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Below are a variety of concrete, cement paste & hypetufa mix formulas (or recipes, as they are often referred to), that are intended for use in arts & crafts. If you have any notations, observations or comments you'd like to add to any of these, just Email them to Admin & we'll figure out a way to post them for the benefit of all our members. Likewise, if you have your own special concoction, send that along too with your use & findings and we'll credit each contributor. Like many areas here on TheGardenArtForum, the Mix Menu will likely remain "a work-in-progress" that members are encouraged to contribute to, as well as use, for a long time to come.

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NOTE: All of the concrete mixes below are based on the industry standard method for expressing these formulations. See the note below as taken from the "Glossary of Terms for Cement, Concrete & Hypertufa" on this site. And keep in mind that nearly all of the formulations shown here are based on different individuals experiences, experimentation and personal observations. They are meant to serve only as a basis for creating arts & crafts projects and are NOT intended for construction use where standardized or mandated regulations are to be met. "Concrete Mix Ratios The numerical values of basic concrete mix components as expressed in relative parts. These relative values should always be expressed or stated in the following order; Cement first, then Sand, then Gravel (or Stone). Example: A "standard 1-2-3" mix consists of One part Cement + Two parts Sand + Three parts Gravel (or Stone).

Concrete Formulas:
Basic "1-2-3 Concrete Mix":
Dry: 1 Part Portland Cement 2 Parts Medium to Coarse Sand 3 Parts Gravel or Rock Wet: Water. The water content can vary greatly depending on the application.

NOTE: Use only clean, potable water in any concrete, cement or mortar mix. If it's not clean enough to drink, it's not clean enough use in your mix. This combination yields a very strong & proven product as long as the water content is kept within reason. It is by far the most widely used formula for foundations, sidewalks, driveways and the like. Limited use in casting due to the large aggregate. Good for artwork or sculpture as a base material where extra strength is needed, but difficult to form or sculpt to any level of detail.

1-0-3 to 1-0-6 No Fines Concrete: (often actually contains a very

small amount of sand) Dry: 1 Part Portland Cement 3-6 Parts Large Gravel or Rock Wet: Minimum Water - Just enough water to ensure that very little paste settles to the bottom during placing. Used primarily as a filler or backfill on large projects and is intentionally porous to facillitate drainage. Lacks the strength of conventional mixtures due to inherent voids and limited surface contact between the stones & cement. Only useful where drainage is needed around larger works or sculptures.

Tango's 1-4-0 Base Sculpting Mix:

Dry: 1 Part Portland Cement or Rapid Set/High Early Strength Cement 4 Parts Torpedo Sand Wet: 18% to max 24% Total Liquids - (comprised of water containing 10 to 25% combination latex bonding agent/admixture) Keep water as low as possible for a stronger mix. Admix adds a little "stickieness" & aids in bonding layer to layer. Other Admixes & Additives: Short poly fibers, about a fistful for each 10 pounds of cement. Superplasticizer (Amount depends on Mfgr's. specs) To improve workability at low water content levels Accelerator/Optional (Amt. varies by maker) - Used to achieve a quicker set in order minimize set time between layers. Another option is

to use the Rapid Set/High Early Strength Cement mentioned above in place of standard Portland Retarder/Optional (Amt. varies by maker) - Used to delay the initial set and allow extended workability.

This is definitely a "high fiber" recipe, but the extra fibers aid in bonding to the armature & other early layers and also help prevent early onset cracking. Good for quickly building up base layers to create form, but that need little detail.

Tango's 1-4-0 Fly Ash Base Sculpting Mix:

Dry: 1 Part Cementitous Mix* - (A combination of 65% Portland Cement or Rapid Set/High Early Strength Cement and 35% Fly Ash) 4 Parts Torpedo Sand Wet: 18% to max 24% Total Liquids - (comprised of water containing 10 to 25% combination latex bonding agent/admixture) Keep water as low as possible for a stronger mix. Admix adds a little "stickieness" & aids in bonding layer to layer. Other Admixes & Additives: Short poly fibers, about a fistful for each 10 pounds of cement. Superplasticizer (Amount depends on Mfgr's. specs) To improve workability at low water content levels Accelerator/Optional (Amt. varies by maker) - Used to achieve a quicker set in order minimize set time between layers. The other option is to use the Rapid Set/High Early Strength Cement mentioned above in place of standard Portland. Retarder/Optional (Amt. varies by maker) - Used to delay the initial set and allow extended workability.

This is also a "high fiber" recipe in which the extra fibers aid in bonding to the armature & other early layers and also help prevent early onset cracking. Good for quickly building up base layers to create form, but that need little detail. The inclusion of Fly Ash is dual purpose. To densify & strengthen the finsished product, and to achieve a more workable & sculptable consistency. *IMPORTANT NOTE: Any time that Fly Ash or any other reactive pozzolanic ingredients are are combined with cement in a mix, you must remember to use the total of the two as the "cementitous" figure in your mix ratio for all your calculations. Don't think in terms of simply "adding" Fly Ash or pozzolans. Think in terms of "replacing" an equal volume of cement. Together they represent the total "cementitous" portion of the mix. This is very important to remember because any other ingredients that are portioned relative to the

amount of "cement" in the mix (water, colorants, admixes, etc.) must in reality be measured against the total of all the "cementitous" materials...and not just the "cement". This is a very common mistake made even by professionals and can wreck an otherwise sound formulation.

Tango's 1-2-0 Mixed Sand Sculpting Mix:

Dry: 1 Part Portland Cement 2 Parts Mixed Sand (half medium sand/half very fine sand or marble dust) Wet: 15% to max 20% Total Liquids - (comprised of water containing 10 to 25% combination latex bonding agent/admixture) Keep water as low as possible for a stronger mix. Admix adds a little "stickieness" & aids in bonding layer to layer. Other Admixes & Additives: Superplasticizer (Amt. varies by maker) To improve workability at low water content levels Retarder (Amt. varies by maker) To extend the working time before setting hard

This mix is good for refining forms and capable of holding moderate detail. I often use this as my final build up before applying the finish coat. The two different sizes of sand make for a significantly stronger and more durable mix than will a single sand size.

Tango's 1-2-0 Fine Sand Finishing Mix:

Dry: 1 Part Portland Cement (Gray or White depending on coloring considerations) 2 Parts Very fine Sand, Marble Dust or Very Fine Blasting Silica Wet: 15% to max 20% Total Liquids - (comprised of water containing 10 to 25% combination latex bonding agent/admixture) Keep water as low as possible for a stronger mix. Admix adds a little "stickieness" & aids in bonding layer to layer. NOTE: Higher concentrations of latex admix will inhibit and can even prevent acid etch color from penetrating or reacting with the cement. For any "Finish" coat, be sure to use a Latex ratio that is compatible with whatever coloring techniques will follow.

Other Admixes & Additives: Superplasticizer (Amt. varies by maker) To improve workability at low water content levels Retarder (Amt. varies by maker) To extend the working time before setting hard

This is the most basic "sanded" finishing mix. The level of detail possible is limited only by the fineness of the sand. It is also very close to the mixtures employed on most historical or antique sculpture & Faux Bois. The combination of high cement & very low water produce a creamier mixture that is relatively easy to sculpt & detail. NOTE: The majority of the antique work finished in similar mortar formulations often contained Hydrated Lime. It yields a creamier, stickier mix but is NOT recommended for use by amateurs due to it's highly caustic and dangerous nature. The use of a superplasticizer and small amounts of Latex admix will produce similar workability without the risk of severe burns or blindness.

Tango's 1-2-0 Fly Ash & Fine Sand Finishing Mix:

Dry: 1 Part Cementitous Mix* (Combination of 65% Gray or White Portland Cement & 35% Fly Ash) 2 Parts Very fine Sand, Marble Dust or Very Fine Blasting Silica Wet: 15% to max 20% Total Liquids - (comprised of water containing 10 to 25% combination latex bonding agent/admixture) Keep water as low as possible for a stronger mix. Admix adds a little "stickieness" & aids in bonding layer to layer. Other Admixes & Additives: Superplasticizer (Amt. varies by maker) To improve workability at low water content levels Retarder (Amt. varies by maker) To extend the working time before setting hard

This is a modified sanded finish mixture that yields a much more "clay-like" formulation. When the water content is kept to an absolute minimum it can be formed into a ball that will exhibit virtually no "slump" and adheres well to even the undersides of projects. The sand content still limits the level of detail, but it's consistency allows for the production & retention of a higher level than the mix without Fly Ash. The finished product is also much denser & stronger than conventional concrete or mortar. * See the note above (Tango's 1-4 Fly Ash Base Sculpting Mix) regarding

Fly Ash & total cementitous content

Tango's 1-0-0 Modified Neat Paste Finishing Mix:

Dry: 1 Part Cementitous Mix* (Combination of 50 to 65% Gray or White Portland Cement & 50to 35% Fly Ash) Wet: 13% to max 20% Total Liquids - (comprised of water containing 0 to 10% combination latex bonding agent/admixture. Latex admix must be minimal or eliminated if acid etch coloration is to be employed as this mix is extremely dense to begin with) NOTE: The cement/water ratio for this paste is extremely low and difficult to properly mix. Mechanical mixing is recommended and the mixing time extended to at least 15 minutes. The resulting paste should be semi-dry, have little or no slump and be almost the consistency of sculpting clay. Other Admixes & Additives: Superplasticizer (Amt. varies by maker but use the maximum ratio for this formulation) To improve workability at low water content levels Retarder (Amt. varies by maker) To extend the working time before setting hard

NOTE: This formulation requires practice both to make properly & to work, but can record extreme detail and very fine textures. It is also by far the most difficult to cure successfully. All neat pastes exhibit some tendancy towards surface fracturing during the cure. Unless properly managed, this can become extreme resulting in very large overall fissures that render the product useless. Hydration must be continuously maintained from the time of the initial set through full hard set (typically a week or more depending on retarder use & environmental conditions). Air movement over the surface must also be minimized or totally eliminated, even while applying & working. Even minimal air movement robs moisture from 3-dimensional work at an extreme rate and is probably the leading cause of failure when working with neat pastes. The "rich" nature (high cement content) of this mixture also produces higher than normal heat buildup which contributes to rapid moisture loss and must be compensated for. For best results, this work should be sealed in an air-tight containment that prevents air movement over the surface and retains adequate moisture to complete the entire cure. Large plastic bags or heavy weight plastic sheeting that has all the seams taped securely to form a full enclosure will eliminate the need to be constantly misting the work 24 hours a day. Additionally, if the work can be enclosed in Black plastic and left to cure in strong direct sunlight, the heat absorbed by the plastic will produce an excellent, high moisture curing environment within the enclosure and recycle nearly 100% of the moisture given up by the curing cement. I call it "A Poor Man's Steam Cure". Steam curing being a high-tech industrial technique for achieving a near perfect curing environment. See "Tricks of the (Cement) Trade for more info on curing processes.

Here is a pic of what the consistency of this particular formulation looks like...

Hypertufa Formulas:
Because there are so many different materials used to make Hypertufa, no standardized method exists for expressing the mix ratio. So, for our purposes here, we will simply define Hypertufa as any mix combination that includes both cement and peat...and call out only the ratio of cement to all other ingredients in relative "Parts". That will at least provide an indication of the formulations overall cement content & strength. Below are several of the more common mixtures in use, but please, share your own recipes, discoveries & observations here. You can either E-mail them to Admin or simply indicate in any Forum post that includes a recipe a note that we may incorporate it. Remember, we will never presume upon anyone who posts here or lay claim to any of your text or images. Yes...we want to build a large & continuously growing knowledge base, but only from freely contributed & properly credited material. NOTE: As with concrete & mortar, the strength of any Hypertufa formulation will be determined primarily by its' cement/water ratio. The addition of alkali resistant fibers and Latex admitures will also improve the strength & durability of any of these formulations. Basic Hypertufa: 1-3 1 Part Portland Cement 1 Part Sand 2 Parts Screened Peat

Hypertufa With Perlite: 1-3 1 Part Portland Cement 1 Part Sand

1 Part Screened Peat 1 Part Perlite Hypertufa With Vermiculite: 1-3 1 Part Portland Cement 1 Part Sand 1 Part Screened Peat 1 Part Vermiculite

Hypertufa, Sand-Free: 2-3 2 Parts Portland Cement 1 1/2 Parts Peat 1 1/2 Parts Perlite
NOTE: Here is a link to some very good basic Hypertufa mixing & trough forming info presented by the Chicago Botanic Garden. It's in a handy & printable PDF format.

http://www.chicagobotanic.org/trough/
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Mixing Basics
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Making "good" concrete, mortar, cement paste or Hypertufa is a lot like baking a cake. You not only need the right ingredients...you have to put them together properly. Here are a few suggestions for improving the mixing process.

Measuring
The "right" way to measure out ingredients for any cementitous mix is by weight. Keep an eye out for a small scale. It will give you much greater control & consistency, particularly if you are prone to experimenting. If you can't find a scale, use a consistent form of measurement for all your ingredients & projects. Whether it is a coffee can, yogurt container or kitchen measure, stick with it.

Keep Good Notes

Unless you have total photographic recall, this is the only way to tell over time what works, what doesn't work, and more importantly...why. Start with the working environment. Hot? Cold? Humid? Dry? Windy? Then record all the ingredients, dry & wet, by whatever "standard" measuring system you are using. Make note of how long you dry mixed. Record when you added the first wet ingredients and how long you "wetmixed" the batch. Also record when you began applying the mix & when you finished. If you run into any problems while working (sets too quickly, too much slump, etc.) make note of that as well. I keep a big batch of 3 x 5 cards handy and put my formulations on one side & working notes on the other. That way,

whether a problem shows up minutes or months later, I can go back and re-examine the mix & processes to help determine what went wrong. It also helps prevent those "Duh" moments, like the..."Oh yeah, I still need to add some cement" one. By the same token, there is absolutely nothing more frustrating than having something turn out really great...and not know why. Good notes are the difference between wild & wooly experimenters...and consistently creative craftsmen & women. And if you include all of your finishing processes as well, you'll be just that much further ahead of the game. It may seem like a hassle at first, but if you make it a habit, I can positively guarantee that you will wind up spending more time creating and less time scratching your head.

Dry Mixing
Before you begin worrying about how much water to add, make sure all of your dry ingredients are thoroughly mixed. You absolutely CANNOT overdo it. Whether you are mixing by hand or have a ninety horse motor doing it for you, make certain that all the dry ingredients are fully and evenly distributed throughout the mix. I typically run my small mixer for at least fifteen minutes before I ever introduce any of the wet media. When hand mixing smaller batches, here's a handy trick that makes for a well combined mix. Put all of the dry components into a plastic, 5 gallon bucket that has a tight fitting lid and the handle removed...then roll it all around the yard for several minutes. The tumbling action does a surprisingly good job. And if you want to go one step further, there is a little manual mixer available called the "Oddjob" that is designed for tumbling mixes. While I personally found it to be leaky and pretty close to worthless for actually mixing anything but very wet concrete, it seemed to be quite adept at dry mixing the ingredients. It has "fins' cast into it's poly drum body that help kick the mix around better than a stardard 5 gallon bucket. And speaking of "dry"...try to make sure and use ingredients that really are. Wet sand & gravel carry a surprising volume of water on their surface and will deinitely affect your water/cement ratio. Commercial ready-mix plants routinely test their aggregates with a hydrometer and adjust the "added water" volume accordingly in order to properly match the mix design. I don't own a hydrometer, so I allow all of my sand to dry for a week or more in my barn before I put it into a sealed container for later use. Other good arguments for keeping your sand (and other aggregates) in sealed containers involves Mother Nature. Leaves, twigs & such invariably wind up in outdoor exposed materials and some contain chemicals and things you don't necessarily want in your mix. Oak trees for example are very high in Tannic Acid. Pine needles are heavy with resin. And don't forget the alternative name for a "sand pile". It is also often referred to by some as...a "litter box". And, if you are using reinforcing fibers (alkalai resistant, of course), be aware that most are designed to be dry-mixed. That is based on the commercial assumption that a power mixer will be handling the task. And, since I employ a small mixer for just about all of my work, they perform as advertised and I have never had a "clumping" problem. That said, there are today a wide and growing number of fiber reinforcement products in a variety of lengths & materials, and a goodly number of craft folks swear by pre-wetting some of the types they are using first. Especially if they are hand-mixing small batches. As for myself...I'm going to stick with what works for me. I suggest you experiment a bit and do likewise. The only caution I can offer here is to take into account that, just like using wet sand, you will also be adding a volume of water and need to adjust your mix accordingly.

Adding Wet Ingredients...Like Water...

Start by calculating just how much water the mix should require. That's the "Water/Cement Ratio" that seems to confound so many people. "How much is enough/too much?" Like so many things in life, the answer is..."Well now,...that depends...". Sorry, but that's just how it is. There are many variables and few hard, fast rules. But, here are a few... Water content should always be calculated by weight and expressed as a relative percentage of

the mixes total cementitous ingredients (See the "Glossary" on this site if you have any questions about "Cementitious" or "Water/Cement Ratios"). Pre-calculating and measuring out the desired amount of water or wet mix in advance will give you the best control and the most consistent results. The higher the water content, the lower the strength. Conversely, the lower the water content, the higher the strength. Most "common" mix designs contain around 24 to 33% water...but some go below 10% while others can be as high as 150%. Be aware that most discussions regarding minimum water to hydrate apply to commercially placed mixes that tend to be on the "wet" side for contractor convenience. "Dry Pack" ( or "Dry Tamp") Concrete, Roller-Compacted Concrete and the original Roman Concrete all have water/cement ratios that are far below what is considered average. And they are all exceedingly strong. Most "sculpting" formulations are also significantly dryer than the average mix to attain the proper workability. Never use anything but clean, "potable" (fit to drink) water in your mix. Hot mixing water will greatly accelerate the set and sometimes even the rate of cure. It is a very common cause of early onset cracking and mix failure due to its rapid evaporation. Always check the temperature of your water supply before you add it. A hose lying in the sun can heat water to a point that it can cause the hose to burst and the failure of just about any mix. However... warm water can be successfully employed when working out in cold weather to help the mix achieve a proper set. Just don't overdo it. Water temperatures of around 125 degrees F are about as high as you probably ever want to go. Cold mixing water will retard the set and can affect the cure similar to low ambient temperatures. If it is too cold, hydration may not take place properly or at all. Ground water supplies in some areas can be surprisingly cold (just above freezing), so, once again it is important that you check your supply's temperature before adding it to the mix. And...cool water (like warm) can be employed to offset ambient temperature. When the themometer rises, using cool water will help offset the heats' tendancy to accelerate setting. Just remember that you never want to go below the 50 degree mark. From about 60 degrees F, up to anything that is below the ambient temp, and some degree of retarding the set will take place. Since it soon rises to match ambient, it will have little or no effect on the actual cure rate. Also be advised that not all water is created equal. Mineral & salt content in water can vary greatly from area to area, even from "approved" public supplies . If you experience consistent problems with an otherwise proven mix, you may be encountering water problems. Sometimes a simple "taste test" may give you a clue as to an unusual water situation, but short of lab testing, this is a difficult issue to nail down. About the only way I know of isolating & identifying this problem, is to test a carefully prepared mix formulation with the water supply source as the only variable. Distilled water can be used to test this possibility but nix on the Perrier or "Mineral" water. SUMMMARY: There is no one, single "right" consistency. The only way to make sure the water content and consistency are right...is to first decide what results you want to acheive, then design the mix accordingly.

EXAMPLE ONE - Molds & Casting: If you are casting into a mold or a form, the water content will be partly driven by the nature of the mold material involved. If it is a soft, stretchy or flexible material, like latex with no solid backing to support it (like a rigid Mother Mold) the mix will need to have a lot of "flow", i.e. a higher water content...or, have an admix such as a superpalsticizer introduced that will increase its flowability. A rigid or well backed mold or form, on the other hand, can tolerate having the mix tamped or packed in vigorously without deforming, and can therefore accomodate a dryer mix. Much, much dryer. "Dry Packing" is a commonly employed commercial technique for two main reasons. The product is much stronger, and...the castings can be de-molded almost immeditely. This allows the same mold to produce many items per day, versus having to wait several days for a wet mix to set before de-molding and casting it again. EXAMPLE TWO - Hand Forming or Sculpting: Hand forming or sculpting onto an armature or

framework requires a whole different approach and mix. Instead of "flowing into", you want it to "cling onto". And that eqautes as dryer and possibly "stickier". Latex admixtures and old fashioned Hydrated Lime both make for a stickier mix. But be advised on each. Adding plastic will densify your mix and high volumes will yield a surface that "skins over" and is often difficult to work. I have some "experimental" pieces made with very high proportions of latex that even resist acid etching. Not what you want if you are planning on using acid etch color. And Hydrated Lime is extremely caustic and dangerous to work with. Most experienced masons have both a very high respect for its use...and the scars that taught them that respect. It can blind and burn in very small amounts and is not advisable for use by amateurs. The addition of reinforcing fibers will also add a significant amount of "cling" to just about any formulation and is particularly helpful when applying the mix onto stucco lath or other such materials. But bear in mind that fibers dramatically limit the finishing techniques that can be employed on any surface they are used on and often must be "torched" off. I personally never use them in any of my finish layers...only in the sublayers. Admixture Note: If you are incoporating any wet admixes such as a latex modifier, bonding agent, liquid retarder or anything else...do not just dump it into the mix. First estimate approximately how much total water the full mix will require, measure out about half that amount, then combine all of the wet ingredients into that and mix them up well. Once they are well mixed, you can combine it with the dry ingredients and then very slowly add the balance of your water. Superplasticizer Note: If you employ a superplasticizer (High-Range Water Reducer)...be advised that the effect of adding water to your mix will be greatly exaggerated. It can go from way too dry to soup in an instant with the addition of seemingly minute amounts of water. That's just the plasticizer doing its' job. Just go slow and be extra conservative when adding water. And One final piece of advice...just when you think you need to add "just a little more water"...don't. Try mixing it a bit longer instead.

"Shaken, not stirred." Hand Mixing VS Power Mixing

Sean Connery's inimitable & enduring character (actually, author Ian Flemmings') had a distinct preference for how his Martini was mixed for a reason. Shaking vigorously with the ice results in a more thoroughly combined mixture than just stirring. Admittedly, running it through a blender would combine it even better, but for whatever reason, Flemming apparently didn't think sipping a Martini Slush through a straw seemed to fit James Bonds' personality, so he settled for just shaking it. You, on the other hand, need to do whatever is necessary to insure that your cement-based cocktail, whether concrete, mortar, cement paste, 'Tufa or whatever, is as thoroughly combined as possible. All cement-based mixtures require a very thorough blending of all their ingredients if they are ever to achieve their full potential. We've already stressed the importance of "dry-mixing" prior to the addition of any liquid components, so now let's look at how we can optimize the process of combining dry with wet. Hand Mixing Hints "Tempering" is when wet meets dry and the water + cement magic begins to happen. And once it does, there's no turning back, so have everything lined up & ready to go. Once you have measured out all of your dry ingredients and measured and prepared your wet ingredients, you are ready to combine them in your chosen mixing container. Preferably one that is made for the task and has a smooth bottom & sides. Inexpensive plastic "mixing tubs" are available in the masonry departments of most Big Box stores and meet the above requirements perfectly. They are wide, shallow and have fully rounded corners that make mixing a lot easier than trying to work in a deep container. Easy to clean, too. Form all of your dry ingredients into a short "volcano" in your mixing container. A low mound that is hollowed out in the center. Into that center, pour about half of your calculated water or wet mix. A hoe, or better yet, a mortar mixing hoe (with a short handle and a couple of holes in the blade) is handy for folding and combining the wet & dry materials. Work back and forth, pulling & pushing, bringing only small

amounts of dry into the wet until the wet mix is as distributed as possible, then slowly add more of your water/wet mix into the center and continue the process. Just don't try to combine too much wet & dry at once or you wind up fighting "clumps". What you want is a very fluid working mix that slowly increases in viscosity. And don't rush it. It takes about ten to fifteen minutes of steady mixing to thoroughly combine the ingredients for most batches up to thirty pounds or so. Once you are satisfied that everything is adequately mixed and the right consistency for the job, it's a good idea to transfer it all into a more vertical container, like a bucket, rather than working from the tub. This will reduce the surface area and slow the mixes moisture loss to evaporation. A lid or damp towel over the top will aid in retaining moisture as well, especially if you are working in the sun or a breeze. Another suggestion is to let the mix "rest", that is, sit covered for maybe five minutes before you begin working from it. This will allow the moisture to further distribute & equalize itself. It's also a good time to hose out your mixing tub before it goes solid. Machine Mixing...first you have to have one... If you are one of the lazy people (like myself) who prefer to let mechanical devices handle the tedious tasks, a powered mixer is definitely the way to go. Especially if you mix in any quantity. And, like many modern contrivences, they generally do a much better job than most humans. If you already own a mixer, congratulations and feel free to jump ahead to the next section. If not, here are some thoughts on acquiring one. Realistically asses what you will use it for and establish a budget that you can live with. To accomplish this, do some homework. Google both "Cement Mixers" as well as "Concrete Mixers" because, in spite of the fact that there is technically no such thing as a "cement mixer"...both terms are used freely & interchangably. There are also dedicated "Mortar Mixers" that are of a totally different design. A mortar mixer has stationary set of paddles around which the drum turns...where a cement or concrete mixer has a rotating drum & paddles. Mortar mixers are great for what they are intended for..mixing mortar...but cannot handle any aggregate much larger than basic coarse sand without something breaking. The tolerance between the drum and paddles is simply too tight. Talk to some pros in your area. What do they look for in a mixer and why? What do they like or dislike about what they own? You get the picture...inquire before you invest. Features & prices are all over the place, and only you can decide which ones are worth how much to you. Here are a few "feature" considerations to take into account: 1. Size There are a wide range of homeowner & light commercial mixer sizes available as measured in cubic feet or cubic yards of load capacity. Typically from about one and a quarter cubic feet to around a cubic yard. Unless you are going into the foundation contracting business, something around two to five cubic feet in capacity should be more than adequate for most art projects. You can only work so much at a time before it sets up, so take that into account as well. Remember...a single "Yard" is 27 cubic feet. That's a lot of concrete, hypertufa, jelly beans or just about anything else. 2. Power Source Gas or electric? (Sorry, no solar just yet) Once again consider your use & situation. Gas powered units are more expensive, but they can be used just about anywhere that the noise & exhaust can be tolerated. Electrics are fairly inexpensive and quiet, but have to be within reach of an outlet. 3. Portability Some units are stationary, some highly portable with self contained wheels, and some are just too darn heavy for most people to move about when fully loaded...even with wheels...so keep the fully loaded weight and your personal hauling capacity in mind. 4. Drum Construction Metal or plastic? The new generation Poly drums are durable, rust-free and easy to clean. The only caution I can offer to plastic drum owners, is to never whack it hard in freezing weather as it might break under those conditions. So why then do I own a steel-drum unit? Probably just oldfashioned I guess and relate "real" durability to iron. That coupled with the outstanding reputation for reliability and durability of the manufacturer involved and the price being "right". 5. User Features How is the drum emptied? Does it tilt up & down easily or do you have to go through a lot of gyrations to get your mix out?. How about swiveling side to side? A few even have mixing angle

adjustments for the drum, a handy feature that is discussed in "Tricks of the (Cement) Trade". 6. Brand Reputation/Durability This where the biggest differences probably lie. There are a few really outstanding makers out there...and a whole lot of junk. Take a serious look at the warranty & return policies for any unit you are considering and gauge it against the price (Will the store take it back or do you have to ship it to Beijing?). I buy some tools that I classify as disposable. Those are the really cheap ones that I know are gonna' get destroyed anyway. Others I view as an investment. Some of which I've had for over twenty years and still do what they were designed to do quite well. My mixer is not that old, but I definitely acquired it as an investment grade tool. That it was half-price was simply good fortune combined with my dear wife's negotiating skills. This is where talking to owners & operators can really pay off. If you don't plan on working it all that hard, you can probably get by with a cheap-o and put the savings to good use elsewhere. If breaking down in the middle of a paying job is of greater concern, go with the best you can afford. 7. Shop, Shop, Shop Once you have your criteria worked out and a unit selected it's time to get down to some serious price shopping. You'll soon discover that "the price" ain't necessarily set in concrete ( sorry..I just couldn't resist that). Look at the many online discounters and you'll probably find variations of as much as 20 to 30% for any given make & model. Just don't forget to factor in shipping. Locally, there are some real deals to be had as well. "Scratch & dent" items are often up to half off. And a scratch or a dent on a concrete mixer is hardly the same as on a shiny new Lexus. And don't be afraid to make an offer on scratch & dents, demos and floor samples. That's exactly how I got mine at a bargain basement price...or rather my darling savvy wife did. The Depot had lost the box, instructions and one cotter key to exactly the unit I had been looking for so she cornered the department manager and told him she would give him half the retail price in cash "right now, so decide, will you take it or not?". He took it. Done. So negotiate. Make an offer. You have absolutely nothing to lose...they will always be happy to take the full price. Oh, and by the way...these days you can download most manufacturers product manuals online. 8. Price Ranges I just saw a little 1.25 cubic foot unit on sale at Harbor Freight for $99 dollars. No, its not a top-of-the-line unit, but the price is certainly right for an "entry model" ( hey, what do you expect for 99 bucks?). And, "Name Brands" in the 3 to 5 cubic foot size typically go for about $300 to $500 with other models falling somewhere inbetween...so you have a pretty good spread of price options to pick from. These are all electrically driven. If you need the gas or diesel power option, be prepared to pay well over a grand for the low-end units and 2 to 5 thousand for the "good stuff". My mixer is a 5 cubic foot, name brand electric from Home Depot that sold four years ago for about $360.00. My wife talked them down to $180.00. Happy hunting.

Machine Mixing Hints

For those of you who are using a power mixer, be advised that the piece of equipment I am referring to is called a Concrete Mixer. Not a Cement Mixer. No matter what youve heard or what you may be dumping into it. Or, for that matter, what I may occasionally slip and call it. Personally, I really do use mine to mix neat cement paste, but since just about every professional on the planet will argue that Cee ment dont need no mixin, son I go with the flow on this one if only to avoid having to explain a process that they will also tell me will never work. Likewise, for this session, well stick to concrete, mortar & hypertufa. The ins & outs of mixing neat cement paste for sculpting is a different animal that will be dealt with in a forthcoming segment of the How-To tutorial on constructing the Faux Bois table thats on this site. OK. By now most of you probably know the differences between cement, concrete, mortar & hypertufa, but here are the short read definitions for the folks who stumbled onto this site by accident, taken right from our very own Big & Ever Growing Glossary of Cement, Concrete & Hypertufa Terms Cement A building material manufactured by grinding calcined limestone and clay to a fine powder, which

can be mixed with water and poured to set as a solid mass or used as an ingredient in making mortar or concrete. Concrete A mixture of cement (usually Portland), various aggregate fillers (sand, gravel, rock) and water which chemically hardens into an insoluable monlithic composite. The most common formulation is often referred to as a "standard 1-2-3 mix" and consists of One part Cement + Two parts Sand + Three parts Gravel (or Stone). Mortar A mixture of cement, sand and water typically used in masonry construction. The mixture may contain masonry cement, or standard portland cement with lime or other ad-mixtures added to produce greater degrees of plasticity and/or durability. Hypertufa A cement-based formulation designed to reproduce the porous look of the naturally occuring lightweight rock known as Tufa and the resulting products manufactured from this formulation. Mix ratios vary wildly, but the most common "basic recipe" consists of 1 part Portland cement + 1.5 parts Peat + 1.5 parts Perlite. The term literally translates as "Fast" or "Beyond"(hyper)...and... "Tufa" (the name for an unusual porous geological formation). The common denominator in these concoctions is cement and most standard issue home concrete mixers will handle all of the above very nicely. But each does have its own set of quirks. Most of which are determined by the nature of the other ingredients. Mixing Basic Concrete Before we even get started, let me state this as emphatically as I know how

NEVEREVERput your hands, arms or any other body part that you want to stay attached into a moving mixer! Even if it is only a to horsepower motorthe average small mixer is more than capable of completely removing any given limb from your body. AndNEVEREVERinser t any kind of tool, stick or other object into a moving mixer. The rotating mixing blades are designed to hook and grab wet concretethey are certainly up to the task of snagging you, your clothing or anything in your hands and really ruining an otherwise good day. And finallyNEVEREVERNEVERallow a child anywhere near a mixer that has power going to itlet alone while it is running! Concrete mixers are great tools, and they are powerful tools. And like any power tool, they will hurt you badly if you use them foolishly. If you want it to stay a tool for enjoyment, read the manual and observe every safety precaution religiously and consistently. OK...nowwhere were we? Oh yeah, Mixing Concrete Regardless of the formulation, start by gathering up everything you will need for a given project. Not just what is going in the mixer, but everything. Because once the water hits the cement the game is on, and you dont want to be chasing around trying to find some special doo-dad that you like to work with or something you really need while the cement is setting. Hydrating cement waits on no one. I generally try to do a complete walk-through of all the processes, from beginning to end, and think about what Ill need for each step and then try to pull them all together. Make a shopping list if you have to. Heres how some of mine go, but they can obviously vary depending on what tasks are involved.

A Typical Walk-Through Scenario...

Preparation Stage: 1. Start by preparing an ingredient list with everything pre-calculated (by weight, of course), including proper water content and all admixtures & additives. I put mine on a 3x5 card and use it to check-off each component as I add them. I also put environmental conditions, working notes & observations on the back. A cell-phone call in the middle of formulating can make it all to easy to lose track of what has & hasnt been added. (gee, great story, well gotta run now Mom, clickHmmmdid I put the danged cement in yet or not?) A checklist will tell you. And even before you go tossing things together, use the list to make sure that you have an adequate supply of everything required to complete the task of the moment. Mixing Stage: 2. Gather up any & all special mixing tools & accessories and make sure they are where they need to be. (...now where did I put those extra rubber gloves) Ive found it handy to keep a small trowel for making a trench in the dry mix to pour my wet mix into and a masons hammer for knocking loose any dried build up from the mixing blades when necessary. And I make sure I have a heavy duty scrub brush within reach of the mixer, because cleaning it should always be part of the mixing routine. Do it now its easy. Do it later its dynamite. Working Stage: 3. Make sure that all of the sculpting or working tools I anticipate using are where they should be and ready to go. Likewise for any supplies like Bonding Agent or reinforcing material. Fill a 5-gallon bucket with clean rinse water and locate it close to where Ill be working so that I can quick ly clean up tools & gloves as needed. And I check to make sure that whatever I will be transferring the mix into for working is clean, dry and ready to host the mix as soon as it comes out of the machine. Curing Stage: 4. Insure that everything necessary to begin & maintain proper curing is in place. I often work 8 to 12 hours straight and have to start monitoring & maintaining hydration moisture levels long before I am done working the mix. That means my misting hose, plastic bags or sheeting, tape, spring clips, old towels or burlap, stand-offs to keep anything from touching the surfaceanything associated with curing a particular piece of work, must be on standby and ready for immediate use. Bottom line. Everyone works differently and uses what is appropriate for them and the job they are doing. But we all need to prepare as best we can. And a dry run walk -through will save a lot of time, materials, money & grief for just about anyone.

Stay Tuned. More To Come...

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How to Calculate How Much of What You Need In Any Mix

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Below are the techniques used by professionals for determining how much of each ingredient will be required to make a mixture that is correctly sized and proportioned for any given piece of work. The only part that might get tricky is figuring out the volume of more complicated shapes, but I'll leave that part for you to work out. And, while this is for "estimating" purposes, I've found it to be surprisingly accurate. This technique involves determining the actual volume of a piece, multiplying that by an industry standard factor of 1.65 (which includes 10% extra to compensate for any losses), breaking the mix ratio down into Parts, calculating a volume for each part and then multiplying the volume per part times the number of parts. (Unless you are much better at math than I, a pocket calculator will probably come in handy. ) Here we go...

Example:
A single 2 x 16 x 16 Stepping Stone made with a standard 1 -2-3 concrete mix (1 part Cement plus 2 Parts Sand plus 3 Parts Gravel).

Calculating Volume Per Component:

1. First, calculate the "Actual Volume" of the piece 2x16x16 = 512 cu. in. 2. Then convert that Actual Volume into an "Estimated Total Volume of Dry Material" by multiplying times the factor of 1.65 512 x 1.65 = 844.8 cu. in. 3. Now add up the total number of Parts that make up the mix 1 Part cement + 2 Parts sand + 3 Parts gravel = 6 total Parts 4. Then, to determine the Ingredient Volume by Part, divide the Total Volume of Dry Material by the total number of Parts 844.8 cu. in. divided by 6 Parts = 140.8 cu. inches per each Part. 5. Now simply multiply the Ingredient Volume by Part, times each components specified number of Parts, and you'll have the volume for each component... a. Cement = 1Part x 140.8 cu. in. = 140.8 cu. in. b. Sand = 2 Parts x 140.8 cu. in. = 281.6 cu. in. c. Gravel = 3 Parts x 140.8 cu. in. = 422.4 cu. in. NOTE: This technique will work for any kind of mixture (concrete, mortar, Hypertufa, pizza sauce, whatever) and regardless of how many components are involved.

Converting Component Volumes to Weight:

And, if you would like to convert the resulting Volume of each component into a weight you can measure outheres how to go about that. First convert cubic inches into cubic feet (since thats how most materials weights are listed). To continue with this example, start by dividing the total cubic inches of each component by the volume of one square

foot in cubic inches (12"x12"x12"= 1728 cu. in. per cubic foot). a. Cement: 140.8 cu. in. divided by 1728 = 0.0814 cubic feet b. Sand: 281.6 cu. in. divided by 1728 = 0.1629 cubic feet c. Gravel: 422.4 cu. in. divided by 1728 = 0.2444 cubic feet Now just multiply the value in cubic feet for each item, times that items "standard weight per cubic foot"*: a. Cement: 0.0814 cubic feet x 94 pounds per cubic foot* = 7.65 pounds of Cement b. Sand: 0.1629 cubic feet x 100 pounds per cubic foot*= 16.29 pounds of Sand c. Gravel: 0. 2444 cubic feet x 95 pounds per cubic foot*= 23.22 pounds of Gravel Now you can even predict approximately what the finished piece will weigh by adding up the totals, in this case7.65 + 16.29 + 23.22 = 47.16 pounds (the only variable being the retained moisture content which will constantly be changing for most concrete). *And where did I come up with those standard weight per cubic foot figures? Just check out the Handy Measurement Equivalents & Weights page, right here on this site. It displays many o f the industry standard weights for the most common concrete & Hypertufa ingredients. Pretty neat, huh? (Sorry, but for the Pizza Sauce weights, you're on your own.)

Tricks of the (Cement) Trade

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At some point, I will probably have to organize this section. But for now, just cruise through the random titles at your leisure. Over the years, I have consulted with a number of PhD's who have written books on the subject, and a lot of 80-year old masons who've mixed enough mud to cover the Moon. And, while each certainly qualifies as an "expert", I learned that they disagree on just about as many things as they agree on. But between them, I've picked up a lot of useful information. So, take it all with a grain of salt...or sand, and use it as you see fit. I've found a few things along the way that have come in quite handy. I hope you do too. And do be sure to also take a look at the "Mixing Basics" technical paper as well. It focuses on getting everything together properly.

Sand. How to tell what's really going into your mix.

A couple of the really savvy old Masons I've spoken with both laughingly pointed out an interesting observation. They both noted that they had observed a lot of "smart" people in the concrete business who would spend months and tons of money testing and evaluating all the new "wonder drugs" for concrete...then dump whatever sand was handy into the mix and blame the chemicals if it didn't work out. The best of the old-timers consistently said that because sand was the dominant ingredient in their mix, they never used ANY that they hadn't examined under a pocket magnifier AND...tested in solution. Both simple processes we all can employ. The magnifier is to check for "sharpness". Good masonry sand is sharp and angular, never smooth and polished looking. It forms a more secure matrix by virtue of its' shape locking into the paste. Smooth sand simply does not lock into the cement paste as well as the sharp variety. So, if what you see under the glass looks like little billiard balls...keep looking. The "Solution Test" is an easy way to tell what you are buying besides sand. Take a large Mason jar and fill it half-way with a sample of the sand (or any aggregate, for that matter) that is in question. Fill it up to about the 3/4 mark with warm to hot water, secure the lid and shake the fool out of it for at least a couple of minutes, then set it aside to settle out undisturbed for 24 hours. The results can really be surprising. If it consists of clean sand, thats all you'll see when you come back...sand and clear water. If there's a lot of dust, dirt, or any other material present, it will form separate, visible "strata". Individual layers of different materials formed

primarily on the basis of their relative weight. Sticks, twigs & most organic matter will float to the top, as will any oily residue or lighter than water residual material. Shine a flashlight through it and at an angle to the surface and see what's there to see. It's either clean or it's not. Not exactly rocket science or laser spectrography, but it's worked pretty darned well for a few hundred years (and yes...they had to use candles instead of flashlights way back when ). The other "big mistake" they consistently warned me of making was assuming that the sand suppliers had any idea what it was that they were actually selling at any given time. Just because they point you to a pile that's supposed to be a particular type of sand, doesn't mean that's what somebody else's truck dumped there. The "old-timers" advised that you assume nothing and always check to see what it is that you are actually paying for. Hey...not bad advice for a lot of things in life.

Curing. Some of the basics & some handy hints.

The cure is by definition... "Cure The method by which sufficient internal humidity and proper temperature are maintained to insure that the hydration process of the cement within the freshly placed concrete or mortar is uninterrupted allowing full and proper hardening to take place." If you are working with any cementitous mix, it is imperitive that you appreciate just how important proper curing is to the success of your project. It is equally important that you understand that nearly all of the information available through most sources is either intended for, or based on, commercially placed concrete. Artwork & sculpture are very different animals & require tailoring much of the available information to your individual needs and circumstances. For example...nearly all commercial formwork, such as foundations, driveways, bridges and the like, are commonly closed on five of six sides. A piece of sculpture or any work that is not confined in a mold, is much more exposed to the environment, and consequently subject to much greater and more rapid moisture loss. "Maintaining sufficient internal humidity & proper temperature" is a great deal more difficult for artists than it is for most contractors. But it's just as important. Hydration vs. Evaporation In order for any cement-based mix to achieve full strength, it must fully hydrate. That's the chemical process by which cement paste hardens. It begins as soon as water is introduced and it must not be interrupted until hydration is about 95% complete (that is about what is considered a "full" cure. The other 5% can take centuries.). If the mix loses too much water, for any reason, at any time before it is fully cured, hydration stops cold at that point and it does not start up again. Even getting close to an insufficient moisture level is problematic. "Plastic Shrinkage Cracks" are the direct result of inadequate moisture near the surface. They occur in the exposed surface of fresh concrete during or within the first few hours after the concrete has been placed and while the concrete is still plastic, but before attaining any significant strength. Such cracks are caused by the evaporation of surface water, and the consequent drying and shrinking of the exposed surface of the still plastic concrete. The surface must therefore never appear dry during the first few critical hours that it is in this plastic state. The duration of this "critical" stage of the cure is dependent on two separate considerations. First; what's in the mix (Rapid Setting concrete vs regular cement; accelerator, retarder and any other admixtures ) and secondly, the environment. You will have to refer to each manufacturers specs for any curing considerations regarding cement & admixes, but there are some general guidelines for dealing with the environment. Ambient temperature, humidity and wind velocity all play a role in removing moisture from your mix and must each be compensated for. Here's how they work against you and a few things you can do about it:

Temperature The higher the ambient temperature, the more rapidly moisture evaporates. But, ironically, cement paste also cures (hydrates) faster as the temperature rises, so as long as you can control moisture loss, higher temperatures are not necessarily a bad thing. The commercial/industrial concerns expressed in the definition above are primarily directed at the internal temperatures that are generated by very large masses of concrete that are placed at once. The good news is that, unless you are placing twenty yards of concrete at a time, you don't have to be greatly concerned about that type of heat. Just try and keep the ambient temperature within reason. Hydrating cement paste really likes it best around 70 degrees F. If you have a nice air-conditioned work space, just adjust the the thermostat. If you are like me and have to do most of your work outdoors, then you'll just have to keep the following in mind and apply shade,heat or cooling as best you can. Do not place or apply a mix when the working environments temperature is, or will be below 50 degrees F, anytime during the working and curing periods. Avoid using water that is extremely cold, as it can dramatically slow or interfere with the curing process. However, the use of slightly cool water on a hot day can help offset the heats tendency to accelerate the initial set somewhat. You should also avoid using hot water in your mix as it will greatly accelerate the initial set and can even contribute to cracking. This is actually a more common problem than you might imagine because a hose lying in the sun can build up enough heat to literally burst. Consider what it will do to your mix. Check the waters temperature by spraying it onto your hand before you add it. If it scalds your hand, don't use it. Run it until it is cooler. If it is neutral to comfortably cool to you, your mix will be comfortable with it as well. When working on hot, sunny days, try to keep your work shaded from strong direct sun and or misted. Cement & concrete absorb and store heat with remarkable efficiency. Applying fresh material onto a broiling hot surface almost guarantees problems and should always be avoided. If the surface is hot, hose it down until the excess heat is thoroughly dissipated before proceeding. Check your mixer or mix container's temperature. Regardless of whether it is metal or plastic...if it has absorbed a lot of heat...it's going to go right into any mixture you put in it. More than once I had to cool my metal mixer with a hose before I could continue. Here is an old masons' rule of thumb regarding how temperature impacts setting & curing:

"When planning your work, you would do well to bear in mind that concrete placed at 90F will set in one half the time as concrete placed at 70F, and concrete placed at 50F will take twice as long to set as concrete placed at 70F."
Humidity Humidity definitely plays a role, but to a much lessor degree than temperature or wind velocity. Low humidity levels can be compensated for by occasional light mistings with a hose; high humidity generally works in your favor by slowing the evaporation process. Heavily saturated air simply can't hold much more water, so it tends to stay where it is longer.

Wind Velocity This just may be the greatest single cause of dehydration and failure. Even small amounts of air moving across the surface have a profound effect on the amount of moisture that is removed from the mix. And the amount of moisture lost goes up almost exponentially as wind speed increases. This is true both while you are woking and while your work is curing. And if you are working on a three dimensional object that has most of its' surface exposed, the effect is even greater and the loss more rapid. Take a lesson from the old-timers...shield your work from the wind. If you can't work indoors, erect some type of "screen" to block the breezes while you are working. And, whatever you do...don't even consider working in front of a fan, no matter how hot it gets. Indoors or out. Tricks for Maintaining Sufficient Internal Humidity As you have no doubt guessed by now, successfully accomplishing this feat means managing all of the above and will require a slightly different approach to overcome each new days' weather and every different mix. Once you take into account how hot or cold it will be, the humidity and the wind, there are a few tricks that can help you deal with them. They include... While Working... Like I just said...shield your work from the wind & sun. A movable "V"-shaped screen made from 2x2's and opaque painters' plastic will help redirect breezes and provide a measure of shade. Scale depends on your work, but the taller & wider the better. And, it obviously needs to be made so that it won't blow over in a stiff breeze. Small camping tents are inexpensive these days at discount sporting goods stores and can serve quite well to control environmental influences such as direct sun & wind. Keep a hose handy. Preferably one with an adjustable nozzle that includes a very fine mist setting. On hot, windy days, you may have to mist your project regularly, even while you are working on it. Just don't overdo it before the initial set or you risk adding water content into the mixture which will weaken it. Just a very light misting from a few feet away to keep the surface damp. If you are up to the task, you can create a high-humidity environment for you & your work by installing an area misting system. These consist of a hose-end fitting and some length of tubing with fine misting nozzles at regular intervals. They can usually be found at the Big Box stores or Patio Specialty stores. The only "brand" I know of is called the "Arizona Mister". The mist they produce is so fine that even after several hours of continuous use, the ground in the area never actully gets "wet", it just remains highly humid. Just what your work needs. And mighty comfy on a scorching hot day, I might add. Some are advertised as being capable of lowering the temperature as much as 20 degrees.

After Working, but before fully set... What you do next depends on the state that the mix is in. If the mix has not yet achieved its' final set, you will need to continue lightly misting it until it does. But remember, too much too soon and you are watering down & weakening the mix. And keeping the airflow off is very important at this stage, so be prepared to cover your work. At this stage the surface will still be quite soft, so you may need to avoid laying any covering material directly in contact with your work as it will alter the finish. I keep a couple of sets of pre-fabbed support posts for this purpose. They are simply 4 x 4 blocks that have a 1/2" dowel rod pressed into a hole. I position them around my work to hold the plastic sheeting up and off the surface.

After Working and fully set... Once the mix has achieved its' final set, you can apply more generous doses of water. In fact, you can submerge it in water if the size is convenient. Portland cement is fully hydraulic and will complete its set under water. This technique not only insures adequate moisture for full hydration, but also solves the problem of air flow over the work as well. However, if submerging your work is not feasable, you will have have to handle those two issues in some other fashion. One option is to try and maintain adequate moisture by covering or wrapping it in moisture retaining materials such as wet fabric (old towels, burlap) or wet sand or even sawdust. Covering that with an air blocking material, like plastic sheeting, will also help keep the moisture from escaping. Using this approach, you will still have to constantly monitor and maintain its' water supply by removing the plastic and hosing it down regularly. Today, many concrete professionals rely on a chemical solution. Literally. Remember, you aren't trying to add any water...just prevent what's already there and adequate for complete hydaration from escaping. That's how the industry came up with a line of products that are called "Membrane Curing Compounds". Simply put, they are liquid compounds that can be sprayed or rolled onto freshly placed concrete that form a thin film or membrane over the work that prevents moisture loss through evaporation. Great for flat surfaces, but less that perfect for anything 3-dimensional. Plus many of them seriously interfere with any post cure processes such as acid-etch staining or applying paints. So, while they may be a boon for contractors, their use by artisans is somewhat limited. Another approach is to seal your work in an air tight containment so that any moisture the mix does give up, stays available for continuous hydration. Depending on the size of your work, either large plastic trash bags or the roll type plastic sheeting can be used. The large bags have the advantage of being easy to seal. Plastic sheeting for larger work must be taped closed along all seams to achieve air tight status. Using either method, wet the surface thoroughly or apply some cloth and soak it down, then slightly inflate the container by just blowing into it and then seal it tight. And once it is sealed, I leave it that way for at least 72 hours, then open it and check its' water supply. As long as the surface is damp to wet, you are in good shape. I usually mist it again before resealing, just to compensate for anything lost by breaking the seal. Just how long you leave it in this environment depends on the mix, but 5 to 7 days should be adeqaute for the full hydration of just about any mix. One last trick involves what I call a "Poor Mans' Steam Cure". Many super-critical concrete placements (such as nuclear reactors) undergo a high-tech process called steam curing. The curing concrete is kept in a high-temperature, steam laden environment. "Oh, but what about all that heat?", you ask. Heat is not the enemy for conventional cement product mixes. Up to about 290 degrees F. anyway. In fact, AAC (Autoclaved Aerated Concrete; see the "Glossary" on this site for a definition) is cured at 3500 degrees F.! Moisture loss is the issue when curing concrete or any cementitous mix. So as long as you either PREVENT moisture from escaping...or REPLACE it with an equal amount as it does...hydration will be continuous & complete and the final product will be as strong as it can possibly be. And as witnessed above, heat can actually be used to accomplish near perfect curing. The poor mans' version simply involves sealing the work in black plastic, just as above...and then putting it in the sun. The black plastic absorbs a great deal of heat and creates a very high humidity, steamy environment within the closed bag or wrapping that recycles just about 100% of the moisture. Just be sure that you seal it as air-tight as possible to keep the much needed moisture from escaping.

And...It Can Also Serve as a Cure For Your Winter Blues...Of course, I do live in the coastal Texas region, where we have an ample supply of excess heat that can be put to work for much of the year. But you can accomplish the above in soggy Seattle or even sultry Saskatchewan...at any time of the year. Just invest in a heat lamp or two. A "sun-lamp" will transfer radiant heat into the black enclosure the same

way the real sun does. In fact, using this approach to curing will allow you to accomplish work during times of the year when it would be otherwise impossible. Granted, you absolutely must conduct enough testing to insure that the bag heats properly while NOT catching on fire or melting (unlikely, unless you position the heat source within inches), but this technique will allow many of our Northern friends to continue their crafting activities all throughout the year.

Business & Selling Tips for Artists & Crafters

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Here are some links to a few online articles on the subject of marketing & selling your goods & services. If you are like many artists, this is probably one of the most mysterious & confounding aspects of "going pro". Don't feel bad. Poor Vincent Van Gogh could certainly have used a few of the pointers that are here too. Contrary to popular belief, you really don't have to wait until after you are dead for your work to sell. Just do some homework on the subject, make a plan that works for you and then work the plan. Folkart, crafts, "Outsider Art", "Art Brut"...the whole category of homegrown art is just about the hottest thing going in the art world these days. Learn how to make the most of it and convert your passion into some cash along the way. Like just about everything on TheGardenArtForum.Com, this will remain a work-inprogress and will be continuously updated and added to over time. So, if any of you know of a source for good information on the subject, let us know and we'll add it to the knowledge base we are building here. You really can do this. Go for it!

How-To Turn Your Skills & Passion Into A Business:

Here's another source for good basic info that focuses on "booth selling"... http://www.borsheimarts.com/booths.htm Here's one more. This one covers various business aspects of crafting... http://www.craftsreport.com/ Another basic treatise on crafting as a real business... http://www.save-on-crafts.com/staryourownb1.html

Tools, Gadgets & Other Handy Stuff

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Here are a few items that you might find handy from time to time. They include actual masonry tools, homemade devices and whatever the members have found or come up with to help make their lives a little easier and their crafting more productive and/or fun. Like everything else here, this will remain "a work in progress" that any and all may contribute to, so please..share what works for you!

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Rebar Hicky
This is a manual rebar bending tool. A great addition to any shop where built up concrete or Hypertufa work is taking place. Use it on bar up to a half-inch or even 5/8ths if you can supply enough grunt. The triangle shaped head has 3 heavy posts for grabbing and bending on one side...on the other is a single post that can be inserted into a hole on a worktop to steady it & provide extra leverage. Can usually be found in the Masonry Dapartment of most Big Box home improvement stores for around twenty bucks.

Wire Twisters
Used in conjunction with either soft iron wire or pre-fabbed "wire-ties" to fasten rebar together as well as for attaching lath & other support material. Also found in most Big Box Masonry Departments. The handle rotates so you can twist wire much quicker than with a pair of standard pliers or Vise-Grips.

Drill Mounted Mixing Blade or "Mud Paddle"

For smaller batches of lighter & wetter mixes, a heavy duty, 1/2 inch drill with a "mud-mixer" blade can often get the job done. This attachment is really made for use with sheetrock "mud", so don't expect it to shine when applied to heavy or dry concrete formulations. Once again, check your local Big Box store, this time whereever the sheetrock supplies might be.

Dust Guard for a Small Mixer

If you own a small mixer, you are probably familiar with the clouds of dust it spits out. Especially while "dry mixing". A piece of "Coroplast" ( corrugated plastic) cut to fit and attached with a few mini-clamps will let you breathe a lot easier.

Hot Wire Styrofoam Cutter Plans

Below is a quick sketch of a Hot Wire Styrofaom Cutter I made & used years ago. The size can be adapted from a small table-top unit to one that will handle very large blocks of foam. Because it cuts by melting, there are no "crumbs" or dust to contend with. However, be

aware that melting Styrofoam produces styrene gas and work only in a well ventilated area. Preferably with a small fan moving the fumes away. The train transformer will heat the wire with a very low current that can be adjusted just as you would adjust the speed of the model train. When the wire is pulled taut, this rig will make very clean & accurate cuts in nearly all types of rigid foam. Very handy for creating molds, forms and lightweight armatures.

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Concrete Sealers: A Guide for Artists & Crafters

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Concrete Sealer Info for Artists & Crafters

In order to pick the right sealer for any given application, you need to understand the options available, what makes them different, and how each of them works. Hopefully, this little treatise will help clarify some of the considerations worth, uh considering. And bear in mind that for my purposes here, I am including not only Concrete, but any Cement-Based formulation (i.e.; concrete, mortar, hypertufa, etc.) as the potential recipient of these treatments. But before we get into the whys & wherefores of the different products themselves, heres a quick overview of what is generally available these days:

Sealer Formulation Options:

A. Water-Based Film Forming Sealers block fluid penetration and contaminants by creating a barrier that is bonded to surface in much the same way paint is applied to wood. Generally available in

1. Low Gloss 2. High Gloss

B. Solvent-Based Penetrating Sealers actually penetrate into the concrete surface to a depth of about 1 to 4 mils to increase water repellency and resist stains on otherwise absorbent concrete. Generally available in 1. Natural Look - (No visible effect whatsoever) 2. Low Gloss 3. High Gloss

First offTo Seal, or Not to Sealyadda, yadda, yadda.

Lets start with the most fundamental sealer question of all. Why bother? Well, there are really only three basic reasons to apply sealer to a cement-based piece of work: 1.) To keep bad stuff out 2.) For appearances sake (To keep pretty in) 3.) To impart a gloss or sheen that intensifies any coloration in the surface material

Keeping Bad Stuff Out

Its perfectly natural to think of a big ol chunk of concrete as solid. After all, it seems dense, is definitely heavy and certainly appears to be very solid. Its also perfectly wrong. While you can easily see the differences in density and porosity between CONCRETE (cement + sand + gravel or rock + water),MORTAR (cement + lots of sand + water), and HYPERTUFA (cement + sometimes sand + sometimes peat moss + sometimes perlite + sometimes vermiculite + sometimes whatever happens to be handy at the moment + water), in reality, at the microscopic level they are all like sponges. The real question is how sponge-like. Because the more open and porous the material, the more it will soak up stuff from the outside and the greater the need for protection Traditionally mixed concrete will have the highest density, mortar will be next and hypertufa will be the lowest. Any of these products can and will suck up everything around them. Out of the ground, out of the air and certainly out of any liquid that comes in contact with them. And a lot of the stuff they soak up is very bad for their health. Most of that bad stuff is carried in by water so lets talk a bit about good old H2O and its relationship with cement-based mixes. Even in its purest form, water can totally destroy any cement-based material. Probably the most

common problem is the result of internal water freezing and expanding. The resulting pressure is capable of splitting apart even the toughest of materials. Additionally, if there are enough wicking materials present in the mix that expand in the presence of water (like many varieties of wood, for example), they too can create damaging pressures from within, even without exposure to freezing temperatures. And if your mixture has been applied over a ferrous metal armature or framework, be aware that even pure water contains chemicals and ions that can kick-start the process of oxidation in that metal. Rust. And, unfortunately for you and your work, rust occupies four-times the volume that the metal does. Just picture a very slow explosion taking place inside and youll get the idea. And since very little water qualifies as pure, a real concern is what the water these formulations will be exposed to might contain. Minerals, salts, acids; there are a host of elements capable of producing a wide range of less than desirable consequences. (NOTE: while this concern definitely includes the water used to mix the formula in the first place, the issue of sealers deals only with what comes later.). All in all, there are many very good reasons to seal a piece of work executed in any cement-based medium.

Keeping Pretty In
If you are like most artists, you put a lot of energy into your work and want it to maintain the look you fretted over achieving. The right sealer can help you accomplish that mission. Additionallyit can also be used to create the look itself, as there are varying degrees of gloss finish available. As noted above, the finish options include everything from an utterly natural appearance (no visible effect on the surface)all the way to an extremely high gloss that can only be described as a wet, sticky look. Its your call. But understand that each finish option comes with its own set of maintenance and longevity considerations that are directly associated with the material type and how they form their bond with the surface. Some form a film on top of the surface like paint, while others penetrate into the material more like wood stains. Here are some of the principal considerations associated with these products and their bonding mechanisms. Film Forming Sealers Because they bond to the surface, they

Will wear, peel or flake off over time requiring reapplications for both appearance & protection Act as a sacrificial surface and do provide some measure of abrasion protection to the underlying material Only protect against fluid penetration as long as their surface is completely intact Only available in Semi-gloss to High Gloss (Generally much more of a wet to sticky look) Can usually be applied on top of other finishing materials such as paint or stains Some are available with UV screening properties which can help when used over otherwise unstable coloring systems

Penetrating Sealers - Because they penetrate into the material, they

Cannot wear off the surface and only require maintenance if the surface is abraded or damaged below the penetration level Do not provide protection against mechanical wear & abrasion of the cementitious surface material Do provide very long term protection against fluid penetration Are available in the full range of sheen (Natural Look to High Gloss)

Can only be properly applied directly to the cementitious material to achieve penetration. Great over acidetch stains, but do not use over paint, wax or any type of film forming material. Contrary to popular belief, appear to be as environmentally stable when cured as water-based sealers

Use of Sealers
While it is absolutely necessary to read and follow each different manufacturers instructions and safety precautions, here are a few general guidelines:

Nearly all recommend/advise applying only to FULLY CURED material. That means at least 28 days. Always use an appropriate respirator per their instructions. Especially if you opt to spray it on. The surface needs to be clean, dry and free of dust When using a Film Forming sealer, remember that it will remain tacky for a while and that dust, dirt or anything that comes in contact with it will stick to it. Protect the wet sealer the same way you would wet paint

Will it Hold Water

A lot of folks decide to seal a piece of work because they intend for it to actually hold water (bird baths, for example). If thats the case, then you really need to read the instructions closely. Not all sealers are rated as totally waterproof, or may require multiple coats to achieve it. And, if you are thinking about using a wood sealer like Thompsons, for example. I strongl y recommend against it. They are simply not engineered to meet the task at hand.

In Closing
While you may have noticed from some discussions on the forum that my personal preference tends to run towards the Natural Look penetrating sealers, they are by no means the only answer. That just happens to be what works best for me on most of the work I do. Whats best for you and your work depends entirely on how you choose to balance your needs and expectations against the different product options and considerations above. As you have hopefully determined by now, some choices are purely creative while others are technical in nature. Balance the right considerations and you will find a concrete sealer that will do just what you want it to.
Footnotes regarding environmental & "Pet-Safe" issues related to the use of concrete sealers: While researching material for the sealer technical bulletin, I came to the following conclusions:

1. There are environmental considerations, but since they are very much product/brand specific in nature, the only viable approach for anyone considering their use is to read & heed each manufacturers instructions. 2. The only precautions I was able to note during this research were limited to the material in its liquid and uncured state. These generally involved issues related to breathing the vapors, ingesting the liquid and proper disposal of the containers.

3. To date I have found no information available that indicates there is any degree of toxicity associated with the fully cured materials, whether water or solvent-based.* *That's not to say that either or both are proven to be 100% safe once cured. It only indicates that there appears to be no data to support anything to the contrary. Personal Note: Many of these products have been used for years to seal and waterproof pond liners and swimming pool additions such as waterfall and slides, so if there were any major concerns, one would think they'd have been discovered and discussed by now. However, if anyone is aware of any additional data available regarding these issues, please contact Admin at this website so that we might incorporate the latest findings on the subject for the benefit of our members & readers. Purchasing Note: Many specialty concrete suppliers sell smaller sample containers of most leading brand sealer products. The best bet is to do a little experimenting to see exactly what to expect from any given brand.

Safety Considerations for Artists Working with CementBased Media & Related Products
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Cement is the most widely used building material on planet Earth. As a result, there are a number of well established safety principles that anyone handling this product should acquaint themselves with. The notes here are intended to take into account how artists, both professional & amateur might handle the materials involved and seeks to inform them of known, potential hazards. To accomplish this, the various basic materials used in different cement-based formulations are defined and addressed individually. Cement - A building material manufactured by grinding calcined limestone and clay to a fine powder, which can be mixed with water and poured to set as a solid mass or used as an ingredient in making mortar or concrete. Cement is a very fine powdery material that, like any other such material, can easily get into the lungs and eyes. The fact that it contains a percentage of hydrated lime makes it hazardous to both and can also cause potentially painful damage to the skin. Particularly if it gets into an open wound or cut. It is best handled using chemical resistant rubber gloves, eye protection and a particle mask. Care should be taken not only during mixing and placing, but also during any finishing operations that produce dust. Sanding, grinding, chipping or filing the material after it has hardened can yield a particularly nasty dust. If any sand is present in the mix, sanding and similar processes will produce silica dust in addition to the cement dust. And silica is far more hazardous than cement dust. Always wear a good quality particle mask or respirator and good fitting goggles when working any hardened cement-based mix. Sand - Any fine, granular inorganic material that results from natural or manufacturing processes that reduce rock or stone into fine particles. (ASTM C125) That portion of an aggregate passing the No. 4 (4.76 mm) sieve and predominantly retained on the No. 200 (74 micron) sieve. As a common element in most cement-based mixtures, sand may well represent the greatest

hazard. While larger particles pose little threat beyond irritating the eyes, when in or accompanied by its own very fine dust, that threat level goes up exponentially. Silicosis (also known as Grinder's disease and Potter's rot) is a form of lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust, and is marked by inflammation and scarring in forms of nodular lesions in the upper lobes of the lungs. As noted above, the use of a good quality particle mask or respirator is necessary anytime a source for this form of dust is present. Concrete Gravel - a pre-mix of torpedo sand and #6 stone. With the addition of cement, these are the principal materials used for producing most site mixed concrete. It is designed for smaller projects where the delivery of ready mixed concrete is not practical and the user can mix their own small batches of concrete. Because this product is a combination that includes sand, it too has the potential to contain silica dust and should be handled accordingly. In theory, both this product and any graded sand has been washed to eliminate the dust, but in practice, much of what is sold has not been so processed. The safest approach is to always assume some such silica dust is present and act accordingly. And likewise, if you sand, grind or otherwise reduce this material, keep in mind you are creating a very fine silica powder in the process and wear a mask and goggles. Admix or Admixture - Any material other than water, aggregates and Portland cement that is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch before or during the mixing operation. Generally incorporated to produce specific results such as freeze/thaw resistance, increased density, accelerated or retarded set, etc. Because there are so many chemical admixtures available today, the only advice we can offer is this Always read and follow the manufacturers directions and safety precautions Acid Etch Stains - The products employed for use on any cementitous-based mixture whereby it may be rendered in color after curing. It is accomplished by means of the application of specially formulated acids containing various metallic salts that chemically react with the free lime in the cement producing a wide range of permanent colors that lightly penetrate into the surface. "Stain" is therefore somewhat of a misnomer. The acid employed in these stains is relatively dilute form of Hydrochloric acid but it must be respected and handled properly. Below is a short list of Dos & Donts: 1. Avoid breathing the vapors and never, ever attempt to smell the material. As peculiar as this may sound, over the years I have actually witnessed several people sniff the bottle as if to see if it had gone bad or something. Be advised that this is not milk. It is Hydrochloric acid and in concentration it has the potential to permanently destroy your sense of smell in a heartbeat. For that matter, sniffing any unknown material is downright foolish. 2. Always use splash-proof eye protection when working with or handling this material. 3. Never leave containers sitting open. The fumes can build up and concentrate and it also dramatically shortens its shelf life. 4. Always work in a well ventilated area to avoid any build up of fumes. 5. Never leave a cup or other such working container sitting out where kids or pets might get into them. To children it often looks like juice or Kool-Aid. And while most animals would instinctively avoid it based on the smell, either group could easily spill the material onto themselves. 6. Always dispose of any leftover material or empty containers responsibly. Combining any left over material or rinsing the containers with a large volume of water will reduce its

pH to a safe level. The addition of Baking Soda to the rinse water will further neutralize any remaining acid. 7. If you ever decide to dilute any acid etch solutions, always pour the acid into the water. Never the water into the acid. Introducing water into any strong acid can result in an explosive reaction. Not an explosion per se, but a rapid boiling and expansion that will spray acid everywhere. Old-time Masons had apprentices recite the following mnemonic device until it became thoroughly embedded in their thinking

Do like you oughteradd acid to water.

You would do well to remember it yourself and apply it to any manner of acid & water mixing. 8. Be careful to control the run off from any rinsing procedure. You can not only destroy the pH of the soil around your prized Tulips, but you will very likely wind up inadvertently staining any concrete downstream. NOTE: I have worked with acid stains for many years and never suffered any ill effects from handling them. No burns, no vision loss and my sense of smell appears to have remained intact. But that is due in large part to taking the time to understand what it was I was dealing with. Feel free to consider that a healthy mantra for any new material you decide to work with. Sealers A group of liquid compounds specifically designed for the purpose of protecting cured concrete or any cement-based medium from surface wear or the intrusion of damaging environmental contaminants. They are also commonly used to create a specific surface treatment and enhance the coloration of the substrate to which it is applied. They are commonly available in two basic formulations: 1. Water-Based Film Forming Sealants 2. Solvent-Based Penetrating Sealants Water-based sealers, as the name implies, employ H O as the vehicle to carry the actual sealer onto the surface. The water is a known element, however, you will have read and possibly research what the sealing component in any given brand might be before assuming any level of safety. With so many products available these days there are bound to be a few surprises. Likewise with any solvent-based sealer. Nearly all manufacturers have their own proprietary blend of chemicals in order to secure patents or otherwise achieve some advantage over their competition, so you will simply have to read the labels carefully and follow their (hopefully) knowledgeable guidance. NOTE: The general research that I have done on sealers indicates that once cured, both systems are considered non-toxic to fish and animals. It appears that if there are any potential hazards, they are present only when the materials are in a liquid state. However, experience would give rise to the suspicion that some degree of hazard would also present itself during the removal of any such material. If sanding or removing common paints and varnishes requires some caution, then my guess is that similar care should also be taken when removing these finishes as well. In Summary: Do some homework. Read a lot of labels. Think about what you are going to do before you jump in and do it. These are universal safety guidelines that apply to these materials as well as most others. Cement-based media offers artistic advantages and opportunities that very few media can match. Learn to work with them properly and you will be rewarded. Be carelessand, like so many other things in life, they can hurt you.

Handy Measurement Equivalents & Material Weights

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Here's a dandy little set of measurement equivalents that are worth printing out & keeping near your work area. Especially handy for smaller batches of mixtures. Even more so if ( like me) you wind up using various kitchen implements to do much of your mixing.

Kitchen Measure Conversion Chart

Cup = Fluid OZ = TBSP = TSP = Milliliter

1 C 8 oz 16 Tbsp 48 tsp 237 ml

3/4 C 6 oz 12 Tbsp 36 tsp 177 ml

2/3 C 5 oz 11 Tbsp 32 tsp 158 ml

1/2 C 4 oz 8 Tbsp 24 tsp 118 ml

1/3 C 3 oz 5 Tbsp 16 tsp 79 ml

1/4 C 2 oz 4 Tbsp 12 tsp 59 ml

1/8 C 1 oz 2 Tbsp 6 tsp 30 ml

1/16 C .5 oz 1 Tbsp 3 tsp 15 ml

Weight of Common Materials Per Cubic Foot

Portland Cement - 94 lbs. Basic Concrete (cured & dry) - 150 lbs. Water - 62.42 lbs. (or 8.33 pounds per US gallon) Sand, Loose Dry - 90 lbs. Sand, Torpedo, Settled Dry - 100 lbs. Sand, Wet - 120 lbs. Sand, Packed Wet - 130 lbs. Gravel, Loose, Dry - 95 lbs. Gravel, Dry 1/4 to 2 inch - 105 lbs. Gravel, Wet 1/4 to 2 inch - 125 lbs. Fly Ash - Approx. 80 to 85 lbs. (depends on grade & fineness) Peat, Dry - Approx. 25 lbs. Perlite, Dry Expanded - 2 to 25 lbs. (depends on grade & fineness) Perlite, Horticultural Grade, (saturated & drained) - 32.5 lbs. Vermiculite, Horticultural, Dry - 4 to 6 lbs.

Cement, Concrete & Hypertufa Glossary

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The Big & Ever Growing Glossary of Cement, Concrete & Hypertufa Terms
Note: This Glossary was researched, developed & written by the operators of TheGardenArtForum expressly for the benefit & use of its registered members who may freely reproduce it for their own personal use. It is not however to be reproduced in any form or used in any manner, by anyone, for any other purpose without the express written consent of the owners of TheGardenArtForum. Copyright 2006 Holland & Tucker All Rights Reserved Attention Members...If you encounter any incorrect information or wish to have additional terms researched & added to this glossary, please feel free to contact us. NOTE: References to "ASTM" indicate formal definitions as specified by the American Society for Testing & Materials.

AAC - Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Exceptionally lightweight precast concrete product with high thermal qualities and fire resistance. Its mixture contains a combination of Portland cement, sand, lime and gypsum to which water is added to produce a slurry. Finely powdered aluminum mixed into a paste is then added prior to placement into large forms. The finely powdered aluminum reacts with the alkaline components of the cement and lime producing hydrogen gas. This gas increases the mixes volume approximately five times and produces a uniformly dispersed cellular structure throughout the mix. Desired shapes are cut and placed into an autoclave, an enclosed pressure chamber, and it is then steam cured at about 3500 F. When fully cured, its final volume consists of approximately 80% air voids and it weighs about one-fifth an equal volume of standard concrete. With a typical weight of about 30 pounds per cubic foot, AAC will readily float in water. Also commonly and incorrectly referred to as Foamed Concrete or Cellular Concrete, neither of which is necessarily autoclaved. NOTE: AAC is an excellent material for use as a base or armature for sculpting cementitious materials. It can be easily cut and shaped using ordinary hand tools such a wood saw, rasps and even woodworking chisels. Abrasion Resistance The ability of a surface to resist being worn down by friction or rubbing process. Absolute Volume The measured volume of any dry ingredient in its absolute solid state and free of voids between any individual particles. For fluids it is the cubic content actually occupied. For concrete, the actual volume occupied by the various ingredients is determined by dividing the weight of each ingredient in pounds, by its specific gravity and multiplying it times the weight of one cubic foot of water in pounds. For Example: The Absolute Volume of one sack of cement can be found as follows: 94 pounds(wt. of 1 sack of cement) 3.15 (specific gravity of cement) X 62.4(wt. in pounds of 1 cf of water) = 0.478 cubic feet Absorbed Moisture Any moisture that is mechanically held within a given material. In aggregates for example, any water it contains that is not available to become part of the mixing water is referred to as "absorbed" water.

Absorption The process by which water is absorbed or taken into another material. The amount of water absorbed by any given material is generally expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of that material. Accelerator A chemical admixture that, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases its rate of hydration, which shortens the time of set and increases the rate at which hardening or strength development takes place. (Also see "Retarder") Acid Etch Color or "Stains" The products employed for use on any cementitious-based mixture whereby it may be rendered in color after curing. It is accomplished by means of the application of specially formulated acids containing various mineral salts that chemically react with the free lime in the cement producing a wide range of permanent colors that lightly penetrate into the surface. "Stain" is therefore somewhat of a misnomer. NOTE: For a detailed comparison of many of the colorant options available, see the separate pages on this site titled "Cement Color Products Reference Guides"...colorant-guides.pdf Adiabatic Curing The maintenance of ambient conditions during the setting and hardening of concrete so that heat is neither lost to nor gained from the environment surrounding the concrete. Admix or Admixture Any material other than water, aggregates and Portland cement that is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch before or during the mixing operation. Generally incorporated to produce specific results such as freeze/thaw resistance, increased density, accelerated or retarded set, etc. The "official" categories are as follows: ASTM C 494, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, classifies admixtures into seven types as follows: Type A Water-reducing admixtures; Type B Retarding admixtures; Type C Accelerating admixtures; Type D Water-reducing and retarding admixture; Type E Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures; Type F Water-reducing, high-range, admixtures; and Type G Water-reducing, high-range, and retarding admixtures. Adsorption Water Water held on the surface of a material either by physical and/or chemical forces. Aggregates Those particulate materials added to cementitous mixtures primarily as inert and nonreactive "fillers" such as sand, gravel & rock. Typically size-graded based on industry standard "screens" or "sieves". (Also See "Microaggregates", "Fines" & "Screens") The following are the standard ASTM & WIDOT definitions of various commonly used aggregates: Mason's Sand - classified as a fine aggregate meeting ASTM C 144 for masonry mortar. It is washed and double screened to be a finer sand and is lighter in color than torpedo sand. USES: mortar mix for masons, bunker sand for golf courses, beach sand, volleyball courts, under vinyl swimming pool liners.
Torpedo Sand - classified as a fine aggregate with the largest particle size less then 3/8". Yellowish, beige in color, it

is washed and screened. Meets ASTM C 33 sand for concrete.

USES: principally used in the production of ready mixed concrete, dairy barn bedding, backfill, pipe bedding, septic mound systems or beach sand. Concrete Gravel - a pre-mix of torpedo sand and #6 stone. With the addition of cement, these are the principal materials used for producing most site mixed concrete. It is designed for smaller projects where the delivery of ready mixed concrete is not practical and the user can mix their own small batches of concrete. USES: farm barn yard patching, small footing projects, fence post anchoring. Pea Gravel - classified as a coarse aggregate meeting ASTM C 33 Size No. 8. It is light in color, a blend of beige, tan, white, gray and small amounts of black and red stones. It is crushed, washed and screened to a size less then 3/8" with no fines. USES: backfill along foundation walls, concrete sub grade (requires no compactive effort), pipe bedding, dog runs, underneath golf course greens and in ready mixed concrete for exposed aggregate concrete or thin coat overlays. #6 Stone - classified as a coarse aggregate meeting ASTM C 33, Size No. 67. It is light in color, a blend of beige, tan, white, gray and small amounts of black and red stones. It is crushed, washed and screened to a size less then 3/4" with no fines. USES: principal stone in ready mixed concrete, drain tile bedding, backfill for foundation walls or slabs and sometimes use in landscaping or in septic system construction. #8 Stone - classified as a coarse aggregate meeting ASTM C 33, Size No. 4. It is identical in color to #6 stone but is crushed, washed and screened to a size less then 1 1/2". USES: septic system drain fields, drain tile cover, landscaping decorative stone and sometimes in ready mixed concrete. Structural fill/Bedding Sand - meets WIDOT Section 209 and 210, granular backfill, Grade 2 and culvert pipe bedding. It is screened, coarse and unwashed and is very compactable. USES: foundation backfill or under slabs, under brick pavers, etc. Boulders - multi-colored, screened from 8" to 18" in size, sometimes called field stone. USES: primarily used in landscaping for retaining walls, rip rap, borders, etc. Limestone Base Rock - 3" crushed and screened limestone with a minimal amount of binder fines. It can be white, gray, yellow or have a reddish tint. USES: sub-base support under roads, driveways, foundations or any area that requires stabilization, also used in erosion control for spillways. Road Gravel - meets WIDOT Grade 1 and Grade 2. It is 3/4" and less crushed, fractured stones mixed with binder fines.

USES: gravel road top coat, gravel shoulders, backfill, slab sub grade, gravel driveways. Crushed Recycled Mix - recycled concrete is an excellent alternative to road gravel, the concrete is crushed to 3/4" size. This product meets WIDOT Grade 2 road gravel. Recycled concrete has less tendency to erosion. USES: wherever road gravel can be used, is very compactable with water which is often added before compaction. Yellow Limestone Traffic Bond or White Limestone Traffic Bond - sometimes referred to as Grade #9, 3/4" minus to 5/8" minus crushed stone mixed with binder fines. Colors range from light tan to yellow. It is less erodible than road gravel. If color is a concern, white is more expensive then yellow. USES: It is best used in residential driveways where paving will not take place.

Air Content The amount of air trapped or entrained in concrete or mortar, exclusive of pore space in aggregate particles. It is generally expressed as a percentage of total volume of the concrete or mortar. Air Entraining Agent An additive for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar used to intentionally entrain air in the form uniformly distributed minute bubbles which remain in the mixture throughout the full set & cure of the finished product. Primarily used for controlling freeze/thaw damage, it also yields a ligher weight product than non-air entrained mixes. (Also see "Concrete, Air Entrained") Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Archaic term for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR-see below). Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) The reaction of aggregates, which contain some form of silica or carbonates with sodium oxides or potassium oxides in cement that cause expansion, cracking or popouts in concrete. Aluminous Cement A hydraulic cement whose principal constituents, unlike those of Portland cement are calcium aluminates, instead of calcium silicates. (Also see "Calcium Aluminate Cement") Armature A term used in "additive" sculpting to descrbe the framework or "skeleton" used to support and build up a shape upon. Whether used with clay, plaster, cement or any other material, the armature must be constructed of a material compatible with the material to be applied and sturdy enough to support its weight. Aspdin, Joseph ( 1778 - 1855) The English stonemason who invented and patented the processes for manufacturing Portland Cement on October 21, 1824 ( British Patent BP 5022 entitled An Improvement in the Mode of Producing an Artificial Stone). He named his new product after the natural, light gray stone quarried near the English city of the same name. Portland Cement was the first true hydraulic cement to be mass produced to consistent standards since the formulation for Roman Cement was lost with the fall of the empire. It remains today, the most widely used building material on Earth. Autoclave A chamber in which steam and high pressure are produced. Used in the curing of concrete products and in the testing of hydraulic cement. Bag (of cement - See "Sack") Barrel (of cement) A unit of weight for cement: 376 Ibs. net and the equivalent to 4 US bags of Portland cement. Bendable Conrete (See "Concrete, Bendable", aka "ECC" for "Engineered Cementitious Composite")

Blaine Fineness The measure of fineness of granular materials such as cement and pozzolans, expressed as a total surface area in square centimeters per gram. Blast Furnace Slag Non-metallic waste by-product produced during the manufacture of pig iron that consists primarily of lime, silica and alumina. It is used in the manufacture of Portland blast furnace slag cement as well as an aggregate in lightweight concrete. Bleeding A type of segregation in which some of the water in a mixture rises to the surface of freshly placed concrete. Sometimes referred to as water gain. Bond The adhesion between concrete or mortar and reinforcements or other surfaces. Also the adhesion between cement paste and aggregates. Bonding Agents Any of the family of adhesives employed to secure concrete or mortar to reinforcements or other surfaces. Commonly used to adhere new concrete to old or existing concrete when resurfacing or repairing. Can be used as a surface treatment, admix or both. Bush-hammer A percussive hammer with rows of pyramid-shaped points used to roughen, profile or texture a concrete surface. Calcareous Containing calcium carbonate or (less commonly) the element calcium. Calcine To alter a composition or its physical state by heating it to a specific temperature for a specific length of time. Calcium Aluminate Cement These may also be termed 'Ciment Fondu' and used to be called 'high alumina cements.' They are made from lime or limestone mixed with bauxite (aluminium ore) or other high-alumina material. Commonly used in refractory concrete for high-temperature applications. (Also see "Ciment Fondu") Capillarity The action in which a liquid will migrate vertically through a material. Capillary Space Any space within cement pastes that are not occupied by anhydrous cement or cement gel. Air bubbles, whether entrained or entrapped, are not considered as being part of the cement paste. Carbonation A. The Reaction between the products of Portland cement (soluble calcium hydroxides), water and carbon dioxide that produces insoluble calcium carbonate (also known as efflorescence). B. The soft ,white, chalky surface that appears on freshly placed, unhardened concrete. It is often caused by carbon dioxide from unvented heaters or gasoline powered equipment used in enclosed spaces. C. The dense, impermeable top layer of the surface of concrete resulting from a surface reaction to carbon dioxide. D. The slight shrinkage that occurs in concrete in reaction to carbon dioxide. This reaction improves long-term chemical stability and many concrete products are deliberately exposed to carbon dioxide (after reaching 80% strength) to induce this shrinkage which makes the product more dimensionally stable. This process reduces future drying shrinkage by as much as 30%. Cellular Concrete A lightweight product consisting of Portland cement, cement-pozzolan, cement sand, lime-pozzolan, or lime-sand pastes, or pastes that contain blends of these ingredients and which also have an homogenous cell structure produced by gas forming chemicals or foaming agents. Many cellular concretes produced in this fashion also employ autoclave curing. Cement A building material manufactured by grinding calcined limestone and clay to a fine powder, which can be mixed with water and poured to set as a solid mass or used as an ingredient in making mortar or

concrete. Cement, High Early Strength - (Type HE) High Early Strength Cement. Develops its' strength more rapidly (not to be confused with rapid setting time). Well suited to the pre-cast concrete industry & any other structures where early strength for removing formwork is necessary. Otherwise referred to as "Type III". (Also see "Cement Types" chart below) Cement Content The quantity of cement contained in a given volume of concrete or mortar. This measure is generally expressed in terms of pounds, barrels, or bags per cubic yard of concrete or mortar. Cement Paste The colloidal (glue like) material which constitutes the majority of the porous mass of which hydrated cement paste is composed. The plastic combination of cement & water that supplies the cementing action in concrete. Cement, Portland (ASTM C150) A powdery substance produced by burning a mixture of clay and limestone at high temperatures. This results in lumps called clinkers which are then ground into a fine powder that consists of hydraulic calcium silicates. (For non-Portland cements, see "Aluminous Cement") Cement, Rapid Setting Not to be confused with High Early Strength Cement (See Above), this product simply achieves very rapid set times. Strength gain is somewhat faster than conventional Portland Cement, but not as fast as High Early Strength. Also not to be confused with the Brand Names "Rapid Set" or " Quikrete", two companies that produce a wide range of special purpose cement & concrete products.

Cement Types, Portland As officially defined by the US Department of Transportation: Portland Cement Types & Their Uses
Cement Type I II III IV V IA IIA IIIA Use General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating conditions Aids in providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack When high-early strength is required (Also known as Type HE) When a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive structures) When high sulfate resistance is required A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

Courtesy United States Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration

Cementitious Possessing cement-like, cementing, or bonding properties. Any material or substance that produces similar bonding or cement-like properties .

Chair(s) Small devices used in concrete formwork to support the internal reinforcing steel while the concrete is in a plastic or fluid state. Change of State The alteration of physical properties as well as the processes themselves that materials go through when changing from gases to liquids, to solids or the reverse and inclusive of various "semi" states inbetween. Example: Water. When steam cools it condenses and moves from a gaseous state into a liquid state. Reduce the temperature further and it goes from the liquid state to a solid state...ice. Concrete & mortar go through a change of state that is generally considered as transitioning from a plastic (semi-liquid state) to a solid as a result of the chemical processes involved. Ciment Fondu The registered tradename for the world's first commercially manufactured calcium aluminate cement, patented by J. Bied Lafarge in 1908. Dark brown or dark gray in color, this high alumina (40%) binder is resistant to both sulphate attack & high temperatures making it the product of choice for refractory and chemical environment applications. It is a very rapid setting product that reportedly achieves full strength within 24 hours. It is also widely used by artists & sculptors for a wide range of applications including casting, sculpting & mold-making. Coarse Aggregate Any naturally occurring, processed or manufactured, inorganic particles which meet standardized gradation or size range requirements, the smallest size of which shall be retained by a No. 4 (4.76 mm) sieve. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion The change in unit length per degree of change in temperature. Cold Joint The visible delineation that occurs when concrete placement is delayed and the concrete already in place hardens prior to the fresh placement of concrete against it. Colloidal A gel-like mass which does not allow the transfer of ions Color Hardener A blend of cementitious materials, special mineral aggregates (often including emery & quartz) and integral oxide or synthetic colorants that is used as a surface finish to resist wear in hightraffic areas, enhance traction and/or for decorative purposes. Typically applied to freshly placed concrete by means of the "dry-shake" method up to 1/8th inch thick. Often combined with a dry or liquid release when used for stamping textures or patterns into concrete. NOTE: For a detailed comparison of many of the colorant options available, see the separate pages on this site titled " Cement Color Products Reference Guides"...colorant-guides.pdf Color Release A special purpose natural oxide or synthetic colorant designed to also act as a mold release when stamping patterns into freshly placed concrete. Available as a spray on liquid or dry shake powder in a wide range of colors including semi-transparent "antiquing" products that enhance the relief & texture of the pattern. NOTE: For a detailed comparison of many of the colorant options available, see the separate pages on this site titled "Cement Color Products Reference Guides"...colorant-guides.pdf Compressive Strength A concrete or mortar specimen's measured resistance to axial loading expressed as pounds per square inch {psi) of cross-sectional area. The maximum compressive stress which the material is capable of sustaining. Concrete A mixture of cement (usually Portland), various aggregate fillers (sand, gravel, rock) and water which chemically hardens into an insoluble monolithic composite. The most common formulation is often referred to as a "standard 1-2-3 mix" and consists of One part Cement + Two parts Sand + Three parts Gravel (or Stone). Concrete, Air Entrained Air-entrained concrete is produced through the use of specially formulated airentraining Portland cement, or by the introduction of air-entraining agents. The amount of entrained air is usually between 4 percent & 7 percent of the volume of the concrete, but may be varied as required by special conditions. It contains billions of uniformly distributed microscopic air cells per cubic foot. These

air pockets act to relieve internal pressure on the concrete by providing chambers for water to expand into when it freezes. Typically runs 10 to 15% lighter than conventional concrete. ( Also see "Air Entraining Agent") Concrete, Bendable Properly known as "Engineered Cementitious Composite" or "ECC". Arguably the most important single advance in the field since Roman Concrete. A relatively simple formulation of common cementitious compounds, admixtures & additives that yields an end product that works, handles, sets, cures & looks like conventional concrete, yet is extraordinarily ductile and has the capacity to flex or deflect an extreme amount without failing. ECC is said to be 500 times more resistant to cracking and also 40% lighter than conventional concrete. Developed by Professor Victor C. Li of the University of Michigan, it is a mixture of ordinary Portland cement, water, fine sand, silica powder, fly ash, PVA fibers & superplasticizer ( exact proportions unspecified at this time, except that the fibers constitute 2% or less). According to it's developers, it's unique properties are attributed to the fact that..."under excessive strain, the ECC concrete bends because the distinctively coated matrix of fibers in the cement is allowed to slide within the cement."

Concrete, Complex Similar to Basic Concrete but with the addition of various chemical modifiers, admixtures, additives and/or special purpose aggregates. Concrete, Densified Any concrete that has been specifically formulated to achieve a density greater than that of Basic Concrete. Generally accomplished with the addition of micro-aggregates such as fly ash and/or polymer admixtures. Such mixtures result in a product that has reduced porosity and is consequently less susceptible to penetration by fluids. Concrete, Engineered Any concrete formulated expressly to meet a specific set of pre-determined technical standards or performance requirements. Concrete, Lightweight Any concrete that incorporates any of a variety of weight reducing aggregates (such as perlite or vermiculite), or has been mixed or processed with components that generate controlled entrained air bubbles, specifically for the purpose of creating an end product whose weight is less than that of conventional concrete (approximately 150 pounds per cubic foot). Concrete Mix Ratios The numerical values of basic concrete mix components as expressed in relative parts. These relative values should always be expressed or stated in the following order; Cement first, then Sand, then Gravel (or Stone). Example: A "standard 1-2-3" mix consists of One part Cement + Two parts Sand + Three parts Gravel (or Stone). Concrete, Refractory Any concrete formulated specifically to achieve thermally resistant or insulating properties and suitable for use at high temperatures. Calcium-Aluminate cement and refractory aggregates are normally used for the manufacture of this product. Concrete Sealers A group of liquid compounds specifically designed for the purpose of protecting cured concrete or any cement-based medium from surface wear or the intrusion of damaging environmental contaminants. They are also commonly used to create a specific surface treatment and enhance the coloration of the substrate to which it is applied. They are commonly available in two basic formulations: 1. Water-Based Film Forming Sealants 2. Solvent-Based Penetrating Sealants

The proper formulation choice depends on a range of appearance & performance factors that must be determined by the applicator. (For a more thorough treatise on these materials see the following information in the TGAF Technical Library: Concrete Sealer 101 for Artists & Crafters Condensation The moisture formed when a moisture-laden gas comes in contact with a cooler surface causing a change of state from gaseous to liquid. Consistency The degree of plasticity demonstrated by fresh concrete or mortar. The standard measures of consistency are "slump" for concrete, and "flow" for mortar. (Also see "Slump") Consolidation The compaction accomplished (usually) by vibration, of newly placed concrete. Generally done to eliminate excess trapped air and/or insure the mix fully conforms to the mold or form. Also aids in forming bonds with any embedded parts or reinforcement. Cure The method by which sufficient internal humidity and proper temperature are maintained to insure that the hydration process of the cement within the freshly placed concrete or mortar is uninterrupted allowing full and proper hardening to take place. Cure, 28 Day or 28 Day Strength The arbitrary period chosen as the standardized engineering reference point at which hydration is considered adequate for a given concrete mix to have achieved 100% of its design strength. Concrete gains strength very rapidly at first, then the process slows proportionally over time. Typical strength gain is about 45% in 3 days, 75% in 7 days and 100% of design strength in 28 days. Note that this standard refers only to "design" strength. Concrete will actually continue to gain strength and further harden for an indeterminate period spanning decades or possibly even centuries making the measurement of its ultimate strength impractical. This standard point of reference measures what is believed to be approximately 90% of concretes final, ultimate strength. Curing The processes involved in or the period of time during which hydration is taking place. Densified Concrete (See "Concrete, Densified") Dispersing Agent An admixture that increases the fluidity of pastes, mortars, or concretes by reducing interparticle attraction. Drying Shrinkage The decrease in volume that occurs while concrete is drying. Durability The general measure of a particular concrete formulations ability to resist weathering , chemicals and abrasion. ECC - Engineered Cementitious Composite aka "Bendable Concrete" (Also See "Concrete, Bendable") Efflorescence Deposits of crystaline salts that leach from the concrete as soluble calcium hydroxides and combine with the atmospheric carbon dioxide to form insoluble calcium carbonates. Usually white in color and appearing on the surfaces of masonry, stucco or concrete. Entrained Air Microscopic air bubbles that are intentionally incorporated into concrete or mortar to achieve specific results. Originally developed to improve freeze/thaw resistance in cold climates, it is often employed today to reduce weight or improve workability. (Also see "Air Entrainment") Entrapped Air Air which is not intentionally en-trained in concrete & mortar. Larger and more irregularly distributed than entrained air bubbles, they can seriously weaken a structure and cause unsightly surface irregularities. False Set The rapid development of apparent rigidity in mixed Portland cement paste, mortar, or concrete that is not accompanied by the development of any significant heat. This false rigidity can be disregarded

and plasticity restored by means of additional mixing without addition of water. Faux Bois, Ferrocement (Faux Bois; From French for "False Wood", Pronounced Foe-'Bwah; and Ferrocement; any cement-based material such as concrete, that is internally reinforced with steel) The school of arts & crafts dedicated to imitating either wood or wood grains in various mediums. While wood finishers routinely forge the grain, colors and appearance of finer woods like Mahogany, Rosewood and Oak onto lesser woods such as pine, Ferrocement Faux Bois utilizes concrete, mortar and neat Portland cement paste to sculpt three dimensional representations of trees, wood and wooden objects onto steel frames or armatures. It was very popular and widespread from the mid-1800's up to about the 1940's but has become an almost lost art with the passing of the masters of the craft who never recorded or otherwise divulged their trade secrets. The vast majority of the now antique works that remain are garden art objects such as planters, birdbaths and outdoor furniture. Today they are highly sought after by avid collectors and command serious prices. The Spanish term for the style that was developed in Mexico during that time is "El Trabajo Rustico" ( The Rustic Work). Without question, the very finest work ever executed was in this style by an artisan named Dionisio Rodrigues (NOTE: Mr. Rodrigues applied two different spellings of his name to his work over the years; one ending with an "s", which is the old, traditional Spanish version and the other ending with the Anglicized and more common "z".) Having moved from Mexico to San Antonio, Texas in the early 1920's, he produced many remarkable and very large scaled installations all around the United States. Today, this virtually unknown artist is finally gaining the recognition he deserves with many of his works now officially listed on The National Register of Historic Places. Further, he currently ranks a close second on that prestigious list to the esteemed Frank Lloyd Wright as having created the greatest number of sites attributable to one person, with numerous other works still up for review. Below are a couple of examples of highly detailed works sculpted in Ferrocement Faux Bois.

Torii Gate by Dionisio Rodrigues at Brackenridge Park, San Antonio, Texas.

Sculpted bench & table details by D.R. Tucker, Houston, Texas.

Ferrocement Any cement-based material (generally referring to concrete) that is internally reinforced with some form of ferrous metal (iron, steel). Such internal structure may or may not be load bearing, but the metal employed must exhibit expansive & contractive properties consistent with the concrete surrounding it. Patented in 1868 by French gardener Joseph Monier.

Fibers The general term used to describe a family of additives designed to mechanically strengthen cementitious materials during their early set stages and help prevent early onset cracking. Widely used in casting & shotcrete where high water/cement ratios can lead to this type of problem. Available in a range of cut lengths and a variety of materials including different polymers, glasses & metals. NOTE: Any fibers used in a cementitious mixture must be alkali resistant or they will degrade rapidly. NEWS: Recent discoveries have been made regarding benefits that indicate the potential for increasing post-cure strength as well when employed as part of a ductile enhancing formulation. (Also see "Bendable Concrete") Fines or Fine Aggregate Aggregate passing the 3/8-in. sieve and almost entirely passing the No.4(4.76 mm) sieve and predominantly retained on the No. 200 (74 micron) sieve(ASTM125). (Also see "Aggregates") Fineness Modulus A standardized index of fineness or coarseness of an aggregate sample. An empirical factor determined by adding total percentages of an aggregate sample retained on each of a specified series of sieves, and dividing the sum by 100. Note: US Standard sieve sizes are used: No. 100, No.50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, and No. 4, and 3/8 in., 3/4 in., I in., 2 in., 3 in., and 6 in. Flash Set The very rapid development of rigidity in a mixed Portland cement paste, mortar or concrete generally accompanied by the development of considerable heat. This rigidity cannot be dispelled nor can the plasticity be restored. Flexural Strength A solids ability to withstand bending. Fly Ash The finely divided residue that results from the combustion of ground or powdered coal which is used as a micro-aggregate and additive in concrete. When combined with cement, it becomes a reactive pozzalan that is used to strengthen and densify concrete. Some modern formulations now replace as much as 60% of the Portland in the mix with fly ash. Freeze/Thaw Resistance The ability of a specific cementitious formulation to withstand the effects of repeated freezing & thawing which can destroy most "basic concrete" due to the expansion and contraction forces of moisture within the cured mass. Air entrainment and/or densification are typically employed to counter these effects and provide their benefit throughout the cured structure. Sealers can also be beneficial, but are limited to simply reducing the migration of any additional moisture into the mass from its outer surfaces. Fumed Silica Fumed Silica (Not to be confused with "Silica Fume") is a precipitated form of silicon dioxide that is produced chemically, while Silica Fume is a by-product of steel production. While Fumed Silica is a pozzolanic microaggregate and exhibits benefits similar to Silica Fume, there is less documented study regarding the specific mechanisms and proportion levels. (Also See "Silica Fume") GFRC - Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Concrete reinforced with a high zirconia (16% minimum), alkali-resistant glass fiber. Gravel, Concrete A pre-mixed combination of torpedo sand and #6 stone. With the addition of cement, these are the principal ingredients used for producing ready mixed concrete. This aggregate product is designed primarily for use on smaller projects where the delivery of ready mixed concrete is not practical and allows the user to mix their own small batches of concrete on site. ( Also see "Stone, #6 ") Gravel, Pea Classified as a coarse aggregate meeting ASTM C 33 Size No. 8. It is light in color, a blend of beige, tan, white, gray and small amounts of black and red stones. It is crushed, washed and screened to a size less then 3/8" with no fines. Grout A mixture of cement, sand, and water or (2) cement and water: the hardened equivalent of such mixtures.

Gunite A term often used to designate dry-mix shotcrete. (Also see "Shotcrete") Heat of Hydration The quantity of heat expressed in calories per gram, evolved upon complete hydration of Portland cement at a given temperature. Hickey or Rebar Hickey A sturdy steel hand tool for bending rebar. It consists of a handle 30 to 36 inches in length welded to a triangular head bearing three stout posts for leveraging the rebar into various shapes. The single post on the reverse of the head can be fitted into a hole in a worktop allowing it to rotate around that point for additional leverage & control.

Hydration Formation of a compound by the union of water with some other substance. In concrete it is the chemical reaction that occurs when the water and the cement are combined which causes the resulting paste to harden. Hydration, Set Stages Below are the commonly used "general rules" observed by most masons for conventional concrete. NOTE: These are only approximations and apply only to unmodified mixtures. Approximate times for the various stages of hydration of modern cement: 1) Initial Set (after about 45 min): Slightly rigid and ready to be troweled. 2) Final Set (after about 10 hrs): Hard and ready for forms to be removed. 3) Full Hydration (after about 7 days): The concrete is said to be "cured", after which there is no further need to maintain the presence of water in the concrete. 4) Full Strength (after 28 days): Hydration is considered complete enough (about 95%) that the concrete can now accept the full design loading. ( Also see "Cure, 28 Day) NOTE: The hydration process that solidifies & hardens cement paste continues for an indeterminate period that may span 100+ years. Some authorities believe that it may well continue virtually forever at a continually slowing rate. Hydraulic Cement A cement that is capable of setting and hardening under water due to interaction of water and the constituents of the cement (ASTM 219). Hypertufa A cement-based formulation designed to reproduce the porous look of the naturally occurring lightweight rock known as Tufa and the resulting products manufactured from this formulation. Mix ratios vary wildly, but the most common "basic recipe" consists of 1 part Portland cement + 1.5 parts Peat + 1.5 parts Perlite. The term literally translates as "Fast" or "Beyond" (hyper)...and... "Tufa" (the name for an unusual porous geological formation). (Also see "Tufa", "Peat" & "Peat Moss") Integral Color Any such color medium introduced into a cementitious formulation during the mixing stage which permeates the entire mix throughout. Available in both dry powder and liquid forms, these colorants can also be either natural or synthetic. Most are based on naturally occurring mineral oxides and are utterly permanent and will not fade or diminish due to environmental exposure NOTE: For a detailed comparison of many of the colorant options available, see the separate pages on this site titled " Cement

Color Products Reference Guides"...colorant-guides.pdf Laitance The weak and non-durable layer of residue consisting of cement, aggregates or impurities that are brought to the surface of over wet concrete by the bleed water. Liquefaction The change of state to a liquid. Masonry Cement Hydraulic cement manufactured specifically for use in mortars for masonry construction. Typically it is a blend of two or more of the following materials: Portland cement, natural cement, Portland-pozzolan cement, hydraulic lime, slag cement, hydrated lime, pulverized limestone, talc, chalk, pozzolan, clay or gypsum. Some may also may include air en-training agent or various admixtures. Membrane Curing Compounds A family of chemical compounds expressly designed for the purpose of retaining adequate moisture within concrete, grout & mortar to insure full and complete hydration. These compounds are typically sprayed or rolled on and immediately form a thin, vapor resistant membrane that prevents moisture loss through evaporation. Nearly all of these materials cause discoloration or staining and will prevent the bond of any repairs or permanent coatings that may be needed. They also require very thorough removal before any post-cure finishing processes, such as painting or acid-etch staining may be accomplished. Microaggregates A relatively new term used to identify a category of aggregate material that is significantly smaller than any conventional aggregate such as very fine sand. These materials have been found to "densify" and add strength to cementitious mixtures by mechanically filling in the voids that would otherwise be present between typical aggregate materials. Finer grades of Fly Ash for example impart this mechanical strength gain separately from and in addition to its benefits as a reactive pozzolan. Mix Ratios (See "Concrete Mix Ratios") Mixer A piece of equipment used to mix or blend materials used in the production of concrete, grout or mortar. Mixing Time For stationary mixers, the mixing time is calculated in minutes from the completion of charging the mixer with water (tempering the mix) until the beginning of discharge. Monier, Joseph The French gardener and potter who received the first patent for "Ferrocement" (Concrete,mortar or any cement-based media that is internally reinforced with some form of ferrous metal - generally steel). Monier routinely cast his own decorative pots and was discouraged by how easily the thin shells were broken. After a few experiments, he discovered that steel reinforcement complemented the materials naturally high compressive strength by adding its own resistance to flexural forces. Monier
exhibited his invention at the Paris Exposition of 1867. He obtained his first patent on July 16, 1867.

Mortar A mixture of cement, sand and water typically used in masonry construction. The mixture may contain masonry cement, or standard Portland cement with lime or other ad-mixtures added to produce greater degrees of plasticity and/or durability. Neat Cement Unhydrated hydraulic cement. Neat Cement Paste A mixture combining only water and hydraulic cement. No-Fines Concrete A concrete mixture in which only the coarse gradation (3/8' to 3/4' normally) of aggregate issued. Paste A mixture consisting of only cement & water that is free of any traditional aggregates or referring to

that portion of a mix in which they are present. (Also see "Neat Cement Paste") Peat A soft brown mass consisting of compressed, partially decomposed mossy vegetation that forms in a water-saturated environment such as bogs & turfs and which has a carbon content of 50%. Dried peat can be burned as fuel and is commonly used as a soil amendment & mulch. Peat Moss Any of various pale or ashy mosses of the genus Sphagnum which often grows abundantly in damp boggy or peaty places whose decomposed remains form peat. One of the principal ingredients in a cementitious product known as Hypertufa which is meant to replicate a porous natural rock type called Tufa (Also See "Peat", "Tufa" & "Hypertufa") Peeling A process in which thin flakes of matrix or mortar are broken away from the concrete surface; caused by adherence of surface mortar-to forms as forms are removed or to trowel or float in Portland cement plaster. Perlite A fine white aggregate formed by heating and expanding siliceous volcanic glass. Commonly used as a soil amendment and to produce lightweight insulating concrete. (Also See "Hypertufa") Plastic The condition of freshly mixed concrete, mortar or cement-paste that indicates it is workable, readily re-moldable, cohesive and has an ample content of fines & cement but is not over wet. Plastic Consistency The state during which concrete, mortar or cement paste can sustain deformation continuously in any direction without rupture. Plastic Cracking Cracking that occurs in freshly placed concrete, mortar or paste that occurs while the material is still plastic. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks The early onset cracks that occur as a result of rapid & excessive dehydration. These form in the surface and generally run parallel to one another. Typically resulting from the lack of compensation for high ambient temperatures and/or air movement over the surface. Plasticity Property of freshly mixed concrete, cement paste or mortar which determines its ease of molding or resistance to deformation. Plasticizer An admixture formulated to increase the fluidity or flow rate of a concrete mixture, mortar or cement paste without additional water. (Also see "Superplasticizer") Popout Surface pits or craters resulting from the expansive forces associated with foreign materials, contaminants or other unsound aggregates such as wood or glass. Porosity The ratio of the volume of voids in the material to the total volume of the material, including the voids, usually expressed as a percentage. Portland Cement The man-made hydraulic cementitious product patented in 1824 by English stonemason Josepf Aspdin. So named for it's resemblance to the gray natural stone quarried near the city of the same name. It is the result of specific manufacturing processes that involve heating a limestone and clay mixture in a kiln and pulverizing and processing the resulting material. Portland Cement, White White Portland cement is made from raw materials containing little or no iron or manganese, the substances that give conventional cement its gray color. Post-Tensioning A method of reinforcing concrete in which internally placed tendons are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Pozzolan (ASTM C 618) A siliceous, or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little

or no cementitious value but will, in a finely divided form, such as a powder or liquid and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form permanent, insoluble compounds possessing cementitious properties. Precast Any concrete unit, structure or element that is cast and cured in an area other than its final position or place. Proportioning The act or process of selecting a particular set of relative proportions of the constituent materials required in order to produce concrete that will meet specific, predetermined design criteria. Such criteria may include strength, durability, freeze/thaw resistance, economy, workability, flow rate, etc., or any combination of considerations. Prestressed Concrete Any concrete into which stresses have been introduced which oppose those that the structural member may be expected to carry during its use. Pretensioning The technique in which embedded steel is stressed or tensioned prior to the concrete hardening and is restrained from gaining its unstressed state by virtue of its bond with the concrete when it hardens. Reactive Aggregate (See "Alkali-Aggregate Reaction") Rebar The common name for the mild steel reinforcing bar specifically designed for use in concrete. Its metallurgy is engineered to match the thermal expansion & contraction rates of concrete and intended to help overcome concretes inability to carry tensile loading. It is manufactured in a wide range of diameters and is usually formed with ridges or "cleats" along its surface to aid in adhesion with the cementitious material. Sizing of rebar is commonly called out based on the number of eighths of an inch that make up the diameter. Examples: #3 = 3 eighths(3/8"), #4 = 4 eighths(1/2"), #5 = 5 eighths(5/8"), etc., etc. Refractory Concrete (See "Concrete, Refractory") Reinforced Concrete Concrete into which some form of mechanical reinforcement has been embedded in such a way that the two materials act together to resist external forces. (Also see "Ferroconcrete" & "GFRC" ) Retardation The process of delaying the set, hardening or strength gain of concrete, mortar or grout. Retarder A chemical admixture engineered to extend the setting time of cement paste and therefore any such mixtures as concrete, mortar, or grout. Retempering The process of adding additional water to and remixing any concrete that has already begun to stiffen. Not generally recommended as it usually results in severely weakening the finished product. Rock Pockets Areas in which there is an excess of aggregate and a shortage of concrete paste to bind them together. Generally the result of inadequate mixing, separation during placement, leakage from the mold or form or any combination of the above. Sack A standard measured quantity for Portland or air entraining Portland cement equaling 94 Ibs. in the United States and 87.5 Ibs. in Canada. (may be otherwise indicated on the sack for other kinds of cement.) Sacking A term that is often used to describe two entirely different processes in masonry. 1. More properly, a technique for removing or repairing surface defects on concrete by applying a mixture of sand and cement to the moistened surface and then rubbing with a coarse material such as burlap. 2. Also, the practice of applying wet fabric (such as burlap bags) to the surface of newly placed cement or mortar to help provide a continuous supply of moisture to complete hydration. The fabric is generally then

covered with a non-porous material such as plastic to help prevent loss to evaporation. Sand Any fine, granular inorganic material that results from natural or manufacturing processes that reduce rock or stone into fine particles. (ASTM C125) That portion of an aggregate passing the No. 4 (4.76 mm) sieve and predominantly retained on the No. 200 (74 micron) sieve. Sand, Mason's Classified as a fine aggregate meeting ASTM C 144 for masonry mortar. It is washed and double screened to be a finer sand and is generally lighter in color than torpedo sand. Sand, Torpedo Classified as a fine aggregate with the largest particle size less then 3/8". Yellowish, beige in color, it is washed and screened. Meets ASTM C 33 sand for use in concrete. Sandcasting The means by which an original piece of work is reproduced from an impression or mold made of compacted, damp sand. Very likely the oldest form of mass production, it remains today a viable & versatile technique that is used to produce a wide variety of products ranging from industrial steel components to bronze, plaster & cementitious art objects. Scaling The flaking, peeling or breaking away of the surface of hardened concrete. Screed A. The grade strips or forms which are used as guides for employing a straight edge to bring the surface of concrete to a required level or elevation. (Noun; A Screed) B. The act of striking off concrete by this method. (Verb; To Screed) Screen or Sieve A metallic sheet or plate, woven wire cloth, or some such similar device posessing uniformly sized openings used to separate materials according to predetermined size requirements. Sealer, Concrete (See "Concrete Sealers") Segregation The tendency of materials to separate from one another based on particle size in handling. Set The term used to describe the natural, progressive and observable stiffening of cement paste that results from the process of hydration and which takes place in definable stages. Initial Set refers to the first phase of stiffening and loss of plasticity. Final Set is used to describe the attainment of a significant degree of rigidity. ASTM C 403 identifies initial & final time of set as meeting standardized penetration resistance tests as follows: Initial Time of Set: 500 psi Final Time of Set: 4000 psi (Also see "Hydration; Set Stages")

Setting Time The time required for a cement paste, mortar or concrete specimen to attain a specified degree of rigidity when prepared and tested under standardized conditions. Shotcrete (Also known as Gunite) Shotcrete is mortar or concrete mix designed to be conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete was invented in the early 1900s by Carl Akeley, a famous American taxidermist, who used it to fill his plaster models of animals. Sieve (See "Screen")

Silica Fume Also known as microsilica, is a byproduct of the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in electric furnaces in the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. While the exact nature of its benefits in concrete are the subject of current study, it is known to impart both chemical ( pozzolanic) and mechanical (microaggregate) advantages and is a common element of new generation, high performance concrete & mortar formulations. NOTE: It is generally agreed that Silica Fume's strength & permeability benefits are only applicable in very low water/cement ratios requiring the use of a superplasticizer. The known benefits include: Reduced concrete permeability Increased concrete strength Improved resistance to corrosion (Also See "Fumed Silica ") Slip Form A prefabricated form designed in such a way that it can be moved, repositioned and reused continuously as concrete is placed. Slump A standardized measure of the consistency or plasticity of fresh concrete. The "degree of Slump" is determined by measuring the amount that a sample settles within a specific time. A metal cone is filled with sample concrete, placed on a flat, level surface and then removed by lifting vertically. The difference in height between the specimen and the sample cone measured in inches is the resulting "slump". Slump Cone The metal form used when conducting standardized tests of concrete consistency. It is in the shape of a truncated cone with a top diameter of 4, a bottom diameter of 8, and a height of 12. Slurry A mixture of water and finely divided materials such as Portland cement, slag, or soil in suspension. Spall A fragment that is detached from a larger mass of concrete or mortar by pressure, impact, the action of weather or expansion from within the mass. The expansion of rusting internal steel reinforcement is a common cause of spalling. Specific Gravity The ratio of the weight of a material at a stated temperature to the weight of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Stone, #6 Classified as a coarse aggregate meeting ASTM C 33, Size No. 67. It is light in color, a blend of beige, tan, white, gray and small amounts of black and red stones. It is crushed, washed & screened to a size of less then 3/4" with no fines. Strength, 28 Day (See "Cure, 28 Day") Stucco A durable mixture of cement, sand, lime and water applied over metal lath or chicken wire or wooden lath used to form the finish covering of walls and ceilings. Stucco Lath, Metal A galvanized expanded metal mesh product with diamond-shaped openings designed specifically for the purpose of adhering cementitious & plaster-based materials to various surfaces. It can be readily nailed or stapled onto wooden surfaces such as walls & ceilings or wired in place on metal frameworks or armatures.

Stucco Lath, Wooden The traditional narrow boards used to act as a bonding mechanism for cementitious materials & plasters on walls & ceilings. Spaced and applied in such a way that they stand off off the working surface allowing the finishing material to be pressed through forming a secure mechanical bond. Generally used today in conjunction with chicken wire or metal stucco lath. Superplasticizer Any such admixture specifically designed to achieve a high degree of alteration in the working properties of freshly mixed cementitious formulations relative to their water content and which can be employed in either of the following ways: A. To produce a high degree of increased slump or flowability ( fluidity) without any increase in the water/cement ratio...or... B. To allow a mixture to achieve a desired degree of slump or flowability (fluidity) at a reduced water/cement ratio. Surface Moisture Any moisture that is retained on the surfaces of aggregate particles which becomes part of the mixing water in a concrete or mortar mix. Temper The addition of water and mixing of a cement or mortar mix to initially achieve the specified water to cement ratio (Also see "Re-tempering") Temperature Rise The total increase in concrete temperature caused by heat of hydration and any heat from other sources. Transit-Mixed Concrete Concrete that is produced from a central-batching plant where the materials are proportioned and placed into truck mixers for mixing either en route to or at the job site. Tufa The name for an unusual and naturally occurring geological formation that is the basis for the production of a man-made cementitious mixture known as "Hypertufa" meant to mimic it's lightweight and porous properties. NOTE: The rock type "tufa" is commonly confused in name by laypersons with the rock type "tuff", which is a rock formed from welded volcanic ash. These rocks are nothing like each other. Tufa is a rough, thick, rock-like calcium carbonate deposit that forms by precipitation from bodies of water with a high dissolved calcium content. (Also see "Hypertufa") Ultimate Strength The maximum resistance to loads that a structure or member is capable of developing before failure will occur, or with reference to cross sections of members, the largest axial force, shear or moment a structural concrete cross section will support. Unit Water Content The quantity of water per unit volume of freshly mixed concrete. Typically expressed in gallons or pounds per cubic yard. This is the quantity of water upon which the water cement ratio is

based and does not include any water absorbed by aggregates. Vapor The gaseous state of a substance which under ordinary conditions exists as a liquid or solid. Vapor Pressure The pressure exerted by a vapor. It is calculated based upon relative humidity and temperature, and the higher the humidity and temperature, the greater the vapor pressure exerted. Vaporproof Any surface or material that totally resists the passage of materials in a gaseous state under pressure. Any material that is vaporproof will inherently be waterproof. Vermiculite An altered mica that expands greatly at high temperature forming a water-absorbent substance. Commonly used as a base for growing seed plants, an insulating material & as a lightweight aggregate in cementitous mixtures. (Also see "Hypertufa") Vibration The energetic agitation of concrete to aid in its consolidation. Generally produced by mechanical oscillating devices operating at moderately high frequencies. A. External vibration employs a device attached to the forms and is particularly useful in the manufacture of molded & precast items. B. Internal vibration uses a rod-like element which can be inserted into the concrete and is typically used for cast-in-place construction. Viscosity The degree of resistance to flow. (Also see "Slump" ) Wagner Fineness A measure of fineness of small particulate materials such as Portland cement. It is expressed as the total surface area in centimeters per gram as determined by the Wagner Turbidimeter apparatus and procedure. Water/Cement Ratio The ratio of the amount of water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregates, to the amount of Portland cement in a concrete or mortar mixture. Preferably expressed as a percentage of water to total cementious materials by weight in pounds. Water/Cementitious Ratio The ratio of water to the total of all cementitious materials in a concrete, mortar, grout or paste mix exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregates ( NOTE: Portland cement, fly ash & all reactive pozzolans are all considered "cementitious" and must therefore be figured into the calculation of "total cementitious materials". Aggregates, admixtures & additives do not .). The ratio is exclusive only of that water absorbed by the aggregates and is preferably expressed as a percentage of water to total cementitious materials by weight in pounds. Water Gain (See "Bleeding") Waterproof Any surface or material that is unaffected by and impervious to penetration by water in its liquid state. (Also see "Vaporproof") Water Reducing Admixture Any such material that either reduces the slump of freshly mixed concrete or mortar without any increase in it's water content; or that maintains a given level of workability at a reduced water content, independent and exclusive of the effects of air-entrainment. Water Reducing Admixture-High Range Any Water Reducing Admixture capable of producing a large degree of water reduction or greatly enhanced flowability without causing undue set retardation or entrainment of air in concrete or mortar. (Also see "Superplasticizer") Weathering Changes in texture, color, chemical composition, strength or other properties due to effects

of the environment or weather. Independent of any changes due to direct mechanical wear. Wet Having visible free moisture; not dry. Wetting Agent Any substance that lowers the surface tension of liquids thereby facilitating the wetting of solid surfaces and permitting the penetration of liquids into the capillaries.

Cement Color Reference Info

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The TGAF Cement Color Products Reference Guides

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