguishing one material from another is by evaluating their
physical properties. Mechanical properties are very important
in design because the function and performance of a product
depend on its capacity to resist deformation under the stresses
encountered in service.
Why percentage reduction of cross-section is measured?
The percentage reduction of cross-section is the measure of the
metrical is how much ductile.

Fundamentals of Fracture
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in
pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the melting point.
The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether
the elongation is large or small.
Steps in fracture (response to stress):
• track formation

• track propagation
Ductile vs. brittle fracture

Ductile Brittle

deformation extensive little

track slow, needs stress fast

propagation

type of most metals (not ceramics, ice, cold

materials too cold) metals

warning permanent none

elongation

strain energy higher lower

fractured rough smoother

surface

necking yes no

Stages of ductile fracture

• Initial necking
• small cavity formation (micro voids)
• void growth (ellipsoid) by coalescence into a crack
• fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o
• final shear fracture (cup and cone)
Brittle Fracture
There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is
very fast. In most brittle materials, crack propagation (by bond
breaking) is along specific crystallographic planes
(cleavage planes).
 (A stress–strain curve typical of structural steel)

Points
1. Ultimate Strength
2. Yield Strength
3. Rupture
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking region
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
 B: Actual stress (F/A)
CONCLUSIONS
A good knowledge of the materials properties is crucial in
engineering as It is taking regard to these properties that the
engineers would select the most suitable metal to build a
bridge or an machine and if the metal is too stiff, too ductile or
not hard enough the project of the engineers won’t fulfil their
goals and thus it risks to put human lives in danger. It is the job
of the engineers to make sure that such situation never happen
and it is only by a better understanding of the materials
properties and reactions to environmental variations that the
engineers will complete their project according to the safety
and financial limits.