Preferred Citation: Beissinger, Margaret, Jane Tylus, and Susanne Wofford, editors.

Epic Traditions in the Contemporary World: The Poetics of Community. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1 1 . !tt":##ark.cdli$.org#ark:#1%&%&#ft'&&&&()(#

Epic Traditions in the Contemporary World

The Poetics of Community Edited By Margaret Beissinger, Jane Tylus, and Susanne Wofford
UNI E!SIT" #$ C%&I$#!NI% '!ESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

( )*** The !egents of the Uni+ersity of California

To *ur +a,ilies

Preferred Citation: Beissinger, Margaret, Jane Tylus, and Susanne Wofford, editors. Epic Traditions in the Contemporary World: The Poetics of Community. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1 1 . !tt":##ark.cdli$.org#ark:#1%&%&#ft'&&&&()(#

To *ur +a,ilies - i. -

%C,N#W&E-.MENTS
/ike ,any e"ic 0orks, t!is "ro1ect !as !ad a lengt!y gestation, and in t!e "rocess 0e !ave incurred nu,erous de$ts. Colleagues at t!e University of Wisconsin2Madison 0ere "articularly instru,ental in t!e early stages of t!is $ook, including Ja,es Bailey, 3lger 4ic!olas 5oane, and 5enis +eeney. T!e co,,ents fro, Set! Sc!ein and t!e t0o anony,ous readers for t!e University of California Press 0ere invalua$le to us in ,aking necessary revisions. T!anks are also o0ed to Cat!lin 5avis, our graduate assistant at t!e University of Wisconsin, for !er su"er$ 0ork as a ,anuscri"t and co,"uter editor. 3t t!e University of California Press, 0e 0ould like to t!ank Mary /a,"rec! for !er initial interest and encourage,ent, 6ate Toll for !er ent!usias, and constant su""ort, and 7osana +rancescato for !er

!el" 0it! "u$lication. S"ecial t!anks in addition to /a0rence Mill,an for "er,ission to re"rint 8T!e +irst /oon8 and 8T!e *rigin of 7o$ins8 and to t!e 5e"art,ent of 9nglis! at t!e University of Wisconsin:Madison for !el"ing to cover t!e "er,issions fee. We are also grateful to 5r. ;iovanna /a<<i, 5irector of t!e Bi$lioteca 7iccardiana in +lorence for !er "er,ission to use for our cover t!e color "!otogra"! fro, t!e 7iccardiana=s $eautiful 1'>? ,anuscri"t of @irgil=s Aeneid. We also t!ank Cornell University Press for "er,ission to re"u$lis! Joyce +lueckiger=s essay in a revised for,. +inally, as t!e dedication of t!is $ook attests, 0e 0ould like to t!ank our fa,ilies, es"ecially our !us$ands2Mark Beissinger, Willia, 6lein, and JacAues /e<ra2for t!eir careful reading of t!e ,anuscri"t and t!eir su""ort and encourage,ent t!roug!out t!e "ro1ect. -1-

INT!#-UCTI#N
Margaret Beissinger, Jane Tylus, and Susanne Wofford 8B !ave al0ays !eard your voice in t!at sea, ,aster, it 0as t!e sa,e song of t!e desert s!a,an, and 0!en B 0as a $oy your na,e 0as as 0ide as a $ay, as B 0alked along t!e curled $ro0 of t!e surf, t!e 0ord =Co,er= ,eant 1oy, 1oy in $attle, in 0ork, in deat!, t!en t!e nu,$ered "eace of t!e surfs $enedictions, it rose in t!e cedars, in t!e lauier:cannelles, "ages of rustling trees. Master, B 0as t!e fres!est of all your readers. 8 5erek Walcott, *,eros Muc! as t!e narrator of Walcott=s "oe, seeks to fas!ion a $ridge $et0een t!e canonical 0orks of Western literature and t!e vi$rant "oetry of t!e conte,"orary Cari$$ean, t!is volu,e ai,s to "rovide an interdisci"linary dialogue $et0een ver$al art genres t!at !ave rarely $een in dialogue: literary and oral e"ic. Bt "resents t!e 0ork of leading sc!olars of 0ritten and oral e"ic "oetry, ancient, 7enaissance, and conte,"orary, fro, a 0ide variety of disci"lines, including ant!ro"ology, classics, Slavic studies, co,"arative literature, folklore, and 9nglis!. 9"ic "oetry no0 stands at t!e center of an intense de$ate concerning t!e relevance and cultural significance of t!e 0orks t!at !ave !el"ed to define Western culture. Using e.a,"les of e"ic "oetry fro, Gilgamesh to Walcott=s Omeros, and of "erfor,ance traditions fro, "laces as different as t!e Central Ci,alayas and t!e Balkans, 0e "ro"ose a ne0 0ay of considering t!e "osition of t!e e"ic in cultural and intellectual life in t!e United States D0!ere ,any of t!ese de$ates !ave $een foug!t ,ost fiercelyE, in 9uro"e, and in ,any ot!er areas 0it! living e"ic traditions. T!e "osition of e"ic is es"ecially ve.ed in t!ose countries involved in "ostcolonial de$ates a$out t!e relation of t!eir national literatures to t!e canons of Western and classical literature, 0!ic!, as "art of a colonial educational "olicy, often 0ere i,"osed on sc!ool curricula. T!e 1u.ta"ositioning of t!ese disci"lines reveals ne0 and so,eti,es sur"rising connections $et0een

conte,"orary "erfor,ed e"ic "oetry fro, -?around t!e 0orld and e"ic of t!e traditional Western canon. Bt "laces t!e e"ic "oetry of Co,er, @irgil, *vid, S"enser, Tasso, and Milton in t!e conte.t of "erfor,ances of e"ic "oetry in conte,"orary 9gy"t and Bndia, and it sets current field0ork and et!nogra"!ic researc! a$out t!e "olitical and "oetic co,"le.ities of e"ic "erfor,ance in t!e conte.t of studies of t!e densely self:referential Western literary e"ic. We ,ake t!ese 1u.ta"ositions in t!e !o"e of acco,"lis!ing t!ree ends: D1E to "rovide a ne0 inter"retive fra,e for t!e literary e"ic t!at 0ill !el" to revitali<e interest in t!e Western canon, t!oug! in a 0ay t!at 0ill reAuire not t!e e.clusion of ot!er literary traditions $ut a sti,ulating connection to t!e,F D?E to strengt!en t!e links $et0een studies of narrative, "olitics, and "erfor,ance in $ot! fields, and t!us to "lace conte,"orary 0ork in oral e"ic 0it!in a $roader "oeticsF and D%E to "rovide a source for teac!ers, sc!olars, and readers t!at 0ill ,ake i,"ortant 0ork no0 $eing done in eac! of t!ese areas of study accessi$le to t!ose 0it! training in only one. T!e e"ic !as $een an o$1ect of study for t0o ,illennia, in "art $ecause t!e great classical e"ics and t!eir ,odern counter"arts continue to ins"ire cultural definition and self:definition. T!e e"ic is also a vital conte,"orary art for,, $ot! in 0riting and in "erfor,ance. Wit! t!is volu,e 0e !o"e to res!a"e understanding of e"ic so as to kee" $ot! of t!ese as"ects of t!e e"ic in sig!t, and to ins"ire a greater degree of co,"arative understanding, $ot! of t!e for, and of t!e related cultures in 0!ic! eac! individual "oe, is e,$edded. W!at is t!e e"icG T!is $ook co,"els its readers to gra""le 0it! t!is Auestion. 3 first reaction of ,any sc!olars of t!e classical or 7enaissance e"ic to an account of conte,"orary "erfor,ed oral "oetry ,ig!t $e to argue t!at it is not really t!e e"ic as t!ey kno0 it. Si,ilarly, sc!olars doing field0ork 0!o can ,easure t!eir e"ics $y t!e nu,$er of days it takes to "erfor, t!e, ,ig!t Auestion 0!et!er strict for,al li,its can "roduce an adeAuate definition of t!e genre. *ur 0orking definition for t!is volu,e itself !as a "ole,ical or at least li,iting edge: t!e e"ic is defined !ere as a "oetic narrative of lengt! and co,"le.ity t!at centers around deeds of significance to t!e co,,unity. T!ese deeds are usually "resented as deeds of grandeur or !erois,, often narrated fro, 0it!in a verisi,ilitudinous fra,e of reference. We e.clude fro, t!e arena of study ,yt! and ot!er kinds of tales t!at de"end largely on ,agic D,any e"ics include $riefer ,agical e"isodesE, and 0e also e.clude e"ics in "rose, alt!oug! in !istorical "ers"ective it is clear t!at t!e novel, for one e.a,"le, is a for, of t!e e"ic.H1I 9,"!asi<ing "oetry !el"s to deli,it t!e field of conte,"orary "erfor,ance $ut does not signal t!at t!e issues "osed $y t!e contri$utors to t!is volu,e are disconnected fro, "rose genres t!at !ave e"ic Aualities. T!e e"ic also !as a "eculiar and co,"le. connection to national and local cultures: t!e inclusiveness of e"ic2 t!e tendency of a given "oe, to "resent an encyclo"edic account of t!e culture -%t!at "roduced it2also e."lains its "olitical "otency. T!is "olitical e."losiveness is evident in t!e c!arged conte,"orary "erfor,ances of e"ic Dseveral e.a,"les of 0!ic! are descri$ed in t!is volu,eE, in t!e intense rei,agining of e"ic undertaken $y ,ost e,erging 9uro"ean nations as a ,eans of co,ing to self:kno0ledge as a nation, and in t!e $itterness of accusations today a$out t!e dangers of a$andoning canonical study in t!e acade,y. We !o"e to s!o0 t!at kno0ledge of t!is traditional arena of cultural definition is e.tended, not li,ited, $y t!e kind of cross:cultural conte.t constructed !ere. T!e essays in t!is volu,e argue strongly, t!en, for t!e value of co,"arative literary study and do so in t!e conte.t of an intellectual cli,ate in 0!ic! study of traditional genres so,eti,es is seen as rat!er old:fas!ioned. T!e c!allenge to cross:cultural study of a "articular literary for, !as co,e es"ecially

fro, t!ose D0!et!er old or ne0 !istoricistsE 0!o e,"!asi<e t!e i,"ortance in literary study of !istorical and "olitical "articularities. T!is c!allenge !as its $ase in an accurate and "roductive ske"ticis, a$out $ot! t!e ideali<ations of culture so c!aracteristic of late nineteent!: and early t0entiet!:century studies in ,yt! and co,"arative religion De.e,"lified $y Ja,es ;eorge +ra<er=s Golden Bough E and a$out t!e ideali<ations of for, c!aracteristic of t!e close "oetic analyses "ut for0ard $y t!e 3,erican 4e0 Critics and ot!ers in t!e ,iddle decades of t!e t0entiet! century. *ne critiAue of $ot! t!ese ideali<ations is t!at t!ey eac! in different 0ays o$fuscate "recisely t!e "olitical effects of e"ic "oetry20!et!er t!e "otentially "ro"agandistic effect of glorifying t!e current rulers or t!e ,ore co,"le. cultural i,"erialis, evidenced in ,any e"ic "oe,s. T!e 0ork in t!is volu,e seeks to avoid so,e of t!e "itfalls of generali<ed generic co,"arison $y rooting t!e analyses in t!e "olitical culture of t!e societies at issue. T!us to look at t!e function of la,ent in classical and later Western e"ic, 0e include one $roader cross:cultural study $y a leading sc!olar of t!e e"ic 0!o argues for t!e centrality of la,ent in ,ost ,a1or Western e"ics fro, Gilgamesh to Milton=s Paradise ost, and t0o ,ore culturally focused studies of, res"ectively, ;reek and /atin e"ics. 9ac! of t!ese e.a,ines t!e "ositioning of t!is fe,ale genre 0it!in a c!aracteristically ,ale for, 0!ile considering t!e culturally distinct role of 0o,en Dand of la,entE in arc!aic ;reek society and 7o,an culture. Si,ilarly, t!e "olitical role of e"ic "erfor,ance is t!e central focus of several of t!e essays t!at rely on field0ork in Bndia. We "ro"ose, t!en, t!at co,"arative literary study can and s!ould ,ake t!e "olitical and t!e culturally s"ecific ,ore visi$le, rat!er t!an !iding cultural contest and de$ate $e!ind an ideali<ed or essentiali<ed ,ask. To look at t!e "osition of e"ic in t!e conte,"orary 0orld is to "ose, not to evade, t!e Auestion of e"ic ideology and its relation to nationalis,, national identity, and t!e "olitics of gender. -'-

Epics and Contemporaneity

To t!ose trained in t!e traditional canon of Western letters, any discussion of conte,"oraneity is virtually anat!e,a in regard to e"ic "oetry, 0!ic!, as t!oug! it 0ere a living organis,, is said to e."erience $irt!, ,aturity, and deat!. *ne ,ig!t argue t!at on nu,erous occasions, announce,ents of t!e deat! of Western e"ic !ave in fact $een "re,ature. 9ven t!oug! +rancesco Petrarca, 0!ose na,e is usually synony,ous 0it! t!e 7enaissance, failed ,isera$ly in !is o0n atte,"ts to resuscitate classical e"ic, it 0as not long $efore, Tasso, S"enser, and Milton succeeded. But in t!e t0entiet! century in "articular, des"ite and "er!a"s "artly $ecause of t!e e"ic strivings of novelists suc! as ;eorge 9liot, T!o,as Mann, Marcel Proust, and of course Ja,es Joyce, t!e Western e"ic !as $een t!eori<ed as $eing, like t!e 0icked 0itc! in The Wi!ard of O!, really and sincerely dead. T0o critics 0!o !ave $een e.tre,ely influential in t!e "ast several decades ,ig!t $e said to e"ito,i<e ,uc! current t!inking a$out t!e tra1ectory of Western e"ic2a ru$ric t!at is often used as a facile su$stitute for e"ic itself. T!ese are t!e Soviet critic Mik!ail Bak!tin and t!e ;er,an essayist Walter Ben1a,in. T!eir 0ritings reflect strains of t!oug!t t!at, t!oug! not entirely ne0, are certainly c!aracteristic of ,uc! ,odern criticis, of t!e literary e"ic and its tendencies to o""ose t!e ter,s 8,odern8 and 8e"ic.8 *n t!e one !and, Bak!tin can $e said to !ave in!erited t!e attitude of t!ose 7enaissance 0riters 0!o $usily re!a$ilitated e"ic in t!e na,e of a cultural and "olitical "rivilege t!ey 0ere trying to clai, for t!e,selves. Bn a "eriod t!at 0orried i,,ensely a$out its origins, and one t!at 0as increasingly ,arked 0it! t!e urgent need for a ,aster discourse t!at could rival C!ristianity, Trissino, 3riosto, Tasso, S"enser, Ca,Jes, Milton, d=3u$ignK, and again, Petrarca reinvented e"ic as a genre of and for t!e elite

co,,unities in 0!ic! t!ey not only 0anted to "artake $ut 0!ic! t!ey 0anted to define20!et!er t!at co,,unity 0as t!e so"!isticated court of Tasso=s +errara or t!e 8fit audience t!oug! fe08 of Milton=s "ost:Cro,0ellian 9ngland. Bak!tin=s co,,ents on e"ic in t!e first essay fro, The "ialogic #magination like0ise "rivilege t!e genre as of and for an elite. Bak!tin regards e"ic as t!e ,aster discourse "ar e.cellence, 0!ic! !e o""oses to t!e "o"ular and o"en:ended novel t!at necessarily overtook t!e earlier genre, i,"ervious as it 0as to c!ange. +or Bak!tin, t!e e"ic is ,onologic. Bt !as only one 0ord, one tongue, one "oint of entry: t!e aristocracy=s or ruling "eo"le=s, 0!o 0ant to ,aintain a status Auo and ideali<e a "ast t!at is 8utterly different and inaccessi$le.8H?I Bt is t!e novel t!at t!rives on conte,"oraneity, on 8contact,8 on ,ulti"licityF t!e e"ic is $ased on ,e,ory, on distance, and on an a$solute unity t!at defies t!e act of Auestioning and co,,unal "artici"ation. Let alt!oug! Bak!tin ada"ts t!e 7enaissance=s "osture to0ard e"ic=s "riv: -(ileges, !e fails to see 7enaissance 0riters t!e,selves as true e"ic 0riters, and in fact t!e only e"ic "oetry t!at really fits !is definition is2virtually $y !is o0n ad,ission2Co,er=s, and only t!e #liad at t!at. T!e fact t!at t!e #liad$s su""osedly "rofound ini,ita$ility $eco,es a criterion for distinguis!ing an e"ic "oe, is t!ere$y "ro$le,atic, "articularly given 0!at 0e kno0 no0 to !ave $een t!e "erfor,ative conditions for t!at 0ork. Moreover, $y denying to t!e #liad t!e rig!t to conte,"late and Auestion itself, Bak!tin denies to t!is s"lendid arc!aic ;reek te.t its "rofound reflections a$out !u,an agency and its only tentative atte,"ts to articulate an et!os t!at ,ig!t outlast t!e fragility of its o0n al0ays i,"er,anent "erfor,ances. Bn effect, Bak!tin ,istakes t!e $elated desires for e"ic=s aut!ority and canonical status2$y fift!:century r!a"sodes, $y @irgil and !is 7enaissance i,itators2for e"ic=s i,,ediate effect. Bn so doing, !e ,onu,entali<es Co,er $efore Co,er !as finis!ed singing. But !e also forces us to $e attentive to t!e "rocesses t!roug! 0!ic! e"ic20!ic! !as ty"ically clai,ed to narrate t!e recovery of an originary identity of a grou" $ound $y linguistic ties Dt!e Co,eric e"icsE, tri$al $onds Dt!e 3frican "oe, %un&'ata E religion Dt!e Pentateuc!E, nationality DCa,Jes=s usiades E or e,"ire D@irgil=s Aeneid E2is canoni<ed and rendered necessarily aut!oritative over ti,e. But if e"ic 0as rekindled $y early ,odern 0riters as an 8elite8 genre, t!e nationalistic and ro,antic tendencies of Jo!ann ;ottfried van Cerder and ot!er late eig!teent!:century figures 0anted to find in it ,ore of a 8"o"ular8 s"irit, and one sees in Cerder=s 8*rigins of Ce$re0 Poetry8 t!e atte,"t to locate in ;reek and Ce$re0 0ritings t!e influence of t!e 8@olk.8H%I T!is is 0!ere Ben1a,in=s ,usings on e"ic in !is classic essay on t!e 7ussian s!ort story 0riter 4ikolai /eskov essentially fit. Bn 8T!e Storyteller,8 Ben1a,in envisions e"ic not as Bak!tin does, as an antiAuated and out,oded for, 0!ic! of necessity yielded to t!e "o"ular novel, $ut as itself a genre t!at reflects a 8"o"ular8 s"irit: it is t!e "roduct of a co,,unity and is t!ere$y ever:c!anging, insofar as it is told $y a storyteller 0!ose ,anner of "resenting tales is oral and alive. Ben1a,in=s 0riting is strikingly conte,"oraneous 0it! t!e 0ork of Mil,an Parry, 0!o de,onstrated t!at t!e for,ulas in Co,er attested to oral co,"osition and 0!o ,ay !ave $een ins"ired $y t!e ro,antics= for,ulation of e"ic and national origins. But unlike Cerder and ot!ers 0!o initiated t!e study of folklore in t!e late eig!teent! century2,any of 0!o,, one is 0ell re,inded, 0ere long taken in $y t!e $ogus "oetry of *ssian2Parry 0as a$le to de,onstrate e"ic=s oral roots "!ilologically, given !is close 0ork 0it! nonliterate Sout! Slavic $ards. +or Parry and later for 3l$ert /ord, of course, t!is conte,"orary "!eno,enon served largely to verify t!eir t!eses regarding t!e "erfor,ative dyna,ics of Co,er=s "oetry. +or Ben1a,in, "ro$a$ly una0are of Parry=s 0ork, t!e "!eno,enon of oral storytelling can "rovoke only a sense of nostalgia. 9"ic "erfor,ance $elonged to an irrecovera$le "ast 0!en tales 0ere not distanced fro, t!eir au:

-)dience and t!eir sources, $efore art lost its 8aura,8 $efore it 0as !ardened, congealed, into an o$1ect.H'I Ben1a,in=s essay is essentially an act of ,ourning for t!e loss of a tradition t!at once gave co,,unities t!eir identity, a tradition no longer "ossi$le in an age defined $y tec!nology. Still, t!ere is so,et!ing "arado.ical a$out 8T!e Storyteller.8 Bts ostensi$le su$1ect is not t!e days of Co,er2as is t!e case in t!e o"ening "ages of ;yorgy /ukacs=s The Theory of the (o)el, like0ise nostalgic for t!e organic 0!oleness of illiterate co,,unitiesH(I 2$ut t!e recent feudal, !ig!ly class:$ased society of late nineteent!:century 7ussia, su""lanted in Ben1a,in=s o0n ti,e $y t!e classlessness of a Mar.is, 0it! 0!ic! Ben1a,in long flirted. Ce is also discussing a 0riter, one 0!ose o0n !ig!ly nuanced sense of style 0as often laced 0it! t!e kind of laconic irony t!at is also a !all,ark of Ben1a,in=s "rose. +or $ot! Bak!tin and Ben1a,in, t!ere is t!e tendency for t!e categories su""osedly so necessary to e"ic=s definition to 0eaken if not colla"se, a tendency t!at is yet not so ,arked as to "revent t!e ,any literary critics 0!o read t!e, fro, insisting rat!er si,"listically t!at t!e e"ic !as no value for t!e conte,"orary ,o,ent. By t!e sa,e token, des"ite t!e ulti,ate inter,ingling of su""osedly o""osed categories in t!e t0o essays, $ot! 0riters funda,entally $elieve t!at e"ic is a legacy of t!e "ast $ecause t!e circu,stances t!at ena$led or necessitated its "roduction are no longer "resent. Bn t!is volu,e, Bak!tin and Ben1a,in are c!allenged directly as t!e various "ressures of t!e conte,"orary are $roug!t to $ear on a genre t!at t!ey !ave declared is eit!er a dead letter or a vital oral "!eno,enon t!at is si,"ly no ,ore. Bndeed, t!e essayists in t!is volu,e directly address t!e conte,"oraneity of e"ic $y taking into consideration one or ,ore of t!e follo0ing: Da E conte,"orary "erfor,ances and ant!ro"ological researc! regarding e"ics= functions in co,,unities, and t!e resultant attentiveness to stylistic innovations and audience, and t!us to !o0 e"ics s!ift in regard to "olitical, social, and "erfor,ative conditionsF D* E conte,"orary t!eoretical stances deriving fro, fe,inis,, "syc!oanalysis, "oststructuralis,, and cultural studies t!at !ave resituated e"ics in t!eir relations!i" to cultures and co,,unities, forcing sc!olars to $e ,ore attentive to e"ics= ,argins, t!eir silences and acts of silencingF Dc E conte,"orary discussions of 0!at constitutes t!e canon, and t!e canon=s relevance to current !eterogeneous classroo,s in t!e United States. Suc! discussions !ave co,"elled ,any to Auestion t!e assu,"tion t!at e"ic is a "urely te.tual "!eno,enon t!at $egan 0it! Co,er and ended 0it! Milton, and to see e"ics e.isting in societies t!at !ave $een denied t!e 8rig!t8 to !ave e"ic Dsuc! as 4ort! 3frican societies, as Jose"! +arrell notes in !is essayE. Let t!e for, in 0!ic! t!is c!allenge is cast does not overlook Ben1a,in=s and Bak!tin=s readings and concerns. *n t!e one !and, essayists in t!is volu,e 0!o s"ecifically consider t!e nuances of "erfor,ance are attentive to ->t!e i,"act not only of "olitical and social "ressures on t!e "roduction of e"ic, $ut of tec!nological develo",ents as 0ell. 3lt!oug! t!ey ,ig!t not e,$race Ben1a,in=s nostalgia for an irrevoca$ly lost co,,unal Geist as e,$odied in oral "oe,s, t!ey are concerned 0it! t!e 8invasion8 of t!e local $y t!e cos,o"olitan even as t!ey are a0are of t!e "ressures t!at t!e local e.erts on t!e cos,o"olitan in turn. Suc! attentiveness necessarily e.tends to t!ose contri$utors, suc! as S!eila Murnag!an, 0!o consider t!e roles of ritual and t!at arc!aic for, of storytelling kno0n as t!e la,ent. /a,ent could consolidate co,,unity, $ut it could also t!reaten t!e ot!er sta$ili<ing $onds t!at !eld grou"s and e"ic "oe,s toget!er. *n t!e ot!er !and, t!e ter,inology invoked $y Bak!tin regarding Co,eric e"ic2its ,onologis,, its closure, its aut!ority2is like0ise invoked $y a nu,$er of sc!olars not so ,uc! in regard to single e"ic "oe,s as in regard to an e"ic tradition and a desire found in nu,erous cultures to

grant aut!ority to e"ic tales of origins and "olitical legiti,ation. Bak!tin=s version of e"ic !as never e.isted2indeed, as a t!eory it ignores 0!at !as al0ays $een "resent in e"ic=s dialogic voices $ut t!e desire for !is version of e"ic !ave long e.isted, as attested $y t!e allegorists 0!o, 3ndre0 +ord discusses. T!e 8conte,"orary,8 t!en, is in fact i,,ediately relevant to discussions of e"ic. T!e essays t!at follo0 alert us to t!e ongoing function of e"ics in various "arts of t!e 0orld today. T!ey articulate !o0 current t!eoretical initiatives and de$ates a$out t!e canon are critical for an understanding of t!e !old of e"ic on t!e i,agination in antiAuity as in t!e "resent. 3t least "art of t!e attraction of e"ic "oetry consists in t!e skill and i,agination of t!ose 0!o create, revise, and recite it. Bt is to t!is critical Auestion t!at 0e turn ne.t: W!at ,akes an e"ic "oetG

The Epic 'oet

W!en oral e"ic or literary e"ic are e.a,ined, t!ey are generally treated as se"arate and distinct ver$al narrative art for,s, eac! 0it! its o0n conce"t of aut!ors!i" and its o0n array of c!aracteristics, $ot! for,al and t!e,atic. *ral traditional e"ic is understood as orally co,"osed and orally trans,itted. Bt is, very i,"ortantly, a genre t!at is "erfor,ed $efore an audience. W!ile individual "erfor,ers of e"ic Deac! 0it! varying levels of creativityE are a""reciated, anony,ity and collective involve,ent surround aut!ors!i" "er se. *ral e"ic is ty"ically ,arked $y co,"ositional devices t!at facilitate "erfor,ance and trans,ission, as 0ell as $y content t!at is regarded as dee"ly traditional, at ti,es even ,yt!ic D$ringing 0it! it an identification of oral e"ic 0it! story "atterns t!at are $ot! ancient and 0ides"readE. +ro, t!e "ers"ective of sc!olars of folklore, literary e"ic, unlike oral traditional e"ic, is usually seen as t!e creation of a single aut!or, i,,ersed in literacy and everyt!ing t!at literacy $rings 0it! it. /iterary e"ic is created -M0it! artistic "erfection in ,ind, not e."ediency of "erfor,ance. Bt is i,agined as an art for, crafted $y so,eone 0it! t!e leisure to c!isel "!rases, verses, and sentences, to develo" and refine artistic e."ression 0it! t!e aut!or=s $est as t!e desired outco,e. +urt!er,ore, literary e"ic allo0s for Dand even e."ectsE t!e aut!or=s original and creative e."ression in narratives t!at adroitly c!allenge readers 0it! t!eir 0ell:designed tro"es and innovative uses of te.tual conventions and t!e,es. Bf t!e creative "rocesses of t!e oral e"ic "oet and t!e 0riter of e"ics t!us re,ain significantly different, it is 0ort! considering ,ore s"ecifically 0!at defines t!e "oetic 0ork of t!e oral "oet. Muc! !as $een 0ritten on t!e a""rentices!i" of oral e"ic "oets.H)I T!e art of t!e oral e"ic "oet is not rando,ly develo"ed nor casually "erfected, for it is a co,"le. art t!at entails years of training and "ractice. +urt!er,ore, traditional "erfor,ers of oral e"ic are often c!aracteri<ed $y gender and are not only artistically and at ti,es "rofessionally ,arginali<ed 0it!in t!e larger co,,unity $ut also situated on t!e "eri"!ery et!nically and socially. T!e art of oral e"ic singing is $y and large2t!oug! not al0ays2an art "er"etuated $y ,en for "u$lic "erfor,ance. Custo,arily, young $oys $egin to cultivate t!e art of e"ic singing at a young age, first $y learning to "lay an instru,ent. T!is is usually follo0ed $y ,astering t!e art of singing and stringing ,etrically a""ro"riate verses toget!er. +inally, t!ey asse,$le entire narrative songs and $egin to "erfor, in "u$lic. T!e instruction "rocess is "redicated on t!e young singer=s kno0ledge of t!e re"ertoire, gained custo,arily t!roug! re"eated attendance at e"ic "erfor,ances. Bn so,e cultures, t!e art of e"ic singing is "assed fro, older ,ale relative to young $oy, suc! t!at t!e c!ild=s ,entor is

ty"ically fro, 0it!in !is o0n fa,ilyF t!us t!e ,ilieu for t!is learning surrounds !i, "er"etually. +reAuently, e"ic singing is also "erfor,ed for re,uneration Dat traditional 0eddings, $irt! cele$rations, at ,arket or in cafKs, and so onE, suc! t!at it $eco,es a "rofession. Bn certain cultures, e"ic is even "er"etuated $y a 8class8 of singers 0!o are effectively on t!e ,argins, $ot! et!nically and socially, of t!e co,,unity. T!ey are 0!at Susan Slyo,ovics !as called t!e 8"oet outcasts8 in an e.a,"le fro, t!e 9gy"tian oral e"ic tradition.H>I 3 si,ilar "!eno,enon is found a,ong traditional 7o,anian e"ic singers, 0!o are ty"ically ;y"sies2s"urned 0it!in t!e conte.t of ,ainstrea, society, yet !ig!ly venerated as ver$al artists for t!e co,,unity.HMI T!is 0ay of !ig!lig!ting t!e differences $et0een t!e role of t!e "oet in 0ritten e"ic and t!e "erfor,er=s e,$odi,ent of a ,ore or less collective voice !el"s to illustrate a central tension in t!e 0ritten e"ic as 0ell. /ike t!e oral e"ic "oet, t!e 0riter of e"ic "oetry !as generally $een ,ale Dt!oug! t!is !as $egun to c!ange in t!e last t0o centuriesE and is i,,ersed in a tradition t!at takes years of training to ,aster. T!e art of t!e e"ic "oet de"ends centrally on i,itation2on $eing a$le to re"roduce, $ut in a ne0 cultural -

register or in a ne0 language, i,ages, events, "lot ,otifs, and 0!atever ot!er te.tual details give t!e for, its generic aut!ority. Bn The An+iety of #nfluence, Carold Bloo, suggests t!at 9nglis! "oets 0!o 0rote after a Milton regarded as largely ini,ita$le struggled in a variety of 0ays to ,aster and usur" t!eir great "recursor. Let in ,any senses, to $egin 0it! t!e ro,antics is to $egin ?,&&& years too late. Moreover, 0!ile t!e "syc!oanalytic voca$ulary Bloo, invoked is enlig!tening for our o0n era, it is not an essential t!eoretical ru$ric for understanding @irgil=s 0rangling 0it! 3"ollonius 7!odius or Calli,ac!us=s c!allenge to arc!aic e"ic in 0riting an e"ic of frag,ents Dor to go $ack even fart!er and to e."and ,o,entarily our definition of e"ic, Plato=s atte,"ts to !ave Socrates sur"ass Co,er and t!e r!a"sodes as an oral "oet in !is #on E Bndeed, 0ritten e"ic often t0ists unco,forta$ly on t!e dile,,a of 0!et!er t!e "oet s!ould e,"!asi<e su$,ersion in a collective voice or an individual "oetic voice and aut!ority. W!en @irgil 0rites 83r,a viru,Aue cano8 D*f ar,s and a ,an B singE, !is use of t!e first: "erson ver$ for, stands out in contrast to t!e ,ore anony,ous invocations of t!e Co,eric $ard: 8Sing, Muse . . . 8 T!e contrast 0it! t!e living oral e"ic "erfor,ances descri$ed in t!is $ook t!us !el"s to e."ose a latent tension in t!e 0ritten e"ic. Bt also ,akes ,ore a""arent 0!ere t!e literary e"ic "oet=s i,,ersion in tradition a""roac!es a ,ore collective voice and 0!ere t!e individual res!a"ing or c!allenge to tradition $eco,es ,ost "ointed. Bt is in going $ack to Co,er and t!e tangled origins of 0ritten e"ic in t!e West t!at one finds "otentially si,ilar circu,stances to t!ose "resent in t!e s!a"ing of oral "oetry, and argua$ly t!ey !ave i,"inged on t!e "roduction of 0ritten e"ic itself. 3nd it is also in Co,er t!at 0e find t!e i,age of t!e ,arginali<ed "oet, su$1ect to t!e 0!i,s of "atronage Dsuc! as P!e,ius, 0!o is told no0 $y Tele,ac!us, no0 $y Penelo"e, and no0 $y t!e suitors, 0!at to singE or "!ysically ,arked $y t!e sign of !is outcast and yet "rivileged status Dsuc! as t!e $lind $ard 5e,odocus, 0!o "erfor,s for *dysseus and t!e P!aiakiansE.H I Bt is "er!a"s only !istorical accident, $ut again and again one encounters "oets in t!e tradition of literary e"ic 0!o like0ise 0rite fro, t!e ,argins and 0!ose "oe,s t!ere$y !inge on t!e t!e,atics of e.ile and estrange,ent: 5ante 0riting !is Commedia in e.ile fro, +lorence, Milton 0riting Paradise ost during t!e 7estoration, t!e co,"oser of t!e Chanson de 7oland2"er!a"s2in figurative e.ile at t!e 9nglis! court. Bn suc! 0ays, t!e social and econo,ic vulnera$ilities to 0!ic! oral "oets continue to $e su$1ect !ave left t!eir ,ark, !o0ever ,ediated, on t!e legacy of 0ritten e"ic as 0ell.

Written ersus #ral

Bt is 0it! suc! crossovers and concerns t!at 0e no0 engage ,ore directly in t!e Auestions of orality and literacy t!at !ave $een so central to t!e issue of - 1& e"ic in t!e "ast century or so. Walter *ng !as $een, "er!a"s, t!e ,ost eloAuent s"okes"erson for t!e i,"act of literacy on culture and literature, tracing various develo",ents fro, orality to literacy and ,ass de"endence on t!e "rinted 0ord. 3long 0it! ot!ers, *ng !as argued "ersuasively for a recognition of t!e "rofound c!anges t!at literacy !as engendered in !u,an !istory. Bndeed, "ole,ics surrounding orality and literacy a,ong sc!olars of oral "oetry freAuently focus on te.ts t!at are not unAuestiona$ly eit!er oral or literary, or on transitional te.ts2t!ose t!at fall so,e0!ere $et0een oral and literary for any nu,$er of reasons. Si,ilarly, t!e role of literacy in t!e creative "rocess of oral "oets Dand deter,ining 0!ic! features "oint to eit!er orality or literacy in t!eir "oetryE !as $een a ,atter of controversy. 4onet!eless, it is rare 0!en critical readings of oral and literary ver$al art are truly e.c!angedF t!e distinction $et0een 8us8 and 8t!e,8 still tends to do,inate sc!olars!i", fro, 0!ic!ever "ers"ective. T!e essays in t!is volu,e c!allenge t!e current understanding of orality and literacy as o""osed categories. By "utting aside strict $oundaries of genre and ,et!odology, t!ey ena$le an e.c!ange $et0een literatures and $et0een sc!olars t!at confronts t!e very idea of 0!at e"ic is and !o0 it can $e read. 3nd t!is e.c!ange "roves effective $ecause, "ut si,"ly, t!ose 0!o study oral e"ic and t!ose 0!o study literary e"ic !ave ,uc! to learn fro, eac! ot!er. 9"ic conceived as a "oetic narrative of lengt! and co,"le.ity t!at centers around deeds of significance to t!e co,,unity transcends t!e oral and literary divide t!at !as long ,arked t!e a""roac! to t!e genre. Bn transcending t!at divide, e"ic e,erges as a larger genre 0it!in 0!ic! co,"arative study $eco,es ,ore dyna,ic and $roader in sco"e. By addressing aut!ors!i", readers!i" Dor 8listeners!i"8E, for,, and ,eaning in t!e 8ot!er8 D$e it oral or literary e"icE, sc!olars in t!is volu,e !ave $een c!allenged to see !o0 t!ey !ave constructed t!e 8ot!er8 as o""osed and se"arate, and are t!us encouraged to ree.a,ine t!e e"ic tradition t!ey kno0 $est. Because of t!eir 8literary8 nature, 0ritten te.ts !ave engendered a level of t!eori<ing t!at cannot yet $e assu,ed $y sc!olars of oral literature. T!e tangi$le 0ritten te.t in itself generates co,"le. t!eoretical syste,s of a""roac!ing literature2syste,s t!at can also "rovide e.citing tools for t!e understanding of oral literature. +or instance, readings of a,$iguity in "oetic language and studies of t!e literary "oet=s ,ani"ulation of ,eta"!or and allegory suggest "o0erful ,odels for 0ays in 0!ic! figurative language ,ig!t $e e.a,ined in oral e"ic. P!ili" Cardie=s treat,ent of r!etoric in /atin e"ic and 3ndre0 +ord=s essay on early ;reek allegoresis are "articularly evocative in t!is regard. +ro, t!e literary side, t!e et!nogra"!ic criticis, of oral e"ic also furnis!es ,eans $y 0!ic! t!e study of literary e"ic ,ay $e given a s!ar"er "olitical and cultural focus. 9,"!asis on t!e "erfor,ativity of oral e"ic "oets, 0!o co,"ose and trans,it t!eir art $efore an audience and 0!o function as discrete - 11 figures 0ielding a ty"e of ,yt!ic kno0ledge 0it!in t!e co,,unity, "rovides a c!allenge to students of 0ritten e"ic, 0!ere concerns a$out "erfor,ance and "erfor,ative genres !ave recently taken t!e forefront. T!e essays $y Susan Slyo,ovics and 50ig!t 7eynolds on 9gy"tian oral e"ic "oets "rovide es"ecially ric! e.a,"les of t!is detailed analysis of "erfor,ativity. T!e i,,ediate "olitics of oral e"ic

"erfor,ance2!o0 a traditional genre can $e inter"reted, say, as a "otent "olitical state,ent to t!e co,,unity2is e."lored in t!e essays on t!e Bndian e"ic $y Joyce +lueckiger and Willia, Sa.. Bt is "recisely t!roug! t!e 1u.ta"osition of oral and literary e"ic in cases like t!ese2 and t!e recognition of a larger conce"t of e"ic t!at transcends orality and literacy2t!at a ,ore co,"le. sense of t!e interactions of for,, genre, "olitics, and culture ,ay $e $roug!t to t!e inter"retation of t!e genre. Studies of oral e"ic si,ilarly suggest t!at inter"retation of 0ritten e"ic could $e directed ,ore to0ard study of t!e tension $et0een t!e local and t!e national or universal. *ral e"ic continues in general to $e ,ore attuned to t!e indigenous or local traditions t!at infor, e"ic "oetry. T!is focus can $e a "roductive one for sc!olars of 0ritten e"ic. Jane Tylus e."lores t!e cultic resonances t!at infor, @irgil=s and Tasso=s 8universali<ing8 "oe,s. 3nd in t!eir fe,inist rea""raisals of ;reek and 7o,an e"ic, S!eila Murnag!an and 9laine +ant!a, de,onstrate !o0 t!e oral tradition of fe,ale la,ent t!reatens to su$vert t!e !eroic functions of literary e"ic. Students of oral e"ic can $e ,ore attentive, in turn, to a,$iguity, linguistic nuances, and t!e e.tent to 0!ic! oral te.ts, like 0ritten te.ts, construct t!e,selves as t!eoretical syste,s. Several of t!e essays in t!is volu,e t!at give detailed accounts of "erfor,ances suggest t!e virtues of t!is a""roac!. 50ig!t 7eynolds=s study, for e.a,"le, is a $racing account of t!e ,ultivalent strategies and variety of s"eec! acts to 0!ic! t!e "oet !as access in any given "erfor,ative situation. Bn t!e e."loration of various for,s of ver$al art, t!ere is a "oint at 0!ic! one can s"eak of a larger aest!etic t!at e,$races $ot! t!e oral and t!e literary. Bn so doing, one is li$erated to s"eak of language elevated fro, t!e "edestrian to t!e real, of !ig!er "oetic diction, not only a,ong t!e 8lettered8 "oets, $ut a,ong t!e 8unlettered8 as 0ell. Ulti,ately, e"ic "oets, $e t!ey oral or literary, all create. T!ey all ,ani"ulate devices and tec!niAues $y 0!ic! t!eir art is revealed, 0!et!er t!ose devices are orally trans,itted or rooted in literacy. T!ey all seek to tell a good story: to relate a narrative t!at, it is !o"ed, 0ill lig!t a fire, touc! a soul, entertain for an evening D$e it 0it! $ook in !and or grou"ed around a singerE, or even c!ange t!e destiny of a nation.

Crossing Boundaries
T!e t!e,atic kernel of t!is volu,e is t!e idea t!at t!e dyna,ics of e"ic, $ot! oral and literary, are created and sustained t!roug! t!e c!allenging of - 1? $oundaries2$oundaries of genre, gender, locality, and language. T!e intellectual inAuiry undertaken in ,ost of t!e essays "resented !ere turns on Auestions of genre, gender, and tro"e. Moreover, t!e volu,e is organi<ed to cross and re:cross t!at ,ost funda,ental of $oundaries, na,ely, t!at $et0een oral and literary e"ic. ;regory 4agy=s co,"arative reading of genre in oral and literary e"ic and Joyce +lueckiger=s argu,ent for t!e role of regional and social identity in Bndian e"ic $ot! co,"licate and c!allenge t!e conce"t of genre. ;enre definitions are si,ilarly c!allenged and e."anded in discussions of t!e $oundaries of e"ic and t!e inter"lay and overla""ing of genres, $ot! in oral "erfor,ances De."lored in 9gy"tian and Bndian e"icE and in literary 0orks DJose"! +arrell=s discussion of Walcott=s Omeros and Susanne Wofford=s consideration of 4ative 3,erican tales alongside t!e 8classical8 0orks of *vid and S"enserE. /a,ent, dee"ly e,$edded in t!e genre Auestion, "rovides striking e.a,"les of t!e "ro,inence of genre 0it!in genre, or countergenre 0it!in genre, once again c!allenging t!e $oundaries of e"ic. T!e a""ro"riation of gender roles or crossing of gender $oundaries in e"ic is e.a,ined also as it reflects regional, cultural, and "olitical concerns. Tracing t!e role of Balkan e"ic in t!e develo",ent of

nineteent!:century literature, Margaret Beissinger illustrates t!e use of an oral genre for "olitical "ur"oses, revealing !o0 gender is a""ro"riated in literary e"ic as an instru,ent of nationalis,. S!eila Murnag!an also t!eori<es t!e role of gender $oundaries and t!e crossing of t!ose $oundaries in e"ic in !er study of t!e role of la,ent in Co,er. S!e argues t!at fe,ale la,ents are ,ore su$versive of t!e e"ic t!an la,ents s"oken $y ,en, not 1ust $ecause t!ey d0ell on grief and suffering attendant u"on !eroic action, $ut $ecause t!ey ignore t!e deat!:defying ,leos t!at "rovides co,"ensation for !eroic sacrifice, a ,a1or function of e"ic. 9laine +ant!a, e."lores in 7o,an e"ic a si,ilar "ro$le,2!o0 ,uc! does la,entation disru"t t!e ca"acity of a "oe, to function as an e"icG S!e sees t!e $alance as ti""ing fro, "u$lic la,ent D0it! its ty"ically ,ale res"onse of "rovoking desire for revengeE to t!e ,ore disru"tive "rivate la,ents Doften s"oken $y fe,ale c!aractersE in t!e course of t!e develo",ent of 7o,an e"ic. 3not!er kind of $oundary crossing at issue in ,any of t!ese essays concerns t!e crossing fro, one ,eaning to anot!er ac!ieved $y ver$al a,$iguity. T!e concern in 0ritten e"ic 0it! 0ord"lay, i,age, and tro"e is ,atc!ed in t!e oral e"ic Dsuc! as in t!e 9gy"tian genreE $y t!e ,arked use of "unning, as 0ell as t!e inter"lay $et0een overla""ing levels of ver$al "erfor,ance. Punning and linguistic a,$iguity are linked to ot!er ,odes of language "lay found in literary e"ic, suc! as t!e use of allegory and ,eta"!or as strategies for su$verting $oundaries, in t!e essays $y Cardie and +ord. - 1% T!e essays in t!is volu,e are divided into five sections. T!e volu,e=s organi<ation s"eaks to t!e s!ared concerns of sc!olars of oral and 0ritten e"ic, as 0ell as to t!e ,et!odologies and strategies t!at distinguis! t!e t0o for,s. 3""ro"riately, t!e $ook o"ens 0it! an essay $y t!e noted classicist and folklorist ;regory 4agy, one of very fe0 sc!olars 0!ose 0ork ,arks out t!e interface $et0een "erfor,ance and scri$al traditions t!at t!e volu,e as a 0!ole ai,s to e."and. T!e first section, entitled 8*n t!e Margins of t!e Scri$al: +ro, *ral 9"ic to Te.t,8 is devoted to t!e e.a,ination of 0!at !a""ens in t!e lively "rocess of transfor,ing an oral "oe, into a 0ritten te.t, and in interrogating t!e ety,ologies and conte.ts of several 0ords used consistently in e"ic "oetry. 4agy $egins $y critiAuing t!e do,inance of generic nor,s esta$lis!ed $y 0ritten e"ic. 5ra0ing on t!e i,"ortant 0ork of 7ic!ard Martin on t!e relation of s"eec! act t!eory to t!e t!eory of oral "erfor,ance, 4agy argues t!at our conce"ts of "erfor,ance can $e rendered ,ore co,"le. $y understanding 0!at is "erfor,ed $y t!e s"oken or sung 0ords. T!e ot!er essays in t!e first section of t!is volu,e like0ise interrogate 0ays in 0!ic! "erfor,ative content !as $een eit!er o$scured $y t!e scri$al tradition or co,"ro,ised $y t!e e.igencies of catering to increasingly elite audiences. Bn an essay on t!e origins of allegoresis in ancient Btaly, 3ndre0 +ord discusses !o0 t!e !ori<ons of an e"ic genre once invoked to define a "eo"le Dlaos E 0ere gradually narro0ed so as to acco,,odate only 8initiated8 audiences 0!o $eca,e t!e "ree,inent users of a ne0 cultural construction of literature. 5es"ite t!e fact t!at Susan Slyo,ovics is dealing 0it! a radically different narrative tradition, t!e oral e"ic of nort!ern 9gy"t, s!e nonet!eless offers a strikingly si,ilar reading of t!e transfor,ation of e"ic "oetry into a genre t!at indulges an increasingly selective audience2"ri,arily, in t!e case of t!e 9gy"tian "oetry s!e is discussing, $ecause of t!e e"ic "erfor,er=s su$tle negotiations of !is outcast status. Cer reading of e"ic "uns, 0!ic! float, like t!e "oet, 8$et0een acce"ta$ility and re1ection,8 $eco,es a0ay of reading e"ic itself as a negotiation $et0een "o"ular and elite culture. +inally, Margaret Beissinger analy<es t!e interconnections $et0een oral e"ic and orally ins"ired literary e"ic in Balkan culture as s!e inter"rets gender roles in t!e different traditions and e."oses t!e 0ay in 0!ic! t!ey 0ere a""ro"riated for "olitical and nationalistic "ur"oses, "articularly 0it!in t!e develo"ing 8scri$al8 tradition of t!e nineteent! century. W!ile 0o,en "lay

significant roles in Sout! Slavic oral e"ic, t!eir relevance to t!e 0ritten e"ic t!at ,irrored t!e oral genre and defined t!e $eginning of national literatures in t!e Balkans 0as radically di,inis!ed. S!e argues t!at t!is occurred $ecause t!e ,ale:do,inated "olitical cli,ate of nineteent!:century nations e,erging fro, centuries of *tto,an rule found t!e fe,ale voice effectively unnecessary to t!e "olitical state,ents e."ressed in t!eir $urgeoning literatures. - 1' W!ereas t!e first section largely focuses on t!e gradual canoni<ation of e"ic as it veers $et0een t!e "o"ular and t!e elite, t!e second section of essays, entitled 89"ic and 3ut!ority,8 e."lores t!e c!allenges to e"ic=s "resu,ed canonicity as e,$odied 0it!in t!e "rocess of e"ic ,aking itself. Jane Tylus=s essay e.a,ines t!e cultic resonances in @irgil=s Aeneid and TorAuato Tasso=s Gerusalemme li*erata in lig!t of 0!at T. S. 9liot conde,ned as t!e "rovincialis, t!at 8true8 ,aster"ieces of Western literature, $eginning 0it! t!e Aeneid, !ave su""osedly ,anaged to esca"e. Tylus suggests t!at far fro, esca"ing fro, t!e "rovincial, e"ic ,ust necessarily contend 0it! t!e aut!ority t!at local custo,s and traditions can grant, even 0!en e"ic is 0ritten in t!e service of an i,"erial agenda t!at "resu,es to $e universal. Particularly in classical and ,edieval e"ics, t!e lea" fro, t!e "rovincial or local to t!e universal 0as facilitated t!roug! allegory. T!e essay $y P!ili" Cardie nonet!eless e."oses t!e insta$ility and often unintentionally su$versive function of allegoresis. +ocusing on @irgil and *vid, Cardie de,onstrates t!at allegory in fact t!reatens t!e rigid classificatory syste, t!at !ad $een at 0ork in Co,er, c!allenging t!e i,"ortant distinctions $et0een !u,an and ani,al, t!e 0inners and t!e losers, a ,onu,ental te.t and a "er,ea$le, a,or"!ous te.t t!at c!anges over ti,e. Joyce +lueckiger also focuses on t!e desta$ili<ations evident in e"ic te.ts, "articularly t!e desta$ili<ations of gender categories, in !er study of regional "erfor,ances of nort!ern Bndian e"ics. Cer field0ork suggests t!at local "ressures result in very different e"ic "oe,s, and 0!ereas one region fait!fully "roduces e"ic as an aut!oritative, unc!anging tale of origins and legiti,ation, anot!er "erfor,s an e"ic "oe, in 0ays t!at reflect t!e diverse and c!anging co,,unal and social realities 0it!in it. T!is attentiveness to "erfor,ative varia$ilities is es"ecially a""arent in t!e t!ird section, 8T!e Boundaries of 9"ic Perfor,ance.8 Bot! essays in t!is section consider conte,"orary e"ic "erfor,ances and Auestion !o0 "erfor,ance itself c!allenges notions of canonicity and generic $oundaries. Bn an essay t!at 0ill interest readers of $ooks N1? of t!e Odyssey, 0!ere *dysseus tells !is o0n !eroic tale to t!e avid P!aiakians, 50ig!t 7eynolds s!o0s !o0 t!e "erfor,er of 3ra$ic oral "oetry ,akes !is o0n s"eec! act eAuivalent to t!at of t!e !ero. Bncor"orating t!e audience into t!e story=s "lot in 0!at 7eynolds suggestively ter,s a kind of 87ussian roulette,8 t!e e"ic "oet ,oves fully into t!e role of t!e !ero $y t!e end of !is "erfor,ance, t!ere$y e.aggerating !is o0n function and in effect di,inis!ing t!at of t!e !ero and t!e tradition t!at !e su""osedly serves. Willia, Sa.=s essay on t!e e"ics of nort!ern Bndia discusses, like t!at of 7eynolds, t!e "artici"atory nature of conte,"orary e"ic. +or Sa., !o0ever, t!e recent c!anges in "erfor,ed e"ics are due largely to t!e ongoing "ressures of nationalis, and t!e disa""earance of t!e 8local82a reading t!at suggests $ot! t!at t!e dyna,ics of individual co,,unities are not necessarily a""arent in e"ic "er: - 1( for,ance and t!at t!e "oet is not so ,uc! t!e s!a"er of !is "erfor,ances as !e is s!a"ed $y larger "olitical forces $eyond !i,self. /ike Tylus=s account of @irgil and Tasso, t!en, Sa.=s study of e"ic e."oses "o0erful antagonis,s $et0een t!e ,ore local and t!e national or i,"erial i,"act of t!e for,. T!is ne.us of concerns2t!e e.tent to 0!ic! e"ic "oets "erceive t!e,selves or can $e "erceived as t!e

,akers of t!eir songs2defines t!e ne.t section, 89"ic and /a,ent.8 Moreover, in ,any 0ays, t!e essays in t!is section $ring toget!er t!e issues of "erfor,ance, aut!ority, and t!e transition fro, oral to 0ritten "oe,s $roac!ed in t!e first t!ree sections $y looking s"ecifically at a "u$lic, largely fe,ale: centered tradition t!at !as !ad an a,$ivalent relations!i" 0it! e"ic since its ince"tion. 3s s!e traduces t!e ground $et0een ;reek and 7o,an e"ic, 9laine +ant!a, c!arts t!e unco,forta$le dyna,ic $et0een la,ent and !eroic action. Wit! t!e /atin "oet Statius, t!is struggle ends 0it! t!e 8triu,"!8 of t!e for,er, as t!e $itter 0orld of civil 0ar renders !eroic action finally inca"a$le of attaining t!e level of glorification. S!eila Murnag!an "roduces a ,ore e."licitly gendered and t!eoretical reading of la,ent, seeing in it Dlike +ant!a,E a su$versive ele,ent t!at c!allenges t!e e"ic ideology of Co,er, "redicated on fa,e untainted $y suffering. Murnag!an suggests t!at t!e la,ents $y 0o,en in t!e #liad offer a different reading of t!e origins of e"ic fro, t!ose co,,only re!earsed: ,leos $egins 0it! grief for one=s friends and ene,ies $efore it is converted into t!e 8"leasant song8 cele$rated $y t!e P!aiakians in t!e Odyssey. +inally, T!o,as ;reene=s ,agisterial reading resolves 0!at +ant!a, and Murnag!an 0ould unsettle, in !is e."loration of t!e e.tent to 0!ic! e"ic tears are in fact t!e true 3ristotelian telos of t!e genre. Wee"ing $eco,es a constant and necessary ele,ent of e"ic fro, Gilgamesh t!roug! Paradise ost, after 0!ic! t!e act of la,ent $eco,es a "rivate rat!er t!an a "u$lic affair. +or ;reene, t!ere is no dissonance $et0een t!e la,ent "ro"er2s!ared $y 0o,en and ,en alike 2and t!e goal of t!e e"ic "oe,F t!e tragic ritual is t!at 0!ic! leads us to 8s!ared stillness 0it!in tre,endous ruin,8 a stillness t!at is valua$le as a ,arker of cultural identity and integrity. T!e essays in t!e final section of t!e volu,e289"ic and Pedagogy82ask directly 0!at ,any of t!e ot!er essays i,"ly. Bf 0e are to acce"t t!e interdisci"linarity of so ,any of t!e "ieces, 0it! t!eir c!allenges to a !ig!ly traditional e"ic canon and its se"aration of t!e scri$al and t!e "erfor,ative, t!en !o0 do 0e go a$out teac!ing e"ics in t!e !ere and no0G T!e "oet on 0!o, Jose"! +arrell focuses, t!e conte,"orary Cari$$ean 0riter 5erek Walcott, !i,self asks suc! Auestions in t!e course of !is o0n contentiously e"ic "oe,. Bn Omeros, t!e narrator travels, like Walcott, fro, t!e isle of Santa /ucia to Portugal, to Boston, and $ack again, only to ,eet u" 0it! t!e g!ost of Co,er !i,self 0!en !e returns to !is $eloved island. +arrell=s sensitive treat,ent of Walcott=s "oe,, 0!ic! !overs $et0een dialect and 8canonical8 9nglis! and t!ere$y asks difficult and unans0era$le Auestions a$out e"ic=s - 1) roots, insists t!at t!e de$ate concerning 0!at is ,eant $y t!e 0ord epic ,ust $e an ongoing one. +arrell de,onstrates !o0 t!e reading e."erience of Omeros is a c!allenge $ot! to critics 0!o deny t!e e."erience of e"ic "oetry to non:9uro"ean "eo"le Drelevant !ere is an assertion of @. S. 4ai"aul=s t!at t!e Cari$$ean can only ,i,ic, never create ane0EH1&I and to critics 0!o insist t!at taking u" t!e e"ic canon at all is an insult to a native "eo"le for so long enslaved $y t!ose 0!o "rofessed t!e ideology of t!at canon. T!e "olitical issues of ,ulticulturalis, t!at +arrell2and Walcott2raise are also addressed $y Susanne Wofford, 0!o "ro"oses t!at t!e canonical Western e"ic ,ig!t $est $e taug!t in t!e conte.t of living oral traditions of !eroic song and tale, including ,ost nota$ly 4ative 3,erican traditions. S!e takes as !er case in "oint t!e use of t!e origin tale in @irgil, *vid, and S"enser, contrasting t!e "olitical and "oetic functions of t!ese s!ort narratives 0it! 8e"ic8 and ree.a,ining t!e "olitical telos of 8e"ic8 in an effort to define a 4e0 World res!a"ing of t!e canon. Taken as a 0!ole, t!e essays in t!is volu,e c!allenge us to t!ink a$out e"ic as a genre t!at is an ongoing atte,"t to tell t!e stories of t!ings "ast in suc! a 0ay as to ,ake t!e, relevant and even necessary to t!e "resent. Bt is "recisely e"ic=s2and e"ics=2su$scri"tion to t!e "rinci"le of conte,"oraneity t!at ,akes it suc! an "o0erful art for, for us to gra""le 0it! today, as 0e not only co,e to understand ,ore fully $ut are ourselves caug!t 0it!in t!e very social, "olitical, and cultural

forces t!at at once influence t!e "roduction of e"ics and are s!a"ed and directed $y t!e,.

Wor/s Cited
Bak!tin, Mik!ail. 1 M1. The "ialogic #magination . 9dited $y Mic!ael ColAuist. Translated $y Caryl 9,erson and Mic!ael ColAuist. 3ustin: University of Te.as Press. Beissinger, Margaret C. 1 1 The Art of autar: The Epic Tradition of -omania. 4e0 Lork: ;arland Pu$lis!ing. Ben1a,in, Walter. 1 ) . #lluminations. 9dited $y Canna! 3rendt. Translated $y Carry Oo!n. 4e0 Lork: Sc!ocken. Bergren, 3nn /. T. 1 M%. 8/anguage and t!e +e,ale in 9arly ;reek T!oug!t.8 Arethusa 1): ) : (. Black$urn, Stuart, Peter Claus, Joyce +lueckiger, and Susan Wadley, eds. 1 M . Oral Epics in #ndia. Berkeley: University of California Press. Cervantes, Miguel de. 1 )M. "on .ui'ote de la /ancha. 9dited $y Martin de 7iAuer. Barcelona: 9ditorial Juventud. Ca,ner, 7o$ert 5., ed. 1 %. Critical Perspecti)es on "ere, Walcott. Was!ington, 5.C.: T!ree Continents Press. /ord, 3l$ert B. 1 )&. The %inger of Tales. Ca,$ridge: Carvard University Press. /ukacs, ;eorg. 1 >1. The Theory of the (o)el: A 0istorico&Philosophical Essay on the 1orms of Great Epic iterature. Translated $y 3nna Bostock. /ondon: Merlin Press. Si,"son, 5avid, ed. 1 MM The Origins of /odern Critical Thought: German Aesthetic iterary Criticism from essing to 0egel. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. Slyo,ovics, Susan. 1 M>. The /erchant of Art: An Egyptian 0ilali Oral Epic Poet in Performance . Berkeley: University of

California Press. Walcott, 5erek. 1 &. Omeros. 4e0 Lork: +arrar, Straus and ;irou.. -1 -

SECTI#N #NE0 #N T1E M%!.INS #$ T1E SC!IB%&2 $!#M #!%& E'IC T# TE3T
- ?1 -

)0 Epic as .enre
.regory Nagy *ne of very fe0 sc!olars 0!o can s"eak aut!oritatively of $ot! oral and 0ritten e"ic traditions, ;regory 4agy confronts t!e su""osed divide $et0een t!ese traditions in t!is $rief and suggestive e."loration into t!e origins of t!e e"ic genre. Bn t!e s"irit of !is earlier 0ork, suc! as The Best of the Achaeans, 0!ic! de,onstrated t!e i,"act of religious and "olitical rituals on t!e Co,eric "oe,s, 4agy de,onstrates t!at epos 0as even for t!e ;reeks an elusive for, 0!ose generic e."ectations and de,ands c!anged considera$ly fro, arc!aic to classical ;reece. Bn t!is rigorous "!ilological reading of t!e ter, epos and its relations!i" to ot!er ter,s suc! as muthos, 4agy cautions us to $e sensitive to t!e varying cultural conditions t!at "roduce !eroic "oetry, arguing against a fi.ed definition of e"ic as suc! in order to encourage ,ore fle.i$le and inclusive ,odels of genre. Bn order to s"eak of e"ic as genre, 0e need a set of 0orking definitions for t!ree not t0o conce"ts: $esides genre and e"ic, 0e need to define t!e conce"t of Co,er as a "rototy"ical e."onent of e"ic as genre. T!is essay develo"s suc! a set, arguing t!at our received idea a$out e"ic results "ri,arily fro, a narro0 understanding of Co,er as t!e aut!or of t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey, to t!e e.clusion of ot!er ancient ;reek traditions, suc! as t!e so:called 9"ic Cycle. 3s 0e 0ill see, it is 3ristotle=s Poetics t!at ulti,ately ,ade t!is idea "revail, 1ust as it is 3ristotle 0!o !as $een ,ost influential in s!a"ing t!e conce"t of genre in general. Bn !is essay 89"ic and 4ovel,8 Mik!ail Bak!tin goes so far as to say: 83ristotle=s Poetics, alt!oug! occasionally so dee"ly e,$edded as to $e al,ost invisi$le, re,ains t!e sta$le foundation for t!e t!eory of genres.8H1I 3 "ro$le, ,ore funda,ental t!an t!e definitions of genre and e"ic is t!e definition of "oetry itself in social conte.ts 0!ere t!e tec!nology of 0riting is involved in neit!er t!e composition nor t!e performance of any given "oe, or song. My invocation of t!e t0o factors of co,"osition and "erfor,ance i,"lies a derivation of ancient ;reek "oetry fro, oral "oetry, as defined t!roug! t!e

co,"arative field0ork criteria develo"ed $y Mil,an Parry and 3l$ert /ord.H?I +ro, /ord=s e,"irical study of living oral traditions, es"ecially t!ose of Sout! Slavic !eroic song, it $eco,es clear t!at co,"osition and "erfor,ance are as"ects of t!e sa,e "rocess in oral "oetry. Bn order to ac!ieve a ,ore accurate ta.ono,y of t!e earliest "!ases of t!e ;reek song:,aking - ?? tradition cul,inating in 8Co,er8 and, ulti,ately, in our received notions of e"ic as genre, t!e t0o factors of co,"osition and "erfor,ance ,ust $e ke"t in ,ind. *nly t!en ,ay 0e arrive at a $asis for considering t!e utility of a conce"t suc! as genre2and of a related conce"t, occasion. Bn addressing t!ese t0o factors of co,"osition and "erfor,ance, B "ro"ose to $ring into "lay a crucial 0ork t!at !as taken t!e, $ot! into account, 7ic!ard P. Martin=s The anguage of 0eroes D1 M E. Martin !as "ioneered an e."licit connection $et0een /ord=s e,"irical o$servations a$out "erfor,ance in living oral traditions and J. /. 3ustin=s t!eories a$out t!e "erfor,ative uses of language, as articulated in !is $ook 0o2 to "o Things 2ith Words D1 )?E. 3s Martin de,onstrates, 3ustin=s for,ulation of t!e "erfor,ative, 0!ere you do so,et!ing 0!en you say so,et!ing, ,es!es 0it! /ord=s for,ulation of "erfor,ance as t!e key to $ringing t!e 0ords of a song to life. To use 3ustin=s 0ording, song is a s"eec! act, as Martin s!o0s in detail 0it! reference to Co,eric "oetry. Bronically, 3ustin !i,self resisted t!e idea t!at "oetry could count as a s"eec! act, and 0e can see clearly t!e reason for !is reluctance: for 3ustin, "oetry is a ,atter of 0riting, not s"eaking. +or 3ustin, t!e di,ension of oral tradition is utterly re,oved fro, !is o0n conce"tuali<ation of "oetry. Martin=s $ook de,onstrates not only t!e self:definition of Co,eric song as a s"eec! act. Bt s!o0s also t!at t!is ,ediu, is ca"a$le of de,onstrating t!e function of song as 8Auoted8 0it!in its overall fra,e of song. T!at is to say, Co,eric song dra,ati<es, as it 0ere, t!e "erfor,ative as"ects of songs t!at it Auotes. Bronically, t!e "erfor,ative as"ects of Co,eric song itself are s!aded over 0!ile t!e "erfor,ative as"ects of t!e songs contained $y it are !ig!lig!ted, including "ronounce,ents of "raise or $la,e, la,ents, "rover$s, and so on. To "ut it anot!er 0ay, Co,eric song s"ecifies t!e occasion of songs t!at it re"resents, or even "resents, 0!ile it leaves vague any "otential occasion for its o0n "erfor,ance. B !ave used t!e 0ord occasion !ere in referring to t!e conte.ts of s"eec! acts 8Auoted8 $y Co,eric song. Bn fact, B a, ready to define occasion as t!e conte.t of a s"eec! act.H%I +urt!er, B define genre as a set of rules t!at "roduce a s"eec! act. Bn offering t!is definition of genre, B follo0 T<vetan Todorov in c!a"ter ? of !is Genres du discours3 for !i,, genres are 8"rinci"les of dyna,ic "roduction8 of discourse in society.H'I Cere B "ro"ose to $uild on t!is ,ost useful for,ulation in t!ree 0ays. +irst, B !o"e to tig!ten u" t!e notion of s"eec! act, correlating it 0it! t!e s"ecific inter0eavings of ,yt! and ritual in traditional societies and dissociating it fro, "urely "!iloso"!ical considerations t!at center on individual 1udg,ents concerning 0!en a s"eec! act is a s"eec! act. +or "ur"oses of t!is "resentation, a s"eec! act is a s"eec! act only 2hen it fits the criteria of - ?% the community in 2hich it is *eing used. To deter,ine t!e validity or invalidity of a s"eec! act is to o$serve its dyna,ics 0it!in t!e co,,unity in Auestion. Second, B 0ould o$serve t!at t!e genre, t!e set of rules t!at generate a given s"eec! act, can eAuate

itself 0it! t!e occasion, t!e conte.t of t!is s"eec! act. To t!is e.tent, t!e occasion is t!e genre.H(I +or e.a,"le, a song of la,ent can eAuate itself 0it! t!e "rocess of grieving for t!e dead. 3 case in "oint is t!e Co,eric use of t!e 0ords a,hos and penthos, $ot! ,eaning 8grief,8 as "rogra,,atic indicators of ritual songs of la,ent.H)I +inally, B 0ould note t!at if t!e occasion is desta$ili<ed or even lost, t!e genre can co,"ensate for it, even recreate it.H>I Bn vie0 of t!ese criteria for defining t!e conce"t of genre, are 0e ready to say t!at e"ic is a genreG *r t!at Co,eric song is e"icG B 0ould suggest t!at t!e ans0er is 84ot yet.8 ;ranted, 0e ,ay say t!at Co,eric song dra,ati<es genres suc! as "ronounce,ents of "raise or $la,e, la,ents, "rover$s, and so on, $ut 0e can recogni<e t!ose genres only *ecause their performati)e aspect is represented *y 0omeric song. By contrast, Co,eric song does not directly refer to its o0n current "erfor,ative as"ect, and so 0e cannot easily recogni<e it as a genre in and of itself. +urt!er, 0e are as yet far fro, $eing a$le to identify Co,eric song as e"ic. +or 3l$ert /ord, in fact, t!e ter, 8e"ic8 is far too vague to $e useful in !is descri"tion of Co,eric song 2,aking2or of its counter"arts in t!e Sout! Slavic traditions: T!e 0ord 8e"ic,8 itself, indeed, !as co,e in ti,e to !ave ,any ,eanings. 9"ic so,eti,es is taken to ,ean si,"ly a long "oe, in 8!ig! style.8 Let a very great nu,$er of t!e "oe,s 0!ic! interest us in t!is $ook are co,"aratively s!ortF lengt!, in fact, is not a criterion of e"ic "oetry. *t!er definitions of e"ic eAuate it 0it! !eroic "oetry. Bndeed t!e ter, 8!eroic "oetry8 is so,eti,es used D$y Sir Cecil M. Bo0ra, for e.a,"leE to a)oid the )ery am*iguity in the 2ord 4epic4 2hich trou*les us. Let "urists ,ig!t very 0ell "oint out t!at ,any of t!e songs 0!ic! 0e include in oral narrative "oetry are ro,antic or !istorical and not !eroic, no ,atter 0!at definition of t!e !ero one ,ay c!oose. Bn oral narrative "oetry, as a ,atter of fact, B 0is! to include all story "oetry, t!e ro,antic or !istorical as 0ell as t!e !eroicF ot!er0ise B 0ould !ave to e.clude a considera$le $ody of ,edieval ,etrical narrative.HMI 5es"ite t!e i,"recision of t!e ter, 8e"ic,8 0e ,ay still say 0it! confidence t!at t!ere are ,any oral traditions strikingly co,"ara$le to 0!at 0e find in t!e 8e"ic8 of Co,er. T!ere !as $een a 0ealt! of co,"arative evidence a$out oral 8e"ics8 collected over recent years in 9astern 9uro"e,H I central 3sia, H1&I t!e Bndian su$continent,H11I 3frica,H1?I and so on.H1%I Bn t!is conte.t, B cannot stress enoug! t!e a$iding i,"ortance of t!e co,"arative evidence "rovided $y t!e Sout! Slavic tradition of 8e"ic8: alt!oug! it is different in ,any 0ays - ?' fro, 0!at 0e see in t!e Co,eric "oe,s, t!is tradition, as Martin argues, 8still !as a clai, to $eing one of t!e $est co,"aranda.8H1'I But t!e "oint is, 0!at leads us to "ersist in referring to t!e Sout! Slavic tradition as 8e"ic8 is t!e influence of received notions a$out Co,eric "oetry. My furt!er "oint is t!at t!e classical ;reek idea of e"ic, as "resu""osed $y t!ese received notions, needs to $e situated in its o0n !istorical conte.t. *nce 0e see it in t!at lig!t, t!is idea of e"ic ,ay continue to serve as a useful "oint of co,"arison, $ut it cannot any longer $e i,"osed as so,e kind of universal standard. 3""lying co,"aratively t!e classical ;reek idea of e"ic, one 3fricanist !as develo"ed a 0orking definition, $ased on !is e."erience 0it! living oral traditions of 3frica and else0!ere: 3n oral e"ic is funda,entally a tale a$out t!e fantastic deeds of a ,an or ,en endo0ed

0it! so,et!ing ,ore t!an !u,an ,ig!t and o"erating in so,et!ing larger t!an t!e nor,al !u,an conte.t and it is of significance in "ortraying so,e stage of t!e cultural or "olitical develo",ent of a "eo"le. Bt is usually narrated or "erfor,ed to t!e $ackground of ,usic $y an unlettered singer 2or,ing alone or 2ith some assistance from a group of accompanists. H1(I 3lt!oug! t!ere is no need to i,"ose classicist ,odels like t!e classical conce"t of e"ic on indigenous 3frican oral "oetic for,s,H1)I and alt!oug! /ord !i,self, as 0e !ave seen, !as e."lored t!e in!erent difficulties of defining e"ic in ter,s of living oral traditions,H1>I t!e fact re,ains t!at t!ere are striking e,"irically o$serva$le analogies in a 0ide range of 3frican oral "oetic for,s to 0!at any classicist 0ould indeed classify as e"ic.H1MI 3s one 3fricanist "uts it, 8T!e $urden of e."lanation t!erefore rests 0it! t!ose sc!olars 0!o, for reasons $est kno0n to t!e,selves, $andy a$out "!rases like =e"ic "oetry in t!e nor,al sense of t!e 0ord= and contend t!at on t!e 0!ole t!e !eroic narrative traditions in 3frica yield little ,ore t!an =certain elements of e"ic.=8H1 I W!at is needed, t!en, is an understanding of e"ic t!at acco,,odates co,"arative "ers"ectives: W!at is e"ic according to one definition ,ay $e e.cluded according to anot!er. 3nd, ,ost i,"ortant, a general definition of a genre 0ill often violate t!e internal definition of genres inside a given society. Bdeally, if oral e"ic 0ere to $e directly co,"ara$le fro, one society to anot!er, it 0ould not $e enoug! t!at t!e e"ic genres t!e,selves 0ere si,ilarF t!eir "lace in t!e general s"ectr Hu,I of literary for,s of t!e society in Auestion oug!t to $e si,ilar too.H?&I +urt!er, it is not enoug! to say t!at 8e"ic8 ,ay or ,ay not e.ist as a genre in t!e oral traditions of a given society. +or e"ic to $e a 8genre,8 it !as to !ave a functional relations!i" of interde"endence or co,"le,entarity 0it! anot!er 8genre8 or ot!er 8genres.8 T!e "rinci"le of co,"le,entarity is key to /aura Slatkin=s for,ulation of genre in oral traditions: - ?( ;enres can $e vie0ed, like ot!er cultural institutions, as e.isting in a relationship of interdependence, in 0!ic! t!ey !ave co,"le,entary functions in conveying different as"ects of a co!erent ideology or syste, of $eliefs a$out t!e 0orld. T!e crucial "oint a$out t!ese distinctions or differentiations is t!eir complementarity: t!ey e.ist 0it!in, and serve to co,"lete, a conce"tion a$out t!e 0ay t!e 0orld is ordered.H?1I T!us genre is not an a$solute.H??I We ,ay a""ly t!e classical ;reek ,odel of e"ic for co,"arative "ur"oses only after 0e succeed in defining e"ic as a genre in relation to ot!er genres 0it!in t!e !istorical conte.t of classical and "re:classical ;reece.H?%I T!e earliest availa$le evidence is t!e usage t!at 0e find in Co,eric song, 0!ere t!e 0ord epos is regularly used as a co,"le,ent to muthos: as Martin !as argued, muthos is a ,arked 0ay to designate s"eec!, 0!ereas epos is t!e un,arked 0ay2at least 0it! reference to an o""osition 0it! muthos.H?'I Martin defines t!e ter,s 8,arked8 and 8un,arked8 as follo0s: 8T!e =,arked= ,e,$er of a "air carries greater se,antic 0eig!t, $ut can $e used across a narro0er range of situations, 0!ereas t!e un,arked ,e,$er2t!e ,ore colorless ,e,$er of t!e o""osition2can $e used to denote a $roader range, e)en that range co)ered *y the mar,ed mem*er: it is t!e ,ore general ter,.8H?(I T!e Co,eric sense of muthos, in Martin=s 0orking definition, is 8a s"eec!:act indicating aut!ority, "erfor,ed at lengt!, usually in pu*lic, 0it! a focus on full attention to every detail.8H?)I T!is is t!e 0ord used $y Co,eric song in referring to genres t!at are dra,ati<ed 2ithin Co,eric song, suc! as "ronounce,ents of "raise or $la,e, la,ents, "rover$s, and so on.H?>I To t!is e.tent, muthos is not 1ust any s"eec! act re"orted $y

song: it is also t!e s"eec! act t!at is t!e song itself, t!e 8e"ic8 of Co,er.H?MI T!e Co,eric counter"art epos, on t!e ot!er !and, is 8an utterance, ideally s!ort, acco,"anying a "!ysical act, and focusing on ,essage, as "erceived $y t!e addressee, rat!er t!an on "erfor,ance as enacted $y t!e s"eaker.8H? I 3s t!e un,arked ,e,$er of t!e o""osition, epos or its "lural epea can occur even in conte.ts 0!ere muthos 0ould $e a""ro"riate.H%&I *n t!e ot!er !and, 8one can never si,"ly su$stitute t!e se,antically restricted ter, muthos&meaning aut!oritative s"eec!:act, or ="erfor,ance=2for t!e ordinary ter, epos.4H%1I W!ereas epos can $e found in "lace of muthos in Co,eric diction, t!e reverse does not !a""en: 8Bn Co,er, a s"eec! e."licitly said to $e an epos, and not also re"resented as epea Dt!e "luralE, is never called a muthos.4 +urt!er, 4epea can co:occur to refer to a muthos, $ut muthoi in t!e "lural is never correlated 0it! t!e singular for, epos, to descri$e a s"eec!.8H%?I 9ven if epos designates 8ordinary8 s"eec! 0!en early ;reek e"ic refers to s"eec!, 0e ,ust kee" in ,ind t!at t!e un,arked category of 8ordinary8 s"eec! is a 8default8 category: 8=*rdinary= is a varia$le conce"t, de"ending on 0!atever is $eing "erceived as =s"ecial= in a given co,"arison or set of - ?) co,"arisons.8H%%I +urt!er, 8t!e "erce"tion of "lain or everyday s"eec! is a varia$le a$straction t!at de"ends on t!e concrete reali<ation of 0!atever s"ecial s"eec! . . . is set a"art for a s"ecial conte.t.8H%'I Bn t!e case at !and, if it 0ere not for t!e o""osition to un,arked epos $y 0ay of ,arked muthos, t!e 0ord epos need not designate s"eec! t!at is 8ideally s!ort,8 nor need it $e "erceived as ,erely 8focusing on ,essage.8H%(I 9ven an ad1ective added to t!e "lural of un,arked epos can ac!ieve a ,arked o""osite of epos in Co,eric diction: as Martin s!o0s, epea pteroenta, 80inged 0ords8 is a functional synony, of muthos in denoting certain kinds of ,arked s"eec!.H%)I Bf muthos can designate song as "erfor,ed, t!en so too can epos, "rovided t!at muthos is not contrasted 0it! it. We ,ay see in t!e Co,eric ter,, epea pteroenta, 80inged 0ords,8 a "oetic e."ression t!at recogni<es t!e se,antic "otential of t!e 0ord epos to designate, in its o0n rig!t, song as performed. T!is "otential gets activated as soon as epos gets detac!ed fro, its co,"le,entarity 0it! muthos. Suc! a detac!,ent, B suggest, is ,ade !istorically "er,anent $y t!e eventual se,antic desta$ili<ation of t!e 0ord muthos. Bn "ost:Co,eric conte.ts, as B !ave argued else0!ere, t!e 0ords alethes, 8true,8 and aletheia, 8trut!,8 evolve in e."licit o""osition to t!e 0ord muthos in conte.ts 0!ere true s"eec! is $eing contrasted 0it! ot!er for,s of s"eec! t!at are discredited, t!at cannot $e trusted De.g., Pindar Olympian 1.? :%&E.H%>I 3s t!e 0ord alethes, 8true,8 or aletheia, 8trut!,8 $eco,es ,arked in o""osition to muthos, 0!ic! in turn $eco,es un,arked in t!e conte.t of suc! o""osition, t!e ,eaning of muthos $eco,es ,arginali<ed to ,ean so,et!ing like 8,yt!8 in t!e "o"ular sense of t!e 0ord as it is used today in referring to t!e o""osite of trut!.H%MI T!e ,arginali<ation of muthos, resulting fro, its relatively later o""osition to aelthes, 8true,8 or aletheia, 8trut!,8 ,ay $e "ertinent to t!e earlier o""osition of ,arked muthos and un,arked epos.H% I We ,ay allo0 for t!e "ossi$ility t!at t!e un,arked ,e,$er of t!is earlier o""osition !ad once $een t!e ,arked ,e,$er in still earlier sets of o""osition.H'&I T!e se,antic ,arkedness of epos ree,erges in "ost:Co,eric conte.ts: as Martin "oints out, t!is 0ord $egins to a""ear in t!e s"eciali<ed sense of 8"oetic utterance8 and even 8dactylic !e.a,eter verse.8H'1I Bn ot!er 0ords, t!e se,antic s"eciali<ation of epos in "ost:Co,eric conte.ts suggests t!at it !ad once $een a ,arked 0ord in o""osition to so,e ot!er un,arked 0ord for 8s"eec!,8 and t!at 8it !ad served as an un,arked 0ord in Co,eric diction only 0it!in t!e fra,e0ork of an o""osition 0it! muthos.4H'?I Bn our o0n conte,"orary usage of t!e 9nglis! 0ords epic and myth, 0e see indirect refle.es of t!e later se,antic s"eciali<ation of epos, and

of t!e later se,antic s"eciali<ation of muthos. 3s "arallels to 9nglis! epic and myth, 0e ,ay look $ack and co,"are 3ristotle=s use of epe Dt!e 3ttic for, of epea E in t!e sense of e"ic and of muthos in t!e sense of ,yt! as 8"lot.8H'%I Mention of 3ristotle $rings us full:circle, finally, to !is o0n conce"t of - ?> 8e"ic,8 0!ic! !e regularly designates as epe. 4ear t!e $eginning of t!e Poetics D1''>a1':1(E, !e says: 8T!e ,aking of epe5epopoiia6 and t!e ,aking 5poiesis6 of tragedy, also co,edy, and t!e ,aking 5& poieti,e6 of dit!yra,$s, and t!e H,akingI of reed songs and lyre songs:all t!ese are in "oint of fact for,s of mimesis, $y and large8.

. +or 3ristotle, as 0e can see fro, t!e underlined "ortions of t!e "assage, t!ere e.ists a $asic co,"le,entarity $et0een e"ic and tragedy, as also $et0een tragedy and co,edy. Bf 0e follo0 Slatkin=s for,ulation of genre in oral traditions, it is t!e "rinci"le of co,"le,entarity !ere t!at defines e"ic as genre, in o""osition to t!e genre of tragedy. 3nalogously, it is t!e "rinci"le of co,"le,entarity t!at defines tragedy as genre, in o""osition to t!e genre of co,edy, and so on. Bn t!e !istorical conte.t of classical 3t!enian traditions, it see,s "refera$le to s"ecify t!at t!ese genres are a ,atter of performance traditions, not so ,uc! oral traditions in a looser sense of t!e ter, 8oral.8 Bn 3t!ens, during a "eriod starting roug!ly fro, t!e ,iddle of t!e si.t! century and running t!roug! t!e fourt!, tragedy and co,edy can $e vie0ed as t0o co,"le,entary genres evolving side $y side and $eco,ing ,utually assi,ilated as performance media 0it!in t!e fra,e0ork of a ,a1or 3t!enian state festival, t!e City 5ionysia. Bn t!e sa,e !istorical conte.t, 0e can see taking s!a"e an analogous co,"le,entarity $et0een tragedy and e"ic, evolving side $y side and $eco,ing ,utually assi,ilated as "erfor,ance ,edia 0it!in t!e t0o co,"le,entary fra,e0orks of t!e City 5ionysia and t!e Panat!enaia res"ectively, su$su,ed under t!e larger fra,e0ork of t!e overall cycle of 3t!enian state festivals.H''I 3""lying 3ristotle=s "oint of vie0, 0e ,ay 1ustifia$ly descri$e t!e Co,eric #liad and Odyssey as t!e genre of e"ic2$ut only in t!e !istorical conte.t of 3t!ens during t!e "eriod 1ust noted, starting roug!ly fro, t!e ,iddle of t!e si.t! century and running t!roug! t!e fourt!. Bn a se"arate 0ork, B !ave argued e.tensively t!at t!is "articular "!ase in t!e evolution of Co,eric song ,aking re"resents $ut one of at least five distinct "eriods, 8+ive 3ges of Co,er.8H'(I 5uring t!is "articular "!ase, t!e eAuivalent of 8"eriod %8 0it!in an evolutionary sc!e,e of five "eriods, t!e very idea of 8Co,er8 as aut!or $eca,e restricted to t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey, to t!e e.clusion of a vast reservoir of additional or alternative ,aterial kno0n as t!e 9"ic Cycle.H')I +or 3ristotle, t!e 8aut!ors8 of t!e 9"ic Cycle are clearly distinct

fro, t!e Co,er of t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey DPoetics 1'( $1:>E. 3s 0e read t!e 0ords of t!e fourt!: century 3t!enian states,an /ycurgus DAgainst eocrates 1&?E declaring t!at only t!e epe 20!ic! 0e ,ay no0 confidently translate 8e"ic82of Co,er could $e "erfor,ed at t!e +east of t!e Panat!enaia in 3t!ens, 0e can $e sure of 0!at !e ,eans: for /ycurgus, only t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey can $e considered true e"ic.H'>I - ?M Bn su,, 0e ,ay e."ect t!e criteria for deter,ining t!e status of e"ic as genre to vary fro, culture to culture, even fro, "eriod to "eriod 0it!in a culture. W!en Bak!tin s"eaks of 8e"ic8 in !is essay 89"ic and 4ovel,8 !e o$viously !as in ,ind t!e ta.ono,y of 3ristotle. 3nd yet, as valid as 3ristotle=s criteria ,ay $e fro, a classical and "ostclassical ;reek "oint of vie0, t!ey cannot $e universali<ed or a$soluti<ed. 9ven in t!e ancient ;reek e"ics t!at 0e !ave, t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey, 0e ,ay detect "atterns of co,"le,entarity t!at "oint to t!e need for genre distinctions t!at reAuire su$divisions of 3ristotle=s notion of 8e"ic.8 B 0ould go so far as to say t!at Bak!tin=s !er,eneutic ,odel of 8e"ic,8 if 0e follo0 t!roug! on !is criteria for distinguis!ing it fro, 8novel,8 fit t!e #liad only, to t!e e.clusion of t!e Odyssey, 0!ic! actually see,s ,ore a""ro"riate to Bak!tin=s !er,eneutic ,odel of 8novel,8 not 8e"ic.8 Bf 0e take a $roader vie0 of ancient ;reek civili<ation, t!ere are still furt!er "ossi$le criteria to consider. +or e.a,"le, in lig!t of ty"ological evidence for oral 8e"ics8 trans,itted $y 0o,en in various cultures,H'MI 0e ,ay see in song '' of Sa""!o, 8T!e Wedding of Cektor and 3ndro,ac!e,8 t!e traces of earlier ;reek 8e"ic8 traditions t!at could cross $ack and fort! $et0een fe,ale and ,ale "erfor,ative conventions.H' I Bn t!is connection, B invoke a distinction ,ade $y Joyce +lueckiger and /aurie Sears in t!eir general for,ulation of e"ic: 89"ic narratives e.ist $ot! as oral and as "erfor,ance traditions.8H(&I Bn ter,s of t!ese s!ort!and designations 8oral traditions8 and 8"erfor,ance traditions,8 0e ,ay in effect distinguis! $et0een 8a general kno0ledge of t!e =0!ole story= Das su,,aryE t!at ,any in t!e folklore co,,unity 0ould $e a$le to relate and t!e e"ic as it is "erfor,ed in a ,arked, artistic enact,ent of t!at oral tradition.8H(1I T!at is to say, t!ere is a ga" $et0een t!e notional totality of e"ic as oral tradition and t!e "ractical li,itations of e"ic in actual "erfor,ance: T!us, alt!oug! sc!olars !ave s"ent considera$le energy recording e"ic stories 8fro, $eginning to end,8 counting t!e nu,$er of !ours and "ages reAuired to do so, t!is is not !o0 t!e e"ic is received $y indigenous audiences. +urt!er, certain e"isodes of t!e e"ic are "erfor,ed ,ore freAuently t!an ot!ersF and t!ere ,ay $e e"isodes t!at e.ist only in t!e oral tradition and not in "erfor,ance at all.H(?I T!is insig!t ,ay "rove to $e a key to understanding t!e inclusiveness of 8e"ic8 as a for,, or even as a genre: if indeed e"ic can $e reali<ed infor,ally as 0ell as for,ally, it $eco,es t!e ideal ,ultifor,, acco,,odating a variety of for,s. B dra0 attention to t!e inclusiveness, t!e notional 0!oleness, of Co,eric "oetry. Cere is a genre t!at $eco,es a container, as it 0ere, of a vast variety of ot!er genres, reali<ed in varying for,s of "erfor,ance and in varying degrees of for,ality in "erfor,ance. Cere is a re"ertoire s!ared -? $y ,en and 0o,en, re"lete 0it! stories suita$le for a $road s"ectru, of different "erfor,ances, ranging fro, t!e songs of Sa""!o to t!e decla,ations of r!a"sodes 0!o clai,, at t!e very start of t!eir

"erfor,ances, to $e Co,er !i,self.H(%I Cere, finally, is a ,ediu, of discourse t!at sees itself as all: e,$racing of t!e society identified $y it and identifying 0it! it.

Wor/s Cited
3ustin, J. /. 1 )?. 0o2 to "o Things 2ith Words. 4e0 Lork: *.ford University Press. Bak!tin, Mik!ail M. 1 M1 89"ic and 4ovel: To0ard a Met!odology for t!e Study of t!e 4ovel.8 Bn The "ialogic #magination: 1our Essays *y /. /. Ba,htin, edited $y M. ColAuist and translated $y C. 9,erson and M. ColAuist, %:'&. 3ustin: University of Te.as Press. Bau,an, 7. 1 >>. 7er*al Art as Performance. 7o0ley, Mass.: 4e0$ury Couse Pu$lis!ers. Ben:3,os, 5. 1 >). 83nalytical Categories and 9t!nic ;enres.8 Bn 1ol,lore Genres, edited $y 5. Ben:3,os, ?1(:?'?. 3ustin: University of Te.as Press. Black$urn, S. C., P.J. Claus, J. B. +lueckiger, and S. S. Wadley, eds. 1 M Oral Epics in #ndia. Berkeley and /os 3ngeles: University of California Press. - %1 9d0ards, @., and T. J. Sienke0ic<. 1 &. Oral Cultures Past and Present: -appin$ and 0omer. *.ford and Ca,$ridge, Mass.: B. Black0ell. +innegan, 7. 1 >& Oral iterature in Africa. *.ford and /ondon: Clarendon Press. +lueckiger, J. B. 1 ). Gender and Genre in the 1ol,lore of /iddle #ndia. Bt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press. 1 M . 8Caste and 7egional @ariants in an *ral 9"ic Tradition.8 Bn Oral Epics in #ndia, edited $y S. C. Black$urn et al., %%:('. Berkeley and /os 3ngeles: University of California Press. +lueckiger, J. B., and Sears, /. J., eds. 1 1. Boundaries of the Te+t: Epic Performances in %outh and %outheast Asia. 3nn 3r$or: University of

Mic!igan Press. +oley, J. M. 1 M(. Oral&1ormulaic Theory and -esearch: An #ntroduction and Annotated Bi*liography. 4e0 Lork: ;arland Pu$lis!ing. Cains0ort!, J. B. 1 1. The #dea of Epic. Berkeley and /os 3ngeles: University of California Press. Jensen, M. Skafte. 1 M& The 0omeric .uestion and the Oral&1ormulaic Theory. *"uscula ;raeco:/atina, Su""le,enta Musei Tusculani ?&. Co"en!agen: Tusculanu, Press. 6oller, C. 1 >?. 89"os.8 Glotta (&: 1):?'. /ord, 3. B. 1 (. The %inger -esumes the Tale. 9dited $y M. /. /ord. Bt!aca, 4.L: Cornell University Press. 1 1. Epic %ingers and Oral Tradition. Bt!aca, 4.L: Cornell University Press. 1 )&. The %inger of Tales. Ca,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press. Martin, 7. P. 1 M The anguage of 0eroes: %peech and Performance in the 4#liad.4 Bt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press. 4agy, ;. 1 >. 83n Bnventory of 5e$ata$le 3ssu,"tions a$out a Co,eric Puestion.8 Bryn /a2r Classical -e)ie2 89.:. 1M. 1 )a. 0omeric .uestions. 3ustin: University of Te.as Press. 1 )$. Poetry as Perfor,ance: Co,er and Beyond. 4e0 Lork: Ca,$ridge University Press. 1 &. Pindar$s 0omer: The yric Possession of an Epic Past. Balti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press. Pa"er$ack, 0it! corrections, 1 '. 1 > . The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the 0ero in Archaic Gree, Poetry. Balti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press. ?nd ed., 0it! ne0 fore0ord, 1 .

*k"e0!o, B. 1 > . The Epic in Africa: To2ard a Poetics of the Oral Performance. 4e0 Lork: Colu,$ia University Press. - %? Parry, Mil,an. 1 >1. The /a,ing of 0omeric 7erse: The Collected Papers of /ilman Parry. 9dited $y 3da, Parry. *.ford: Clarendon Press. 7eic!l, 6. 1 ? Tur,ic Oral Epic Poetry: Traditions, 1orms, Poetic %tructure. 4e0 Lork: ;arland Pu$lis!ing. Slatkin, /. 1 M>. 8;enre and ;eneration in t!e Odyssey.4 /0T#C: -e)ue d$anthropologie du monde grec ancien ?: ?( :?)M. S,it!, P. 1 >'. 85es genres et des !o,,es.8 Po;ti<ue 1 : ? ':%1?. Todorov, T<vetan. 1 &. Genres in "iscourse. Translated $y C. Porter. Ca,$ridge and 4e0 Lork: Ca,$ridge University Press. *riginally "u$lis!ed as es genres du discours DParis, 1 >ME. - %% -

40 'erforming Interpretation2 Early %llegorical E5egesis of 1omer

%ndre6 $ord 9t!nogra"!ic accounts of living e"ic traditions s!o0 t!at 8conte.t8 is a very co,"le. t!ing t!at can e.tend to "roviding a social fra,e for t!e rece"tion and evaluation of "oetry as 0ell for its "erfor,ance. 3ndre0 +ord=s essay e."lores !o0 far 0e ,ay discern suc! traditions of "erfor,ing e"ic inter"retation $e!ind t!e te.ts of Co,er. +ord=s focus is e"ic=s very ancient connection 0it! allegory, and !e s!o0s t!at even suc! an a""arently te.tual affair as allegoresis can $e fully understood only in t!e lig!t of social and "olitical conte.ts of inter"retation. +ord turns to "re:Socratic evidence to argue t!at allegoresis $eco,es a "art of t!e Co,erist=s arsenal a full century $efore t!e early so"!ists and t0o centuries

$efore 3ristotle=s Poetics. 9s"ecially in t!e conte.t of t!e arc!aic ;reek city, t!e use of allegorical co,,entary allo0ed "erfor,ers to constitute a select, elite audience, giving t!ose 0it! "retension to cultural leaders!i" in t!e city a clai, to aut!ority $ased on !aving access to an e.clusive ,eaning intended for an e.clusive audience. T!e study of living e"ic traditions valua$ly re,inds readers of Co,er t!at an oral "oe, is never "resented to an audience 8in itself8 $ut al0ays in t!e conte.t of "erfor,ative conventions, 0!ic! can "o0erfully deter,ine its significance.H1I Because t!e Co,eric "oe,s !ave for so long e.erted t!eir influence on Western criticis, and "oetry in t!e for, of canoni<ed te.ts2scru"ulously reconstructed in Cellenistic acade,ies and ,inutely e.a,ined in ;reek and 7o,an classroo,s2it ,ay $e difficult fully to a""reciate t!at in t!eir case, too, "erfor,ative conte.t 0as not so,et!ing 8e.tra8 added to t!e 8"ure8 te.t $ut 0as ine.trica$le fro, e"ic as a social and cultural o$1ect. 3,ong t!e 0ays in 0!ic! conte.t ,ay s!a"e a "oe, on a given occasion is $y "roviding a structured foru, for t!e evaluation and inter"retation of e"ic as 0ell for its "erfor,ance. So,e ,easure of 0!at a te.t of Co,er cannot give to ,odern readers is suggested $y 50ig!t 7eynolds=s recent et!nogra"!ic account of 3ra$ic e"ic "oets in t!e 4ile 5elta: Bn al:Bakatus! one attends a "erfor,ance of e"ic first of all to "artici"ate in and s!are a social e."erience and only secondarily to attend to t!e 8te.t.8 Bn essence, t!e social action 0it!in t!e event is, in t!is indigenous 8reading,8 t!e te+t. . . . T!e sar!a He"ic "erfor,anceI is a stage for social interactionF t!oug! - %' e"ic singing ,ay for, t!e focus of an evening=s activities, t!e acco,"anying discussions, evaluations, argu,ents, and storytelling constitute, in a very real sense, t!e !eart of t!e event.H?I Plato=s #on confir,s t!e i,"ortance and antiAuity of suc! co,,entary in ;reek traditions of e"ic "erfor,ance. Bon, a "rofessional e."ert on Co,er, !as a dou$le "rofessional co,"etence: not only can !e give dra,atic recitations fro, t!e "oe,s, $ut !e !as also la$ored to acAuire a stock of enno$ling o$servations on t!eir ,eanings or 8t!oug!ts8 Dpollai ,ai ,alai dianoiai, #on (%&5E. Bndeed, !e says, t!is !as cost !i, ,ore effort t!an ,astering t!e "oe,s t!e,selves D(%&CE. T!is as"ect of Bon=s "ractice is traditional and not decadent, for !e clai,s to inter"ret Co,er $etter t!an a !ost of conte,"oraries and 4anyone 2ho e)er li)ed.4 Let t!e #on also neatly s!o0s t!at in t!e fourt! century B.C.9. e.egesis and co,,entary 0ere regarded as detac!a$le fro, a notional te.t:in:itself: 0it! so,e co,ic irony, Socrates "olitely $ut re"eatedly declines t!e r!a"sode=s offers to "erfor, D(%&5, (%)5E. 3ll t!e "!iloso"!er 0ants fro, t!e r!a"sode is t!at !e re"roduce "ieces of Co,er=s te.t for Socratic analysis, and t!e dialogue ends 0it! Bon=s s!o0 of 8e,$ellis!ing8 D,osmein E or 8"raising8 Co,er D#on (%)5E indefinitely "ost"oned. T!e "resent study ai,s to recover ,ore fully so,e of t!e inter"retative "ractices and traditions t!at surrounded Co,eric "oetry 0!en it 0as still circulating "ri,arily in oral "erfor,ances. S"ecifically, B 0ill focus on a ti,e 0!en it a""ears t!at t!e e.egesis of Co,er under0ent a radical c!ange: !istories of literature re"ort t!at allegorical inter"retation in t!e West can $e traced $ack to ;reek readings of Co,er in t!e last Auarter of t!e si.t! century B.C.9.H%I 3 certain T!eagenes fro, 7!egiu, in sout!ern Btaly is recorded as t!e first to !ave inter"reted Co,er in a 0ay t!at, for e.a,"le, 0ould see $eneat! t!e $attles $et0een gods in t!e #liad a coded descri"tion of t!e natural strife t!at "revails a,ong t!e "!ysical ele,ents co,"osing t!e 0orld. Bn t!is !e is su""osed to !ave $een defending t!e traditional gods against conte,"orary rationali<ing critiAues. B revisit t!is e"isode $ot! $ecause B $elieve t!at

current accounts of t!is key ,o,ent in t!e construction of t!e Western e"ic tradition s!ould $e revised, and ,ore generally to urge t!at "urely r!etorical analyses of te.tual traditions re,ain inadeAuate to t!e e.tent t!at t!ey do not consider criticis, and inter"retation as 0!at 7eynolds calls a 8social act.8 B s!all first revie0 t!e evidence for T!eagenes, considering conte,"orary influences and "ossi$le "recursors for !is allegoresis D$y 0!ic! B ,ean allegory as an inter"retative ,odeE. Bn order to understand t!e sco"e and "ur"ort of !is "ro1ect, B s!all reconsider t!e !istory of ter,s for allegory, focusing on a stunning e.a,"le of allegorical e.egesis fro, t!e fourt! century B.C.9. T!is te.t 0ill suggest t!at in its earliest "!ase e"ic allegory 0as understood on t!e ,odel of a 0ides"read and significant ,ode of s"eec! in - %( arc!aic ;reece, t!e riddling ainos. Clarifying t!e relations!i" $et0een e"ic and ainos at t!is ti,e 0ill allo0 ,e to redescri$e t!e ai,s of early e"ic allegoresis $y considering it not a$stractly as a "ro$le, of t!eology or signification, $ut functionally as a 0ay of e."anding t!e uses of e"ic and of discourses a$out e"ic in "articular social conte.ts.

Theagenes and 1is Times2 Sources of %llegoresis

3lt!oug! t!e 8e.tra:te.tual8 discourses t!at situated ;reek e"ic for its earliest audiences 0ere not "reserved 0!en oral "erfor,ance 0as converted into te.t, so,e of 0!at r!a"sodes, littKrateurs, and sc!ool,asters said in e."laining Co,er ,ade its 0ay into early 0ritten treatises on Co,er=s life and "oetry and eventually into ancient co,,entaries. T!ese co,,entaries, $eing ke"t "!ysically a"art fro, t!e "oe,s, 0ere t!e,selves lost, $ut a nu,$er of s"ecific inter"retative o$servations survived and foug!t t!eir 0ay $ack into t!e te.ts of t!e "oe,s in t!e for, of ,arginal co,,ents and interlinear glosses "reserved in ,edieval ,anuscri"ts. Cence it is t!at t!e late note of a sc!oliast is often our only link to ancient traditions of 8e,$ellis!ing8 t!e Co,eric "oe,s 0it! co,,entary. T!e "ri,e "iece of evidence for T!eagenes co,es fro, one suc! sc!oliast on t!e #liad. T!e "assage to $e co,,ented u"on is #liad ?&.)>ff., in 0!ic! t!e *ly,"ians are set free $y Oeus to descend to t!e Tro1an Plain and fig!t eac! ot!er for t!e fate of t!e city. W!en t!e "oet $egins to catalogue !o0 Poseidon lined u" against 3"ollo, t!e War ;od against 3"!rodite, Cera against 3t!ena, and so on2t!e sc!oliast re,arks: Bn general, HCo,er=sI account of t!e gods tends to $e 0ort!less and unsuita$le, for t!e ,yt!s !e tells a$out t!e gods are ina""ro"riate. To suc! c!arges as t!is, so,e re"ly on t!e $asis of Co,er=s 0ay of s"eaking Hle+is6, !olding t!at everyt!ing is said $y 0ay of allegory 5allegoria6 and refers to t!e nature of t!e ele,ents, as in t!e "assage 0!ere t!e gods sAuare off against one anot!er. +or t!ey say t!at t!e dry $attles 0it! t!e 0et, t!e !ot 0it! t!e cold, and t!e lig!t 0it! t!e !eavy. Moreover, 0ater e.tinguis!es fire 0!ile fire eva"orates 0ater, so t!at t!ere is an o""osition $et0een all t!e ele,ents co,"osing t!e universe, 0!ic! ,ay suffer destruction in "art $ut re,ains eternal as a 0!ole. Bn setting out t!ese $attles Co,er gives fire t!e na,e 3"ollo, Celius, or Ce"!aestus, !e calls 0ater Poseidon or Sca,ander, t!e ,oon 3rte,is, t!e air Cera, and so on. Bn a si,ilar 0ay !e so,eti,es gives na,es of t!e gods to !u,an faculties: intelligence is 3t!ena, folly is 3res, desire 3"!rodite, s"eec! Cer,es, according to 0!at is c!aracteristic of eac!. 4o0 t!is kind of defense is very old and goes $ack to T!eagenes of 7!egiu,, 0!o first 0rote a$out Co,er.H'I 3 good deal of caution is reAuired in evaluating suc! infor,ation. T!is note !as $een traced to Por"!yry, t!e 4eo"latonist "!iloso"!er and co,,entator on Co,er of t!e t!ird century C.9. Cis

account is t!us so,e eig!t cen: - %) turies after t!e ti,e of T!eagenes, 0!o is "laced $y anot!er source in t!e last Auarter of t!e si.t! century B.C.9.H(I Por"!yry de"ends on inter,ediary sources no0 unkno0n,H)I and it is t!ese sources 0!o ,ay $e res"onsi$le for t!e s"ecific allegorical eAuivalencies listedF to T!eagenes, Por"!yry only ascri$es t!e ,et!od of a"ologetic allegoresis of Co,er as a 0!ole. Bn addition, t!ere are "ri,a facie "ro$le,s 0it! t!is "iece of !istory. ;reek sc!olars !ad a "enc!ant for 8discovering8 founding figures for any significant cultural "ractice, and one ,ay dou$t on its face any clai, t!at allegoresis !ad a single founder or a definite starting "oint. 3fter all, Co,er and Cesiod offer allegories in t!eir "oe,s, H>I and Co,er=s c!aracters even e.!i$it an a"titude for t!e allegoresis of divine and !eroic na,es.HMI Bf it is scarcely credi$le t!at T!eagenes could !ave invented e"ic allegoresis single:!andedly, it $eco,es difficult to s"ecify 0!at !e did t!at 0as re,arka$le, es"ecially if, as 5enis +eeney suggests, !e did not!ing ,ore t!an ety,ologi<e a fe0 na,es of Co,eric gods along t!e lines of eAuating 8Cera8 0it! 83ir.8H I Cis fa,e ,ay $e due si,"ly to t!e fact t!at !e ,anaged to leave an e.a,"le of !is inter"retative "ractice in a 0ritten te.t, t!e one re,e,$ered as t!e first treatise on Co,er. H1&I Still, t!e te.t T!eagenes e."ounded and 0rote on 0as Co,er=s, and no one else 0as re,e,$ered to !ave done so earlier. *ur sources t!en ,ay $e taken as indicating t!at in t!e later si.t! century t!e traditions in 0!ic! ;reek e"ic 0ere !anded do0n and co,,ented u"on c!anged in t!e sense t!at at t!at ti,e allegorical e.egesis $eca,e "ro,inent and 0as incor"orated into t!e re"ertoires of recogni<ed aut!orities on e"ic. T!e Auestion is, W!yG Cistories of criticis, !ave understood T!eagenes= allegoresis as a res"onse to late si.t!:century rationalist attacks on e"ic ,yt! $y t!e likes of t!e "!iloso"!ers Qeno"!anes, Ceraclitus, and "er!a"s Pyt!agoras.H11I Qeno"!anes in "articular "rovides a suggestive conte.tF t!is "oet, "erfor,er, and savant s"ent a good "art of !is life in cities very near T!eagenes= 7!egiu, and !as left us re,arka$le "oe,s t!at "ro"ound a ne0 vision of divinity 0!ile critici<ing t!e traditional re"resentations of gods to $e found in Co,er and Cesiod. 5eclaring t!at 8t!ere is one god greatest a,ong gods and ,en, # rese,$ling ,ortals neit!er in $odily for, nor in t!oug!t8 DB?%56E, !e issued $iting critiAues of ;reek ant!ro"o,or"!is,, saying t!at if ani,als could "aint and scul"t, t!en !orses 0ould fas!ion gods t!at looked like !orses and co0s like co0s DB1( 56E. 5evotees of Co,er could !ardly !ave en1oyed all t!is, and t!ey ,ay !ave felt re$uked 0!en Qeno"!anes conde,ned t!ose 0!o sing a$out t!e $attles of Titans, Centaurs, and ;iants, t!e 8fa$rications of ,en of old in 0!ic! t!ere is not!ing of value8 DB1.?1: ?% 56E. Ju.ta"osed 0it! t!e activities of t!is near$y conte,"orary, T!eagenes= "ractice $eco,es co,"re!ensi$le if 0e vie0 !i, as a r!a"sode or at least an e."ert on Co,er. 9vidence for T!eagenes as a 8Co,erist8 ,ay $e found in one ot!er sc!oliu, t!at attri$utes to an uns"ecified 8T!eagenes8 a vari: - %> ant for, of an Bliadic !alf:line.H1?I Bf t!is is T!eagenes of 7!egiu,, !e see,s to !ave $een ca"a$le of "erfor,ing or re"roducing e"ic lines !i,self, and so 0e ,ay t!ink of !i, as so,et!ing of a r!a"sode: cu,:e."licator 0!o, like Plato=s Bon, $ot! "erfor,ed e"ic te.ts or "arts of t!e, and offered o$servations on t!e "oet=s 8fine t!oug!ts.8 3s suc!, !e 0ould !ave $een strongly ,oved to reaffir, t!e "oet=s aut!ority. *n t!is vie0, allegory in its earliest "!ases 0ould !ave functioned as it often !as later,

as a defensive ,easure for sustaining t!e aut!ority of aging narrative traditions 0!ose literal inter"retation is $eco,ing inadeAuate to ne0 0ays of t!inking. By t!e end of t!e si.t! century so,e recogni<a$ly sta$le for, of t!e #liad 0ould !ave $een getting on to ?&& years old. Qeno"!anes and T!eagenes see, to ,ake a neat !istorical fit as "rosecution and defense, yet vie0ing t!e rise of Co,eric allegoresis so a$stractly no dou$t oversi,"lifies t!e situation, for to e."lain t!e rise of e"ic allegoresis as a res"onse to "!iloso"!ical critiAues of t!e "oe,s says not!ing a$out t!e $asic and ,ost intriguing Auestions of 0!y allegoresis s!ould !ave $een !it u"on as t!e 0ay to ,eet criticis, of Co,er, and 0!y suc! an outlandis! ,et!od s!ould !ave $een dee,ed credi$le. 9ven if 0e can assu,e t!at T!eagenes= ,otives 0ere defensive, allegoresis does so $y 0!at is surely a very $old !y"ot!esis t!at t!e "oe,s are a$out so,et!ing Auite ot!er t!an 0!at t!ey declare t!e,selves to $e on t!eir face. *ne can !ardly su""ose t!at allegoresis 0as t!e only or inevita$le o"tion availa$le to t!e c!allenged Co,eristF t!e ancients develo"ed, after all, ,any ot!er, less radical 0ays of defending Co,er against critical attacks, as can $e seen fro, t!e rKsu,K of suc! defenses in c!a"ter ?( of 3ristotle=s Poetics.H1%I Moreover, our scanty evidence can as 0ell $e taken as indicating t!at allegoresis 0as originally a positi)e strategy, e.egetical rat!er t!an defensive, and t!at it !ad already $een develo"ed a,ong t!e early ;reek "!iloso"!ers, 0!o 8a""ro"riated for t!eir o0n use so,e at least of t!e ,yt!ical traditions 0!ic! t!ey could not !el" venerating.8H1'I 3 "recursor for T!eagenes !as $een clai,ed in P!erecydes around t!e ,iddle of t!e si.t! century: !e is re"orted to !ave read Co,er allegorically, and !is o0n "rose cos,ogony includes a fe0 "assages t!at ,ay readily $e read as allegorical.H1(I *t!ers !ave "ointed to t!e Pyt!agoreans flouris!ing in sout!ern Btaly at t!e ti,e: at least at a later "eriod, Pyt!agoreans certainly "racticed allegorical e.egesis of Co,er, and 0it! a ,orali<ing slant very si,ilar to t!e one in Por"!yry=s note.H1)I T!ere is in addition a strong rese,$lance $et0een so,e allegorical eAuivalencies and t!e use of folk ety,ology a,ong early Pyt!agoreans to derive cos,ic trut!s fro, t!e sounds of certain 0ords: t!e Pyt!agorean $elief t!at t!e trut! of incarnation can $e gli,"sed in t!e closeness $et0een t!e 0ords for 8$ody8 Dsoma E and 8to,$8 Dsema EH1>I see,s not far fro, t!e notion in Por"!yry t!at 8Cera8 D0eran E in t!e Bliadic t!eo,ac!y conceals t!e ele,ent 83ir8 Daera E H1MI But ,agical ety,ology 0as $y no ,eans confined to Pyt!agoreans in arc!aic - %M ;reece, and on suc! grounds it !as $een clai,ed t!at T!eagenes also !ad "recursors in early *r"!ic circles.H1 I Bndeed, as noted a$ove, one can go yet furt!er and find t!e sources of T!eagenes= "ractice in t!e e"ic "oets t!e,selves, since Co,er often "lays u"on t!e na,es of gods and !eroes suc! as Oeus or *dysseus and, un0ittingly or not, "rovides a "aradig, for t!e "o"ular Cera etiology as 3ir in a suggestively "!rased line fro, !is t!eo,ac!y: 83 dee" ,ist of air 0era = s"read $efore Ht!e Tro1ansI to c!eck t!eir flig!t.8H?&I Bn vie0 of t!e a$ove, it see,s "rudent to "ut aside t!e Auest for a single source of allegoresis and to sti"ulate t!at T!eagenes= a""roac! ,ust !ave !ad 0ider roots and ra,ifications, not all of 0!ic! can 0e !o"e to trace in full. T!e significance of t!e tradition a$out T!eagenes is t!at it "oints to a ti,e in 0!ic! !eroic narratives D0e s!ould "ro$a$ly not yet s"eak of 8literary8 te.tsE 0ere su$1ected to a ne0 kind of e.egesis not traditional in t!at for,, t!oug! one t!at 0as "er!a"s already develo"ed in certain "!iloso"!ical or religious circles. We can "osit t!at t!ere 0as in t!e later si.t! century, "articularly in sout!ern Btaly, an environ,ent in 0!ic! ,ystical te.ts and language itself 0ere $eing "lu,$ed for !idden de"t!s of ,eaningF it 0as !ere t!at t!e Co,eric "oe,s, no0 $eing regarded fro, a nu,$er of ne0 angles, 0ere first su$1ected to a kind of e.egesis t!at !ad t!it!erto $een used 0it! esoteric "oetry. Before 0e can understand t!e ,otives t!at led e"ic e."ounders to ado"t or ada"t suc! a ,et!od, 0e

,ust clarify 0!at it 0as e.actly t!at t!ey clai,ed to $e doing. We can do so $y turning to consider t!e voca$ulary in 0!ic! early allegoresis 0as conducted.

&e5ical E+idence2 7%llegory7 and Ainos

Writing around 1&& C.9., Plutarc! says t!at t!e ter, allegoria is not very old and t!at 0!at is called allegoria in !is day !ad for,erly $een called huponoia.H?1I Plutarc! is $orne out $y our evidence. We do not find t!e noun allegoria securely attested until t!e first century B.C.9., t!oug! it is "ossi$le t!at it and related 0ords go $ack to t!e Cellenistic "eriod.H??I 3s for huponoia, 8a t!oug!t or intention t!at lies $elo0 t!e surface,8 it is attested in a s"ecial sense of 8under:,eaning8 in t0o significant te.ts of t!e fourt! century B.C.9. descri$ing e.egetical "ractices of t!e fift!. Bn t!e first, Plato uses it to refer to allegoresis of t!e ty"e attri$uted to T!eagenes: Socrates re1ects fro, !is city stories a$out 8t!e $inding of Cera $y !er son, t!e casting out of Ce"!aestus fro, *ly,"us 0!en !e 0ent to defend !is ,ot!er fro, !is fat!er Hcf. #liad 1.( 1:%, 1(.?%:?'I, and all t!e $attles a,ong gods Co,er !as co,"osed He.g., #liad ?&.)>ff.I, regardless of 0!et!er t!ey are co,"osed 0it! or 0it!out allegorical ,eanings Hen huponoiais, aneu hupnoion64 $ecause t!e young can=t tell t!e difference D-epu*lic %>M5E. T!e ter, is also significantly used in Qeno"!on=s %ymposium 0!en Socrates and so,e so"!isticates are discussing t!e value of Co,eric "oetry in education. T!e 0ell:$red 4icera: -% tus !as $een co,"elled $y !is fat!er to learn t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey $y !eart so as to $eco,e a gentle,an D%.(E. But t!e co,"any agree t!at $eing a$le to recite Co,er $y !eart is no 0ort!y acco,"lis!,ent in itselfF r!a"sodes, after all, can do as ,uc!, and t!is co,"any is unani,ous in vie0ing t!e, as t!e ,ost stu"id of ,en $ecause t!ey 8do not kno0 t!e huponoiai.4 4iceratus t!erefore is to $e congratulated $ecause !e !as 8"aid a good deal of ,oney to Stesi,$rotus and 3na.i,ander and ,any ot!ers so as to ,iss out on not!ing of t!eir valua$le learning8 D%.)E.H?%I T!ese te.ts esta$lis! t!at in t!e fift! century huponoia 0as in use in intellectual circles for t!e distinctive and su$tle inter"retations of "oetry offered $y certain Co,erists and so"!ists, t!oug! not $y r!a"sodes. Bf a r!a"sode e."ounded on t!e 8fine t!oug!ts8 of Co,er D,alai dianoiai E an education in "oetry could still $e called inco,"lete 0it!out an acAuaintance 0it! t!e 8under:,eanings8 Dhuponoiai E availa$le fro, a different class of e."erts. T!e ety,ology of huponoia suggests a rat!er intellectualist and even te.t:$ased conce"tion of "oetic ,eaning: hupo& "uts t!e ,eaning in a de"t! and t!us i,"lies a surface, and t!e root &noia is t!e ,ost i,"ortant fift!:century 0ord for 8t!oug!t8 as intellection and calculation rat!er t!an ,ere "erce"tion or recognition.H?'I0uponoia is t!us a good na,e for i,"licit "!iloso"!ical or et!ical t!eses t!at ,ay $e derived fro, a "oe, in t!e course of a so"!istic discussion. 3llegories $elong to t!e class of huponoiai $ecause huponoiai 0ere $y definition su$tle and una""arent ,eanings. T!e ter, de,arcated econo,ic and social distinctions ,ore "recisely t!an r!etorical ones: in "ointing out t!e no$le t!oug!ts t!e "oet intended Ddianoiai E, r!a"sodes could 0in cro0ns and "ri<es fro, "oetic guilds or state festivalsF so"!ists, on t!e ot!er !and, could sell to select students at considera$le "rices t!e une."ected huponoiai kno0n only to a fe0. Bn t!e fift! century, t!en, allegorical readings of e"ic could $e offered as an intellectual co,,odity under t!e ter, huponoia. But 0e can reconstruct a yet earlier "!ase of t!is !istory $y considering a "iece of evidence t!at !as not so far $een adduced in t!is connection. T!is is our earliest "reserved s"eci,en of e.tended allegorical inter"retation, t!e 5erveni "a"yrus, discovered in 1 )? and still not yet fully "u$lis!ed.H?(I T!is "a"yrus itself is dated arc!aeologically to t!e fourt! century B.C.9., $ut its te.t ,ay $e earlier $y as ,uc! as a century and in any case clearly derives fro, t!e a,$it of "re:

Socratic t!oug!t. T!e te.t is a co,,entary on an *r"!ic cos,ogonic "oe,, a !alf:rationali<ing, !alf: ,ystical e.egesis t!at re"eatedly resorts to allegoresis. 3lt!oug! ,any of t!ese "assages are only "artially "reserved, it is nevert!eless clear t!at t!e "ro"er ter, for allegorical 0riting in t!is aut!or is ainittesthai, 8to s"eak in !ints8 or 8to s"eak enig,atically,8 and !is 0ord for 8allegorically8 is ainigmatodes, 8in t!e ,ode of an ainos or ainigma.4H?)I Bn t!e clearest "assage2a te.t$ook e.a,"le of defensive allegoresis2our co,,entator "u<<les over an *r"!ic "!rase !e ,isconstrues to ,ean - '& 8Oeus ate t!e god=s genitals.8H?>I Ce is Auick to say t!at 8since t!roug! t!e 0!ole "oe, H*r"!eusI is s"eaking allegorically 5aini!etai6 a$out t!ings in t!e 0orld, it is necessary to consider eac! 0ord Hor verseI individually.8H?MI T!is assu,"tion allo0s !i, to allegori<e 8genitals8 as t!e sun, since t!e sun is t!e source of generationF Oeus=s alleged ,eal turns out to ,ean t!at t!e governing "o0er of t!e universe also controls generation. T!is inter"retation uses as its o"erative ver$ for 8allegori<e8 ainittesthai, a 0ord t!at occurs t0ice ,ore in t!e sa,e sense. Bn a ,ore scra""y frag,ent t!e target "!rase fro, *r"!eus is t!e ant!ro"o,or"!ic e."ression 8!e Hi.e., OeusI took in !is !ands,8 and our co,,entator says t!e "oet 8uttered t!is as an allegory Heni!eto I 8H? I Precisely 0!at t!ese !ands signified ,ust no0 $e a ,atter of con1ecture,H%&I $ut t!e aut!or is clearly "ro"osing a !idden, nonliteral ,eaning, one to $e distinguis!ed fro, t!e construction "ut on t!at "!rase $y 8t!ose 0!o do not understand8 ,entioned a fe0 lines $efore.H%1I +inally, !e uses an adver$ial for,, ainigmatodes, "er!a"s to say t!at certain goddesses are descri$ed 8allegorically8H%?I and, in a very $roken "iece fro, t!e early and "ossi$ly introductory "ortion of t!e 0ork, s"eaks of 8allegorical8 Dainigmatodss E "oetry. H%%I 4eit!er huponoia nor any of its cognates is used in t!e t0enty:four colu,ns so far availa$le. T!e 5erveni "a"yrus t!us s!o0s t!at, outside t!e "!iloso"!ical:r!etorical tradition of t!e later fift! century, 0!ic! soug!t t!e huponoia of "oets, ainittesthai and its cognates su""lied t!e standard set of ter,s in 0!ic! to discuss 0!at 0as eventually called allegoria. Since t!is is our only direct "re: Socratic evidence for t!e early "ractice of allegoresis, 0e ,ust !old t!at t!e o"erant ter, for e."ressing oneself allegorically 0as ainittesthai $efore it $eca,e huponoiein and t!en allegorein.H%'I 3 "assage fro, t!e late arc!aic "oet T!eognis "laces t!is voca$ulary $ack in t!e ti,e of T!eagenes: T!eognis concludes a fairly e.tensive allegory of t!e 8s!i" of state8 $y saying: 8/et t!ese t!ings $e riddling utterances 5eini,htho6 !idden $y ,e for t!e no$le. # *ne can $e a0are even of future ,isfortune if one is skilled.8H%(I T!e fact t!at t!e tec!nical ter, for allegory c!anges is of ,ore t!an "!ilological interest. 7ecovering t!e language in 0!ic! allegories 0ere discussed $efore t!ey 0ere called huponoiai or allegoriai allo0s us to locate early allegoresis in relation to ot!er conte,"orary for,s of inter"retative and e."ressive activity. T!e root of $ot! ainittesthai and ainigmatodes can $e traced to t!e 0ord ainos, 0!ic! na,ed an i,"ortant ,ode of riddling discourse in t!e arc!aic and early classical "eriod. T!e ainos 0as a "oly,or"!ous $ut Auite distinctive and i,"ortant ,ode of s"eec!, and one t!at interacted in significant 0ays 0it! nearly all t!e ,a1or for,s of ;reek literature. Bt is ,y contention t!at t!e use of ainittesthai in t!e 5erveni aut!or, and "resu,a$ly in !is "redecessors going $ack to t!e ti,e of T!eagenes and T!eognis, indicates t!at early allegoresis involved a s!ifting of generic $oundaries so t!at e"ic could $e vie0ed as a s"eci,en of t!e ainos. T!us, 0!atever t!e de$ts of - '1 -

early e"ic allegorists to ,ystical traditions or to t!e e"ics t!e,selves, t!eir "rocedure announced itself as assi,ilating e"ic to t!is fa,iliar for, of a,$iguous s"eec!. We are t!us o$liged to look ,ore closely at t!e arc!aic ainos. 3lt!oug! t!e ainos assu,ed too ,any for,s to $e t!oug!t of as a genre, it is often used of ani,al fa$les suc! as 0e find in 3rc!iloc!usH%)I or 3eso". T!e "rototy"ic e.a,"le ,ay $e Cesiod=s tale Dcalled 8an ainos kings 0ill understand8 at Wor,s and "ays ?&?E of a !a0k t!at !olds a nig!tingale Daedon E in its clutc!esF t!is see,s to refer in so,e 0ay to t!e "o0er t!e king !as over t!e singer Daoidos E *t!er early e.a,"les of ainoi refer ,ore generally to any 8fa$le or ot!er story 0it! an i,"lied ,essage in it for t!e !earer,8H%>I suc! as t!e story *dysseus tells 9u,aeus in t!e Odyssey: in need of covering for t!e nig!t, t!e $eggar:*dysseus tells t!e s0ine!erd a story a$out a ruse t!e 8real8 *dysseus !ad once used to secure a cloak on a cold nig!t 0atc!. 9u,aeus is Auick to "erceive t!e "oint of t!e story and, co,,ending t!e ainos, offers !is guest a cloak.H%MI W!et!er it takes t!e for, of an ani,al fa$le or a "ointed story, t!e ainos s!ould $e regarded as a ,ode of s"eaking rat!er t!an identified 0it! any "articular kind or for, of narrative.H% I ;regory 4agy defines ainos as an 8aut!oritative s"eec!: an affir,ation, a ,arked s"eec! act ,ade $y and for a ,arked social grou",8H'&I !ig!lig!ting t!e fact t!at t!e selective audience ,ay serve to rein in t!e "olyse,y of ainos: an ainos is decoded $y t!ose t!e s"eaker considers 80ise8 or 8good,8 and so 8akin8 to !i,self Dt!e sophoi or philoi co,,only addressed in ainetic "oetryE. T!is select audience is t!oug!t to $e ca"a$le of t!is decoding not t!roug! linguistic e."ertise $ut t!roug! an innate gift "resu,ed to ,ark t!e truly no$le, t!e agathoi. T!us, t!oug! an ainos ,ay $e analy<ed t!e,atically as an allusive tale or structurally as a coded ,essage, in its ;reek conte.t it 0as defined as a ,essage t!at !ad a s"ecial ,eaning for a s"ecial audienceF it 0as a socially rat!er t!an r!etorically constructed riddle. 3not!er di,ension of t!e ainos is $roug!t out in T!o,as Cole=s fascinating Origins of -hetoric, 0!ic! suggests t!at t!e !inting ainos 0as an es"ecially a""ro"riate use of language in a conte.t of social ineAuality. Cole notes t!at tradition recorded t!e slave 3eso" as t!e inventor of t!e ainos, and "oints to a "assage in 3ristotle=s -hetoric in 0!ic! ainos is associated 0it! 0!at 3ristotle calls t!e 8slavis!8 !a$it of talking around a "oint 0!en addressing a su"erior.H'1I *n t!is vie0 0!at is essentially ainetic a$out t!e fa$le of t!e !a0k and t!e nig!tingale in Cesiod is t!at t!e su$ordinate singer tells an ainos 8t!e ,ings 0ill understand8F so too t!e cloak story of *dysseus Aualifies as an ainos $ecause a su""liant casta0ay ,ust $e circu,s"ect in ,aking de,ands on !is !ost. T!e ,arked, o$liAue s"eec! act kno0n as ainos, t!en, ,ay take t!e for, of allegory 0!en t!e situation calls for t!e ,ost discreet self: "resentation on t!e "art of t!e s"eaker. Suc! occasions are reflected in t!e verse ainoi t!at 0ere co,,only sung 0it!in aristocratic coteries suc! as t!ose addressed $y 3rc!iloc!us, 3lcaeus, or T!eognis. Bn suc! ainoi t!e encoding - '? allo0ed discretion in ti,es of "olitical uncertainty all t!e 0!ile reinforcing t!e solidarity of close:knit aristocratic grou"s.H'?I But ainoi of course 0ould also !ave $een useful in 0ider conte.ts too, as in stories of Stesic!orus=s using ani,al fa$les to dissuade !is fello0 citi<ens fro, giving t!e strong,an P!alaris a $odyguard: in "redicting a tyranny one doesn=t dare $e too offensive to a "o0erful ,an.H'%I T!e significance of all t!is for e"ic allegorists de"ends on an i,"ortant "oint, stressed $y 4agy, t!at ;reek e"ic is not ainos: t!oug! e"ic ,ay incor"orate ainoi, suc! as *dysseus=s tale of t!e cloak, and t!oug! it ,ay give us a "ortrait of a ,aster of ainoi in 8*dysseus poluainos,4 it does not refer to itself as ainos, nor does it ever declare it !as a !idden ,eaning for t!e cognoscenti. Pindar 0ill often c!aracteri<e !is odes to *ly,"ic victors as ainoi, $ut not Co,er.H''I Bn t!is case, it see,s t!at for an allegori<ing critic to say t!at t!e e"ic "oet ainittetai t!is or t!at 0as to assi,ilate narrative e"ic to

anot!er for, of discourse 0it! its o0n s"ecial rules and et!os. Bn vie0 of our le.ical evidence, t!en, t!e rise of e"ic allegoresis ,ay $e reinter"reted as t!e assi,ilation of t!e Co,eric "oe,s to t!e ainos. Bt 0as not so ,uc! t!at t!e si.t!:century allegorists concocted a $i<arre ne0 ,et!od of reading e"ic as t!at t!ey transferred e"ic to a s"ecial and 0ell:esta$lis!ed for, of s"eec! act, one in 0!ic! discreet self:e."ression reAuiring e."ert decoding 0as t!e nor,. Wit! t!is closer vie0 of 0!at allegoresis a,ounted to in t!e arc!aic "eriod, 0e can turn to suggesting 0!y t!e ainos ,ig!t !ave a""ealed to Co,erists as a ,odel for t!eir favored "oetry.

The Uses of 1idden Meanings

Bn assi,ilating e"ic to ainos allegorists 0ould !ave done ,ore t!an a""eal to a readily intelligi$le ,odel of encoded s"eec! or verse. T!e ainos defined not si,"ly a s"ecial kind of ,essage $ut also a s"ecial relation of s"eaker to audience and so $roug!t in its a train a series of social i,"lications t!at ,ade "ossi$le a ne0 use for e"ic "oetry in t!e city. +or a "rofessional Co,erist like T!eagenes, t!e ,ost i,"ortant function of ainoi ,ay !ave $een t!at it 0as t!e custo,ary 0ay for "oets, councilors, and 0ise ,en generally to address t!eir ,ost "o0erful and lavis! "atrons in t!e West. T!e tyrants and dynasts of Sicily 0!o, Pindar served a generation later are re"eatedly "raised as 80ise,8 8skilled8 Dsophos E or 8discerning8 Dsunetos E and "art of t!is ideal i,age of t!e tyrant involves $eing skilled in inter"reting ainoi.H'(I Bn t!is res"ect t!e situation at t!e Sicilian courts 0!ere Qeno"!anes "erfor,ed in t!e late si.t! century or 0!ere Pindar sent songs in t!e fift! !ad c!anged very little $y t!e ti,e Plato 0as trying to advise t!e un"redicta$le tyrant 5ionysius. Plato=s Sevent! /etter says t!at !e and !is friends t!oug!t it $est to co,,unicate t!eir doctrines a$out ruling 1ustly 8not $y e."ressing t!e, straig!t out20!ic! 0as not safe2$ut t!roug! riddles 5ainittomenoi6 4 D%%?5E. - '% /ike t!e "oet $efore t!e king in Cesiod, or t!e $eggar $efore !is !ost in t!e Odyssey, t!e Co,erist addresses t!e si.t!:century tyrant or aristocratic coterie as a ,aster of o$liAue discourse. To ado"t t!is ,ode of address 0as t!us $ot! to res"ect one=s "ro"er station and also to ado"t t!e ideology of t!e great ruler t!at de"icted !i, as at once "o0erful and "erce"tive Dsunetos E To sustain a "osition of aut!ority in t!is "olitically tu,ultuous "eriod reAuired not only force of ar,s $ut t!e a$ility to read signs arig!t so t!at one could, in t!e classic allegory of t!e ti,e, steer t!e 8s!i" of state8 t!roug! t!e te,"estuous 0aters of "olitics.H')I T!at t!e discern,ent needed to rule e.tended to t!e deci"!er,ent of o$scure sy,$ols ,ay $e illustrated in Cerodotus D'.1%1:?E. Ce tells us t!at 0!en t!e Scyt!ians 0ere $eing attacked $y 5arius, t!ey sent !i, ,essengers $earing a $ird, a ,ouse, a frog, and five arro0s. T!e ,essengers c!allenge t!e Persians28if t!ey are 0ise 5sophos6> 4 to 8recogni<e8 0!at t!e gifts ,ean. 5arius o"ti,istically inter"rets t!e o$1ects as sy,$oli<ing co,"lete su$,ission, 8likening8 Dei,a!on E H'>I t!e ,ouse and frog to eart! and 0ater2traditional tokens of fealty2and t!e $irds and arro0s to t!e Scyt!ian cavalry and ar,s, all of 0!ic! !e t!inks are $eing !anded over to !i,. But one of !is advisers "ro"oses a different reading: unless t!e Persians can fly like a $ird, $urro0 like a ,ouse, or dive like a frog, t!ey 0ill not esca"e Scyt!ian arc!ers. T!e u"s!ot, designed to 0ar, t!e !eart of any "rofessional 0ise ,an, is of course t!at 5arius read t!is allegory 0rong, and !e is soon "lanning a !asty retreat. T!e distance $et0een 5arius faced 0it! suc! sy,$ols and a ;reek "otentate 0!o ,ay !ear a$out t!e air, 0ater, and fire underlying t!e te.t of Co,er ,ay $e not so great as a""ears at first glance. T!e ;reek king or "rince striving to catc! t!e "olitical i,"ort of every s!ifting 0ind is 0ell advised to cultivate courtiers2!is +enoi or philoi as everyone 0ould "olitely "ut it2of eAual discern,ent. T!e first e"ic allegorists of t!e West, t!en, found t!eir "lace in t!is culture of co,"etitive inter"retative

e."ertise. 3 ,odel for t!eir role 0as afforded $y t!e tyrant=s circle of advisers:co,"anions or, ,ore distantly, $y t!e 9astern king=s vi<iers. Let t!e allegorists see, not to !ave inter"reted e"ic in ter,s of current events. 5ifferent $ook:$earing sophoi e."loited t!ese veins, suc! as t!e oracle:,onger *no,acritus, 0!ose readings of ancient "ro"!etic te.ts !e edited Dand inter"olatedE led !i, in and out and $ack in favor 0it! t!e ruling Peisistratids at 3t!ens Dcf. Cerodotus >.)E. Bf 0e can 1udge fro, t!e kinds of allegory Plato re1ects, 0it! T!eagenes or soon after, allegorists rat!er focused on e"ic scenes of t!eo,ac!y and struggle $et0een gods Das t!ey long continued toE.H'MI T!at allegorists s!ould !ave $een dra0n to "assages suc! as t!eo,ac!ies ,ay $e e."lained along standard lines as ste,,ing fro, a desire to assuage outraged "ietyF $ut it is also 0ort! noting t!at t!eo,ac!y could serve as a ,yt!ic "aradig, for destructive infig!ting a,ong t!e no$ility, as in Qeno"!anes, 0!o re1ects not only ,yt!ic accounts of fig!ting Titans, Centaurs, - '' and ;iants $ut also songs of civil strife, stasis DB1.?%56E.H' I Cence to discourse a$out t!eo,ac!y ,ay $e to s"eak a$out t!e ,anage,ent of strife, t!e cos,ic "rinci"le and social force t!at Cesiod=s Wor,s and "ays !ad taug!t could $e $ot! $eneficial and !ar,ful. 3llegori<ed along t!ese lines, Co,er "resents a 0orld in 0!ic! $ot! !ierarc!y DOeus co,,anding t!e *ly,"ians, t!e *ly,"ians far greater t!an ,ortalsE and conflict are naturali<ed. T!e tyrant 0!o reads Co,er t!is 0ay ,ay find an i,age of !is o0n "o0er, identifying !i,self 0it! Oeus 0!o sits ato" a "yra,id of $attling t!at ranges fro, !is o0n divine lords do0n to "at!etic ,ortals. Cence if allegorists "roferred ti,eless verities of cos,ology and general et!ics, t!eir readings in conte.t 0ere yet t!e,selves ainoi "ointing to, 0it!out na,ing, t!e "ervasiveness of social tension and t!e need for a sta$le !ierarc!y a,ong aristocrats. 3llegoresis !ad anot!er function a"art fro, t!e "articular coded ,essage conveyed. Bn ,aking Co,er ainetic allegori<ing critics gave a ne0 and s"ecial use to t!e "oetry. T!e very strategy of re"ositioning t!ese stories as coded ,essages allo0ed allegorists to constitute a select audience 0!o could distinguis! t!e,selves $y t!eir su$tle understanding. T!is 0as all t!e ,ore valua$le in t!e si.t! century, 0!en r!a"sodes 0ere crossing t!e entire lengt! of t!e 3egean giving "u$lic "erfor,ances of Co,eric e"ic, and so,e states 0ere incor"orating suc! "erfor,ances into t!eir city festivals, suc! as t!e Panat!enaia at 3t!ens. 7eferences to Co,er, 0!ic! $egin to cro" u" at t!is ti,e, take s"ecial note of t!e $readt! of !is a""eal:H(&I 0!en Si,onides says t!at 8Co,er and Stesic!orus sang to t!e "eo"le,8 !e i,"lies a 0ide and "er!a"s undiscri,inating diffusion of t!e "oetry $y using for 8"eo"le8 an e"ic ter, Dlaos E for t!e ar,y or citi<en $ody as a 0!ole as distinct fro, its generals.H(1I Co,er=s critics concede so,et!ing to t!e 0ides"read res"ect in 0!ic! !e is !eld, as 0!en Qeno"!anes says t!at 8all ,en !ave learned fro, Co,er8 DB1& 56E or 0!en Ceraclitus calls Co,er 80iser t!an all ot!er ;reeks8 $efore going on to deflate t!at re"utation DB() 56E. Ceraclitus=s re1ection of t!e "oets= doctrines is ,ingled 0it! conte,"t for t!e 0itless de ,os 0!o use t!e, as teac!ers DB1&' 56E, and !e 0ould $an "oets fro, "u$lic contests DB'? 56E.H(?I Bn t!e conte.t of ,any arc!aic cities, t!en, allegorical readings of e"ic ena$led certain e."erts to "roffer and certain audiences to o$tain an elite "urc!ase on a kind of "oetry t!at 0as increasingly $eco,ing t!e "ossession of all ;reece. 3llegoresis of e"ic did for audiences 0it! "retensions to cultural leaders!i" in t!e city 0!at t!e rKc!erc!K inter"retations of *r"!ic "oetry or Pyt!agorean sayings did for t!ose desiring to for, e.clusive co,,unities at t!e city=s ,argins: t!ese grou"s too c!eris!ed and collected 8te.ts8 in 0!ic! t!ey found su$tle ,eanings intended for t!e elect. Suc! 0ere Pyt!agorean 0atc!0ords or sym*ola and t!e *r"!ic "oe,s, one of 0!ic! $egins: 8B 0ill sing for t!e discerning.8H(%I W!et!er at court or in a conventicle, allegoresis confers a ni,$us on a $ody of "oetry t!at is to $e "enetrated

- '( only $y t!e 0ise or initiated. 3""lied to Co,er, it for,s inside t!e larger co,,unity 0it!in !ail of a "assing r!a"sode=s voice a s,aller grou" of t!ose 0!o rig!tly understand.H('I T!is use of allegoresis to create distinctive audiences $eca,e ,ore e.tensive in t!e fift! century, 0!en, as is indicated in t!e "assage fro, Qeno"!on, so,e Co,erists "rofessed to offer invalua$le huponoiai t!at 0ere not availa$le fro, t!e scorned r!a"sodes. T!en, as in t!e si.t! century, traveling e."erts in traditional song could 0ell !ave an interest in "resenting t!e,selves as "ossessing a !idden kno0ledge of "oetry, one t!at 0as not so "u$lic as t!e decla,ation of a r!a"sode, t!at 0as not controlled $y guilds on C!ios or Sa,os or $roadcast $y t!e 3t!enian state. Bn t!is vein 0e ,ay understand t!e so"!ists= "ortraying Co,er as one 0!o 8covered u"8 and 8veiled8 !is 0isdo, so t!at only t!ey are a$le to disclose it, even if t!ey did not allegori<e t!e te.ts at great lengt!.H((I Sus"icions a$out t!e ,et!od are voiced $y Plato, as 0e sa0, 0!o found allegories dangerously a,$iguous and regarded as trivial t!e ga,es "layed $y 8t!ose 0!o are so clever a$out Co,er8 DCratylus '&>cE. 3fter !i, t!e 0ay 0as clear for 3ristotle to treat "oetry as a "ro$le, of for, and structure rat!er t!an one of t!eology or !er,eneutics, and t!e tradition of for,alist and r!etorical analysis of literature flouris!ed at 3le.andria, 0!ere 8inter"reting Co,er fro, Co,er8 ,eant reading !i, in !is o0n ter,s and not t!ose of anot!er syste,. *f course t!ere 0ere al0ays co,"eting vie0s and $acksliding, as in t!e allegoresis favored $y Crates of Mallos and to so,e e.tent a,ong t!e Stoics.H()I 9"ic=s affinity 0it! allegory $ot! as an e."ressive and as an inter"retative ,ode endured t!roug! t!e eig!teent! century and for,ed a $asic fra,e for conceiving t!e genre for suc! "oets as @ergil, S"enser, Tasso, and Milton. H(>I Since t!en, allegory !as gone in and out of favor $ut !as never $een a$sent fro, t!e range of tec!niAues de"loyed in Western literary, and es"ecially e"ic, inter"retation. Bf 0e consider T!eagenes= "ractice in t!e !istory of e"ic "erfor,ance in its full sense, including t!e "erfor,ance of co,,entary, !e a""ears to stand not for t!e origin of allegoresis $ut for a c!ange in t!e traditions of e"ic inter"retation: !o0ever old allegoresis ,ay $e as an inter"retative strategy, it ca,e to cultural "ro,inence only 0!en it intersected 0it! t!e 0ider ;reek !istory of e"ic rece"tion. T!oug! e"ic !ad long called for and $een acco,"anied $y ,any kinds of e.egesis, 0!en allegoresis $eca,e availa$le to t!e Co,erist=s arsenal2a full generation $efore t!e early so"!ists and nearly t0o centuries $efore 3ristotle=s Poetics 2e."ertise in "oetry could not only $oast a co,,and of t!e te.ts and of a tradition of lore a$out t!e, and t!eir aut!or $ut also distinguis! itself $y offering 0!olly une."ected accounts of 0!at t!ese old and fa,iliar "oe,s really said. Bt see,s t!at it 0as in only in t!e later si.t! century t!at certain ;reek readers and t!eir audiences found t!at e"ic could $egin to say so,et!ing of value only 0!en it $egan to say so,et!ing ot!er. - ') T!roug!out t!is long !istory, t!at "rotean t!ing called allegory al0ays !as involved social "ractices and institutions t!at define literature and criticis, as 0ell. B reaffir, t!is "oint in concluding, since to discuss allegory !istorically is "ro$le,atic fro, certain "oints of vie0 today, es"ecially t!eories t!at 0ould identify allegory 0it! t!e 0orkings of language itself. Bf one defines allegoria ety,ologically as 8saying one t!ing and ,eaning so,et!ing ot!er,8H(MI allegory ,ay a""ear not si,"ly as one ,ode of s"eec! a,ong ot!ers $ut as t!e figure of s"eec! t!at ,ost directly e.e,"lifies t!e funda,ental ar$itrariness of language, its lack of any fir, $ond $et0een signifier and signified. 3llegory ,ay t!en $e said to attend any and every ty"e of s"eec!: all te.ts ,ay $e called allegorical,H( I and all inter"retations insofar as t!ey state t!e ,eaning of a te.t in ot!er ter,s t!an t!ose of t!e te.t.H)&I

T!ese lines of analysis suggest t!at to give an account of allegory in !istorical and social ter,s is only to offer yet anot!er allegory of allegory 0!ile evading its u$iAuitous and uncontrolla$le c!aracter. 3fter all, a recovery of true $ut concealed early ,eanings !as $een one of t!e favorite "ro,ises of allegoresis. *ne ,ig!t argue in turn t!at conceiving allegory solely as a tro"e rat!er t!an as t!e act of an inter"reter is itself an inter"retative strategy, 0!ic! can $e situated !istorically 0it!in t!e late and "ostro,antic revival of allegory as a sy,$olic ,ode.H)1I But t!e issue is 0!et!er it is adeAuate to define allegory solely as an affair of diction or reference. Bn ,y vie0, reducing allegory to o"erations on a linguistic "lane cannot account for t!e e.tre,ely varied uses allegoresis !as !ad, uses ranging fro, defensive recu"eration of t!reatened traditions to t!eir radical reevaluation. To atte,"t to !istorici<e allegory need not $e to Auest after its c!i,erical origins $ut ,ay allo0 us to see it as a "ractice 0!ose se,antic dislocations al0ays take "lace 0it!in a culturally and !istorically s"ecific conte.t. B side t!en 0it! et!nogra"!ers like 7eynolds: Bn seeking reactions to and inter"retations of t!e e"ic, B found again and again t!at B 0as listening to evaluations not of an individual "erfor,ance or event, $ut of larger social "atterns and of t!e e"ic as a sy,$olic catalyst. To a great e.tent, evaluations of t!e e"ic 0ere only e.tensions of t!e s"eaker=s "osition vis:R:vis t!e social forces !e or s!e sa0 t!e e"ic as re"resenting.H)?I @ie0ed in t!is 0ay, t!e ancient allegorist T!eagenes suggests t!at 0e ,ay understand e"ic allegoresis not only as a "!iloso"!ical, t!eological, or !er,eneutic "osition, $ut as a social "erfor,ance 0it!in t!e cultural construction of 8literature8 in its ti,e.

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- (% West, M. /. 1 M%. The Orphic Poems. *.ford: Clarendon Press. 222, ed. 1 ? #am*i et Elegi Graeci. ?d ed. ? vols. *.ford: Clarendon Press. W!it,an, Jon. 1 '. 8Western 3llegory.8 Bn The (e2 Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics, edited $y 3. Pre,inger and T. @. +. Brogan, %1:%). Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1 M>. Allegory: The "ynamics of an Ancient and /edie)al Techni<ue *.ford: Clarendon Press. Wila,o0it<:Moellendorff, U. von. 1 %1:1 %?. "ie Glau*e der 0ellenen. Berlin: Weid,ann. - (' -

80 The %ra9ic Epic 'oet as #utcast, Tric/ster, and Con Man

Susan Slyomo+ics T!e !eroic deeds of t!e Bani Cilal tri$e2a tri$e of Bedouin 3ra$s 0!o ,igrated fro, t!e 3ra$ian "eninsula into 4ort! 3frica during t!e tent! and elevent! centuries2are "reserved t!roug!out t!e 3ra$ic:s"eaking 0orld in a diverse cycle of narratives D$ot! "rose and "oetryE, including t!e oral e"ic of %irat Bani 0ilal. T!e e"ic is "er"etuated in U""er 9gy"t $y a class of "oets 0!o "erfor, in "u$lic and are si,ultaneously regarded $y t!e co,,unity as social and et!nic outcasts, as 0ell as res"ected ver$al artists and trans,itters of cuture. Susan Slyo,ovics ,aintains t!at Cilali oral e"ic "oets e.cel in r!etorical devices during "erfor,ance, ,ost ty"ically "uns or 0ord"lays. S!e suggests t!at "uns, t!e tro"e "ar e.cellence of 9gy"tian e"ic, serve as a "oetic c!allenge to audiences to negotiate t!e a,$iguities in!erent in t!e outcast:"oet of "erfor,ance, t!e outcast:"oet:!ero of t!e narrative, and t!e discourse of $ot!. 3cross t!e folklore of virtually all cultures, t!e figure of t!e trickster stands out as a convergence of dece"tion, disguise, and ver$al a,$iguity.H1I T!e trickster acts and s"eaks in a "arado.ical fas!ion, one t!at 7oger 3$ra!a,s c!aracteri<es as 8co,$in HingI t!e attri$utes of ,any ot!er ty"es t!at 0e tend to distinguis! clearly. 3t various ti,es, !e is clo0n, fool, 1okester, initiate, culture !ero, even ogre.8H?I Claude /Kvi:Strauss !as descri$ed t!e trickster as t!e e."ression of $ot! sides of any $inary o""osition 2life against deat!, c!aos versus order, t!e sacred and t!e "rofane.H%I Suc! clo0nlike "ersonalities are often culturally sanctioned c!aracters, allo0ed, eit!er in narrative or in "erfor,ance, to reverse t!e rules of $ot! language and society. T!is essay e."lores several levels of t!e use of t!e trickster figure in t!e 3ra$ e"ic %irat Bani 0ilal, a

cycle of !eroic tales recited t!roug!out t!e 3ra$ic:s"eaking 0orld in t!e s"ecific version B collected in U""er 9gy"t in 1 M%. W!at are t!e interconnections $et0een t!e role of t!e U""er 9gy"tian outcast: "oet in !is society and t!e 3ra$ trickster:e"ic !ero in t!e e"ic narrative, and !o0 do t!ese connections ,ediate t!e relations!i" $et0een t!e storyteller and !is story in an enacted "erfor,anceG B clai, t!at at t!e !eart of t!is configuration is an outcast:"oet, on t!e one !and, a trickster:culture !ero, on t!e ot!er, 0it! a t!ird eAually a,$iguous and "olyvalent feature - (( of U""er 9gy"tian "erfor,ance, na,ely, t!e "roliferation of "uns e,$edded and i,"rovised in live "erfor,ance. B $egin 0it! a $rief descri"tion of t!e life of a conte,"orary "erfor,er and reciter, t!e U""er 9gy"tian e"ic "oet =30adalla! =3$d al:Jalil =3li, in order to relate t!e a,$iguous, outcast "osition of t!is e"ic "oet to t!e ric!, ,ultivocal role of t!e trickster:e"ic !ero, 3$u Oayd t!e Cilali.

The Epic 'oet, :%6adallah :%9d %l;Jalil :%li

=30adalla! =3$d al:Jalil =3li is an e"ic "oet fro, t!e "rovince of 3s0an in U""er 9gy"t. Ce sings in t!e surrounding sout!ern 9gy"tian ,arket"laces, in cafKs, during "u$lic cere,onies, and at "eo"le=s !o,es to cele$rate $irt!s, 0eddings, circu,cisions, a return fro, t!e !a11 to Mecca, and 7a,adan $reakfasts. B !ave descri$ed else0!ere t!e co,"le. status of t!e e"ic "oet in sout!ern 9gy"t2!is role as an outcast yet at t!e sa,e ti,e t!e artistic $earer of !is grou"=s cultural !istory. Bn U""er 9gy"t, e"ic "oets o0n no land, are et!nically designated as gy"sies Devery0!ere an outcast grou"E, and do not "ossess $asil, t!e U""er 9gy"tian ter, for !onora$le c!aracter aligned 0it! good, 8clean8 lineage. 3ll t!ese c!aracteristics disAualify t!e, fro, res"ecta$le social standing. But $ot! audiences and "oet see t!e "oet at t!e ,o,ent of "erfor,ance as t!e $earer of tradition and not as an individual, let alone an individual creative artist.H'I Bn "erfor,ance, =30adalla!=s e"ic story is res"ected, t!oug! =30adalla! t!e e"ic "oet is not.

The Epic 1ero, %9u <ayd0#utcast, Tric/ster, and Epic 'oet

3$u Oayd t!e Cilali is t!e !ero of t!e 3ra$ folk e"ic %irat Bani 0ilal, t!e e"ic sung $y =30adalla! and t!e ,any "oets of 9gy"t and t!e 3ra$ic:s"eaking 0orld. T!e e"ic !ero 3$u Oayd is in "art a trickster figure, a c!aracteri<ation t!at is closely linked to t!e $lack skin !e o0es to a single 0ord t!at al,ost accidentally governed !is origin. Bn 8t!e $irt! of t!e !ero8 seAuence t!at is t!e first "art of t!e traditional tri"artitite division of t!e e"ic, t!e !ero=s ,ot!er, 6!adra S!arifa, !as $een $arren for eleven years.H(I Bn !o"es of conceiving a son, s!e goes do0n to a ,agic s"ring in t!e 3ra$ian "eninsula. T!ere s!e 0is!es u"on a $lack $ird, fierce and co,$ative. S!e says: ;ive ,e a $oy like t!is $ird, $lack like t!is $ird. B s0ear to ,ake !i, "ossess Tunis and Wadi Ca,aV B s0ear to ,ake !i, "ossess Tunis $y t!e $lade of t!e s0ordVH)I Cer 0is! is granted, $ut divine inter"retation of it is a$solutely literal: !er son is $orn 0it! a $lack skin. W!en t!e Cilali Bedouin 3ra$s discover !er - () son=s skin color, ,ot!er and son are $anis!ed to t!e desert. 3$u Oayd is t!erefore of no$le $irt!, $ut

also $lack:skinned, in 3ra$ e"ic a sure sign of servile statusF !e is a 0arrior $y definition, $ut also $y definition an outsider or outcast. T!e c!ild!ood and yout! of t!is e.iled !ero are ,arked $y t!e ,ost a""roved occurrences and e."loits.H>I Ce co,$ats aut!ority figures: !e $egins $y killing !is 6oranic teac!er, t!en !e anni!ilates t!e 3ra$s res"onsi$le for !u,iliating !is ,ot!er, and al,ost slays !is o0n fat!er. 9ventually !e ,anages to 0in reinstate,ent 0it! t!e tri$e, ,arry, fat!er c!ildren, and acAuire a great re"utation as a 0arrior. Bt is 3$u Oayd=s destiny to unite t!e 0arring Bedouin tri$es for t!e $attle for Tunis and t!e conAuest of t!e Mag!ri$, t!e center"iece of t!e e"ic narrative.HMI Co0ever, $efore e,$arking on t!e grand 0est0ard ,igration, as if to re!earse for t!e e."loits a!ead, t!e !ero 3$u Oayd ,ust defend !is tri$e and !is religion in t!e 3ra$ian "eninsula against t0o local ene,ies: first, a Je0is! leader na,ed 6!atfa, and second, t!e evil 3ra$ and Musli, king Candal, 0!o !as raided t!e !oly city of Mecca, ca"tured t!e Cilali 0o,en, and 0ounded t!e !ero=s fat!er. Bt is t!e latter tale t!at 0ill $e e.a,ined ,ore closely in t!is essay.H I

The 'un as #utcast, The #utcast as 'un

3ccording to Jonat!an Culler, 0!o called !is introductory essay on "uns 8T!e Call of t!e P!one,e,8 "uns are a reality of t!e language 80!ere $oundaries2$et0een sounds, $et0een sound and letter, $et0een ,eanings2count for less t!an one ,ig!t i,agine and 0!ere su""osedly discrete ,eanings t!reaten to sink into fluid su$terranean signifieds too undefina$le to call conce"ts.8H1&I Puns s!o0 !o0 language, literature, and even social relations 0ork $y forging une."ected connections. Beyond serving as o$vious linguistic 0ord"lay and artistic orna,entation, t!e "un can e."and into t!e narrative to generate "lot, e"isodes, and even "rotagonists. Because of t!e ready availa$ility of !o,o"!ones in 3ra$ic in "articular and t!e a,$iguous nature of language in general, freAuent "unning is a !all,ark of ,uc! U""er 9gy"tian "erfor,ance of e"ic "oetry,H11I and t!e tale of king Candal versus t!e Cilali Bedouins, as it is told $efore 9gy"tian audiences, is a narrative in 0!ic! deceit, trickery, and disguise "ro"el t!e "lot, and "uns see, not only to govern t!e 0ay it is articulated $y t!e "oet $ut also to generate t!e events and t!e su$stance of t!e "lot itself. We $egin 0it! t!e fact of a $lack !ero 0!ose $lack skin causes !i, to float $et0een acce"ta$ility and re1ection, ,uc! like t!e "un. Ce is accused of $astard origins, $ut "uns are too. 3s 0ill $e seen, t!e $lack !ero "lays 0it! identity t!e 0ay "uns "lay 0it! language. T!is essay descri$es 0!at unites D E t!e $lack e"ic !ero, D?E t!e outcast U""er 9gy"tian e"ic "oet 0!o sings a$out t!e $lack outcast:e"ic !ero, and D%E t!e language of t!e 3ra$ e"ic song. B - (> clai, t!at $ecause t!e $lack outcast:e"ic !ero disguises !i,self in t!e narrative as an e"ic "oet, 0!o in 9gy"tian society is coded as a social outcast, !e t!erefore uses t!e language of t!e outcast, t!e dou$le: talk and dou$le ,eaning of "uns, all of 0!ic! "oints to t!e "otential dece"tiveness of language itself.

The T6o;$aced 1ero, The -ou9le;Tongued 'oet

T!e 3ra$ e"ic !ero 3$u Oayd is t0o:faced, t!e 9gy"tian e"ic "oet =30adalla! is dou$le:tongued. T!is "oints to a countertradition, an antir!etoric in t!e literary !istory of r!etoric. Bndeed, 7oland Bart!es s"eaks of deli$erate transgression, calling t!e use of "uns 8=a $lack r!etoric H une rhetori<ue noire I of ga,es, "arodies, erotic or o$scene allusions . . . , 0!ere t0o ta$oos are circu,vented, language and se..8H1?I Bn ot!er 0ords, 0ord"lay suits te.ts and c!aracters t!at are not straig!tfor0ard. Certainly, t!e 3ra$ e"ic %irat Bani 0ilal freAuently "ronounces, in oral for,ulaic fas!ion, lines t!at s"eak to t!e

!ero=s triu,"!s over t!e 0orld. So,e e.a,"les to descri$e t!e !ero and !is actions are taken fro, te.ts cited $elo0: 83$u Oayd 0orked !is trickery, # !e ,i.ed lies, !e $roug!t falsity8F 8T!e !ero 3$u Oayd, 0!o $ut !i, deceives t!e defenselessG8 Dil*atal a*u !ed min giru yi,id il$u!al E and 8B kno0 !i,, 3$u Oayd, t!e ,an of lies8 D*ta $ilahyal E 2freAuent e"it!ets for t!e !ero scattered t!roug!out t!e e"ic. Bn t!e e"isode of t!e evil 3ra$ king Candal against t!e Cilali Bedouin, t!e range of "unning and deceit !as ,uc! to say a$out t!e role of e"ic "oets in society and e"ic !eroes in narrative. *ne device 0it!in t!e tale, for e.a,"le, not only co,,ents on t!e social status of t!e e"ic "oet at t!e king=s court $ut also e.e,"lifies ,ulti"ly e,$edded fra,e0orks of disguise. T!e Candal tale turns on t!e 0itty synco"ation of t!e !ero 3$u Oayd=s disguising !i,self first as an e"ic "oet and t!en as an old ,an 0!o is also $lack. Ce assu,es t!e "oet=s disguise in order to 0ander freely in t!e ene,y court to entertain, to seek infor,ation, and to free !is kidna""ed 0o,enfolk $y slaying t!e ene,y ruler Candal. D3n i,"ortant advantage of t!is disguise is t!at e"ic "oets in U""er 9gy"t are "er,itted to associate freely 0it! 0o,en strangers, anot!er instance of t!e c!aracteristics of t!e trickster converging to invert and su$vert social $eliefs.EH1%I T!us =30adalla!, t!e U""er 9gy"tian e"ic "oet sings a$out a !ero disguising !i,self as an e"ic "oet D0!o "resu,a$ly sings a$out an e"ic "oet 0!o sings a$out an e"ic "oet and so onE. T!e second disguise is t!at of a $lack slave 0!o is t!e 1ailer of t!e $lack e"ic "oet. Bt is also note0ort!y t!at t!e Candal story itself is introduced $y an e"isode in 0!ic! a ,ot!er and son ,eet in disguise and atte,"t to deceive eac! ot!er. T!e !ero 3$u Oayd, 0!ile traveling t!roug! ,ountain and desert disguised as an e"ic "oet 0it! !is ,usical instru,ent, t!e ra*a*a, - (M slung over !is s!oulder, encounters !is ,ot!er 6!adra S!arifa. 3s if to "rove t!at a,$iguity and disguise are !ereditarily acAuired t!roug! t!e ,aternal line, 3$u Oayd=s ,ot!er !as also "ut on a disguiseF s!e too is dressed in t!e clot!es of a des"ised $lack slave, t!e easier to flee Mecca 0it! !er 0ounded !us$and, t!e !ero=s fat!er. Mot!er and son greet eac! ot!er disguised as $lacks and as slaves, assu,ing t!e "recise trangressive c!aracteristics t!at caused t!eir original trau,atic e."ulsion fro, t!e Bedouin 3ra$ confederation. 3$u Oayd, 0!o is truly $lack:skinned, is a$le to "ierce !is ,ot!er=s fake $lackface, 0!ereas t!e ,ot!er cannot recogni<e !er o0n son disguised as an e"ic "oet, even t!oug! one of t!e son=s ,any for,ulaic descri"tions declares t!at t!e !ero is yoked, "aratactically and genetically, $ot! to !is trickster status and to !is ,ot!er: 8D3$u OaydE, son of S!arifa, t!e trickster8 Di*n sharifa *ta$ ilahyal E 0!ere t!e descri"tion 8trickster8 can a""ly, $y <eug,a, to eit!er or $ot! of t!e,. T!e ,ot!er !as ,erely c!anged su"erficial attire, t!e first and $asic level of disguise and trickeryF $ut t!e son can $ot! alter and divine a""earances. Ce is even trickier t!an t!e ,ot!er: !e deceives !er for no a""arent reason $y announcing !is o0n deat! to !er in language full of a,$iguities, as t!oug! to underline t!at t!e "un is t!e real, of t!e o$liAue, t!e sly, and t!e teasing. T!en !e laug!s as s!e 0ee"s and la,ents D():)(E: (): ,in a!d a$u <ed ,it0affa (>: ta,,it:lu sa$=a :ttiya, (M: sufi :ddunya :lkadda$a ( : la da,it li:$asa 0ala sultan )&: $akit .adra $i ,ad,a= il=en )1: ana fann il=arayi$ C*OB4D3E )?: $akit .adra $i ,ad,a= il=en )%: ya ,a fan il=arayi$ C*OB=343 )': o0=ani :<<a,an 0 :il$en )(: =ala ka$di =anna0a! C3OB43H1'I

(): 8+ro, t!e day 3$u Oayd died, (>: seven days !ave "assed. (M: See t!e 0orld of deceitF ( : it does not last for a "as!a or sultan.8 )&: 6!adra cried tears fro, !er eyes. )1: B, t!e art of 3ra$s, ,y "ossession # sorro0fully. )?: 6!adra cried tears fro, !er eyes. )%: *!, !o0 t!e art of 3ra$s is ,y "ossession # sorro0fully. )': +ate and se"aration tor,ent ,e. )(: *ver ,y $eloved Hliterally 8,y liver8I B ,ourn sorro0fully # ,y "ossession. T!e 0ord for 8sorro0fully8 Dha!ana E can s"lit into t0o 0ords Dho!i ana3 8,y "ossession8 is ho!ana E t!at are "uns, cross:cou"ling t!e notion of art as full of sorro0 even as t!e ,ot!er=s $eloved son is !er "ossession and !is deat! -( is to $e ,ourned in sadness. T!e ,ulti"le "uns in t!is line also render t!e s"eaker indeter,inate, allo0ing for a,$iguity in line )1 a$out t!e art of t!e 3ra$s: do t!ese senti,ents $elong to t!e e"ic "oet =30adalla! or to t!e e"ic !ero 3$u Oayd disguised as an e"ic "oet, or are t!ey t!e 0ords of t!e ,ot!erG T!is "un recogni<es t!at any of t!e t!ree ,ay $e t!e s"eaker, t!ere$y illustrating t!e insta$ility not only of sounds to 0!ic! different ,eanings can $e assigned $ut also of ,eanings to 0!ic! different nuances can attac! in t!e ,out!s of different s"eakers. Puns are a$out t!e deli$erate cultivation of overla", ,ess, and struggleF t!ey e,erge fro, language like t!e !ero=s laug!ter in res"onse to !is ,ot!er=s la,ents. /aug!ter, a nonver$al "!ysical reaction to one=s o0n or anot!er=s "uns and disguises, causes 3$u Oayd to $are !is front teet! to reveal !is one unconceala$le descri"tor, t!e fa,ous ga":teet! t!at forever ,ark t!e identity of t!e !ero 3$u Oayd in folk ,e,ory. Cis true identity is t!ere$y revealed to !is ,ot!er. W!ile a do,inant ,otif of t!is $lack 3ra$ !ero:trickster is !is su"eriority of ver$al 0it and intellectual cunning, it is also t!e case t!at laug!ter, like disguise, resides in t!e $ody in an e"!e,eral 0ay. /aug!ter acoustically e,erges fro, t!e ga":toot!ed grin. 3$u Oayd res"onds to t!is ,ot!er=s la,ents at !is su""osed de,ise not 0it! du"licitous "unning 0ords t!at e.it fro, t!e !ero D"er!a"s t!e "oet=s ,out!EF instead t!ere is laug!ter, a nonver$al "!ysical reaction to "uns and disguises. /aug!ter resolves its o0ner=s identity. Bndeed, in t!is e"ic all "roducts of t!e ,out! are via$le: t!e !ero=s laug!ter is revelatory and !a""ily reunites t!e fa,ily. T!e !ero=s s"ittle, t!e ,agical liAuid of !is ,out!, cures !is fat!er=s 0ound. +inally, t!e !ero=s 0ords, a vo0 to !is fat!er to return after t0enty nig!ts 0it! t!e ninety ca"tured Cilali ,aidens, set t!e action of t!e tale in ,otion.

The 'lot of ,ing 1andal

T!e tale of 3$u Oayd against t!e 3ra$ king Candal "ro"erly $egins 0!en 3$u Oayd arrives in Candal=s orc!ards. T!ere, !e finds t!e Cilali ,aidens dressed in sackclot! and $earing t!e !eavy 0aterskins Dgir*a E usually carried $y ,en. T!e Cilali ,aidens are forced to attend t!e di2ans, t!e "u$lic asse,$lies or gat!erings of 3ra$ ,en 0!ere fe,ales on "u$lic dis"lay are fair ga,e for insults $y "assing 3ra$s. 3$u Oayd, in !is disguise as an e"ic "oet, addresses in turn eac! of !is $eautiful ,aidens. Bn t!is 0ay 0e, t!e audience, are introduced to t!e fa,ous !eroines of t!e e"ic, Ja< t!e 0o,an 0arrior and !erself a tricksterF 7ayya, 3$u Oayd=s daug!terF 5iyya, !is nieceF 4a=sa, !is 0ife, and so on. To eac! !e insultingly addresses t!e e"it!et Fammasiyya. T!e Ja,,asa are an outcast tri$e

of U""er 9gy"tF to $e associated 0it! t!e, is an insult. Let t!ey are in fact t!e ,odern lineal descendants of t!e sa,e Bani Cilal 0!o are t!e !eroes of t!e 3ra$ e"ic. Bn - )& t!e rest of t!e 3ra$ic:s"eaking 0orld, descent fro, t!e Cilali tri$es is a ,arker of no$le 3ra$ian Bedouin !eritage,H1(I $ut in U""er 9gy"tian society, t!ese su$1ects of !eroic song are as ostraci<ed and outcast as t!e "oets 0!o sing a$out t!e,. Bn sout!ern 9gy"t not 1ust e"ic "oets and e"ic !eroes, $ut even ,e,$ers!i" in t!e Cilali tri$e, t!ere kno0n as t!e outcast Ja,,asiyya tri$e, reinforce t!e conflation and attri$ution of outcast status to tale, teller, and even to"ic. 7ayya, 3$u Oayd=s daug!ter, o$1ects strongly to t!is a$usive language $y !er fat!er, t!oug!, in fact, !e !as na,ed !er 0!at s!e is, a Cilali, $ut !e !as used U""er 9gy"tian "e1orative ter,s. 7ayya=s re"ly yokes t!e identity of "oet and 0arrior, a link altoget!er a$sent in U""er 9gy"tian ascri"tions of social status to t!eir e"ic "oets. Bn lines ?'&:?'% 7ayya says to t!e e"ic "oet 0!o, unkno0n to !er, is !er fat!er, t!e !ero 3$u Oayd: My fat!er is a "oet like you2 !e conceals !i,self, !e "retends !e=s an artist, !e co,es concealed, !e "retends !e=s a "oet, 2a $old valiant ,an, a !orse,an. S!e urges 3$u Oayd in !is role as e"ic "oet to ,ake "oe,s and give ne0s a$out t!eir "redica,ent 0!erever !e travels. 7ayya=s vie0s of !er fat!er 3$u Oayd rese,$les a dual:"ur"ose ,eta"!or of ,o$ility: !e is $ot! e"ic "oet and its social o""osite, a !orse,an and a 0arrior 0!ose contrasting e"it!ets "rovide si,ultaneous, t!oug! co,"eting, references in t!e sa,e unit. 3$u Oayd t!en "resents !i,self at Candal=s court, 0!ere !e is rudely ignored. Candal, 0!o !as !eard of 3$u Oayd, !is $lack skin and !is "enc!ant for disguises, $eco,es t!e reci"ient or audience to 3$u Oayd=s ,ultilayered c!aracteri<ations. Candal instinctively recogni<es t!e eAuation $lack outcast eAuals e"ic "oet eAuals $ra<en liar as in lines ?) :?>': Ce HCandalI feared !e 0as t!e !ero 3$u Oayd, lest !e "retend to $e an artist, lest !e 0it! !is ra*a*a o"en t!e doors of destruction and take t!e Oog!$a daug!ters: 8B kno0 !i,, t!e ,an of lies 5*ta$ *ahtan6.4 3$u Oayd $egins $y re$uking Candal for !is igno$le treat,ent of visiting e"ic "oets, and Candal a"ologi<es. Ce asks 3$u Oayd to "lay ,usic 0!ile t!e Cilali ,aidens dance for !is ,en. 3$u Oayd fears suc! "u$lic dis"lay 0ould insult !is 0o,en. To delay, !e insists t!at Candal arrange for t!e 0o,en to $e $at!ed, "erfu,ed, and $eautifully attired $efore $eing "resented to t!e 3ra$ ,en. T!e 9gy"tian e"ic "oet =30adalla! descri$es in detail t!eir enticing dress, 0!ic! renders ,en delirious. 7ayya, t!e !ero=s daug!ter, leads t!e ot!er 0o,en. S!e descri$es t!eir "redica,ent in a "un: it is 8$itter,8 t!e e.: - )1 tended ,eaning of handal Dderived fro, its literal ,eaning, 8$itter colocynt!8E, and $itter due to a !u,an cause, a king called Candal. T!is a""ears to $e t!e si,"lest 0ay to "un: an identity of sound

t!at "ro"oses co,"le,entary denotations according to a $ifurcated $ut related conte.t of a na,e and its ,eaning. Candal ,eans 8$itter,8 and t!e tyrant 0!o $ears t!is na,e e.e,"lifies $itterness, t!anks to a 1ustifia$le ety,ological $asis. T!e relations!i" of a "erson to !is or !er "ro"er na,e is taken u" in order to dra0 out t!e i,"ortant "un on t!e ,eaning or i,"ort of a "ersonal na,e t!at also s"ecifies t!e content, as in t!e follo0ing seAuence 0!ere t!e 0ords in "arent!eses "ro"ose t!e secondary ,eaning D11: 1?:??E:H1)I T!e young ,aidens, t!e daug!ters of Cilal, 0o,en of ko!l:darkened eyes, t!ey 0ent out of t!e $at!s, t!ey !ave roses on t!eir c!eeks, glo0ing. 7ayya says: 8* 0o,en, ,y !eart fro, sorro0 is BBTT97 HC3453/IF 0!en !e co,es !e $rings !y"ocrisy, !e says to t!e ,aidens, t!at C3453/ HBBTT97I, !e says: =5ance, * ,aidens.= Be0are of agreeing to any 0ord: t!e s0ord $efore t!e dance.8 .aragu :ssa$aya $anat !ilal =u,,at al=uyun ilka!ayil .ara1u ,in il!a,,a, li!u, 0ard =al.add B sal rayya:tgul ya nis0an gal$i ,in il!a,, C3453/ la,,a ya1i yi1i$ di!an yigul :ssi$aya da C3453/ yigul argisu ya sa$aya i=0a :t,asu:lu kil,a issef a0la ,in irragasan 7ayya tells Candal !is very na,e 0ill not only forever stand for 8$itterness8 $ut 0ill also $e t!e linguistic sign for igno,iny a,ong t!e 3ra$s 0!en 0ord circulates via t!e e"ic "oet t!at Candal dis!onors 3ra$ 0o,en $y forcing t!e, to dance and dis"lay t!e,selves "u$licly. Candal strikes 7ayya, and s!e falls to t!e ground. Cer fat!er, 3$u Oayd, still disguised as t!e e"ic "oet, is forced to 0itness violence against !is $eloved daug!terF only t!en does !e reveal !i,self to !er in t!e secret language, t!e 4a1di 3ra$ic dialect t!ey s!are. Until no0, t!e 3ra$ ,aidens= refusal to e."ose t!e,selves and t!eir $odies to strange ,en !as $een ,atc!ed $y 3$u Oayd=s insistence on conceal,ent even fro, !is closest fa,ily ,e,$ers. *nly 0!en t!e inviolate fe,ale seclusion is t!reatened $y dis!onoring "u$lic dis"lay does - )? 3$u Oayd seek refuge in t!e "lay of secret language, 0!ere !e can safely reveal !i,self. T!e suggestion is of secret su$culture, set a"art linguistically, "er!a"s on a !ig!er level, and $ased on t!ose fe0 initiates 0!o decode ,eanings. T!e trickster not only s!ifts a,ong various !u,an identities, $ut !e is also t!e ,aster of linguistic register D 11: M': (E: 3$u Oayd t!e $old one sa0 !er, 3nd !is sound reason 0as lost.

3$u Oayd said: 8T!is is folly. B "ut difficulties $e!ind, and B find t!e, a!ead.8 Cis reason says uns!eat!e your s0ord. Cis reason says "atience is t!e ,odel. Ce s"oke gi$$eris! to t!e Cilali 0o,en in t!e 4a1di tongue, a foreign tongueF !e said: 85ance, * 7ayya, Lou 0!ose lot is darkness. Co,e, dance a little. B a, ,yself t!e Cilali, your fat!er.8 Ce said: 85ance, * 7ayya, Wo,an of earrings and coAuettis!. B a, ,yself t!e c!ief of 0ar, My fat!er 7i<g, ,y grandfat!er 4ayil.8 Ce said: 85ance, * 7ayya. B a, ,yself your fat!er, Sala,a.8 D11: M': (E 0i=i :l!a :l,igdi, a$u <ed aglu :ssali, indar a$u <ed gal di $ala0i afut!a 0ara 0:alga!a giddaa, aglu yigul as!a$ sfak aglu yigul issa$r isti,tal ratan $anat il!ilaliyya $i :Bsa na1d gari$ ya lisan yigul argusi ya rayya ya :lli layali na$uki ta=ala =argusi s0ayye $i <at il!ilali a$uki gal li!a argusi ya rayya ya :,, il!alag 0a :ddalayil $i<ati rayis ilgo,aya a$uya ri<g 0i1add B nayil Bn t!e end, 3$u Oayd is un,asked $y Candal=s daug!ter, =31a1a, 0!o is a sand:diviner. S!e is a$le to "enetrate !is disguise as an e"ic "oet and singer $ecause !er "o0er resides not in t!e identity transfor,ations of a trickster $ut in !er a$ility to read t!e trut! a$out t!e "resent and t!e future in t!e - )% sands. 3$u Oayd tries to forestall =31a1a=s e."osure of t!is identity $y clai,ing t!at according to 3ra$ custo, 0o,en !ave no rig!t to $e "resent, let alone s"eak in 3ra$ ,ale asse,$liesF to deflect attention fro, !er accurate reading of !is for,, !e re"roac!es !er 0it! unveiling !er o0n. T!is leads t!e evil king Candal, =31a1a=s fat!er, to accuse !is o0n daug!ter of loving t!e e"ic "oet, a dis!onora$le "assion t!at leads to !er dis!onora$le "resence a,ong ,en. 4onet!eless, s!e s"eaks, connecting all 3$u Oayd=s dis"arate disguises and social ,eanings. Cer 0ords send !i, to "rison. Bn "rison, 3$u Oayd continues to "roclai, !e is ,erely an innocent 0andering e"ic singer. Candal "ro"oses to Jo!ar, !is $lack 1ailer, t!at !e, Jo!ar, travel to t!e Cilali !o,eland in 4a1d to verify 0!et!er

t!e real 3$u Oayd is t!ere: a ,an, unlike a "un, cannot $e "resent in t0o "laces, distant 3ra$ia and Candal=s 1ail, at one ti,e. Jo!ar=s re0ard is to $e Ja<, one of t!e Cilali !eroines. Marriage to !er 0ould enno$le a $lack slave=s c!ildren: Jo!ar enunciates a rule of class and color D$a*id ma $a22i! $a*id E 8a slave does not 0ant a slave,8 1%: ?'ME. 3fter a 1ourney of seven nig!ts, Jo!ar arrives in t!e Cilali territory, enters t!eir di2an, and "retends to $e t!e sultan of Sudan. Je0s !ave attacked !is city, !e relates, and !e seeks !el" fro, t!e !ero 3$u Oayd to defend !is "eo"le.H1>I Bn ot!er 0ords, t!e $lack slave "retends to $e a "rince in order to investigate t!e identity of t!e $lack "rince in !is custody, 0!o is "retending to $e an e"ic "oet and 0ill soon2as 0ill $e seen s!ortly2"retend to $e a slave. T!e t0o are even descri$ed in identical oral for,ulas, for e.a,"le D+alat i!!ur 2i 'a* il*uhtan, 4 Jo!ar ,ingled lies and $roug!t untrut!s#slander,8 1%: ?)ME. T!e Cilalis trut!fully infor, !i, t!at 3$u Oayd is at Candal=s court on anot!er ,ission2na,ely, to rescue t!e Cilali ,aidens. Jo!ar returns successfully fro, !is ,ission to infor, Candal t!at t!e $lack e"ic singer locked in !is "rison is in trut! t!e !ero 3$u Oayd. Candal resolves to kill 3$u Oayd and again "ro,ises !is slave Jo!ar ,arriage to a Cilali ,aiden of !is c!oice once 3$u Oayd is dead. 3t t!is "oint in t!e co,"licated crossing of class and color, cross:dressing, du"licity, and false identities, t!ere is one c!aracter in t!e tale 0!o voices a critiAue of "uns, o$liAueness, and also "resentation. T!e i,"risoned 3$u Oayd !ad called for !el" fro, al:6!idr, !is ,agic "rotector since !e 0as $orn.H1MI 3 figure 0it! ,agical "o0ers, al:6!idr insists 3$u Oayd renounce disguise2in ot!er 0ords "ut an end to "uns, ontological confusions, and attendant catastro"!es. Bt is as if !e insists: let t!ere $e unco,"licated likenesses, everyone $e 0!o t!ey are, na,es fit t!eir o0ners, and !u,an $e!avior $ased on action not 0ord"lay. Ce delivers !is "lea clearly, re"etitively, and 0it!out any "unning. Moreover, !e insists, 3$u Oayd ,ust re"lace !i,self in "rison 0it! t!e c!aracter in t!e narrative Dt!e $lack slave Jo!arE 0!ose disguise 3$u Oayd !as donned, so t!at all actors are in t!eir a""ro"riate "lace for t!e ensuing events D 11: %%?:%'1E: - )' al:6!idr said to !i,: 8B $id you, * Prince 3$u Oayd, Co,e reveal yourself to "eo"le, * 3$u Oayd, co,e to ,e, revealed, 3nd B 0ill ,ake you victorious in every "lace.8 Ce said to !i,: 8T!e slave 0!o $rings you a tray, s!ackle !i, in c!ains. Bf you s!ackle !i, in your "lace, your life continues till no0. Bf you don=t s!ackle !i, in your "lace, go d0ell in a grave of sands.8 4onet!eless, al:6!idr "erfor,s !is ,agic on Candal=s daug!ter, =31a1a: s!e $eco,es ine."lica$ly stricken 0it! concern for 3$u Oayd=s 0elfare. S!e orders t!e sa,e $lack slave, Jo!ar, to $ring 3$u Oayd a tray of food. Jo!ar de,ands nig!ts of "assion in !er $ed as !is "rice, and s!e agrees. T!en Jo!ar delivers food to t!e i,"risoned 3$u Oayd. By "laying u"on a s!ared $lack identity, 3$u Oayd asks Jo!ar to release one !and so !e can eat fro, t!e tray. Wit! only a single ar,, 3$u Oayd "ounds Jo!ar to t!e ground, s!ackles !i,, and esca"es. 3s t!is "oint in t!e "erfor,ance, t!e U""er 9gy"tian e"ic "oet =30adalla! co,,ents in an understated aside t!at again 3$u Oayd 8$egins !is trick ane08 D'addad ahyal, 1?: ME, 8,i.ing lies 0it! untrut!s.8 3$u Oayd no0 disguises !i,self as Jo!ar, Candal=s $lack slave, and returns 0it! t!e tray of food to

Candal. Candal asks 8Jo!ar8 Dre,e,$er t!is is 3$u Oayd in disguiseE to $ring 3$u Oayd $efore !i,. Bn a r!etorical ,ode, it could $e said t!at 3$u Oayd is faced 0it! t!e crisis of t!e "un forced to $e "ut into e."licit 0ords, to disa,$iguate t!e uncontrolla$le in language. 3$u Oayd, alias Jo!ar, calls for 6ing Candal=s ninety !orse,en to enter t!e "rison. T!en, 3$u Oayd, still as Jo!ar, stations !i,self outside t!e "rison entrance, sending t!e ninety !orse,en into t!e dungeon in searc! of !i,self. W!en t!ey e,erge again, t!ey encounter not 3$u Oayd disguised as Jo!ar $ut 3$u Oayd t!e Cilali 0arrior, 0!o "roceeds to slaug!ter all ninety of t!e,. 3$u Oayd t!en returns to Candal, reverting to !is disguise as Jo!ar, to announce t!at 3$u Oayd !as esca"ed fro, "rison. Candal goes to t!e "rison and finds t!e real Jo!ar, $ut at t!is "oint !e no longer kno0s if t!e $lack ,an $efore !i, is Jo!ar or 3$u Oayd disguised as Jo!ar. Bn t!e ,anner of tyrants, Candal kills t!e $lack ,an 0!o is really Jo!ar, reasoning t!us: if t!e $lack ,an in !is "resence is indeed !is slave Jo!ar, t!en !e, Jo!ar, failed in !is ,ission and deserves to die, and if it is 3$u Oayd t!e ene,y, !e ,ust $e killed instantly. T!ere is a dead $lack $ody. T!e ninety fair Cilali ,aidens a""roac! it, t!ey see no identifying ga": toot!, and t!ey re1oice in t!e kno0ledge t!at 3$u Oayd still lives. Bn t!e ,eanti,e, 3$u Oayd gra$s a !orse and takes refuge - )( in Candal=s garden, 0!ere t!e Cilali ,aidens find !i,. 5es"ite t!eir urgings to esca"e, 3$u Oayd stays to fig!t Candal. 3$u Oayd sends t0o letters: one to Candal, announcing 3$u Oayd=s i,,inent arrival, and a second to t!e Cilali tri$e enca,",ent in 3ra$ia. Bn !is second letter to !is Cilali kins,en, 3$u Oayd signs !is ,issive 0it! yet anot!er identity, t!at of !is ene,y Candal. 3gain !e re"eats an earlier trick fro, ot!er e"isodes in t!e e"ic: !e 0rites to !is fello0 tri$es,en in Candal=s na,e t!at 3$u Oayd !as died, and t!ey no0 o0e tri$ute and 0ealt!. Cis "oint is t0ofold: to test again !is 0ort! a,ong !is tri$es,en and to ensure t!eir "resence in t!e final $attle. T!oug! !is tri$es,en 0ee" and la,ent at 3$u Oayd=s deat!, t!e Cilali 0arriors Auarrel over t!e need to rescue t!e ,aidens still i,"risoned at Candal=s court. T!ey finally arrive t!irty days later, engage t!e real Candal in $attle, and are defeated. *nly 0!en t!e !ero=s o0n ,ot!er, 6!adra S!arifa, "re"ares to 1oin $attle $ecause s!e $elieves yet again t!at !er son is dead, does 3$u Oayd co,es for0ard to sto" !er. +inally, only in t!e last section of t!e Candal tale, do 3$u Oayd and Candal, !ero and villain, engage in t!e $loody, descri"tively detailed, set $attle "iece on !orse$ack so $eloved of t!e e"ic genre. Candal is killed, and t!e tale concludes 0!en =31a1a, Candal=s daug!ter, a sand:diviner 0!o sa0 t!roug! 3$u Oayd=s disguise, is, at !er o0n reAuest, $roug!t under Cilali aut!ority and "rotection.

Conclusion
5isguise, ,eta,or"!osis, ,ulti"le ,eanings, and t!e variety of effects ac!ieved $y t!e use of linguistic "uns serve, B clai,, to reesta$lis! a serious !ierarc!y. 3$u Oayd can "lay 0it! $eco,ing a $lack slave, $ut t!e corres"onding reversal cannot $e so readily effectedF Jo!ar, t!e genuine $lack slave, can never $eco,e a !ero. So too "uns !ave li,its: t!ey can uncover trut!s, and t!ey can serve as cover:u"s, $ut you cannot invent "uns t!at are not already "otential in t!e language. +or t!is reason, 3$u Oayd can disguise !i,self as an e"ic "oet. Ce can add ,eaning, gain identities Deven 0it! a te,"orary loss of status in t!e narrativeE, and !e can cele$rate a,$iguities. Ce can trick or ,i. 0it! evil yet lose no !onor. Punning can e.tend to a 0!ole narrative and even ,isread an entire situation. 9"ic "oets, 0!et!er t!ey are 3$u Oayd in t!e e"ic narrative or =30adalla! in !is sout!ern 9gy"tian ,ilieu, "ossess a !ig! conce"tion of "oetic vocation. T!oug! e"ic "oets "refer ,ulti"le visions and

,eanings in t!e universe, nonet!eless t!e everyday circu,stances of social life in U""er 9gy"t ensure t!at, like Jo!ar t!e $lack slave and unlike t!e $lack !ero 3$u Oayd, t!e e"ic "oet =30adalla! =3$d al: Jalil =3li of U""er 9gy"t can never $e seen as an e"ic !ero2certainly never in !is o0n society, $ut t!en not even in "erfor,ance. - )) - )> -

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1 M>a. 8T!e 5eat!:Song of 3,ir 6!afa1i: Puns in an *ral and Printed 9"isode of Sirat Bani Cilal.8 Fournal of Ara*ic iterature 1M: )?:>M. 1 M>$. 8Met!odes de transcri"tion et traduction d=une "erfor,ance de geste orale ara$e.8 Bn e conte, edited $y Pierre /yon and Paul Perron, 1?>:1% . Montreal: 5idier. 1 M). 83ra$ic +olk /iterature and Political 9."ression.8 Ara* %tudies .uarterly M: ?: 1>M:1M(. -) -

=0 Epic, .ender, and Nationalism2 The -e+elopment of Nineteenth;Century Bal/an &iterature

Margaret Beissinger 9"ic "oetry !as $een a vi$rant oral tradition in t!e Balkans since at least t!e fourteent! century and 0as "er"etuated t!roug! centuries of *tto,an and ot!er foreign rule. Bt "rovided a ,ain source of entertain,ent in t!e courts of t!e local aristocracy as 0ell as a,ong t!e folk. 3lt!oug! t!e first "u$lis!ed !eroic songs 0ere included in a Croatian literary "oe, fro, t!e ,id:si.teent! century, t!e syste,atic collecting of e"ic a,ong Ser$s, Croats, Bulgarians, and 7o,anians did not $egin until t!e nineteent! century, coinciding 0it! t!e rise of nationalis,, as"irations for li$eration, and t!e for,ation of national or revival literatures. *ral e"ic2a genre t!at, for t!e 8nation $uilders,8 !ad co,e to e.e,"lify t!e !eroic resistance of t!e "eo"le t!us $eca,e a ,odel for "oetic ,aster"ieces, suc! as Petar Petrovic 41egos=s /ountain Wreath. 3s Margaret Beissinger argues, !o0ever, t!ese early literary e"ics, 0!ile ins"ired $y t!e folk genre, also evoked strong nationalistic ,essages t!at served t!e "olitical agenda of t!e ,ale "u$lic. T!e ,ale:do,inated "olitical ,ilieu of t!e nineteent!:century Balkan 0orld2in 0!ic! nations 0ere asserting t!eir o0n identities after centuries of *tto,an aut!ority20as unsy,"at!etic, if not indifferent, to t!e fe,ale voice for t!e disse,ination of t!e nationalistic ,essages e."ressed in t!eir $urgeoning discourse. W!ile oral e"ic recogni<ed 0o,en in su$stantial 0ays, 2ritten e"ic2a genre t!at ,irrored t!e oral genre and initiated t!e cultural revivals of t!e nineteent! century2ignored t!e,. Bnstead, literary e"ic, 0!ic! $eca,e an i,"ortant ,eans for forging a sense of nation!ood in t!e Balkans, e,$raced a social construction of reality created effectively $y ,en. 3s nation $uilding develo"ed in various co,,unities in eastern 9uro"e, gender $eca,e an o$1ectified issue in t!e creation of culture and s!a"ing of literatures. Wo,en 0ere su$1ected in t!is "rocess to reified roles, "articularly in t!e early literary e"ic of t!e nineteent! century. T!e fe,ale voice in t!is literature, e,anating fro, t!e "rivate and "ersonal s"!ere, 0as actually ,ore often t!an not t!e t!inly disguised voice of t!e ,ore "u$lic and collective ,ale, ardently constructing culture and nation. T!is essay e."lores t!e intersection $et0een gender roles and national:

- >& is, in nineteent!:century Balkan culture.H1I Bt e.a,ines gender and nationalis, in oral literature versus orally ins"ired literature, and in "articular !o0 0o,en 0ere re"resented in e"ic "oetry. 3lt!oug! 0o,en 0ere rarely central figures in traditional Balkan C!ristian oral e"ic,H?I t!ey 0ere often cast in significant roles t!at 0ere clearly necessary and vital to t!e integrity of t!e narratives. By contrast, t!e first ,odern literary 0orks of t!e nineteent!:century Balkan 0orld 0ere nationalistic "oe,s t!at relied !eavily on oral e"ic and yet virtually ignored 0o,en in t!eir narratives. T!ese 0ere 0orks t!at des"ite 0!atever 1udg,ents 0e ,ay ,ake today of t!eir literary ,erits "layed very i,"ortant roles in t!e ,aking of Balkan national consciousness. Bn t!is early literary e"ic, unlike in oral e"ic, 0o,en "layed very ,inor roles Dor no roles at allE "recisely $ecause t!e aut!ors of literary e"ic, acting in t!eir role as 8cultural entre"reneurs,8H%I crafted a literature t!at soug!t to a""eal "ri,arily to ,en, t!e ,ain "artici"ants in nineteent!:century nationalist ,ove,ents. T!is contrasts s!ar"ly 0it! t!e art of oral e"ic "oets, 0!ic! reflected 0o,en=s varied roles in society and 0!ose intended audiences 0ere ,ultigender in c!aracter. 7o,antic nationalis, "rofoundly affected t!e cultural and literary revivals t!at ,us!roo,ed in t!e Balkans in t!e ,odern "eriod. Jo!ann ;ottfried Cerder=s notion of t!e 8@olk8 0as central to t!e larger currents of cultural nationalis, t!at s0e"t $ot! 0estern and eastern 9uro"e. 8@olk8 0as conceived of as a social collective or nation t!at 0as a "atriarc!al construction2,uc! like a traditional nuclear fa,ily20!ere !istory, language, and culture are interrelated and s!ared. B,"licit in t!is t!inking 0as t!e aut!ority of t!e 8fat!ers8 and ot!er ,ales of society.H'I T!ose 0!o es"oused ro,antic nationalis, eAuated ,uc! of t!e "er"etuation of society 0it! t!e trans,ission of tradition and folklore. T!e 8voice of t!e "eo"le,8 as found in t!eir folklore, 0as considered t!e core of national culture. T!e desire to "reserve t!e "recious oral traditions of t!e folk resulted in an intense interest in t!e collection of oral "oetry t!roug!out t!e eastern 9uro"ean 0orld during t!e nineteent! century. Bt also fostered2in its "atriarc!al discourse2national literatures t!at develo"ed 0it! necessarily ,ale to"ics and agendas at t!e forefront. +olklore "layed a central role in t!e for,ation and develo",ent of Balkan national literatures in t!e nineteent! century. *ral tradition, vie0ed as a cultural treasure t!at survived centuries of foreign D$ot! *tto,an and 3ustro:CungarianE do,ination, 0as seen as a source of e."ression of struggle against foreign influence. Bt 0as a ve!icle t!roug! 0!ic! ideals of li$eration and national identity 0ere e."ounded and "ro,oted. +ully e."loited in t!e creation of national consciousness, folklore 0as ,ani"ulated for "olitical "ur"oses. T!roug!out t!e nineteent! century, folklore "rovided ideal ingredients for 0!at Benedict 3nderson !as ter,ed 8narrative HsI of =identity=8H(I 2narratives - >1 t!at validate t!e convictions and as"irations of nation $uilding and t!at are, in fact, necessary in t!e creation of national culture. +olklore2as e,$raced $y t!e literary "u$lic2e.e,"lified an ideali<ed "ast t!at $eca,e a vital co,"onent in t!e for,ation of national narratives, literature, and culture. 3s 7oger 3$ra!a,s !as "ointed out, 8T!e folk and t!eir lore 0ere enlisted in t!e nation:$uilding cause.8 T!e ,ani"ulation of $ot! folk and lore in t!is drive to create national culture 0as 8t!e result of elitist social and cultural constructions. 8H)I T!e first $road stage in t!e develo",ent of ,odern Balkan literatures 0as t!e co,"osition of literary e"ic. T!e genre dre0 !eavily fro, oral e"ic t!at 0as e.tant at t!e ti,e. 9.a,"les of suc! 0orks include Gors,i )i'enac DT!e ,ountain 0reat!, 1M'>E $y t!e Montenegrin Petar Petrovic 41egos BB, %mrt

%mail&Age Cengica DT!e deat! of S,ail:3ga Cengic, 1M')E $y t!e Croat Bvan Ma<uranic, Gors,i putni, DWoodland traveler, 1M(>E $y t!e Bulgarian ;eorgi 7akovski, and "um*ra)a rosie DT!e red oak grove, 1M>?E $y t!e 7o,anian @asile 3lecsandri. 9ac! of t!ese 0orks 0as ins"ired $y Balkan oral e"ic: eac! reflects as"ects of t!e style, language, and narrative content of t!e oral genre. 3ll of t!ese e"ics 0ere key in t!e develo",ent of national literatures in t!eir res"ective societies. 41egos, Ma<uranic, 7akovski, and 3lecsandri 0ere all ,a1or literary figures in t!eir res"ective co,,unities, as 0ell as keenly involved in t!e collection and disse,ination of oral traditions. +urt!er,ore, all of t!e, 0ere significant "olitical actors in t!e nationalist dra,as of t!e nineteent! century, so,e even !olding for,al "olitical offices. T!e educated "u$lic of t!e Balkans during t!e nineteent! century !ad e.tensive contact 0it! oral "oetry. Ma1or collections of oral "oetry $eca,e influential a,ong t!ose 0!o constructed national culture Dincluding "olitical activistsE and s!a"ed literary develo",ent. T!ese 0ere collections of folklore 0it! 0!ic! t!e 0riters of early national literature 0ere fa,iliar and 0!ic!, in fact, ins"ired t!e,. T!e ,ost "ro,inent cultural figure in nineteent!:century Ser$ia 0as @uk Stefanovic 6arad<ic, often referred to as @uk. @uk 0as t!e ,ost i,"ortant c!a,"ion of folklore, collecting and "u$lis!ing voraciously t!roug!out !is lifeti,e D1>M>:1M)'E. @uk also 0as an e,inent gra,,arian. Ce standardi<ed t!e Ser$ian literary language and ort!ogra"!y, t!ere$y "roviding t!e conte.t for t!e develo",ent of t!e ,odern Ser$ian language and a national literature. @uk "u$lis!ed !is first collection of oral "oetry in 1M1'. Cis continuing efforts to record and "u$lis! oral literature cul,inated in a four:volu,e ant!ology entitled %rps,e narodne p'esme DSer$ian folk songsE, 0!ic! 0as "u$lis!ed in /ei"<ig $et0een 1M?% and 1M%% and later e."anded and reissued in @ienna $et0een 1M'1 and 1M)?. Cis collections 0ere "o"ular and 0ides"read in t!e Sout! Slavic 0orld, not to ,ention kno0n and a""reciated $y Jako$ ;ri,,, ;oet!e, and ot!ers in 0estern 9uro"e. 3s Sveto<ar 6ol1evic !as "ointed out, 8*0ing to t!e 0ork of @uk 6arad<ic, H0!oI gained - >? international recognition, t!e folk traditions $eca,e t!e o$1ects of literary cult and ins"iration.8H>I @uk=s "u$lications of oral "oetry 0ere instru,ental in t!e nineteent!:century develo",ent of literature in Ser$ia, Croatia, and Montenegro. Bndeed, as 3l$ert /ord noted, 8T!e "o"ular "oetry, es"ecially t!e @uk collection, . . . 0as 0idely i,itated, and its for, 0as influential in s!a"ing t!e style of literary "oetry, $ot! narrative and lyric, t!roug!out t!e century and even later.8HMI Bn t!e oral e"ics collected $y @uk, 0o,en "lay a variety of roles t!at are not trivial and even often instru,ental in t!e narratives told. T!is analysis focuses on 0!at @uk ter,ed t!e oldest !eroic songs, t!at is, t!e contents of !is second volu,e of %er*ian 1ol, %ongs D 1&& in allE.H I By and large, t!ese e"ic songs are !eroic and t!erefore are concerned 0it! 8,ale8 narratives. T!ey re"resent a dee"ly "atriarc!al 0ay of life. Wit!in t!is conte.t, !o0ever, 0o,en freAuently figure in re,arka$ly significant and reAuisite 0ays. Most of t!e fe,ale Das 0ell as ,ale, for t!at ,atterE figures fit into esta$lis!ed "atterns t!at are stereoty"ical t!roug!out t!e tradition2a !all,ark of oral literature. T!e ,ost co,,on fe,ale roles in Sout! Slavic oral e"ic are !el"ers, clever or 0ise ,aidens, ,ot!ers, sisters, and 0ives of !eroes, s"irited 0o,en, ot!er0orldly creatures rese,$ling fairies, and victi,s. T!e fe,ale !el"er is an ancient figure, found in 0orld e"ic fro, antiAuity to t!e "resent. +e,ale !el"ers ty"ically facilitate t!e !ero=s "assage. So,eti,es t!ey aid in t!e release of "risoners. Suc! !el"ers, often ter,ed t!e 1ailor=s daug!ter ty"e, are 0ides"read in t!e larger Balkan and Turkic continuu,.H1&I *t!er fe,ale !el"ers include t!e innkee"er=s 0ife, 0!o drugs t!e ene,y 0!ile !e is drinking and t!en releases t!e !ero2also a

0ides"read Balkan e"ic figure.H11I Clever and 0ise ,aidens also for, a ty"e. So,eti,es t!ey 1udiciously advise !eroesF at ot!er ti,es t!ey out0it t!e !ero in a triu,"! of $rains over $ra0n.H1?I Mot!ers also surface freAuently and are "ortrayed as no$le figures 0!o "rovide counsel to t!eir !eroic sons. T!e advice of t!e !ero=s ,ot!er takes on a near:sacred Auality $ecause of t!e 0isdo, t!at it reflects.H1%I 3ccordingly, t!e "rover$ial 8curse of a ,ot!er8 is seen as t!e least desira$le fate for a son. Sisters ty"ically are seen as !onora$le and fait!ful to t!eir !eroic $rot!ers.H1'I Wives of !eroes fall into t0o $road stereoty"es: t!e relatively "assive $ut eternally loyal ,ates, and t!e treac!erous, unfait!ful ones. Bot! are influential insofar as t!ey "ro"el t!e narrative for0ard in i,"ortant 0ays. T!e Auintessential fait!ful 0ife steadfastly a0aits !er a$sent !us$and in t!e traditional return songs t!at are 0ides"read t!roug!out t!e Balkans.H1(I Cer o""osite, t!e deceitful 0ife, is found at ti,es $etraying !er !eroic !us$and in t!e interests of anot!er ,an. S!e is usually "unis!ed, at ti,es $rutally.H1)I *t!er fe,ale figures in oral e"ic in a sense $reak out of t!e "atriarc!al ,old and are 0!at B ter, s"irited 0o,en. T!ey include $ot! ,aidens and 0ives. T!oug! stereoty"ical in "rofile, t!ey nonet!eless defy t!e "atriarc!al - >% conventions or reAuire,ents i,"osed on t!e, Dfor e.a,"le, in refusing to ,arry t!e !us$and c!osen for t!e,E.H1>I Let anot!er class of 0o,en in t!e e"ic songs are t!e 8vilas,8 ot!er0orldly fe,ale figures 0!o in!a$it forests and live near strea,s. T!ey are $eautiful, "!ysically "o0erful, seductive, easily angered, naug!ty, or !el"ful. H1MI +inally, fe,ale victi,s are utili<ed as a for, of ta. or are forced to ,arry against t!eir 0ill, to na,e a fe0 of t!e ,ost co,,on ty"es.H1 I Bn ot!er 0ords, 0o,en "layed significant roles in t!e Sout! Slavic oral e"ic fro, 0!ic! literary e"ic dre0 ins"iration. Bndeed, ,any of t!e figures in @uk=s collection are found t!roug!out t!e ot!er Balkan traditions. +e,ale figures "layed significant roles in oral e"ic, $ut not al0ays "ositive roles. 9.tolling t!e no$le c!aracter of t!e oral "oe,s t!at !e collected, @uk !i,self referred to t!e 8,asculine Ser$ian s"irit8 t!at t!ey ,irrored.H?&I Bndeed, one ,ig!t ask !o0 t!e various fe,ale c!aracters in Balkan oral e"ic reflected nineteent!:century social reality. T!e 0o,en "resented in t!ese e"ics "ortrayed a variety of fe,ale roles in society, al$eit 0it!in a !ig!ly "atriarc!al fra,e0ork. To $e sure, t!e oral traditional culture2unlike t!e ,ore ur$ane, literary culture2ackno0ledged ,ore fully t!e various roles t!at 0o,en naturally "layed in society. T!is i,"licit recognition is reflected in t!e diverse roles t!at 0o,en occu"ied in oral e"ic. Bn relating stories of relevance to t!e co,,unity, oral tradition e,$raced figures2$ot! ,ale and fe,ale20!o re"resented a 0ide array of roles. Bt 0as t!e goal of oral e"ic "oets to co,"ose engaging narratives t!at resonated in t!e co,,unity, not to disse,inate "olitical ,essages. +urt!er,ore, t!eir audiences 0ere2in t!e case of t!e Balkan C!ristian e"ic2 ,ultigendered. Gors,i )i'enac DT!e ,ountain 0reat!E, $y t!e Montenegrin Petar Petrovic 41egos BB D1M1%:1M(1E ,H?1I "rovides an e.cellent illustration of literary e"ic t!at 0as ins"ired $y oral e"ic yet served2unlike oral e"ic2to esta$lis! a $urgeoning national literature and foster a sense of nation. Pu$lis!ed in 1M'>, it is considered 41egos=s greatest 0ork and occu"ies a venera$le "osition in t!e Ser$ian canon. Bt "layed an integral role in t!e forging of Ser$ian nationalist culture, serving as a sacrosanct te.t t!at for,ed a literary $asis of t!e nationalist ideology. 41egos ,et @uk in @ienna in 1M%%, at 0!ic! "oint a lifelong friends!i" and ,eeting of ,inds 0as esta$lis!ed D41egos sa0 @uk for t!e last ti,e s!ortly $efore !is o0n deat! in 1M(1E. 41egos avidly su""orted @uk=s various activities2fro, collecting oral literature to linguistic and ort!ogra"!ic refor,s. +urt!er,ore, 41egos, a native of rugged and isolated Montenegro, 0as stee"ed in t!e oral

literature t!at 0as a "art of everyday life t!ere. T!e oral traditional ,ilieu t!at c!aracteri<ed village life in Montenegro !ad a "rofound influence on !i,. 3s a yout!, 41egos learned t!e art of oral e"ic singing to t!e gusle Da one:stringed folk instru,entE, continuing in t!e tradition t!at !is fat!er !ad also ,astered. Ce later collected folk "oe,s and "u$lis!ed - >' several volu,es of t!e,F !e also 0rote 8folk8 "oetry.H??I Bn ot!er 0ords, 41egos 0as constantly in contact 0it! oral "oetry. But 41egos 0as not only a cultural figure. Beginning in 1M%%, !e 0as also t!e "rince:$is!o" of MontenegroF !olding fir, to a nationalist agenda, !e 0ielded considera$le "olitical "o0er. /oosely ,odeled on an oral e"ic t!at recounted t!e sa,e su$1ect, t!e literary e"ic The /ountain Wreath focuses on t!e t!e,e of Turkis! o""ression and Slavic DMontenegrinE resistance. Bt "o0erfully ,oved nationalists in t!e nineteent! century. The /ountain Wreath de"icts a ,eeting of Montenegrin clan leaders 0!o ,ust decide 0!at to do 0it! t!e Montenegrins 0!o !ave converted to Bsla,. 3fter ,uc! deli$eration, it is finally agreed t!at e.ter,ination of t!e Musli, converts is t!e $est ,et!od of co,$ating t!e Turkis! ,enace. 3lt!oug! t!e "oe, is constructed in dra,atic for, Dco,"lete 0it! 8stage directions8E, t!ere is virtually no action, only discussion of t!e "ro$le, and "ossi$le solutions. Bis!o" 5anilo D8@ladika 5anilo8E2t!e $is!o" and C!ristian ruler of Montenegro2is t!e ,ain c!aracter Dand ,irrors t!e "erson of 41egos !i,self, si,ilarly torn $et0een e."edient and rig!teous "ostures in t!e ,ediation of t!e ,any C!ristian:Musli, and ot!er tri$al dis"utes in MontenegroE.H?%I Ce takes counsel 0it! !is various clan leaders t!roug!out t!e "oe,, 0eig!ing t!e Auestion of 0!et!er violence s!ould $e used as a solution in t!e desired 8e.ter,ination of Bsla,,8 or 0!et!er ot!er ,odes of reconciliation ,ig!t $e "refera$le. T!is all cul,inates in a decision $y t!e C!ristians to "roceed 0it! a ,assacre of converts2an event t!at t!e reader does not 0itness "er se, $ut t!at takes "lace and is re"orted on, after 0!ic! t!e "oe, concludes. T!e "arallels 0it! et!nic cleansing in t!e for,er Lugoslavia today are o$vious. The /ountain Wreath $egins 0it! t!e s!ort 85edication to t!e 3s!es of t!e +at!er of Ser$ia,8 0!ic! is 0ritten in si.teen:sylla$le ,eter. Bt is follo0ed $y t!e narrative itself, a dra,atic e"ic "oe, of ?,M1 lines, co,"osed in deca:sylla$ic ,eter, 0it! a 0ord $reak after t!e fourt! sylla$le2t!at is, t!e ,eter of Sout! Slavic oral e"ic. 41egos turned to s"oken and vernacular linguistic for,s in t!e "oetry. T!e "oetry a$ounds 0it! "rover$s, incantations, and sayings taken 8fro, t!e folk.8 3 folk round dance is e,"loyed as a ty"e of c!orus. +urt!er,ore, oral literary genres Des"ecially 0edding song and la,entE are e,$edded in t!e narrative at various "oints, as are nu,erous references to oral tradition, suc! as traditional Ser$ian 0eddings or fa,ily feasts Dt!e 8slava8E.H?'I +inally, 41egos re"eatedly utili<ed devices of oral co,"osition2re"etition, "arallelis,, "leonas,, and "arata.is. Bn t!is 0ay !e created a "oetic r!yt!, t!at i,itated oral e"ic, t!ere$y seeking to stir !is readers. The /ountain Wreath reflects ,any of t!e c!aracteristics found in oral e"ic, a genre 0it! 0!ic! nationalis, identified ,ore t!an any ot!er $ecause of its reflection of t!e 8folk82"erceived as t!e soul of t!e nation2as 0ell as its invocation of t!e glorious "ast and !eroic ideals. Bndeed, @uk2t!e 8fat!er8 of Ser$ian folklore2ti,e and again called attention to t!e 8sacred8 - >( nature of Ser$ian oral tradition and t!e "rofound linkage $et0een it and t!e Ser$ian nation and its !istory.H?(I 41egos "ut t!ese sa,e "o0erful sy,$ols to eAually "o0erful "olitical use.

+orty individual c!aracters figure in The /ountain Wreath. *f t!ese, only t0o are 0o,en.H?)I T!e "oetry relates a ,ale story, 0it! ,en as t!e central actors and s"eakers. T!e first 0o,an in The /ountain Wreath a""ears a$out t0o:t!irds of t!e 0ay t!roug! t!e "oe,. S!e is t!e 8sister of Batric,8 a young 0o,an 0!o grieves over t!e recent treac!erous deat! of !er $rot!er at t!e !ands of t!e Turks. Batric 0as a !eroic ideal to !is fello0 Montenegrins. Batric=s sister la,ents in "oignant oral traditional style, e,"loying t!e ty"ical ,eter of deat! la,ent in t!e Sout! Slavic tradition Dan eig!t:sylla$le line follo0ed $y a four:sylla$le refrainE. S!e addresses !er deceased $rot!er: W!ere !ave you flo0n a0ay fro, ,e, * ,y falcon, a0ay fro, your ,ost no$le flock, ,y dear $rot!erG 5idn=t you kno0 t!e fait!less TurksG May ;od curse t!e,V 5idn=t you kno0 t!ey=d deceive you, * lovely !eadG My 0orld is gone, forever lost, ,y $rot!er, ,y sunV My dee" 0ounds can never $e !ealed, ,y $itter 0oundV My very eyes are "lucked fro, ,e, lig!t of ,y eyesV 6uda si ,i uletio, ,o1 sokole, od divnoga1ata tvoga, $rate ranoG 5a 1= nev1erne ne <na Turke, Bog i! kleoV e ce te$e "revaritiG divna glavo Mo1 svi1ete i<gu$l1eni, sunce $rateV ,o1e rane $e< "re$ola, rano l1utaV ,o1e oci i<vad1ene, ocni videVH?>I S!e ,ourns for fifty verses, t!en sei<es !er grandfat!er=s knife and kills !erself. T!e sister of Batric and !er la,ent serve to underscore t!e tragedy and futility of young Batric=s deat!. T!e sister does not !ave a na,e, nor an identity $eyond !er role as sister. Bndeed, after s!e !as e."ressed !er la,ent, s!e surrenders !erself to t!e 0orld t!at !as already snatc!ed a0ay !er $rot!er. Joining !i,, s!e denies !er o0n e.istence. 3fter ,ourning, s!e is no longer needed in t!is dra,a, so 41egos literally re,oves !er fro, t!e scene in a gesture t!at reflects not only a sister=s senti,ental love for !er $rot!er D"roviding a Auintessential de"iction of t!e cult of t!e sisterE, $ut "er!a"s even ,ore significantly an o$1ectification of one of t!e only fe,ale c!aracters in t!e 0ork. Cer role in 41egos=s "oe, is "ri,arily to articulate !er $rot!er=s identity. W!y s!ould Batric=s sister e.e,"lify t!e tragedy of t!e dead !eroG Bn t!e traditional Balkan 0orld, it is 0o,en, not ,en, 0!o "erfor, deat! rites. Bt is t!ey 0!o are t!e caretakers of t!e dead, fro, dressing and guarding t!e cor"se to "erfor,ing la,ents. 5eat! rite is a fe,ale function and a fe,ale social duty. Wo,en alone !ave t!e license to la,ent and co,,unicate 0it! - >) t!e dead in t!is traditional 0orld. T!us, $y t!e conventions of ritual, Batric=s sister is t!e only "erson 0!o can "erfor, t!is function 0it! t!e intensity t!at 41egos intends. T!e deat! rites in Montenegro traditionally !ave $een "articularly "ro,inent a,ong t!e life:cycle rituals. /a,ents t!at glorify dead !eroes2sung $y fe,ale kin2are es"ecially ric!. T!e la,ent sung $y Batric=s sister is an e.e,"lary "oe, in t!is regard, $ridging oral "oetry and literary i,itation of oral "oetry.H?MI +urt!er,ore, !er la,ent e"ito,i<es t!e Balkan cult of t!e sister2a "otent ,eta"!or t!roug! 0!ic! t!e tragedy of Montenegro is e."ressed. T!e only ot!er fe,ale figure in The /ountain Wreath, an old 0o,an Dt!e 8"ro"!etess:0itc!8E, ,akes !er a""earance a$out ?&& verses later in a gat!ering of t!e ,en. S!e for,s "art of a $rief incident.

3fter clai,ing t!at s!e is a 0itc! and t!en ans0ering a series of Auestions "osed $y t!e clan ,e,$ers, t!e old 0o,an confesses t!at s!e 0as sent $y t!e vi<ier D0!o !as learned t!at t!e C!ristian Montenegrins "lan to do a0ay 0it! t!eir Musli, $rot!ersE. S!e clai,s t!at s!e 0as ordered to $e0ilder t!e ,en: 8Ce sent ,e to confuse you,8 s!e tells t!e c!ieftains, 8so you 0ould $e $usy 0it! your trou$les.8 D8Pa ,e "osla da vas 1a "o,uti,, da se o <lu svo,e <a$avite.8EH? I T!e 0o,an is saved fro, $eing stoned to deat! $y t!e intervention of t!e c!ieftains. T!e old 0o,an is clearly an outsider. S!e is "ast c!ild$earing age and t!us is in so,e senses a sy,$olic ,ale. S!e is 8$et0i.t and $et0een,8H%&I neit!er fully fe,ale D$ecause s!e no longer re"resents fertilityE nor fully ,ale Ds!e is, after all, a 0o,anE. +urt!er,ore, s!e is not fro, central Montenegro, $ut rat!er fro, Bar Don t!e 3driatic coastE, and t!us is very literally a stranger. 3 "ro"!etess:0itc! 0as a "erfect "loy for t!e asse,$led ,en2a figure 0!o could "ose as so,eone 0!o deals in ot!er0orldly ,atters. +urt!er,ore, t!is 8"loy8 !ad to $e so,eone 0!o 0as vulnera$le and easily du"ed. 4o $etter candidate could e.ist t!an an old 0o,an2"erceived as 0eak and vulnera$le, as a result of $ot! age and gender. Bn !er confession, t!e old 0o,an tells !o0 t!e vi<ier t!reatened to i,"rison and $urn !er sons and grandc!ildren if s!e did not "lay !is ga,e of confusing t!e C!ristians. S!e !erself says to t!e ,en: Bt 0as t!is t!reat t!at did force ,e, $rot!ers, to so0 discord =,ong you Montenegrins. Ta ,e sila, $raco, nacerala to "o,utit !oca! Crnogorce.H%1I Because 0o,en 0ere associated 0it! "o0erlessness Dand ,en 0it! "o0erE, to succu,$ to suc! t!reats 0ould $e considered fe,ale, so,et!ing t!at only 0o,en 0ould do. T!e old 0o,an fro, Bar $eca,e t!e vi<ier=s "u""et $ecause of !er t0ofold outsider status D$ot! as a "erson not fro, central Mon: - >> tenegro and as a sy,$olic ,ale2t!us "er,itted to ,ingle in ,ale "u$lic s"aceE and $ecause of !er "o0erlessness as a 0o,an.H%?I Bn addition to t!ese t0o fe,ale c!aracters, 0o,en are alluded to or ,entioned on occasion $y ,en in various dialogues in t!e "oe,. T!ese references descri$e a nu,$er of fe,ale roles. Wo,en are regarded as la,enters Dsuc! as t!e sister of Batric, 0!o is !erself a close "arallel to t!e fait!ful sisters of oral e"icE. T!ey ,ourn dead !eroes2!us$ands, $rot!ers, $rot!ers:in:la0, and sons. *ne ,ale c!aracter, for e.a,"le, declares to t!e $is!o" t!at 8,en $ravely $ear 0!at 0o,en la,ent a$out8 D8/1udi tr"e, a <ene naricu8E2an o$servation t!at "ointedly 1u.ta"oses t!e ,artial strengt! of ,en and t!e rituali<ed 0eakness of 0o,en.H%%I /a,enters are often co,"ared to t!e cuckoo $ird DkukavicaEF t!e $is!o", for e.a,"le, is said to $e 80ailing 1ust like so,e cuckoo $ird8 Dkukas kao kukavicaEF t!e si,ile is ,eant to underscore !is 0eakness Dand t!us fe,alenessE.H%'I Wo,en are alluded to as !aving ot!er0orldly connections Drecall t!e old 0o,an fro, Bar. Most nota$ly, t!ey are descri$ed as 8vila8: like D$e0itc!ingE in t!eir seductive "o0ers: 8S!e is "rettier t!an any 0!ite vilaV 8 D8/1e"sa ,u1e od vile $i1eleV 8EH%(I Wo,en are often also "ortrayed as seers of t!e future: W!y do you talk ,agic like old 0itc!es or like so,e old 0o,en reading t!eir $eansG Sto $a1ete kao $a1alice ali $a$e kad u $o$ vraca1uGH%)I 87eading $eans8 is a reference to a traditional ,eans of foretelling t!e future in t!e Balkans, ty"ically

"erfor,ed $y 0o,en. Wo,en are also referred to in "er!a"s t!eir ,ost i,"ortant role in t!e nationalist cant2as t!ose 0!o give $irt! to Ser$ian !eroes. T!ey are seen as vessels t!at serve to $ear ,ale !eroes. 3s Bette 5enic! !as noted, in t!e Balkan conte.t, 8t!e only enduring social units are for,ed t!roug! t!e ,ale descent line, and 0o,en are e.c!anged a,ong t!ese units to "rocreate future generations of ,ales. . . . HWIo,en serve ,erely as links $et0een fat!ers and sons, and $et0een ,ale in:la0s.8 Bndeed, 8only as t!e ,ot!er of sons does a 0ife secure a "lace in t!e grou".8H%>I S"eaking of one of t!e Montenegrin !eroes, a grou" of ,ale voices in 41egos=s "oe, cries out: Ser$ian 0o,an !as never $orne !is like, since 6osovo or even $efore itV Sr"kin1a ga 1ost rad1ala ni1e od 6osova, a ni "ri1ed n1ega.H%MI T!e ,ot!ers ,entioned in The /ountain Wreath of course find "arallels in t!e no$le and 0ise ,ot!ers of oral e"ic. 3 ,ot!er=s curse is also, as in oral e"ic, anat!e,a: - >M T!e ,ot!er=s curse t!us fell u"on !er son, and ,assacred 0as !is entire ar,y. Sti<e sina ,aterina kletva, "ogi$e ,u vo1ska svakolika.H% I +inally, 0o,en are de"icted as victi,s ca"tured and violated $y t!e ene,y. +or e.a,"le, referring to t!e ra"e of C!ristian ,aidens $y t!e Turks, a Montenegrin c!ieftain tells one of t!e Musli, leaders: Bf t!ere is a garland of flo0ers to decorate t!e !eads of lovely $rides, you !arvest it at t!e "eak of flo0ering. Bli i,a! kitnoga vi1enca ko1i kruni celo nev1esta,a, "o<n1es ,i ga u cv=1etu ,ladosti.H'&I 8Carvest8 !as a se.ual ,eaning !ereF t!e sense e.tends also, of course, to t!e 8ra"e8 and 8!arvest8 of Montenegro. T!e sy,$olic ,eaning of ra"e in t!is conte.t is as "o0erful as t!e act itself. 3s @irginia Sa"iro !as "ointed out, 8T!e control over 0o,en=s se.uality !as often $een "layed out in inter:grou" conflict t!roug! t!e dyna,ics of ra"e. . . . W!at 0e ,ig!t call t!e ="olitics of !onor= HisI "layed out $et0een grou"s t!roug! t!e ,ediu, of 0o,en=s se.uality. T!e assault on t!e ene,y involves a 0ide range of "!ysical and "syc!ological tactics, $ut one of t!e ,ost nota$le ,eans of assaulting t!e !onor or "ride of a nation or co,,unity is to assault t!e =!onor= of its 0o,en t!roug! ra"e.8H'1I *$viously, t!is continues to re,ain an i,"ortant di,ension of nationalist "olitics in t!e Balkans today. 7a"e is Dand !as $een t!roug!out t!e et!nic conflicts in t!e for,er LugoslaviaE a "articularly "o0erful ,ode of 0arfare, $ecause it not only attacks t!e !onor of its fe,ale victi,s, as Sa"iro notes, $ut it also s!a,es and t!us dis!onors t!eir !us$ands, $rot!ers, fat!ers, and sons.H'?I Suc! ,en are !u,iliated in t!e face of ot!er ,en. 3s 5enic! !as re,arked, t!e 8"rescri"tions for ,ale $e!avior8 in t!e Balkans involve a 8"u$lic i,age of 0arrior courage . . . linked 0it! a self:i,age of indo,ita$le virility and ela$orated ideologically in ter,s of t!e value codes of =!onor.=8H'%I Male !onor is dee"ly connected to "o0er and control over fe,ales. T!us, references to ra"e in The /ountain Wreath are in so,e senses a ,ale

sy,$ol. 3s Cynt!ia 9nloe !as noted, 8Bn t!e conte.t of nationalist struggles, . . .. t!e a$use of 0o,en often see,s recast as ,ore a "ro$le, for ,en t!an 0o,en.8 T!roug! ra"e, s!e notes, 8t!e !onor of t!e co,,unity=s men !as $een assaulted.8H''I *f course, t!e 0orks of 41egos re"resent t!e use of literary e"ic, ins"ired $y and dra0n fro, oral e"ic, for national and "olitical e."ression. T!ere 0ere ot!er conte,"oraries of 41egos t!roug!out t!e Balkans 0!ose literary e"ics 0ere related to oral e"ic in ,eter, style, language, and content and -> 0ere "o0erful state,ents to t!e ,ale "u$lic, i,$ued 0it! t!e nationalist s"irit of t!e nineteent! century. Bn Croatia, t!e ,ost outstanding 0riter of t!e ro,antic literary ,ove,ent during t!e first !alf of t!e nineteent! century 0as Bvan Ma<uranic D1M1':1M &E, 0!ose literary e"ic %mrt %mail&Age Cengic D The death of %mail&Aga Cengic E 0as "u$lis!ed in 1M').H'(I Ma<uranic 0as fro, a "easant fa,ily and !ad $een fully e."osed to traditional "oetry. Ce 0as, like 41egos, t!oroug!ly kno0ledgea$le a$out @uk=s collections. 3lso like 41egos, !e !eld a "olitical office: 8$an8 DgovernorE of Croatia. The "eath of %mail&Aga Cengic, Ma<uranic=s ,ost fa,ous 0ork, is a "oe, of 1, 1%' lines t!at relates one event in t!e continuing struggle $et0een Turks and Montenegrins2t!e a,$us! of a Musli, c!a,"ion, S,ail: 3ga, and !is slaying $y a $and of Montenegrins in revenge for !is slaug!ter of so,e C!ristians. Unlike t!e incident t!at 41egos related, t!e event t!at for,ed t!e $asis for Ma<uranic=s e"ic actually occurred, and ne0s of it 0as disse,inated in t!e "ress. Bt created an i,,ediate fren<y and $eca,e a ty"e of "o"ular ,eta"!or for Musli,:C!ristian !ostilities.H')I Bn The "eath of %mail&Aga Cengic, Ma<uranic turned to oral e"ic for ins"iration, freAuently e,"loying decasylla$ic verse, as 0ell as oral "oetic and stylistic devices suc! as "atterned re"etition, "arallelis,, and fi.ed e"it!ets. T!e narrative, like t!at in The /ountain Wreath, is a$out li$eration and national identity. T!ere is not a single fe,ale c!aracter in Ma<uranic=s "oe,. 3 fe0 8vilas,8 a fait!ful 0ife, and C!ristian ,aidens 0!o are regularly taken 8for t!e nig!t8 $y t!e Turkis! ta. collectors are ,entioned in "assing $y ,en in t!e te.t. Stereoty"es 0!o are si,"ly $ackground are t!e token fe,ale 8a""earances,8 and once again t!e reference to ra"e is effectively a ,ale state,ent. 3s "assive victi,s, 0o,en "rovide a "rete.t for ,ale discourse on 0arfare and !onorF ra"e c!allenges ,en=s "o0er. ;eorgi 7akovski D1M?1:1M)>E 0as an ardent Bulgarian nationalist 0!o collected folk songs, issued ne0s"a"ers, 0rote literature, and in general devoted !is entire life to t!e Bulgarian nationalist cause. 7akovski=s Gors,i putni, DWoodland travelerE 0as first "u$lis!ed in 1M(>. T!e "oe, D ?M versesE centers on Bulgarian freedo, fig!ters D8!a1duti8E and t!eir stories of struggle against t!e 8Turkis! yoke.8 Bt 0as a clear state,ent on nation and li$eration and !as $een called 8t!e first revolutionary e"ic "oe, of Bulgarian literature.8H'>I 3lt!oug! no0 generally vie0ed as ,inor literature, its i,"act on t!e Bulgarian "u$lic of its day 0as considera$le. Bt 0as one of t!e ,ost "o"ular literary 0orks of t!e Bulgarian national revival. T!e 0ork ideali<es t!e Bulgarian "ast and invokes it as a sy,$ol of t!e "o0er and li$eration t!at 0as desired in nineteent!:century *tto,an:do,inated Bulgaria. 7akovski, like !is Sout! Slavic $rot!ers fro, Montenegro and Croatia, 0as an advocate of oral "oetry and found ins"iration in it for !is o0n e"ic. /ike 41egos and Ma<uranic, 7akovski co,"osed a narrative in 0!ic! a "olitical ,essage do,inated2a "olitical ,essage c!aracteri<ed $y nationalist sen: - M& ti,ent and a call to ar,s. Wo,en do not figure in any significant 0ay in 7akovski=s "oe,. 3 final e.a,"le furt!er illustrates t!e "oint. T!e 7o,anian folklorist and "oet @asile 3lecsandri D1M?1:

1M &E 0rote "um*ra)a rosie DThe red oa, gro)e E in 1M>?. Bt is a literary e"ic t!at narrates a struggle in t!e late fifteent! century $et0een t!e ruler of Moldavia2Ste"!en t!e ;reat2and t!e Polis! king. T!e ,essage of li$eration at t!e core of t!e e"ic 0as !ig!ly "ertinent in t!e nineteent!:century conte.t as t!e 7o,anian "rinci"alities DWalac!ia and MoldaviaE soug!t to $e released fro, all ties 0it! t!e *tto,an e,"ire, still a su<erain "o0er at t!e ti,e. T!e M( :line "oe, 0as an i,"ortant 0ork in its day. 3lecsandri2reno0ned not only for !is o0n "oetry, $ut also for !is "ioneering 0ork in t!e collection of 7o,anian oral "oetry Des"ecially e"icE and !is "olitical involve,ent in 7o,anian nationalist activities2dre0 fro, oral e"ic in t!e creation of 0!at !e considered a 7o,anian national e"ic. Ste"!en t!e ;reat2a !istorical figure 0!o 0as e,$raced in folklore and nationalist culture in t!e r!etoric of e,anci"ation e,$odies !eroic resistance to foreign invaders in 3lecsandri=s "oe,. *t!er ,ale !eroic figures also sing of li$erationF !o0ever, t!e role of 0o,en in t!e e"ic is negligi$le. 7e,arking on t!e gendering of nationalis, a,ong 7o,anians, 6at!erine @erdery !as suggested t!at in t!e construction of a 8national self8 it !as $een a collective, i,"licitly ,ale 8self= t!at !as do,inated. T!is 8entity8 is c!aracteri<ed $y 8!erois,, triu,"!, victi,i<ation, and sacrifice8 and re"resents not only a 8collective H,aleI individual,8 $ut also t!e avo0ed 8nation t!at unites8 t!is collective.H'MI Pro,inent 8individuals8 of t!is 8collective8 0!o e"ito,i<e t!is !eroic conce"t !ave $een invoked t!roug!out 7o,anian !istory and include figures suc! as Ste"!en t!e ;reat, vie0ed as a sacrosanct e,$le, of t!e 8nation.8 3lecsandri e."loited t!is forceful sy,$ol2,ale, !eroic, defiant2as !e constructed !is e"ic of 7o,anian nation!ood, The -ed Oa, Gro)e. Wo,en 0ere entirely dis"ensa$le, $ecause t!e e"ic e."ressed a t!e,e t!at 0as intended to resonate a,ong t!e men 0!o for,ed t!e elite of nineteent!:century 7o,anian society. 3s @erdery !as noted, 8T!e i,age of a collective 7o,anian nation8 0as 8re"roduced 0it!out 0o,en=s intervention.8H' I S"eaking of t!e "rofound 8linkage $et0een gender and cultural identity,8 Sa"iro !as re,arked t!at in so,e societies 8t!e struggle for li$eration !as $een ter,ed a struggle for =,an!ood.=8 +urt!er,ore, 8t!e loss of ,an!ood is culturally understood to ,ean one is $eing turned into a naturally 0eaker and less significant $eing: a 0o,an.8H(&I B suggest t!at if t!e centuries:long state of foreign do,ination D$e it *tto,an or 3ustro:CungarianE in t!e Balkans in t!e nineteent! century is vie0ed as a state of "o0erlessness, or, $y e.tension, fe,aleness, t!en t!e struggles for li$eration 0ere effectively struggles to gain or regain ,aleness D,an!oodE and "o0er. T!us, in order - M1 to ,ove fro, "o0erlessness and o""ression Dt!e state of $eing fe,aleE to "o0er and inde"endence D$eing ,aleE, one strategy 0as to o$1ectify 0o,en and fe,aleness and elevate ,en and ,aleness to t!e center of t!e various narratives t!at aided in generating 8identity.8 T!is is "recisely 0!at 41egos, Ma<uranic, 7akovski, and 3lecsandri did. Bn t!eir literary "leas for li$eration and inde"endent national identity, t!ey constructed ,ale 0orlds t!at 0ere free of t!e e,$le,s of o""ression and e,asculation, "eri"!erali<ing fe,ale sy,$ols. T!eir e"ics s"oke to t!e ardent ro,antic nationalist desires and $eliefs t!at ,en !eld and es"oused:li$eration, regaining of "o0er, aut!ority, and control2all conce"ts or states t!at 0ere seen as antit!etical to t!e status of 0o,en. Men 0ere t!e ,ain audience of t!is literature in t!e nineteent! century $ecause t!ey 0ere t!e "rinci"al "artici"ants in t!e nationalist ,ove,ents in t!e Balkans. Bt follo0ed t!en t!at ,en also !ad to $e t!e ,ain actors and ,out!"ieces in t!is literature. 3s 9nloe !as "ointed out, 8Wo,en !aven=t !ad an easy relations!i" 0it! nationalis,.8H(1I 4ineteent!: century 0riters of literary e"ic in t!e Balkans 0ere asserting a nationalis, in t!eir 0riting t!at lauded t!e li$eration and re,oval of foreign o""ression. T!ese ideals 0ere eAuated al,ost e.clusively 0it! ,ale identity. T!e various literary e"ics discussed !ere 0ere narratives "ri,arily a$out ,an!ood.

W!en 0o,en did surface in t!e,, t!ey 0ere token re"resentations t!at furt!ered t!e ,ale nationalist ,essage: 0o,en as la,enters for dead !eroes, ,ot!ers as rece"tacles for t!e $irt! of national !eroes, 0o,en as o$1ects in t!e "otent national sy,$ol of ra"e, and 0o,en as re"resentatives of ot!er0orldly connections, suc! as 0itc!es or 8vilas.8 By contrast, t!e various roles 0o,en !eld in oral e"ic 0ere not "olitically ,otivated in t!is 0ay. Bndeed, $ot! oral and literary e"ic included2eit!er actively or "assively2fe,ale roles and references. +e,ale kin, fe,ale victi,s, and ot!er0orldly 0o,en all functioned in various 0ays, large and s,all, in t!ese narratives20!et!er to "ro"el t!e narrative for0ard Des"ecially in oral e"icE or to e,$ellis! t!e ,essage of ,ale:centered nationalis, Das in literary e"icE. By co,"arison, t!e fe,ale !el"ers, clever ,aidens, and s"irited 0o,en t!at figured Dso,eti,es Auite "ro,inentlyE in oral e"ic 0ere not "resent in t!e early literary e"ic of t!e Balkan 0orld2"recisely $ecause t!ey 0ere not seen as effective ve!icles for "ro,oting or ela$orating t!e nationalistic agenda. *ral e"ic, as o""osed to its literary i,itations, reflected t!e greater diversity of roles t!at 0o,en "layed in traditional society and t!us offered a ,ultifaceted "ortrayal of 0o,an!ood. /iterary e"ic !ad, after all, a "olitical su$te.t. Bt eit!er "resented or alluded to 0o,en 0!o could aid in t!e advance,ent of t!is su$te.t or neglected t!e, altoget!er. 3t!oug! oral e"ic 0as used $y nineteent!:century ro,antic nationalists to furt!er t!eir cause, it did not arise, as literary e"ic did, out of a need to advocate national and "olitical convictions, $ut rat!er out of a need to relate t!e c!eris!ed - M? stories in 0!ic! t!e dee" ,yt!ic convictions of t!e co,,unity 0ere e."ressed. By o$1ectifying fe,aleness in t!e literary e"ics t!at t!ey consciously constructed, 0riters suc! as 41egos, Ma<uranic, 7akovski, and 3lecsandri 0ere a$le to e,$race ,aleness2t!e essence of nation!ood, li$eration, and "o0er.

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8T!e 4ineteent!:Century 7evival of 4ational /iteratures: 6arad<ic, 41egos, 7adicevic, t!e Bllyrians, and Preseren.8 -e)ie2 of (ational iteratures: The /ultinational iterature of Mugosla)ia (: 1&1; 111. 1 )&. The %inger of Tales. Ca,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press. Mate1ic, Mate1a. 1 M1. A Bi*liographical 0and*oo, of Bulgarian Authors. 9dited $y 6aren /. Black. Colu,$us, *!io: Slavica Pu$lis!ers. Ma<uranic, Bvan. 1 ) a. 8S,ail:3ga Cengic=s 5eat!.8 Translated $y C!arles 3. Ward. The Bridge 1>: (:%'. 1 ) $. %mrt %mail&Aga Cengica . 9dited $y Milorad Oivancevic. Belgrade: Sr"ska kn1i<evna <adruga. Milosevic:51ord1evic, 4ada. 1 '. 8T!e Poetics of t!e Ser$ian *ral Tradition of @uk 6arad<ic.8 Bn The Lses of Tradition, edited $y Mic!ael Branc! and Celia Ca0kes0ort!, (1:)>. /ondon: Sc!ool of Slavonic and 9ast 9uro"ean Studies. 4edic, @ladan, ed. 1 )(. %a*rana dela 7u,a Garad!iica: P'esnarica BIB:&BIBJ. @ol. 1. Belgrade: Prosveta. - M) 41egos, Petar Petrovic. 1 M). Gors,i )i'enac DT!e ,ountain 0reat!E. 9dited and translated $y @asa 5. Mi!ailovic!. Brvine, Calif.: C. Sc!lacks, Jr. 1 )>. %rps,o ogledalo. 9dited $y 7adosav Boskovic and @ido /atkovic. Belgrade: Prosveta. 1M(1. a!ni Car %cepan /ali. Trieste: 3ndri1a Sto1kovic. 1M'(. uca mi,ro,o!ma. Belgrade: 6n1a<estva sr$skoga kn1igo"eatn1a. *lu1ic Maria. 1 (. 8Wo,en, 7a"e, and War: T!e Continued Trau,a of 7efugees and 5is"laced Persons in Croatia.8 The Anthropology of East Europe -e)ie2 1% DS"ringE: '&:'%. Pennington, 3nne, and Peter /evi, trans. 1 M'.

/ar,o the Prince: %er*o&Croat 0eroic %ongs. 4e0 Lork: St. Martin=s Press. 7akovski, ;eorgi. 1 (?. 8;orski "utnik.8 Bn Arhi) na G. %. -a,o)s,i, edited $y M. 3rnaudov, i2 1%%:1)%. Sofia: Bulgarska akade,i1a na naukite. Sa"iro, @irginia. 1 %. 89ngendering Cultural 5ifferences.8 Bn The -ising Tide of Cultural Pluralism, edited $y Cra0ford Loung, %):('. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Turner, @ictor W. 1 )>. The 1orest of %ym*ols: Aspects of (dem*u -itual. Bt!aca, 4.L: Cornell University Press. @erdery, 6at!erine. 1 ). 8+ro, Parent:State to +a,ily Patriarc!s: ;ender and 4ation in Conte,"orary 9astern 9uro"e.8 Bn What Was %ocialism, and What Comes (e+tK )1:M?. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Loung, Cra0ford. 1 >) The Politics of Cultural Pluralism . Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. - M> -

SECTI#N TW#0 E'IC %N- %UT1#!IT"

-M -

>0 Metamorphosis, Metaphor, and %llegory in &atin Epic

'hilip 1ardie P!ili" Cardie focuses !ere on t!e 0ays in 0!ic! ,eta,or"!osis can serve as a guide to understanding t!e differing kinds of figurative ,eanings in e"ic narrative. Using *vid=s /etamorphoses as !is "rinci"al e.a,"le, Cardie e."lores t!e relation $et0een ,eta"!or, "ersonification, allegory, and ,eta,or"!osis and argues t!at ,eta,or"!oses in *vid=s e"ic create an unresolved and s!ifting e.c!ange of literal and figurative ,eanings t!at "recludes identifying !eroic essence as so,et!ing sta$le or certain. Cardie s!o0s t!at earlier e"ic, including es"ecially @irgil=s Aeneid and Co,er=s Odyssey, can $e "rofita$ly reinter"reted

t!roug! t!is *vidian lens, and concludes t!at $ot! t!e Odyssey and t!e Aeneid, "oe,s central to traditional definitions of e"ic, de,onstrate t!e i,"ossi$ility of "inning do0n t!e e"ic ,an as t!e "!iloso"!ical "ersonification of a "erfected !u,anity. Bn t!is essay Cardie s!o0s t!e centrality of *vid for an understanding of e"ic and indeed suggests t!at as a strong rereading of its literary "recursors, *vid=s "oe, ,akes visi$le !idden as"ects of t!e figurative and ,oral construction of earlier e"ics. My essay seeks to ,ake a contri$ution to t!e !istory of t!e allegorical e"ic t!roug! consideration of *vid=s /etamorphoses, a "oe, undou$tedly central to t!e tradition of /atin !e.a,eter narrative, $ut 0!ose status $ot! as an e"ic and as an allegorical "oe, is "ro$le,atic. Meta,or"!osis as a narrative device is often su""osed to $e ini,ical to t!e dee"est concerns of t!e e"ic genre, not least $ecause $y denying deat! as t!e end of !u,an stories it is !eld to destroy t!e ,oral seriousness of e"ic. B s!all "ress t!e generic issue in t0o directions: first $y e."loring t!e connection $et0een t!e ,oral allegoresis of e"ic and ,eta,or"!osis, and second $y asking 0!y it ,ig!t $e t!at a "oe, of transfor,ations s!ould ,ark so significant a "oint in t!e develo",ent of "ersonification allegory in ancient e"ic. Co,,on to $ot! "arts of ,y discussion 0ill $e t!e e,ergence of a tension $et0een t!e allegorical drive to fi. and define univocal categories, and t!e te.t=s resistance to inter"retative fi.ation. Bf B 0anted to give t!ese t0o o""osing tendencies allegorical la$els, B could call t!e first 3tlantean, after t!e giant i,,o$ili<ed t!roug! "etrifaction, and t!e second Protean, after t!e s!a"e:s!ifter 0!o "erfor,s a 0!ole series of transfor,ations in order to elude t!ose 0!o 0ould "in !i, do0n.H1I - &-

Metamorphosis and %llegory2 The &inguistic Turn

T!e linguistic turn !as $eco,e "er!a"s t!e favorite strategy of ,odern critics of t!e /etamorphoses: *vid is read as t!e "oet 0!o DreEfas!ions t!e 0orld in !is o0n 0ords. 3lready in Amores 1.% t!e "oet=s "ro,ise to give i,,ortality t!roug! !is "oetic language2indeed to give e.istence itself2 to !is as yet scarcely fas!ioned, and "ointedly unna,ed, ,istress is set on a "ar 0it! t!e "oetic i,,ortality of 0o,en fa,ous for t!eir involve,ent in tales of ,eta,or"!osis DBo, /eda, 9uro"aE. T!e linguistic scre0 is given anot!er turn if 0e attend to t!e language itself of ,eta,or"!osis, as +rederick 3!l !as done, 0it! reference ,ostly to t!e le.icon of "!onetic and ,or"!ological c!ange, $y 0ay of "rolego,enon to !is discussion of *vid=s use of "unning tec!niAues. +or 3!l t!e funda,ental eAuivocation is t!at $et0een t!e t0o senses of /atin elementa, 8D"!ysicalE ele,ents8 and 8letters of t!e al"!a$et.8 Ce clai,s: 83s t!e ,aterial ele,ents s!ift, transfor,ing ,an into ani,als or "lants, so t!e ele,ents in 0ords are s!uffled to re"roduce t!e c!anges in language itself.8H?I But t!e corres"ondence $et0een t!e "!ysical and t!e ver$al ,ay also $e traced at t!e se,antic level, of ,eta"!or, si,ile, allegory, and ot!er transferred uses of language, including translation and allusion. Bn /atin t!e le.icon of "!ysical ,eta,or"!osis largely overla"s 0it! t!e le.icon of linguistic c!ange. Tra Dns Elatio, 8,eta"!or,8 is a ver$al noun fro, transfero, 0!ic! ,ay ,ean 8transfor,8 Dand also our 8translate,8 for 0!ic! /atin also uses uerto, literally 8turn, c!ange8E. Cicero uses immutatio, 8a c!anging,8 as a la$el to cover t!e ;reek ter,s tropos, 8tro"e8 Dliterally 8a turning8E, and schema, 8figure8 DBrutus ) E. Puintilian defines a figure Dfigura, literally 8s!a"e8E as 8arte aliAua nouata for,a dicendi,8 8a s!a"e of s"eaking altered $y so,e art8 D#nstitutio Oratoria .1.1'E. Cicero=s definition of allegory as 8continuae tralationes,8 8continuous ,eta"!ors8 DOrator 'E ,ig!t eAually $e translated as 8successive transfor,ations,8 a "recise descri"tion of t!e /etamorphoses. T!ese le.ical eAuivalences o"en u" t!e "ossi$ility for ,eta,or"!osis to function as a narrative figuration of figurative language, as linguistic events are "ro1ected into t!e 0orld 8out t!ere8 as

narrative fictions. T!e connection $et0een ,eta,or"!osis and allegory ,ay $e envisaged as an a.is $et0een t!e literal and t!e figurative. 3llegoresis Dinter"retative allegori<ationE takes a frag,ent of literal narrative and converts it into a figurative discourse. T!us t!e literal narrative of Circe=s transfor,ation of !u,an $eings into ani,als is converted into a tale a$out t!e figurative $estiali<ation of t!e !u,an soul t!roug! enslave,ent to t!e "assions. 3 t!eory of allegory $ased on aut!orial intention 0ill !old t!at originally a figure of s"eec! !as $een literali<ed as t!e $asis for a narrative. Paul de Man "uts it t!us: 8+ro, t!e recognition of language as tro"e, one is led to t!e telling of a tale. . . T!e te,"oral de"loy,ent of an initial co,"lication, of a structural knot, indi: - 1cates t!e close . . . relations!i" $et0een tro"e and narrative, $et0een knot and "lot. Bf t!e referent of a narrative is indeed t!e tro"ological structure of its discourse, t!en t!e narrative 0ill $e t!e atte,"t to account for t!is fact.8H%I Just so, a tale of ,eta,or"!osis ,ay take a figurative e."ression and s"in fro, it a narrative fles!ed out 0it! "ersons, ti,es, and "laces, converting t!e "aradig,atic structure of ,eta"!or into a syntag,atic c!ain. Many critics !ave "ointed to *vid=s !a$it of generating tales of transfor,ation out of a literali<ation of t!e figurativeFH'I not so ,any, incidentally, !ave o$served t!at t!is is one of t!e 0ays in 0!ic! *vid continues 0!at !ad $eco,e a central feature of t!e /atin !e.a,eter tradition t!roug! t!e structures of analogy and i,age de"loyed $y /ucretius and @irgil. T!is is a road o"en to t0o:0ay traffic: Jonat!an Bate !as noted recently, s"eaking of t!e $estial in /ear, t!at 8S!akes"eare converts literal *vidian ,eta,or"!oses into ,eta"!ors.8H(I T!is s!uttling $et0een t!e ver$al and t!e "!ysical also c!aracteri<es *vid=s dealings 0it! si,iles, figurative ad1ust,ents in "erce"tion or conce"tuali<ation t!at often antici"ate "!ysical transfor,ations20!at /eonard Barkan !as called 8"roto,eta,or"!oses.8H)I +or e.a,"le, 3"ollo=s dying $oyfriend Cyacint!us is co,"ared Din a traditional kind of si,ile 0it! a s"ecific @irgilian ,odelE to a series of droo"ing flo0er !eadsF a fe0 lines later t!e $oy=s $lood is DliterallyE transfor,ed into t!e flo0er t!at $ears !is na,e.H>I ;iven t!e loss of ,ost of t!e "oetry of ,eta,or"!osis "rior to *vid, in "articular t!at of t!e Cellenistic "eriod, it is difficult to say !o0 s"ecifically *vidian t!is constant allegorical ,atc!ing of s!a"e to narrative is, $ut t!e surviving frag,ents of t!e earlier tradition !int at a fair degree of innovation, or at least syste,ati<ation, on *vid=s "art.HMI

%nthropologies 1omeric, irgilian, and #+idian

T!e first regular tale of !u,an ,eta,or"!osis in *vid=s "oe, is t!at of /ycaon D 1.?& :?'%E. 3s t!e first suc! narrative, it invites us to accord it a "aradig,atic status 0it!in t!e "oe, as a 0!ole.H I Cere t!e ,eta"!or 8Man is a 0olf8H1&I $eco,es t!e occasion for a story a$out a savage ,an 0!ose figurative 0olflikeness finally turns !i, into a 0olf. 3t t!e end of t!e tale *vid ,akes very !eavy use of 0!at W. S. 3nderson !as la$eled t!e 8voca$ulary of continuity8 to ra, !o,e t!e underlying "oints of si,ilarity $et0een t!e ,an /ycaon and a 0olf.H11I T!is !andling of a ter,inal ,eta,or"!osis 8fi.es8 t!e ,eaning of t!e story, 8,aking sense8 of a $i<arre and 8"ri,itive8 tale. *r so it 0ould see,. 5enis +eeney !as "ro"erly located *vid=s /ycaon narrative 0it!in a centuries: long tradition of defining t!e !u,an 0it! reference to t!e categories of god and $east t!at lie on eit!er side.H1?I Bn t!e Co,eric e"ics t!e $oundaries $et0een t!e t!ree categories are tested, $ut ulti,ately no transgression is "ossi$le. Jas"er ;riffin and ot!ers stress t!at Co,er i,"oses a kind of censors!i" on t!e ,arvelous and t!e ,agical, in:

- ?cluding t!e ,otif of ,eta,or"!osis. 8T!e Co,eric 0orld is c!aracteri<ed $y a rigid distinction $et0een t!e ,ain categories of e.istence t!at offers little roo, for co,"ro,ise or a,$iguity.8H1%I T!e ot!er o$stinately re,ains t!e ot!er. T!e Co,eric ant!ro"ology e,"!asi<es t!e inesca"a$ly fi.ed li,its of !u,an nature t!roug! a syste,atic set of contrasts 0it! t!e not:!u,an, on t!e one side t!e divine and on t!e ot!er t!e $estial. 3nd it is true t!at t!e c!ief e.a,"les in t!e Odyssey of a transfor,ative "o0er t!at transgresses t!ese li,its, t!e figures of Proteus and of Circe, are encountered $y t!e !u,an !eroes in "laces on t!e ,argins of t!e !u,an 0orld. 3llegori<ation, es"ecially ,oral allegori<ation, t!reatens t!is rigid classificatory syste,, to t!e e.tent t!at t!e gods and t!e ani,al Dand inani,ateE 0orld $eco,e figures of, and t!us colla"se into, t!e category 8!u,an.8 Take t0o versions of t!e Circe story: in t!e Co,eric narrative t!e co,"anions of *dysseus !ave t!e !eads, voice, $ristles, and a""earance of "igs, $ut 8t!eir nous re,ained fast in its "lace as $efore8 DOdyssey 1&. ?'&E. Cere, des"ite t!e radical "!ysical alteration of t!e co,"anions, 0e are left in no dou$t as to 0!at is !u,an and 0!at is not. *n t!e ot!er !and, t!e ,oral allegori<ation, 0!ic! e.tracts fro, t!e Circe story a lesson a$out t!e de!u,ani<ing effects of t!e "assions, inverts t!e Co,eric narrative $y re"lacing a tale of "!ysical transfor,ation and ,ental fi.ity 0it! a tale of ,ental alteration 0it!in an unaltered $ody, and as a result t!e li,its of t!e !u,an are "ut in Auestion. But in a develo"ed syste, of "!iloso"!ical allegori<ation t!is "ro"ensity to alteration a0ay fro, t!e 8!u,an8 is controlled $y an a "riori, "!iloso"!ically defined conce"tion of 0!at !u,ans are Dor s!ould $eE. T!at is to say t!at t!e non!u,an is still e."loited as a source of figures 0it! 0!ic! to "rescri$e t!e "ro"erly !u,an. Bn *vid t!e figuration of t!e !u,an is not controlled $y an overriding "!iloso"!ical aut!ority. Many readers !ave of course $een te,"ted to find 1ust suc! an aut!ority in t!e S"eec! of Pyt!agoras in t!e last $ook of t!e /etamorphoses, and to see in it a ground for t!e inter"retation of t!e rest of t!e "oe,. But t!e Pyt!agorean version of c!ange si,"ly 0ill not fit as a ,odel for t!e greater "art of t!e ,yt!ological ,eta,or"!oses. 3 lack of fit, incongruity, it ,ust $e said, is t!e usual i,"ression of t!e ,odern reader 0!en confronted 0it! ancient "!iloso"!i<ing allegori<ations of ,yt!, and it is te,"ting to see an i,"licit co,,ent to t!is effect on t!e "art of *vid !i,self. T!at is, t!e S"eec! of Pyt!agoras "resents itself as a ,i,icry of allegori<ing co,,entary, a kind of e."lanatory a""endi., $ut 0e are du"ed if 0e take t!is autoallegori<ing seriously. T!e a""arently aut!oritative s"eec! of t!e "!iloso"!er Pyt!agoras "rovides no e.ternal point d$appui outside t!e "oe, fro, 0!ic! finally to ,ake sense of t!e "oe, $ut is itself inesca"a$ly i,"licated in t!e fictional 0e$ of t!e /etamorphoses. Bt succu,$s to 0!at 0e ,ig!t no0 regard as a "ost,odernist failure of ,etanarrative and ends u" as si,"ly anot!er set of stories a$out c!ange.H1'I - %3ny atte,"t to "ress /ycaon=s 0olf:,eta,or"!osis into t!e service of a definitive state,ent of 0!at !u,ans are ,ust confront t!e "revious !istory of t!e race of 0!ic! /ycaon is a ,e,$er.H1(I /ycaon is t!e kind of human t!at !e is $ecause !e is one of t!e race of !u,ans $orn of t!e $lood of t!e ;iants $lasted $y Ju"iter D1.1():1)?E. Cis atte,"t on t!e life of Ju"iter is anot!er version of t!e ;iants= assault on *ly,"usF t!e t0o stories could even $e t!oug!t of as allegorical retellings of eac! ot!er. To $eco,e !u,an, t!e ;iants !ave already undergone a ,eta,or"!osis: 8/est no. . . ,e,orials s!ould re,ain H8ne . . . ,oni,enta ,anerent8IH1)I of !er offs"ring, 9art! c!anged t!eir $lood into t!e s!a"e of ,en8 D1( :1)&E. Cere t!e voca$ulary of "er,anenceH1>I 0ill $e $etrayed Din ty"ically *vidian fas!ionE $y t!e furt!er transfor,ation to 0!ic! t!e ;iants= son /ycaon, !i,self one of t!ose 8enduring ,onu,ents,8 0ill $e su$1ect. Bt is $eco,ing very difficult to say 0!at e.actly does constitute t!e

!u,an. 3s 0e read on in t!e /etamorphoses, t!e e.ternal "olicing of t!e $oundaries of t!e !u,an $eco,es !arder to ,aintain. T!e o"en:ended set of analogies $et0een t!e !u,an and t!e non!u,an t!at is constructed $y t!e relentless series of transfor,ations in t!e "oe, !as t!e effect of e,"tying t!e category of t!e 8!u,an8 of any su$stantial content t!at is not 8ot!er.8 7ecently 9rnst Sc!,idt !as argued t!at t!e ,eta"!orical function of ,eta,or"!osis is t!e key to t!e understanding of t!e /etamorphoses, 0!ic! !e descri$es as 8t!e narrative aetiology of t!e 0orld as a store of ,eta"!ors for ,ankind.8H1MI But t!is is a 0orld 0!ere t!e literal ,eaning of !u,anity !as $eco,e i,"ossi$le to define, 0!ere 8t!is ist!,us of a ,iddle state8 !as $een 0as!ed over $y t!e seas on eit!er side, and t!e only enduring i,age for t!e !u,an ,ig!t $e t!at 7enaissance favorite, Proteus.H1 I Sc!,idt is reduced to an e,"ty essentialis, t!at cannot "roceed $eyond talking a$out 8,an in !is unaltera$le !u,an nature.8H?&I Sc!,idt also understands t!e /etamorphoses$ focus on !u,anity to function as a generic ,arker of t!e 0ork=s status as e"ic, $ut an e"ic t!at re"resents 8instead of t!e one e"ic !ero, ,an of all ti,es.8H?1I T!e Odyssey$s first 0ord, andra, 8,an,8 ,arks t!at "oe,=s concern 0it! t!e nature of t!e one ,an, *dysseus, 0!o to so,e e.tent ,ay $e e.e,"lary for all "eo"le. T!at ,an is i,,ediately Aualified in t!e first line of t!e Odyssey as polutropos, literally 8of ,any turns.8H??I T!e versatility of *dysseus, !is a$ility to turn to all ,anner of s!ifts, to disguise !i,self "!ysically or ver$ally, is of course t!e Auality t!roug! 0!ic! !e successfully returns to !is centered "lace in !u,an society on Bt!aca. *dysseus=s c!angea$ility is at t!e service of t!e !ero=s o0n ,astery, of !i,self and of ot!ers, and is not t!e sign of an essential insta$ility. 8T!e polutropos . . . is al0ays ,aster of !i,self and is only unsta$le in a""earance.8H?%I Puite t!e o""osite is true of t!e ,any turnings of *vidian !u,ans, very fe0 of 0!o, !ave any control of t!eir o0n ,uta$ility. B tentatively raise t!e "ossi$ility t!at vie0ed fro, a generic "ers"ective, - 't!is feature of t!e *vidian 8e"ic8 0orld ,ay $e understood as a refle. of t!e distance $et0een Co,eric and @irgilian ant!ro"ologies. T!e Aeneid, like t!e Odyssey, !as t!e central agenda of defining a 8,an8 D8ar,a uiru,Aue8E, a task given greater urgency $y t!e conte,"orary relevance of t!is act of definition D0!at and 0!o is 3ugustus, 0!at s!ould t!e 7o,ans $eGE. Bnstead of a polutropos !ero, 0e find a ,an forced to 8tot uoluere casus,8 8roll around so ,any ,isfortunes8 DAeneid 1. EF t!e incongruity of an active ver$ a""lied to t!e "assive sufferings of a !ero rolled around $y ,isfortunes 0as resolved $y t!e ancient co,,entators t!roug! its classification as an e.a,"le of !y"allage.H?'I T!e career of 3eneas in t!e Aeneid is one t!at $egins and ends 0it! dou$ts a$out t!e sta$le identity of ot!ers, and "ossi$ly of t!e !ero !i,self, as an e.a,ination of t!e language of transfor,ation at t!e $eginning and end of 3eneas=s story 0ill de,onstrate. Bn $ook ? 3eneas is confronted 0it! t!e drea,:vision of a Cector strangely altered fro, e."ectation: 83las, t!e look of !i,V Co0 ,uc! c!anged fro, t!at Cector,8 8ei ,i!i, Aualis erat, Auantu, ,utatus a$ illo8 D?.?>'E. 3t t!e end of t!e "oe,, after a scene of literal ,eta,or"!osis as t!e +ury sent do0n $y Ju"iter transfor,s !erself into a screec! o0l in order to terrify Turnus, Turnus is first taunted $y 3eneas 0it! t!e i,"ossi$ility of esca"e t!roug! s!a"e:s!ifting D1?.M 1:M %E: 8Turn yourself into all s!a"es Huerte o,nis tete in faciesI, su,,on u" all your nerve and skillF "ray to fly aloft on 0ings to t!e stars, or to $ury yourself close in t!e !ollo0 eart!.8H?(I But if t!is taunt !as t!e i,,ediate effect of reinscri$ing t!e @irgilian narrative 0it!in t!e li,its of reality and ,ortality t!at "revail in t!e Co,eric "oe,s, Turnus t!en undergoes a different kind of ,eta,or"!osis t!roug! di,inution of "o0ers, c!anging into a s!ado0 of !is for,er self, unrecogni<a$le to !i,self. T!e a""roac! of deat! see,s to under,ine !is self:definition, rat!er t!an confir, it in t!e Co,eric

,anner: 83s !e ran and ca,e on !e did not recogni<e !i,self8 D &%EF 8*ur tongue is "o0erless, our $ody=s fa,iliar strengt! does not !old u", and not a sound or 0ord 0ill co,e8 D 11: 1?, in t!e drea,: si,ileE.H?)I 8Puantu, ,utatus a$ illoV 8 Bot! "assages are used $y *vid in tales of ,eta,or"!osis: 0it! t!e descri"tion of Cector co,"are, for e.a,"le, /etamorphoses ).?>%: 83las !o0 very different 0as t!is 4io$e fro, t!at 4io$e of $efore8 D8!eu Auantu, !aec 4io$e 4io$e dista$at a$ illa8E, a figurative ,utation, conseAuent on t!e ,ot!er=s loss of !er sons, t!at 0ill soon $e follo0ed $y t!e literal ,eta,or"!osis t!roug! "etrifaction of t!e living 0o,an. @alerius +laccus, !u,orously "er!a"s, reuses 3eneas=s anguis!ed e.cla,ation in t!e conte.t of a narration of t!e story of Bo in Argonautica '.% M: 8Co0 s!e looked, !o0 ,uc! c!anged fro, t!e !eifer t!at s!e 0as to $egin 0it!V8 D8Aualis et a "ri,a Auantu, ,utata iuuencaV8E.H?>I /ess !u,orously @irgil "laces t!e i,age of Bo transfor,ed into a co0 on t!e s!ield of Turnus at t!e end of Aeneid 9 D>M :> ?E, a $ook very ,uc! under t!e sign of Circe, 0!ose "alace and 0eird ani,als are descri$ed rig!t at t!e $eginning. T!e 8great ,atter8 of t!e s!ield - (device of t!e transfor,ed Bo is an e,$le, of t!e de!u,ani<ation suffered already in Aeneid > $y t!e Btalians, and $y Turnus in "articular. Bf Turnus=s reali<ation near t!e end of $ook 1? t!at Ju"iter is !is ene,y a""ears to ,ark !is e,ergence fro, !is 8Circean8 $estiali<ation, *vid s"ots t!e irony in Turnus=s final loss of identity t!roug! transfor,ation into a drea,:s!ado0 of !i,self 0!en !e "icks u" a detail of t!at "assage in !is o0n account of Bo at /etamorphoses 1.)'>: 83nd, if only t!e 0ords 0ould co,e, s!e 0ould !ave asked for !el", and told !i, !er na,e and ,isfortune8 D8et, si ,odo uer$a seAuantur, # oret o"e, no,enAue suu, casusAue loAuatur8E.H?MI But Bo=s ,eta,or"!osis is one of t!ose in 0!ic! a "ersonal, !u,an consciousness does survive c!ange into ani,al s!a"e Dsee a$oveE. T!e Aeneid$s "arting irony lies in t!e i,"licit contrast $et0een t!e defeated ene,y Turnus, sadly c!anged $ut in a sense also restored to !u,anity, and t!e conAuering !ero, for 3eneas=s identity2and !u,anity2are su$1ected to an intensive desta$ili<ation at t!e end of t!e "oe,, as t!e violence of !is e,otions s0ays !i, $et0een identifications 0it! a ful,inating Ju"iter, a stor, 0ind, an avenging +ury, and a reincarnation of t!e dead Pallas.H? I T!is scene of alienation, as !as often $een noted, "resents t!e strongest contrast 0it! t!e scenes of reintegration 0it!in t!e society of living !u,ans t!at conclude t!e t0o Co,eric e"ics. Bf t!en t!e 0orld of t!e /etamorphoses is one in 0!ic! it is i,"ossi$le to identify and sta$ili<e t!e centrally and inaliena$ly !u,an, can 0e understand t!is as a co,,entary on2even an i,"lied allegori<ation of2a @irgilian ant!ro"ologyG

'ersonification %llegory
T!e /etamorphoses are not in fact usually accorded an i,"ortant "lace in t!e !istory of t!e allegorical e"ic, save in one i,"ortant res"ect: *vid=s develo",ent of "ersonification allegory. W!at intrinsic relations!i" ,ig!t t!ere $e $et0een ,eta,or"!osis and "ersonificationG Jose"! Solodo0 co,,ents 0ell on one of t!e connections, seeing in t!e univalent and a$stracted nature of t!e "ersonification 8$rilliant e.a,"les of t!e general striving to0ards clarity8, 0!ic! for !i, is t!e defining feature of *vidian ,eta,or"!osis, as a ,aking visi$le, "lain and clear, of essences. 8T!e figure of Cunger dis"lays t!e sa,e clarity as does /ycaon after !is ,eta,or"!osis. 9ssence lies on t!e surface. T!oug! in one it is t!e end of a "rocess 0!ereas in t!e ot!er it is a given, t!e result is t!e sa,e.8H%&I T!ere is a "arado. in t!is affinity $et0een "ersonification and ,eta,or"!osis, for a "ersonification see,s to re"resent t!e unchanging essence of so,e a$stractionF and t!is "arado. Solodo0 resolves t!us: 8Meta,or"!osis. . . is. . . a c!ange 0!ic! "reserves, an alteration 0!ic! ,aintains identity, a c!ange of for, $y 0!ic! content $eco,es re"resented in for,.8 T!us for Solodo0 ,eta,or"!osis is to $e

understood as "ri,arily a "rocess of a$straction. T!e difference $et0een - ),eta,or"!osis and "ersonification ,ig!t a""ear to $e t!at t!e a$straction involved in ,eta,or"!osis usually results in t!erio,or"!ic re"resentation rat!er t!an ant!ro"o,or"!ic personification. Let of t!e four ,a1or "ersonifications in t!e /etamorphoses, 9nvy D#n)idia, ?.>)&:>M?E and Cunger D1ames, M.> :M&ME are "ersons of a distinctly de!u,ani<ed and desociali<ed c!aracter. +a,e=s D1ama, 1?.% : )%E s!a"e and "ersonality are left very indistinct, $ut s!e is t!e i,,ediate descendant of a very in!u,an @irgilian "ersonification. *nly Slee" D%omnus, 1&.( ?:)'(E ,ig!t un"ro$le,atically $e descri$ed as a slee"ing !u,an $eing. T!e active "ersonifications in !is !ouse, !o0ever, are t!e artificers of drea,s: Mor"!eus, Bcelos, and P!antasos, 8"ersons8 0!o $et0een t!e, are res"onsi$le for t!e 0!ole ga,ut of ,uta$le for,s, !u,an, ani,al, and inani,ate, t!at "o"ulate t!e stage of t!e /etamorphoses. But if ,eta,or"!osis considered in its as"ects of a$straction and fi.ation tends to coincide 0it! "ersonification, conversely "ersonification $etrays an in!erent s!iftiness. T!e 8givenness,8 as Solodo0 0ould !ave it, of a "ersonification is in fact $ound u" in "rocess. Bn t!e first "lace a "ersonification ,ay $e regarded as t!e "roduct of a "rocess of ,eta,or"!osis, t!e c!anging of a linguistic a$straction into a concrete "erson. 3s ;eorgia 4ugent "uts it in !er study of Prudentius=s Psychomachia, 8Personification allegory "erfor,s yet anot!er su$stitution, in fact, an inversion: allegory atte,"ts to turn t!e 0ord $ack into an o$1ect, to reify it. T!is is a fraudulent turn, or trope, 0!ic! is in!erent in t!e ,aking of allegories.8H%1I Personification is a "articularly visi$le e.a,"le of t!e dece"tive and transfor,ative "o0er of 0ords, t!e a$ility of 0ords to construct a reality and i,"ose it on t!e 8real 0orld.8 3nd t!is, as 0e !ave seen, is as fair a descri"tion as any of 0!at is going on t!roug!out t!e /etamorphoses.H%?I Personifications ,ay also $e t!e de facto end "roduct of t!at kind of allegorical inter"retation 0!ere$y a "erson, !u,an or divine, "ossessed of a !ig!is! degree of ,i,etic reality is transfor,ed into a figure for a virtue or ,ental attri$ute: 3t!ene is c!anged into 0isdo,, or polutropos *dysseus, t!e versatile and ,anifold !u,an !ero, is turned into t!e ,onolit!ic "aragon of "!iloso"!ical virtue. T!e "ersonification t!us a""ears in t!e disguise of i,,uta$ility, a ,ask concealing t!e "rocesses of ,eta,or"!osis t!at $rings it into $eing. +urt!er, 0!en a "ersonification is "ut to 0ork in a narrative, !er Dor !isE actions are radically transfor,ative: t!e "ersonification !as t!e "o0er to change 8real8 !u,an actors into versions of !erself. *vid=s 9rysic!t!on is t!e ty"e of t!is kind of transfor,ation. Ce ste"s into t!e narrative as a stagy villain, $ut nevert!eless an e"ic actor of full !u,an statusF once Cunger !as got at !i, !e is turned into a de,onic eating ,ac!ine, not sur"risingly, since Cunger !as 8$reat!ed herself into !i,8 D/etamorphoses M.M1 E.H%%I W!ile it ,ay $e strictly true t!at 8,eta,or"!osis into an a$straction is not so,et!ing t!at ever !a""ens in *vid8H%'I in t!e 0ay t!at in S"enser Mal$ecco is transfor,ed into an - >a$straction 0it! t!e name ;ealosie, 9rysic!t!on is 0ell descri$ed $y Carold Skulsky as a 8victi, . . . refined into an a$straction.8H%(I T!e t0o *vidian "ersonifications 0!ose direct action on !u,an c!aracters is narrated, 9nvy and Cunger, are $ot! closely related to t!e @irgilian +ury, 3llecto, $y origin a fully ,yt!ological $eing, $ut one 0!o !as al,ost $een su$li,ed into a "ersonification. +eeney 0rites of !er: 8S!e is a creature 0!o

em*odies H,y e,"!asisI and revels in all ,anner of evil. . . . S!e need not necessarily !ave $een so. 9uri"ides= /yssa is an interesting case of a divine agent of ,adness 0!o re,ains rational, e,anci"ated fro, !er c!aracteristic effect. 3llecto, on t!e ot!er !and, is !er essence.8 3fter t!us virtually defining 3llecto as a "ersonification of ,adness, +eeney goes on to note t!at 8a$ove all, @irgil stresses !o0 varia$le and ,ulti"le s!e is: 8tot sese uertit in ora,8 8S!e turns !erself into so ,any s!a"es.8H%)I +or +eeney t!is variety is t!e occasion for a discussion of t!e variety of 3llecto=s ,odes of action 0it!in t!e narrative. T!is is a "erce"tive ,ove, $ut it o$scures 0!at B t!ink is anot!er i,"ortant "oint a$out 3llecto=s ,ultifor,ity and c!angea$ility, na,ely, t!e close connection 0it! !er status as a "ersonification. Cer "ri,ary ,ode of action is indeed to transfor, !er victi,s into versions of !erself. @irgil=s narratives of t!e a""roac! of 3llecto to !er victi,s, ,ost clearly in t!e case of !er assault on Turnus, esta$lis! a transfor,ative "attern follo0ed $y *vid and Statius. T!e "ersonification a""roac!es t!e !u,an, often initially in a disguise Danot!er kind of transfor,ationE t!at is t!en cast asideF s!e t!en infects or ins"ires !er victi,, t!e crucial "oint of ,eta,or"!osis, si,"lified $y *vid, follo0ed $y Statius, into e."ressions of t!e kind 8S!e $reat!es !erself into t!e ,an.8 T!e effects of t!e "ersonification t!en find t0o for,s of e."ression: first in t!e use of a$stract nouns and ver$s referring to t!e "assion or e,otion of 0!ic! t!e "ersonification is an a$straction, and second in a si,ile or si,iles, a 8"urely8 linguistic kind of transfor,ation.H%>I T!e narrative action of t!e "ersonification !as t!e effect of triggering a !allucinatory e."losion of figurative language, for in t!e "ersonification resides t!e essence of language=s "o0er to res!a"e t!e 0orld in its o0n i,age.

Fama
T!e one *vidian "ersonification taken directly fro, t!e Aeneid is +a,e, 1ama. Bn t!e /etamorphoses s!e a""ears a""ro"riately at t!e $eginning of $ook 1? at t!e "oint 0!ere *vid sets out to re0ork t!e su$1ect ,atter of t!e Co,eric e"ics t!e,selves D1?.% :)%E H%MI S!e is t!e "ersonification of Co,eric epos D$ut also t!e s"irit "residing over *vid=s o0n retelling of t!e Co,eric e"icsE. Bn t!e Aeneid +a,e is t!e ,ost develo"ed e.a,"le of a "ersonification allegory. S!e is introduced as a negative force, an evil Dmalum E a fe,ale de,on - Ms"a0ned $y an angry Mot!er 9art! to o""ose t!e dis"ensation of t!e ,asculine ruler of *ly,"usF yet curiously s!e also insists on $eing read as a figure for t!e ,ale "oet=s o0n "ro"agation of 0ords.H% I 3s c!t!onic source of disru"tion s!e !as strong affinities 0it! 3llectoF t!ere is also a ,arked "arallelis, $et0een t!e re"resentation of +a,a and t!at of t!e Jovian dou$le of 3llecto, t!e 5ira 0!o, Ju"iter dis"atc!es at t!e end of $ook 1? in order to effect a closure 0it!in t!e !u,an narrative.H'&I T!ese connections for, "art of a 0ider "attern of association 0it!in t!e Aeneid, and in later /atin e"ic, $et0een fama, fe,ale ru,or:,ongering, and la,ent, ,adness, and infernal de,ons.H'1I 3nd like 3llecto, +a,a is a distorter and a s!a"e:s!ifter, 0!ose t0istings and "erversions !ave t!e effect of transfor,ing t!e !u,an narrative. +or a "ersonification s!e is nota$ly in!u,anF t!e genealogy t!at ,akes of !er a sister of t!e giants Coeus and 9nceladus ,ig!t incline us to visuali<e !er as an ant!ro"o,or"!ic ,onster, $ut s!e is t!en re"resented as a far less !u,anoid monstrum, 0it! a ,ulti"licity of 0ings, eyes, tongues, ,out!s, and ears, and in !er nocturnal flig!t and roofto" "erc!ing s!e turns into a kind of $ird. +a,a is a linguistic construction of t!e linguistic sli""eriness t!at !as infected t!e story of 5ido at t!is "oint. Jon W!it,an, in !is e.cellent discussion of +a,a, o$serves t!at s!e a""ears at a 8,o,ent of ,oral and linguistic $reakdo0n,8H'?I i,,ediately after 5ido=s atte,"t to i,"ose !er o0n reading on

events: 8S!e calls it a 0edding, 0it! t!is na,e s!e disguises !er fault8 DAeneid '.1>?E.H'%I But +a,a ,ay also $e read in a larger conte.t as a figure for t!e fictional "o0ers of t!e e"ic "oet !i,self: +a,a !erself is self:refle.ively caug!t u" in t!e c!ain of fama, 8as t!ey relate,8 8ut "er!i$ent8 D'.1> E.H''I +urt!er,ore t!e 0!ole 5ido and 3eneas story, a ,eeting t!at could never !ave taken "lace, is nota$ly a fiction of e"ic fama. T!e intervention of +a,a in Aeneid ' is t!e $eginning of a narrative structure, 0!ic! interru"ts t!e "ri,ary action of t!e 5ido and 3eneas story and 0!ic! continues at 1 M:??1 0it! t!e 3frican "rince Bar$as=s trans,ission, t!roug! "rayer, of t!e !u,an ru,ors a$out 5ido and 3eneas u" to t!e divine level of Ju"iter, an u"0ard ,otion reversed 0!en Ju"iter sends do0n his conveyor of 0ords, Mercury, as 0inged ,essenger:god, t!e Jovian dou$le of t!e c!t!onic +a,a, to order 3eneas to leave Cart!age. Mercury $reaks !is do0n0ard 1ourney to alig!t on t!e 0eird ,ount 3tlas D?'):?(ME. 9lse0!ere B !ave analy<ed t!is seAuence 0it! reference to t!e tro"e of !y"er$ole Din generic ter,s, t!e 8greatness8 of e"icE.H'(I B no0 0is! to s!ift my ground and consider it in t!e lig!t of t!e tro"e of allegory. 3nd allegory, it 0ill a""ear, is inse"ara$le fro, ,eta,or"!osis. 7ig!t at t!e $eginning !y"er$ole and ,eta,or"!osis are united in t!e allegorical i,age of +a,a=s e."ansive "o0er: 8S,all at first t!roug! ti,idity, $ut s!e soon raises !erself into t!e sky8 D'.1>)E. T!is is a kind of ,eta,or"!osis recogni<ed $y *vid D/etamorphoses BJ.:C:, Pyt!agoras on t!e city -

of 7o,eE: 8T!roug! gro0t! s!e c!anges !er s!a"e.8 Pyt!agoras=s aut!ority for t!is state,ent is none ot!er t!an +a,a !erself: 89ven today ru,or 5fama6 !as it t!at a Tro1an city, 7o,e, is rising8 D'%1:'%%E. H')I But Auantitative c!ange, !y"er$olic e.aggeration, is not t!e only effect of @irgil=s +a,a. S!e is also res"onsi$le for t!e Aualitative c!ange involved in distortion and ,isre"resentation: 8as "ersistent in fictions and distortions as s!e is t!e ,essenger of trut!8 D'.1MME. T!is ec!o of t!e Cesiodic Muses= clai, 8We kno0 !o0 to s"eak ,any false!oods like true t!ings, and 0e kno0 !o0 to utter true t!ings, 0!en 0e 0is!8 DTheogony ?>:?ME is usually referred to t!e "o0er of t!e e"ic "oet to create fictions. H'>I But t!e 8fictional#true8 o""osition also structures t!e "ractice of allegory: Jes"er Sven$ro analy<es t!e inter"retative "ractice of T!eagenes, t!e first recorded allegori<er of Co,er, in ter,s of a trans"osition of t!e Cesiodic distinction $et0een trut!s and lies fro, t!e social conditions of "oetic discourse to t!e interior of t!e discourse, 0!ere it $eco,es t!e $inary o""osition $et0een surface sense, t!e 8lies8, and t!e dee" allegorical sense, t!e trut!.H'MI +a,a=s account of t!e 0inter of lu.ury in Cart!age tells t!e story in anot!er 0ay, $ut her for, of 8all:egory,8 8ot!er:saying,8 "erverts t!e e."ected distri$ution of trut! and false!ood.H' I Cer version of t!e story ,orali<es, 0it! a tendency to reduce t!e co,"le. !u,an situation to t!e a$stractions of lu+us and cupido DAeneid '.1 %:1 'EF it is like a "revalent ,orali<ing inter"retation of t!e P!aeacian court in t!e Odyssey, on 0!ic! 5ido=s court is ,odeled, as a figure for decadent lu.ury and !edonis,, an 89"icurean8 volu"tuaris,.H(&I *ne ,ig!t t!ink also of t!at reductive ,orali<ation of t!e real:life !istory of Cleo"atra and 3ntony, a clear e.a,"le of 8allegori<ing8 to ideological ends. Bar$as=s account to Ju"iter of 0!at is going on D?&)ff.E re"eats t!is 8allegorical8 version of 8reality8 $ut t!en adds anot!er layer of allegory 0!en !e calls 3eneas a Paris D?1(E .H(1I T!e 9"icurean color of t!e ,orali<ing inter"retation of t!e P!aeacians see,s to tinge Bar$as=s o0n re$uke to Ju"iter at ?&M:?1&: 85o 0e s!udder for not!ing 0!en you !url your $oltsG 3re t!ey $lind, t!ose fla,es in t!e clouds t!at fill our ,inds 0it! terror, and is it e,"ty ru,$lings t!at t!ey stir u" Hinania ,ur,ura ,iscentIG8 T!is ,aterialist vie0 of t!e t!under$olt 0ould transfor, Ju"iter and t!e ot!er gods into not!ing ,ore t!an t!e 8e,"ty re"ort,8 inanisfama Dor 1ama E t!e 0ords 0it! 0!ic! Bar$as concludes !is co,"laint D?1ME.H(?I 3t t!is "oint t!e literal reality of t!e e"ic narrative is in danger of drifting $efore t!e 0inds t!at lead to allegori<ation. T!e "ri,ary narrator

lays !is !and on t!e tiller to guide us $ack to a very "resent and very e"ic Dand 9nnianE Ju"iter 8t!e all: "o0erful !eard,8 8audiit o,ni"otens8 D'.??&E.H(%I T!e initial e."ansion and su$seAuent u"0ard "rogress of +a,a t!us generate a series of co,"eting inter"retations of t!e e"ic action and of t!e cos,ic order of e"ic. Ju"iter=s aut!oritarian intervention, t!roug! !is straig!t:s"eaking ,essenger Mercury, ai,s at rei,"osing an *ly,"ian order on t!e narrative and its ,eanings. T!is is t!e conte.t for t!e descri"tion of t!e - 1&& strange figure of 3tlas, t!e ,an:,ountain on 0!o, Mercury alig!ts on !is do0n0ard flig!t. T!e ,ountain is t!e "roduct of a ,eta,or"!osis, $ut c!ange in t!e "ast is no0 ,e,oriali<ed in an i,age of eternity: ,ountains are "rover$ially t!e ,ost enduring of ,onu,ents. T!is ter,inal ,eta,or"!osis contrasts 0it! t!e indefinitely "roliferating, Protean, ,eta,or"!oses of t!e giantess +a,a. 3tlas 0it!in t!e 3eneid is also a figure for t!e origins of e"ic, for at t!e end of t!e first $ook 0e learned t!at !e !ad $een t!e teac!er of t!e e.e,"lary $ard Bo"as D1.>'&:>'1E. We ,ig!t say t!en t!at t!e source of e"ic tradition !as $een set in stone. Moreover, t!is ter,inal ,eta,or"!osis is of t!e kind t!at does not alter t!e su$1ect=s "revious s!a"e: 3tlas still !as a !ead, s!oulders, c!in, and $eard.H('I T!e "etrified 3tlas re,ains in so,e sense t!e sa,e. Co0ever, as 0e advance t!roug! 3eneid ' 0e 0ill find t!at !e ,ay also $e read allegorically, $ut in t!e ,anner of t!at kind of "!iloso"!i<ing allegory t!at atte,"ts aut!oritatively to fi. ,eaning: t!e "icture of t!e ever:during 3tlas fores!ado0s t!e fa,ous si,ile later in $ook ' t!at co,"ares 3eneas un,oved in t!e face of 5ido=s "leas to an oak 0eat!er:$eaten $ut fast: rooted on a ,ountainto" D'.''1:'')E, an i,age of 3eneas in !is ideal role as t!e i,"assive Stoic !ero, unc!angea$le in !is inner self 0!ile outside only tears are 8rolled over,8 8,ens i,,ota ,anet, lacri,ae uoluuntur inanes8 D'' E.H((I T!is !eroic role corres"onds to t!e "!iloso"!i<ing a$straction of *dysseus into a figure of t!e 0ise ,an.H()I But, as 0e !ave seen, t!e events of t!e "oe, 0ill finally de,onstrate t!e i,"ossi$ility of "inning do0n t!e e"ic ,an as t!e "!iloso"!ical "ersonification of a "erfected !u,anity.

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1 M( 8Un t!S,e "articulier dans les /;tamorphoses d=*vide.8 Bn Fourn;es o)idiennes de Parm;nie, edited $y Jean Marc +rKcaut and 5. Porte. Brussels: /ato,us, 11(:1'%. 1 >? $esprit et l$humour che! O)ide. ;reno$le: Presses Universitaires de ;reno$le. ;ia,atti, 3. Bartlett. 1 )M. 8Proteus Un$ound: So,e @ersions of t!e Sea ;od in t!e 7enaissance.8 Bn The "isciplines of Criticism: Essays in iterary Theory, #nterpretation, and 0istory, edited $y P. 5e,et<, T. ;reene, and /. 4elson. 4e0 Caven: Lale University Press, '%>:'>(. ;reene, T!o,as. 1 )%. The "escent from 0ea)en: A %tudy in Epic Continuity. 4e0 Caven: Lale University Press. Caege, C. 1 >) Terminologie und Typologie des 7ere2andlungs)organgs in den 4/etamorphosen4 O)ids. ;U""ingen: n.". Cardie, P!ili" 7. 1 %. The Epic %uccessors of 7irgil. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. 1 ?. 83ugustan Poets in t!e Muta$ility of 7o,e.8 Bn -oman Poetry and Progaganda in the Age of Augustus, edited $y 3. Po0ell. /ondon: Bristol Classical Press, ( :M?. 1 M). 7irgil$s 4Aeneid4: Cosmos and #mperium. *.ford: Clarendon Press. Ceu$eck, 3lfred, Ste"!anie West, and J. B. Cains0ort!. 1 MM. A Commentary on 0omer$s 8Odyssey. 8 *.ford: Clarendon Press. 6raggerud, 9. 1 )%. Aeneisstudien. *slo: n.". Murnag!an, S!eila. 1 M> "isguise and -ecognition in the Odyssey. Princeton: Princeton University Press. - 1&> 4ugent, S. ;eorgia. 1 M(. Allegory and Poetics: The %tructure and #magery of Prudentius$s 4Psychomachia. 8Studien <ur

klassisc!en P!ilologie 1'. +rankfurt a, Main. Pucci, Pietro. 1 M> Odysseus Polutropos: #nterte+tual -eadings in the 4Odyssey 4 and the 4#liad.4 Bt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press. 7a!n, C. 1 ('. 8Tier und Mensc! in der !o,erisc!en 3uffassung der Wirklic!keit. 8 Paideuma (.>#M: '%1:'M&. 1 (% 8Tier und Mensc! in der !o,erisc!en 3uffassung der Wirklic!keit. 8 Paideuma (.): ?>>:? >. Sc!,idt, 9. 3. 1 1. O)ids poetische /enschen2eit: "ie 4/etamorphosen 4 als /etapher und %ymphonis. Ceidel$erg: n.". Skulsky, Carold. 1 M1. /etamorphosis: The /ind in E+ile. Ca,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press. Solodo0, Jose"! B. 1 MM. The World of O)id$s 4/etamorphoses. 8C!a"el Cill: University of 4ort! Carolina Press. Sven$ro, Jes"er. 1 >). a parole et le mar*re: Au+ origines de la po;ti<ue grec<ue. /und: n.". W!it,an, Jon. 1 M>. Allegory: The "ynamics of an Ancient and /edie)al Techni<ue. *.ford: Clarendon Press. Wofford, Susanne /. 1 ? The Choice of Achilles: The #deology of 1igure in the Epic. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Ou,0alt, 4. 1 >>. 8+a,a su$versa: T!e,e and Structure in *vid /etamorphoses 1?.8 California %tudies in Classical Anti<uity 1&. - 1&M -

?0 Tasso:s Trees2 Epic and &ocal Culture

Jane Tylus 3lt!oug! @irgil=s Aeneid> one of t!e t0o literary e"ics addressed in t!is essay2is kno0n to ,ost students of e"ic, TorAuato Tasso=s Ferusalem "eli)ered, 0ritten in 1(> , is not as fa,iliar to ,odern audiences. 3 "roduct of Btaly=s Counter:7efor,ation of t!e ,id: si.teent! century, Tasso is a testi,ony to t!e contradictions of t!at era. Cis a,$itious e"ic "oe, a$out t!e +irst Crusade of 1& is $ot! a nostalgic return to a "eriod 0!en all of C!ristian 9uro"e 0as united against a co,,on ene,y2Bsla,2and a de,onstra$ly !ollo0 atte,"t to ,ake t!e conte,"orary C!urc! and its i,"erial as"irations a ne0 ve!icle for unification. By focusing on an e"isode co,,on to $ot! t!e Aeneid and Ferusalem "eli)ered, t!at of t!e 8$leeding tree,8 Tylus de,onstrates t!at @irgil and Tasso reveal t!e tensions involved in generating universal agendas fro, local, cultic narratives, and !er reading allo0s us to e."lore a dialectic t!at ,ay $e as crucial for traditions of oral e"ic as it is for 0ritten e"ic. 9ven as !e "rotested t!e anni!ilation of local cultures $y t!e totalitarian regi,es t!at flouris!ed during !is lifeti,e, T. S. 9liot 0as defining literature as an art for, t!at in its ,ost ideal ,anifestations esca"ed fro, vulgar "rovincialis,s to e,$race a universal "oetics. @irgil and 5ante in "articular tend to $e singled out in 9liot=s 0ritings of t!e 1 %&s and 1 '&s as t!e 0riters 0!o $est e.e,"lified t!e kind of universality t!at 9liot so !ig!ly "rivileged. T!at $ot! of t!ese 0riters "roduced e"ics suggests t!e e.tent to 0!ic! 9liot "erceived literature=s traditionally 8!ig!est8 genre as one t!at left ,undane, local concerns aside for t!e su$li,ely cos,o"olitan.H1I Bt is no sur"rise t!at in !is influential essay 8@irgil and t!e C!ristian World,8 9liot cele$rates t!e Tro1an !ero=s 0illingness to $eco,e a 8fugitive fro, a ruined city and an o$literated society8 and e,$race t!e imperium -omanum t!at 0as !is to $ring into $eing.H?I +or 9liot, 0!o sa0 tradition as t!e great i,"ersonal force into 0!ic! "oets= individual talents 0ere su$su,ed, 3eneas=s 0illingness to "ursue !is destiny is ulti,ately a figure for @irgil=s decision to follo0 his, as !e e.c!anged linguistic and cultural variety for 8a language of t!e classics8 t!at transcends local origins to s"eak to audiences of all "laces and all ti,es.H%I T!is essay 0ill atte,"t not so ,uc! to counter 9liot=s "rovocative and influential reading as to ask !o0 e"ic itself !as taken "art in t!e s"lintering - 1& of literature into 8!ig!8 and 8lo0,8 if not al0ays 0it! t!e kind of confident assurance t!at 9liot=s critiAue i,"lies. Suc! s"lintering ,ig!t $est $e a""roac!ed $y 0ay of t!e definition of e"ic 0e !ave "ro"osed in t!e introduction to t!is volu,e: e"ic tends to focus on deeds of significance to a co,,unity. Co0 a co,,unity is defined, !o0ever, and 0!at Aualifies as 8significant8 are contested issues not only a,ong conte,"orary sc!olars, $ut often 0it!in e"ic "oetry itself. T!e tendency of ,uc! e"ic to e,"loy, $ot! i,"licitly and e."licitly, t!e figure of analogy2,asterfully e"ito,i<ed in 0ritten e"ic $y t!e u$iAuitous si,ile2attests to a "oetic sensi$ility an.ious to include 0it!in its do,ain a unified and sy,"at!etic audience. Co,er=s evocative si,iles co,"aring t!e s!i"0recked *dysseus to a !ungry 0olf, t!e inco,"re!ensi$le Tro1ans to sAua0king geese flying over!ead, and t!e sounds of $attle to a rus!ing 0aterfall functioned a,ong ot!er t!ings to ,ake a distant narrative ,ore

i,,ediate, ,uc! as t!e analogies $et0een t!e Moors and dia$olical "ractices ,ade 7oland=s e.otic ene,ies ,ore terrifying to a t0elft!:century 4or,an audience. Co,"le. "atterns of analogy can t!us $e said to function as an ever:0idening gyre 0it!in 0!ic! a "articular narrative is circulated and rendered relevant and fa,iliar to a co,,unity t!at ,ay $e 2as Co,er=s audiences clearly 0ere2at so,e distance fro, an original story. Bt can even $e said t!at ,any "oets of e"ic undertake to t!e,ati<e "recisely t!is 1ourney to0ard significance. 3s in t!e Aeneid, e"ic freAuently involves t!e "lig!t faced $y a !ero 0!o c!ooses or is forced to leave !is !o,e. Cis de"arture into and circulation in a 0orld t!at transcends !is i,,ediate co,,unity $eco,e t!e very conditions for !is o0n, and $y e.tension, t!e "oe,=s significance, a to"os t!at involves any nu,$er of 0orks fro, t!e Odyssey and t!e Aeneid to Beo2ulf, t!e Chanson de -oland, and Paradise ost. But t!e creation of suc! significance for a larger co,,unity t!at t!e "oe, seeks to define and e."and t!roug! analogy ,ay !ave its costs, as t!e !ero=s de"arture fro, !is !o,e and, in ,any cases, !is failure to return often suggest on an overtly t!e,atic level. T!is is "articularly t!e case 0!en t!e as"irations of t!e e"ic "oet coincide 0it! t!e as"irations of a s"ecific religious or "olitical ideology Dto 0!ic! 9liot 0as acutely sensitiveE. T!e recent 0ork of ;regory 4agy !as $een crucial for ,any reasons, and certainly not t!e least is t!e e.tent to 0!ic! it !as tied nu,erous !eroes of t!e ;reek nostoi Dt!e stories of returnE to "articular localities 0!ere t!ey 0ere o$1ects of cultic 0ors!i". 3s 4agy ela$orates, t!e develo",ent of Co,eric e"ic in arc!aic ;reece su$,erged and synt!esi<ed 8t!e diverse local traditions of eac! ,a1or city:state into a unified Pan!ellenic ,odel.8H'I Bn t!is "rocess, t!e ti,eless *ly,"ian gods $eco,e t!e Dne0E, "o0erful deities fro, 0!o, favors ,ust $e soug!t and fro, 0!o, t!ey are granted, 0!ereas 8t!e central !eroes of t!HeI e"ic tradition Hno longerI !ave an overtly religious di,ension in t!e narrative.8H(I 9ven as t!e !ero 0anders far fro, !o,e to gain a re"utation - 11& and a na,e2t!e ,leos soug!t $y 3c!illes and *dysseus alike2!e suffers a corres"onding d0indling of !is de,onic "o0ers, tied as t!ey necessarily are to a "articular "lace. Writing in a "eriod 0!en e"ic !ad recently rea""eared on t!e 9uro"ean !ori<ion, t!e Btalian "oet TorAuato Tasso turned to !is o0n t0o ,ost influential ,odels in t!e genre and declared t!at 8in 0riting He"icI "oetry, Hneit!er @irgil nor Co,erI 0is!ed to narrate "articulars, like t!e !istorian, $ut like t!e "!iloso"!er, to for, universals H8gli universali8I, 0!ose trut! is ,uc! ,ore sta$le and certain.8H)I @irgil Dand t!e collectivity of "oets 0e call Co,erE 0ould no dou$t !ave found t!is latter:day account of t!eir "oetics $affling, ,uc! less correct. 3nd yet in "in"ointing t!e desire to 8for,are gli universali,8 Tasso $ot! reveals so,et!ing in!erent in !is o2n e"ic agenda during t!e years of t!e Counter: 7efor,ation in 0!ic! !e 0as 0riting !is ,assive Gerusalemme li*erata and touc!es on so,et!ing crucial in ,any ot!er e"ics. T!is is t!e tension involved in "roducing a 0ork t!at 0ould $e 8Pan!ellenic,8 87o,an,8 or in Tasso=s case, 87o,an Cat!olic8: one t!at transcended t!e contingencies and li,itations of i,,ediate co,,unities and local cults in order to fas!ion universal audiences and !eroes 0it! universal re"utations. +or @irgil and Tasso in "articular, t!is ,ove also involves t!e conscious s!a"ing of a universal culture, t!at of t!e fledgling 7o,an 9,"ire or a Cat!olic e,"ire atte,"ting to recu"erate its losses after t!e 7efor,ation t!roug! overseas e."ansion. Let $ot! "oe,s $eco,e t!e !all,ark of an elite culture no longer rooted in local landsca"e $ut divorced fro,, even antagonistic to, t!e "ractices of local, "o"ular culture. T!is is a divorce on 0!ic! $ot! @irgil and Tasso consciously reflect. 3s 9liot noted, @irgil=s "oe, is t!e first e"ic to ,ake its !ero a 8truly dis"laced "erson,8 a !ero 0!o !as no Troy to 0!ic! !e can return.H>I Tasso=s "oe, ela$orates t!e 1ourney of its central c!aracter, ;odefroi de Buillon, fro, !is

!o,eland in +rance to a ne0 !o,e, Jerusale,, in t!e course of t!e +irst Crusade. But in so t!e,ati<ing 0!at is seen as t!e necessary loss of an i,,ediate !o,eland, t!e t0o "oe,s also derail t!e very syste, of analogy $y 0!ic! e"ic "oets traditionally seek to ,ake t!eir local stories accessi$le and significant to a 0ider audience. Bn @irgil, as 0ill $e seen, analogy t!reatens to $eco,e only a "oetic figure rat!er t!an a ,agically e."ansive syste, linking a local !ero to universal traditions. 3nd 0it! Tasso, analogy $eco,es ulti,ately sus"ect, as t!e rese,$lances t!at it generates co,e to i,"eril t!e 0ork=s ideological distinctions $et0een C!ristian and Musli,, sacred and de,onic. Bn $ot! cases, t!e $uilding $locks used to turn a 8local8 story into an e"ic are infected, on t!e one !and, $y t!eir "otential i,"otence in t!e face of ot!er forces, and, on t!e ot!er !and, $y t!eir daunting uncontrolla$ility. *ne result of Tasso=s and @irgil=s la$ors is t!e kind of !ig! literature t!at can easily $e read a"art fro, its local conte.ts and gras"ed fro, 0it!in t!e canon of 8/iterature8 itself, t!e touc!stones, to cite 9liot once again, t!at - 111 su""osedly co,"ose t!e cultural landsca"e of 9uro"e. But even as $ot! "oe,s articulate for t!eir res"ective eras a definition of e"ic as elite2as over against t!e lies and un"olis!ed ,anner of Co,er=s "oetry, in t!e case of t!e Aeneid, or t!e vulgarities and irreverence of 3riosto=s Orlando furioso, in t!e case of t!e Gerusalemme li*erata>they like0ise call attention to t!e insufficiencies of t!at definition. 3s t!e follo0ing "ages 0ill recount, @irgil=s and Tasso=s s!attering of t!e co,forting syste,s of analogy "rovokes critical reflection on t!e "rocess t!roug! 0!ic! !ig! literature is fas!ioned and forces us to Auestion 0!ere, "ace 9liot, e"ic=s roots in fact reside. WXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWX @irgil=s fift! 9clogue, t!e center and "er!a"s central "oe, in t!e 7o,an "oet=s slender collection of $ucolic verse, features t0o s!e"!erds 0!ose la,ent for t!e deat! of t!eir friend 5a"!nis $eco,es a cele$ration of !is entrance into t!e real, of *ly,"ian deities. Set 0it!in a cal,, rustic landsca"e, t!e song is $ased on a consoling syste, of corres"ondences t!at attest to t!e vital and reassuring !ar,ony $et0een !eaven and eart! t!at t!e singer Menalcas alludes to at t!e end and Mo"sus at t!e $eginning: 8vitis ut ar$ori$us decori est, ut viti$us uvae,# ut gregi$us tauri, segetes ut "ingui$us arvis,# tu decus o,ne tuis8 D83s t!e vine gives glory to its trees, as t!e gra"e to t!e vines, as t!e $ull to t!e !erd, as t!e corn to ric! fields, you alone give glory to your "eo"le,8 Eclogue (.%?:%'I E .HMI Co,"osed of s!ort "!rases linked $y t!e Auiet re"etitiveness of 8ut . . . ut8 D8as . . . as8E and t!e less freAuent 8Aualis8 D8as 0!en,8 t!e /atin 0ord t!at in @irgilian e"ic 0ill ty"ically launc! an e.tended si,ileE, t!is and ot!er "assages like it assu,e a vision of co,,unity in 0!ic! !u,an life ec!oes t!e order and "redicta$ility of agrarian life, and divinities in turn guarantee t!e fertility t!at allo0s t!e far,ing year to $e an orderly one. 3nalogy t!us serves to e."ress t!e inti,acy $et0een t!e local co,,unity of 0!ic! Menalcas and Mo"sus are a "art and t!e ne0ly esta$lis!ed cult of 5a"!nis, 0!o des"ite !is *ly,"ian status takes s"ecial "ride in attending to !is o0n "eo"le=s needs. Caving $eco,e !is co,,unity=s attendant s"irit, 5a"!nis !as not so ,uc! died $y t!e end of t!e "oe, as assu,ed a role t!at 0ill ensure t!e future of t!e rustic "o"ulace. T!e eclogue as a 0!ole t!us defines for its readers t!e creation of a local and "o"ular cult, t!e "ur"ose of 0!ic!, to Auote Pierre 6losso0ki, 8is to intercede 0it! a deity in order to avert !is anger, gain !is assistance, or re,ind !i, of favors granted.8H I Bt is "recisely t!is vision of centeredness and inti,acy $et0een t!e !u,an and divine t!at ot!er eclogues in t!e collection c!allenge2eclogues 0ritten, like t!e fift!, in one of t!e $leakest "eriods of 7o,an !istory, t!e long decade of civil 0ars in t!e %&s t!at 0ere "reci"itated $y t!e assassination of

Julius Caesar. Bn t!is lig!t, Eclogue ( constructs against all odds a ,ag: - 11? ical vision of 7o,an co,,unity $ased on si,"le ritual and reverence for a sta$le "ast. 3nd not sur"risingly, t!e ot!er eclogues t!reaten to desta$ili<e t!e syste, of corres"ondences and control found at t!e $ook=s center. Eclogue 1 in "articular reveals !o0 "recarious t!is control is as it conveys t!e $leak reality of Btaly=s current "olitical situation. T!e "oe, stages t!e ,elanc!oly confrontation $et0een t0o very different "rotagonists, t!e !a""y, elderly Tityrus, recently freed $y t!e triu,vir *ctavian after long years of slavery, and t!e des"ondent Meli$oeus 0!ose lands !ave $een taken fro, !i, $y t!e sa,e *ctavian, 0!o 0ants to re0ard !is soldiers for t!eir fidelity. T!e s"ace of local cult t!at served as t!e link to *ly,"ian deities in Eclogue J t!ere$y $eco,es a contested s"ace in a ,anner "rescient for @irgil=s later e"ic. +or t!e fortunate Tityrus, t!e local cultus !as $een radically un"roductiveF !e !ad to travel to 7o,e after !is o0n sacrifices to local gods !ad gone unans0ered. Ce !ad offered ,any a victi,, !e !ad turned to ,any gods 0!ile !e la$ored usefully in !is village. *nly in t!e great city did t!e ne0, young deus, *ctavian, $eco,e 8t!e first to res"ond8 to !is reAuest for freedo,. +or Meli$oeus, !o0ever, t!e land fro, 0!ic! !e is $anis!ed !eld for !i, "recisely t!e "ro,ise and "roductivity Tityrus clai,s !e 0as denied, and !e lovingly d0ells on t!e 8fontes sacri8 !e ,ust leave $e!ind.H1&I T!e dis1unction t!at Meli$oeus=s and Tityrus=s e.c!ange $elies is ,ost e."licit in Tityrus=s $itter line t!at it is i,"ossi$le to co,"are !is rustic village to t!e great city in t!e 0ay t!at one co,"ares great t!ings 0it! s,all: 8"utavi# stultus ego !uic nostrae si,ile,,8 !e a$ru"tly clai,s DEclogue B.B8 ?&E. T!e failure of analogy t!at Tityrus=s line i,"lies suggests not so ,uc! a c!allenge to t!e local vision cele$rated in Eclogue ( as an inevita$le inco,,ensura$ility $et0een t!e city 0it! its great deus and t!e village 0it! its ,inor ones. 3nd yet suc! inco,,ensura$ility $y no ,eans "revents t!e 8ur$e,, Aua, dicunt 7o,a,8 D8t!e city t!ey call 7o,e8E fro, ruling over t!e distant village fro, 0!ic! Meli$oeus is e.iled. 3t t!e end of t!e dialogue $et0een t!e freed slave and t!e de"arting far,er, t!e 8local8 !aunts t!at are "raised and fondly re,e,$ered $y Meli$oeus in t!e for, of 8fa,iliar strea,s and sacred s"rings8 are gradually overset $y an um*ra. T!is is no longer t!e nurturing $eec! s!ade 0it! 0!ic! Meli$oeus o"ened t!e "oe, or t!e cavernous s!ade $eneat! 0!ic! Menalcas sings in Eclogue (, $ut t!e long s!ado0s falling fro, ,ountains 0!ose !eig!ts return us to t!e 8!eig!t8 of 7o,e. H11I Bn Meli$oeus=s a$sence, t!e fontes sacri 0ill fall victi, to t!e impius miles, or cruel soldier. Tityrus=s god is not Meli$oeus=s: 8iste deus Aui sit, da, Tityre, no$is828W!o is your godG8 Meli$oeus asks after Tityrus=s "anegyric, 0it! a "ossi$ly "e1orative e,"!asis on t!e 8iste.8H1?I 3nd yet !e is a god 0!o !as esta$lis!ed control over Meli$oeus=s for,er far,. Bf Eclogue ( "resents us 0it! an agrarian co,,unity linked $ot! to t!e !ar,onious "atterns of t!e seasons and !u,an la$or and to t!e reassuring links $et0een !u,an and divine, Eclogue 1 traces a "attern of disco,fitting - 11% "ro"riations and e."ro"riations, as a distant cult of a 7o,an leader is trans"orted to a "lace of fontes sacri. T!is dis"lace,ent of local rural deities $y t!e ur$an deus 0!ose reign e.tends over t!e vast 7o,an 9,"ire is develo"ed on a ,uc! $roader scale in t!e Aeneid. T!e "recursor to t!e e.ile 3eneas, 0!o carries !is di penates to a land t!at re,ains for ,uc! of t!e "oe, unkno0n, is a Meli$oeus 0!o !ad like0ise $een e.iled to 8s!ores unkno0n.8 Let t!roug!out t!e Aeneid @irgil goes to great efforts to suggest t!at t!e ruler for 0!o, !e 0as 0riting2no longer called *ctavian $ut 3ugustus, recently

"roclai,ed e,"eror of 7o,e 0!en @irgil $egan t!e Aeneid in ?> B.C. greatly res"ected a local cultus t!at long "redated t!e arrival of !is Tro1an ancestors on Btaly=s s!ores. Book M, 3eneas=s 1ourney to 9vander=s kingdo,, is one suc! e.a,"le of t!e su""osed reverence for t!e local in t!e i,"erial age. 3fter finally arriving in Btaly and $eing $lessed $y an i,age of pater Ti$er and a 0!ite so0, 3eneas 0alks t!roug! t!e 8t!ick under$rus!8 of t!e Ca"itoline Cill, 0!ere !e o$serves t!e cavern called Pan=s grotto, restored $y 3ugustus as t!e /u"ercal at t!e $ase of t!e Palatine. T!e Ca"itoline itself is said to $e a "lace 0!ose 8dread sanctity !ad a0ed t!e tre,$ling rustics8 DAeneid M.%' E.H1%I 9ven 3eneas and 9vander Dand $y i,"lication, "resent:day 7o,ansE 8s!uddered at t!e 0oods and t!e rock8 DM.%' :%(&E. Let 9vander, t!e 3rcadian king 0!o $efriends 3eneas u"on !is arrival, "oints out t!at alt!oug! t!e local god 0!o in!a$its 8t!is grove, t!is !ill8 is unkno0n, t!e 3rcadians $elieve t!at 8t!ey !ave looked on Jove !i,self. . . as !e su,,oned t!e stor, clouds8 DM.%(?:%('E. *n t!e one !and, @irgil=s self:conscious allusions to t!e 3rcadians 0!o in!a$ited ancient 7o,e return !i, to t!e rural "oetics of t!e Eclogues. *n t!e ot!er, in t!e conte.t of Aeneid M itself, it is clear t!at this 3rcadia is already in t!e "rocess of yielding to t!e su"erior culture of future 7o,ans. 3s t!e "oe, re,inds us t!roug!out, Saturn is t!e original god of /atiu,, !aving arrived t!ere as an e.ile !i,self. T!at Ju"iter s!ould take "ro,inence over !is e.iled fat!er, Saturn, in t!e far,ers= uncertain ,inds suggests t!e "attern of dis"lace,ent t!at 0as at 0ork in t!e +irst 9clogue. 7ural in!a$itants suc! as Tityrus and t!e si,"le 3rcadians, t!at is, !ave c!osen a cos,o"olitan deity over a local one. *ne ,ust look to t!e real local cultus of Btaly2t!at of t!e /atins, 0!o ,aintain t!eir fidelity to SaturnH1'I 2and to 3eneas=s res"onse to t!e, in order to discover t!e true dyna,ics of a"ot!eosis at 0ork in 7o,an ideology. W!en finally landing in Btaly after !is ,any 0anderings, 3eneas i,,ediately "re"ares to $uild a city, follo0ing 0!at ,ay $e called an innocent and even naive "olicy of di"lo,atic engage,ent. Bn eac! "lace !e !as landed, in fact, !e !as i,agined t!e "ossi$ility for a "eaceful coe.istence of cultures t!at does not "reclude t!e ,ingling of t!e ad)ena Dt!e ne0co,ersE and t!e indigenous in!a$itants. 3gain and again after leaving Troy, 3eneas arrives 0it! !is !ouse!old gods in order to du"licate and to "arallel in !is o0n fas!ion 0!at - 11' !e already finds. T!us !e esta$lis!es a settle,ent in Crete, $egins to $uild a city t!at ,i,ics 5ido=s Cart!age, and eventually erects a city in /atiu, near t!e to0n of /atinus. But t!ese atte,"ts to create a s"ace for a ne0 co,,unity alongside a "rior one are continually ,et 0it! cries of sacrilege t!at suggest t!at t0o local cultures cannot e.ist toget!er in "eace. *n T!race, 3eneas 0ounds t!e transfor,ed Polydorus and ,ust flee t!e 8cursed land8F on t!e island of t!e Car"ies, !is ,en slaug!ter t!e Car"ies= cattle and ,ust fleeF in Cart!age, 3eneas=s liaison 0it! 5ido leads to !is !asty a$andon,ent of t!e Aueen and !er suicide. *nce in Btaly, 3eneas=s son 0ounds t!e c!eris!ed stag of t!e /atin "rincess and t!us !el"s to initiate t!e 0ar $et0een /atins and Tro1ans t!at takes u" t!e $etter "art of t!e 0ork=s second !alf. 3ll of t!ese incidents "oint not to t!e coe.istence of local cults $ut to t!e necessary clashing of local cultures t!at are not $ound $eneat! a single la0.H1(I Bt is, to $e sure, coe.istence t!at 3eneas and even t!e gods see, to desire, a coe.istence t!at is often i,"lied $y t!e analogy of ,arriage. But 0it! its failed narrative of a ,arriage $et0een t0o different leaders and t0o different co,,unities, t!e 5ido story t!at is so central for t!e Aeneid$s first !alf !as o$vious i,"lications for t!e second !alf of t!e "oe,, in 0!ic! 3eneas and 6ing /atinus alike are continuously told t!at t!ey can e."ect a "eaceful and fruitful ,arriage of t!eir "eo"les: one t!at 0ill result, for /atinus and !is Btalian deities, in a $la<ing a"ot!eosis. Bn lines recalling t!e fift! 9clogue, in 0!ic! 5a"!nis ,oves fro, !is rural co,,unity to t!e *ly,"ian !eig!ts, /atinus is told t!at ,arriage to t!e 8e.terni8 0ill 8e.alt !is na,e to t!e stars8 D8nostru, # no,en in astra ferant,8 Aeneid >. M: E.

T!at +aunus is t!e source of t!e oracle suggests t!at +aunus !i,self, grandson of Saturn and fat!er of /atinus, 0ill also $e so venerated, and t!e "ro"!ecy is indicative of an assu,ed co,,ensura$ility of 0!at 0ould see, to $e t0o se"arate, local cultures. Let t!e last action of t!e "oe, takes "lace near a 0ild olive tree long sacred to +aunus D8forte sacer +auno,8 1?.>))E fro, 0!ic! t!e Tro1ans !ad 8s!orn t!e sacred ste,8 so t!at t!ey ,ig!t do $attle, a violation t!at calls attention to a ,ore "ervasive disres"ect for ancient local custo, D8nullo discri,ine,8 >>&E. +or in trut!, t!e local cultus of Btalia never "ossesses t!e kind of force it is "ro"!esied as !aving. 7at!er, it is su""lanted $y an 3eneas 0!o reAuires a connection to t!e land on 0!ic! t!at cultus is $ased in order to $eco,e Btaly=s ne0 ruler. *nly t!roug! ,arriage to /avinia, t!e /atin "rincess and t!us t!e descendant of ancient Saturn, can 3eneas $e $onded "eacefully to t!is land. T!e c!ild of t!is ,arriage, !o0ever, young Silvius, does not figure in t!e genealogical c!art of t!e deity 0!o is a"ot!eosi<ed in t!e Aeneid, Julius Caesar. 4or is !e an ancestor of t!e reigning deity of @irgil=s o0n ti,e, 3ugustus D0!o "resides in $ook M over a glorious triu,"! in 0!ic! 9gy"t=s 8,onster gods8 0!o "arade, su$dued and su$,issive, $efore !i,, $ear a stunning rese,$lance to t!e !y$rid deities of Btaly of 0!ic! 0e as readers !ave 1ust learned: t!e $ird: ,an Picus, t!e satyrlike - 11( +aunusE. T!e 8local8 line t!at Silvius re"resents, t!e cultus t!at reac!es $ack to t!e Btalian +aunus, Picus, and Saturn !i,self, is ,erely one line, t!e failed line of Saturn=s rustic "rogeny.H1)I Bt is Saturn=s ot!er line, t!e line t!at e."elled !i, fro, "o0er, t!at of Ju"iter, @enus, 3eneas, 3eneas=s Tro1an son BTlus, and finally Julius Caesar, t!at 0ill 8triu,"!8 over t!e Btalians= local !aunts. 8Cit!er no0 turn your t0o eyes: $e!old t!is "eo"le, your o0n 7o,ans,8 3nc!ises tells 3eneas in Cades. 8Cere is Caesar, and all BTlus=s seed, destined to "ass $eneat! t!e sky=s ,ig!ty vault. T!is, t!is is !e, 0!o, you so often !ear "ro,ised, 3ugustus Caesar, son of a god, 0!o s!all again set u" t!e ;olden 3ge a,id t!e fields 0!ere Saturn once reigned8 D).>MM:> 'E. Saturn is ,entioned, to $e sure, $ut only in t!e conte.t of t!e end of !is reign: 8regnata. . . Saturno Auonda,.8 Ju"iter rat!er t!an Saturn !as a$solute aut!ority over Btalia and t!e "ro,ises of +aunus=s a"ot!eosis t!roug! /avinia=s ,arriage are revealed to $e dece"tive at 0orstF at $est, ,isleading. @irgil t!us articulates t!e de,onstra$le need, if not t!e uneAuivocal desire, for a single la0, for a universali<ing deity 0!o 0ill $ring co!erence and order to a disorderly e,"ire co,"osed of various "o"ular and local cults. Bt is in t!is lig!t t!at one ,ig!t glance at an e"isode t!at is surely one of t!e eeriest in t!e Aeneid, 3eneas=s confrontation 0it! t!e ,angled $ody of Polydorus. 3n e"isode t!at @irgil added to t!e considera$le legacy of 3eneas at a rat!er late stage of !is "oe,,H1>I t!is event see,s to re"resent @irgil=s $elated co,,entary on t!e role of Eclogue (, 0it! its co,forting corres"ondences $et0een loving cultivation of t!e land and reverence to one=s local deities. 3eneas=s landing on t!e isle of T!race at t!e $eginning of $ook %, !is first sto""ing "lace after fleeing Troy 0it! a grou" of e.iles, is cele$rated 0it! a ritual of t!anksgiving for !aving arrived at 0!at !e i,agines to $e a "er,anent !aven. But t!e ritual !e $egins to cele$rate as !e tears $oug!s fro, over!anging trees to "re"are an altar is a$ru"tly $roug!t to a !alt 0!en t!e "lant $leeds and unnaturally s"eaks. 3eneas only t!en learns of t!e !orri$le ,urder of a Tro1an co,rade 0!o fell "rey to a greedy king. Bn an eerily dise,$odied voice t!at e,anates fro, t!e very "lant 3eneas !as torn, Polydorus recounts t!at t!e T!racian king killed !i, after !e carried Troy=s gold to T!race for safekee"ing, and $egs 3eneas to "ut to rest !is ,angled $ody. T!anksgiving gives 0ay to $urial, safe !aven retreats $efore a 8terra scelerata8 D8cursed land,8 %.)&E, and 3eneas 1ourneys tirelessly, along 0it! t!e "atient reader, for nine ,ore $ooks. T!e ,eanings of t!is curious e.c!ange and its long literary after,at! !ave $een "lu,$ed $y nu,erous

critics, not t!e least of 0!o, 0as Sig,und +reud.H1MI +reud=s "syc!oanalytic treat,ent and t!e ,any studies it !as influenced !ave largely o,itted, !o0ever, t!e dee"ly religious overtones connected to t!e e"isode and ones t!at de,onstrate 0!y t!e "assage serves as a "o0erful e.a,"le of t!e tensions at 0ork in ,oving fro, t!e local to t!e 8universal.8 3s !e asse,$les t!e altar on 0!ic! !e 0ill ,ake !is sacrifice, 3e: - 11) neas declares !is 0is! to na,e t!e land as !is o0n. Cis first task after leaving Troy is to $uild a city t!at !e calls 83eneadae8 D8,oenia "ri,a loco. . . .# 3eneadasAue ,eo no,en de no,ine fingo,8 %.1>: 1ME. Bt is s!ortly after t!is declaration t!at t!e eart! recoils, s"e0ing fort! $lack $lood, filling t!e !ero 0it! !orror D83 cold s!udder s!akes ,y li,$s, and ,y c!illed $lood free<es 0it! terror,8 ? :%&E. 4a,ing an alien land after !i,self is so,et!ing 3eneas 0ill never try to do again in t!e course of t!e "oe,, and !is reluctance or refusal to do so is instructive. @irgil 0rote !is "oe, in an age 0!en 3eneas 0as en1oying a cultus of !is o0n, $ot! in t!e city of /aviniu,, 0!ic! !e "ur"ortedly founded, and a,ong elite 7o,an fa,ilies eager to link t!e,selves to 3ugustus. H1 I T!e incident 0it! Polydorus a$ru"tly silences 3eneas=s cultic as"irations, and @irgil "ointedly resists referring to t!e, later 0!en in $ook > !e s!o0s us 3eneas surveying t!e land t!at 0ould indeed $eco,e /aviniu,. But t!e failure of 3eneas to na,e a land after !i,self is i,"ortant in a ,ore general 0ay, insofar as it suggests t!at t!is fat!er of a 8universal8 "eo"le 0ill never $e a$le to ,ake t!e local land of Btaly !is o0n. T!race, of course, is not Btaly, and 3eneas ,ust leave t!e "lace 0!ere !e finds Polydorus=s $ody if !e is to $e t!e fat!er of t!e future 7o,ans. But 0it! its clas! $et0een 3eneas=s intentions and t!e 8terra scelerata,8 t!e e"isode is a !ar$inger of t!e reality t!at 3eneas 0ill $e forced to confront t!roug!out t!e "oe,: one in 0!ic! land and genealogy are continually divorced, as a""arent fro, t!e unfulfilled "ro"!ecy s"oken $y 3nc!ises in t!e under0orld t!at t!e Tro1ans 0ill link t!eir universal gods to t!e 0oodland deities of Btaly=s countryside.H?&I +iguratively s"eaking, 3eneas is al0ays a 0anderer, e.iled fro, t!e terra !e "laintively evokes in Aeneid 1? $efore !is final $attle 0it! t!e Btalian Turnus. T!is is t!e sa,e terra t!at 0ill groan for Turnus=s deat!2a Turnus 0!o dies defending !is o0n $oundaries, !is cultus and !is $ride. Bndeed, as Turnus falls in $attle, 8u" s"ring 0it! a groan t!e 7utulians allF t!e 0!ole !ill reec!oes round a$out, and far and near t!e 0ooded stee"s send $ack t!e sound8 D 1?. ?M: ? E. Wit! t!ese lines 0e see t!e final ec!oes of 0!at @irgil evokes as t!e once:!ar,onious link $et0een a leader, !is "eo"le, and t!e land. T!e e,$odi,ent of t!e /atin "ast and its "o"ular cults, Turnus must die so t!at 3eneas and t!e universal Ju"iter can triu,"!: Ju"iter, Turnus declares s!ortly $efore $attling 0it! 3eneas, !as al0ays $een !is s0orn ene,y D8=Tis t!e gods daunt ,e, and t!e en,ity of Jove,8 1?.M (E But even t!oug! t!e "rice Turnus ,ust "ay for !is defense of Btalia=s local religion is t!e ulti,ate one of deat!, t!e "rice t!at 3eneas ,ust "ay for universality is !ig! as 0ell: !is alienation fro, t!e consoling syste,s of corres"ondences ,a""ed out $y Eclogue ( and alluded to $efore Turnus=s deat!, and !is de,ise as a !ero of local cult. 3eneas is t!ere$y free to $eco,e t!e 8"u$lic "ro"erty8 of an entire "eo"le, as 6arl ;alinsky !as usefully suggested.H?1I But t!is freedo, also attests to t!e failure of local culture in t!e 0orld of e,"ire, - 11> even as 3ugustus 0as trying to reclai, a local Btalian ethos as a $asis for !is o0n legiti,acy. T!e Aeneid can t!ere$y $e said to articulate an unresolva$le tension $et0een fontes sacri 2t!e culture of Meli$oeus of Eclogue 1 and t!e /atins of t!e Aeneid 2and an i,"osed fa,ily of deities and t!e !eroes

0!o escort t!e, to unfa,iliar soil. 3s 0e 0ill see, t!e Polydorus e"isode returns vividly in Tasso=s Gerusalemme li*erata, a "oe, inde$ted to t!e Aeneid and one 0!ose central c!aracter re,ains like 3eneas in "er,anent if c!osen e.ile. T!is is a c!aracter 0!o refuses to $e engaged in t!e e"isode t!at reca"itulates 3eneas=s encounter 0it! Polydorus, one in 0!ic! landsca"e acAuires a valence un"recedented in t!e !istory of e"ic: t!e forest of canto 1% into 0!ic! countless C!ristian knig!ts 0ander only to return, !aunted $y t!e s"eaking "lant life t!at ,i,ics Polydorus. Let t!is landsca"e is t!e "roduct of cultic "ro1ections tied not to a C!ristian "iety centered, as so ,uc! late ,edieval "iety 0as, in local "ractices revolving around saints= i,ages, relics, and s!rines $ut to a de,onic ritual associated 0it! t!e ene,y=s Bsla,. Bn a strategy !ardly uniAue to t!e Gerusalemme li*erata, t!e iconoclastic Musli,s are ironically associated 0it! an idolatrous, cultic religion t!at $eco,es t!e dark dou$le of Cat!olicis, itself2a Cat!olicis, invested in various e."ressions of "o"ular "iety. T!ese e."ressions vie in turn 0it! t!e universali<ing "rinci"les es"oused $y t!e Tridentine Council in t!e years i,,ediately follo0ing t!e 7efor,ation, and $y a Tasso interested in i,"osing on t!e local !istory of t!e Crusades a universali<ing di,ension !e associated 0it! e"ic. Bf @irgil soug!t to ,ake 3eneas and !is "oe, t!e 8"u$lic "ro"erty8 of t!e 7o,an "eo"le, Tasso like0ise atte,"ts to ,ake !is o0n e"ic and its central c!aracter, ;odefroi or ;offredo, t!e "u$lic "ro"erty of a Counter:7efor,ation 9uro"e an.ious to esta$lis! its !ege,ony not only over t!e Musli, and Protestant 0orlds $ut over a ne0ly discovered 3,erica as 0ell. 3s Ti,ot!y Ca,"ton !as de,onstrated, t!e i*erata atte,"ts to esca"e fro, t!e "articularities of !istory2t!e "articularities not only of t!e +irst Crusade, $ut of a 7efor,ation t!at is never far fro, Tasso=s "oe,2into t!e real, of universal trut!s.H??I 3 reclai,ed Jerusale, long seen as t!e geogra"!ical and sy,$olic center of t!e universe serves a""ro"riately as t!e goal of a reunified C!ristendo,, $roug!t toget!er in t!e o""osition to a co,,on ene,y, Bsla,. But Tasso=s C!ristians are t!e,selves caug!t u" in t!e kind of local and "ietistic 0ors!i" t!at t!e C!urc! in Tasso=s era 0as an.ious to control, and t!e Musli, in!a$itants of Jerusale, are at ti,es de"icted as uncannily si,ilar to C!rist. Bf t!e analogies t!at link t!e local to t!e universal are dece"tive in t!e Aeneid&Aeneas cannot lay clai, to any single local landsca"e in t!e "oe,, and t!e Btalians fail to raise t!eir deities to universal status2in t!e Gerusalemme t!e syste, of corres"ondences on 0!ic! e"ic significance de"ends is at odds 0it! t!e very Cat!olic and, as 0e 0ill see, elite Counter:7efor,ation ideology t!at Tasso articulates. Bn t!e course - 11M of fas!ioning a universal e"ic "rogra, and audience, t!e "oe, forci$ly 0rests itself fro, t!e "ractice of t!e )ulgo: t!e rustic senti,ents of @irgil=s fift! 9clogue and, ,ore i,,ediately, t!e do,inant Btalian legacy of a co,,unal "oetic found in 5ante, 3riosto, and t!e "o"ular genre of !agiogra"!y. Wit! Tasso, e"ic and a universali<ing Cat!olicis, are severed fro, t!eir origins in local cult and t!e local co,,unity of a Jerusale, t!at t!e Crusaders 0rest fro, t!e Musli,s2only, as t!e "oe, itself "ro"!esies, to lose Jerusale, again less t!an a century later 0!en t!e Musli,s take it $ack. WXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWXWX Bn t!eir first sig!ting of t!e "oe,=s sacred center, Tasso=s Crusaders ,e,ora$ly link t!e 0ounding of C!rist on t!e cross 0it! t!e staining of Jerusale, itself: 5unAue ove tu, Signor, di ,ille rivi sanguinosi il terren lasciasti as"erso, d=a,aro "ianto al,en duo fonti vivi

in si acer$a ,e,oria oggi io non versoG D%.MEH?%I T!us 0!ere you, /ord, !ave left t!e eart! stained $y a t!ousand rivers of your $lood, s!all B not at least "our fort! t0o living fonts of $itter "laint for suc! a !ars! ,e,oryG T!e i,"licit connection $et0een C!rist=s $lood and t!e Crusaders= tears suggests t!at t!e 0arriors a$out to li$erate t!e !oly city 0ill sy,$olically cleanse t!e eart! 0!ere C!rist 0as crucified, "urging t!e cri,es t!at t!e "resent Musli, in!a$itants cannot e.tir"ate t!e,selves. Bndeed, $et0een t!e t!ird canto, 0!ere t!is "rayer a""ears, and t!e last one, 0!en t!e Crusaders finally 8li$erate8 Jerusale, fro, its Musli, usur"ers Dusurpatori E t!e 0arriors fall "rey to a series of errors for 0!ic! t!ey ,ust "erfor, often ela$orate "enance. Bt is only in t!e "oe,=s final ,o,ents t!at t!ey a""ear ca"a$le of e.tir"ating land t!at C!rist=s ene,ies, ne0 and old, !ave conta,inated. Curiously, !o0ever, t!e "enulti,ate stan<a of t!e "oe, evokes not an act of cleansing $ut an act of $loods!ed t!at ,irrors t!e Crusaders= earlier allusion to C!rist=s $leeding $ody: corre di tenda in tenda il sangue in rivi, e vi ,acc!ia le "rede e vi corro,"e gli orna,enti $ar$arici e le "o,"e. D?&.1'%E Blood runs in rivers fro, tent to tent and stains t!e $ooties t!ere and s"oils t!eir $ar$aric orna,ents and t!eir "o,". - 11 T!e $lood t!at 8runs in rivers8 is t!e $lood not of Jerusale,=s illustrious 0arriors $ut of defenceless fuggiti)i DfugitivesE 0!o, ;offredo, t!e C!ristians= !oly ca"tain, !as "ursued to t!eir stockade and killed D8segue il corso "oi de= fuggitivi.# +uggon Auegli a i ri"ari, ed intervallo# da la ,orte trovar non "onno Auivi8F 8Ce follo0s t!e "at! of t!e fugitives. T!ey flee to t!eir stockades, and !ere t!ey find no interval fro, deat!8E. T!e "oe, ends 0it! t!e victorious ;offredo a""roac!ing t!e sacred s!rine of C!rist=s to,$ 0!ile still dressed in !is o0n 8sanguinoso ,anto,8 !is $loody ,antle stained, like t!e 8$ar$aric orna,ents,8 0it! t!e fugitives= $lood. T!e ver$al ec!o re,arks not only on a failed ritual of "urgation2t!e 8terra8 is ,ore $loodstained t!an ever $efore2$ut on a !aunting "arallel $et0een t!e "agan fugitives and C!rist, "ursued and victi,i<ed $y "o0erful ene,ies.H?'I More suggestively, it links t!e Musli, fugitives and C!rist 0it! t!e land itself, a unification t!at see,s to elude t!e victorious C!ristians 0!o co,e to Jerusale, to reclai, 0!at is su""osedly t!eir o0n. Wors!i""ing at C!rist=s to,$ in !is 8$loody ,antle,8 a to,$ t!at 0as li$erated not for all ti,e $ut only until t!e Musli,s reconAuered Jerusale, so,e ninety years later, ;offredo see,s "arado.ically alienated fro, C!rist and t!e very land !e !as soug!t to recover, covered as !e is 0it! victi,s= $lood.H?(I *n t!e one !and, it could $e argued t!at ;offredo=s $loodt!irsty "ursuit of fugitives after t!e $attle !as already $een 0on is si,"ly in kee"ing 0it! t!e c!aracter !e !as de,onstrated t!roug!out: t!at of a capitano 0!o is su"re,ely directed in !is goal to reca"ture Jerusale, and render it safe for future "ilgri,s. Bn t!e o"ening stan<as of t!e i*erata, ;od 8looks do0n8 at t!e sluggis! C!ristian ar,y and notes t!at ;offredo alone 8longs to drive t!e 0icked "agans fro, t!e !oly city8 D8vide ;offredo c!e scacciar desia# de la santa cittR gli e,"i "agani,8 1.ME. T!is un0avering devotion ,otivates ;od to ,ake ;offredo t!e ca"tain of t!e ar,y, and ;offredo does not disa""oint !is ,aker. Unlike t!e ot!er C!ristian 0arriors, ;offredo is un,oved $y anyt!ing 8eart!ly8 t!at ,ig!t distract !i, fro, !is task, suc! as t!e "agan sorceress 3r,ida, 0!o !as $een sent into t!e ca," to lure a0ay its ,ost reno0ned

!eroes, and 0!ose c!ar,s ;offredo steadfastly resists. 3nd, unlike ,ost of t!e ot!er 0arriors, ;offredo never leaves t!e "oe,=s sy,$olic center, never straying fro, t!e C!ristian ca," outside Jerusale,=s 0alls. Cis only ventures outside t!e rigid constraints !e !as set for !i,self in fact involve t0o visions t!at suggest t!at !e !as $een te,"orarily given t!e a$ility to 0itness 8universal8 trut!s. Bn t!e first vision ;offredo is translated to !eaven, 0!ere !e learns t!at ;od 0ill $ring $ack !is 80andering co,"anions8 D1'.1MEF in t!e second t!e arc!angel Mic!ael 8to ot!er ,en unseen8 invites ;offredo to 8see all t!e ,ig!ty !ost of Ceaven asse,$led8 a$out Jerusale, as t!e Crusaders finally "re"are to take t!e city D1M. ?, )E. Bt is "recisely of ;offredo t!at Tasso see,s to s"eak 0!en, in an 83llegoria8 !e a""ended to !is "oe, 0!en it 0as virtually co,"lete, !e notes t!at - 1?& 8allegory. . . H0!ic! deals 0it!I "assions and o"inions and ,anners, not ,erely as t!ey are in a""earance, $ut "rinci"ally in t!eir intrinsic essence H8essere intrinseco8I . . . HcanI only $e understood fully $y t!ose 0!o co,"re!end t!e nature of t!ings H8solo da i conoscitori della natura delle cose "ossono essere a "ieno co,"rese8I .H?)I Taken to !eaven to learn of 8la natura delle cose,8 $eneficiary of a divine vision t!at "urges for !i, t!e 8t!ick cloud of !u,anity8 D1M. %E $y 0!ic! ot!ers are !a,"ered, ;offredo is t!e "oe,=s singular e.a,"le of a figure to 0!o, it is given to kno0 t!e essere intrinseco, and t!us to a""reciate 0!at t!e 83llegoria8 "osits as t!e a$solute divide $et0een good and evil. ;offredo e,$odies a universal ,oral standard t!at is i,"ervious to t!e nuances and "eculiarities of local usage, and !ence resistant to any si,ilarities $et0een t!e 8e,"i "agani8 !e longs to drive fro, Jerusale, and t!e C!ristians. W!ereas t!e ot!er 0arriors 0ill assist an ad,ittedly false 3r,ida 0!o dou$les as a da,sel in distress, ;offredo lets it $e kno0n t!at !e 80ell understands t!at t!ere is no $elieving anyone 0!o denies $elief to ;od8 D'.)(E. Ce t!ere$y refuses to read into t!e $ody of t!e Musli, any saving grace. Cis un0illingness to see in t!at $ody anyt!ing ot!er t!an 8$elve in fSro ludo# cinte d=intorno, o =n sanguinosa caccia8 D8$easts encircled all around in fierce ga,e or $loody c!ase8E H?>I suggests t!at for !i,, t!e 8local8 is al0ays to $e read in universal, and !ence allegorical, ter,s: "agans are $ad, C!ristians are good, to recall a line fro, t!e earlier crusading "oe,, t!e Chanson de -oland. T!e $elief in t!ese a$solutes allo0s ;offredo to take Jerusale, fro, Musli,s 0!o, as in t!e Chanson de -oland, are si,"ly called !eat!ens, and to slaug!ter the fuggiti)i in t!e "oe,=s "enulti,ate stan<a. But t!e fact t!at t!e ver$al ec!o at "oe,=s end creates an analogy $et0een Christ$s $leeding $ody and t!ose of t!e fugitives, and t!e fact t!at t!e i,itation is articulated in a visually evocative language co,,on to conte,"orary traditions of local and "o"ular "iety t!at e.isted outside t!e official do,ain of t!e c!urc!, ,ust give one "ause. T!is is a language t!at 0as $eco,ing increasingly sus"ect 0it! t!e Counter:7efor,ation=s atte,"ts to refute c!arges of Cat!olicis,=s ostensi$le "aganis,, for as suc! 0as it c!aracteri<ed $y t!e 7efor,ation=s ,ost ardent s"okes"eo"le.H?MI T!e C!urc!=s distrust of t!e "olitics of local "iety 0as ,anifest in its decisions during t!e final ,eetings of t!e Tridentine Council in t!e 1()&s to centrali<e t!e "rocess t!roug! 0!ic! 8local8 !eroes $eca,e saints and to interrogate ,ore fully t!ose 0!o "roclai,ed t!e,selves t!e reci"ients of divine or ,ystical visions.H? I Moreover, an earlier incarnational t!eology t!at !ad infor,ed not only "o"ular "iety $ut early !u,anis, 0as countered $y an official insistence on t!e ineffa$ility of t!e C!ristian ,ystery. W!at t!en is Tasso=s relations!i" to a tradition t!at !ad t!rived into t!e si.teent! century, one grounded in a radical +ranciscanis, t!at "reac!ed t!e doctrine of C!rist=s essential i,ita$il:

- 1?1 ity, and one t!at t!e C!urc! 0anted to re"lace 0it! so,et!ing ,ore in kee"ing 0it! a !ierarc!ial and doctrinaire Cat!olicis,G T!is is 0!ere 0e ,ay turn to t!e figure in t!e "oe, 0!o is ,ost skillful at creating analogies distur$ingly re,iniscent of t!e very traditions t!at Tasso=s C!urc! !ad $egun to Auestion: t!e sorcerer Bs,eno. Just as t!e closing stan<as t!reaten to elide t!e differences $et0een t!e Musli, fugitives and C!rist, Bs,eno, a Musli, convert, e.e,"lifies a t!reatening ,i.ture of Bsla,ic and C!ristian earlier in t!e "oe, D8Puesti or Macone adora, e fu cristiano,# ,a i "ri,i riti anco lasciar non "oteF# an<i sovente in uso e,"io e "rofano# confonde le due leggi a sK ,al note8F 8Ce no0 adores Ma!oun HMu!a,,adI, and !e 0as a C!ristianF $ut still !e cannot a$andon !is first rituals $ut often ,ingles in i,"ious and "rofane use t!e t0o la0s t!at !e ill understands,8 ?.?E. T!e sorcerer=s ,ost daring feat, !is enc!ant,ent of t!e forest outside Jerusale,, ty"ifies t!is ,ingling of la0s in suc! a 0ay as to "araly<e t!e ,ost ardent of Crusaders. Bn order to sto" t!e C!ristians fro, cutting do0n t!e trees to construct !uge siege to0ers to attack t!e city=s !ig! 0alls, t!is figure 0!o confounds t!e 8due leggi8 of Bsla, and C!ristianity enc!ants t!e forest $y calling u" s"irits fro, 3verno. Bn a terrifying scene, 0arrior after 0arrior enters t!e sel)a to try to c!o" do0n t!e trees and again and again fails, overco,e $y t!e illusion Dsimulacro E t!at t!ere are living $odies incarnate in t!e 0ood. 4o one is ,ore affected $y t!e enc!ant,ent t!an Tancredi, 0!ose o0n attac!,ent to t!e Musli,s is a""arent in !is "assion for t!e ene,y 0arrior Clorinda. S!ortly $efore Bs,eno enc!ants t!e forest, Tancredi unkno0ingly and fatally 0ounds Clorinda in a ,idnig!t skir,is! outside t!e 0alls of t!e city. Bn a dra,atic scene of revelation, Clorinda re,oves !er !el,et, Tancredi recogni<es t!e 0o,an !e foug!t, and s!e asks to $e converted to C!ristianity at !is !ands. Still in ,ourning 0!en t!e forest $eco,es enc!anted, Tancredi offers to go into t!e 0ood and conAuer t!e s"ell t!at !as driven a0ay ot!er C!ristian 0arriors Done 0as frig!tened $y t!e eerie noises issuing fro, t!e 0ood, anot!er $y t!e fire t!at see,ed to destroy t!e trees and t!reaten !is lifeE. W!en Tancredi enters t!e 0ood, t!e forest in contrast is utterly serene. Let 0!en !e dra0s !is s0ord and strikes a tall cy"ress at its center, suddenly 8,anda fuor sangue la recisa scor<a,# e fa la terra intorno a sK ver,iglia8 D8t!e s"lit $ark issues $lood and stains t!e eart! a$out it cri,son,8 1%.'1E. Corrified, Tancredi nonet!eless "roceeds to strike t!e cy"ress again, causing t!e 0ounded tree to s"eak2not in t!e voice of @irgil=s Polydorus, $ut of Clorinda, 0!o accuses Tancredi of killing !er a second ti,e: 8Tu dal cor"o c!e ,eco e "er ,e visse,# felice al$ergo, giR ,i discacciasti:# "erc!K il ,isero tronco, a cui ,=affisse# il ,io duro destino, anco ,i guastiG8 D8+ro, t!e $ody t!at 0as 0it! ,e and t!roug! ,e lived, !a""y a$ode, you !ave already cast ,e fort!F 0!y do you yet lay 0aste t!e 0retc!ed trunk to - 1?? 0!ic! ,y !ars! lot $ound ,eG8 1%.'?E. Paraly<ed $y t!e encounter, Tancredi returns to ;offredo and ad,its igno,inious defeat, even as !e continues to ackno0ledge t!e si,ilarity $et0een tree and fles!: 8Stilla sangue de= tronc!i ogni ferita,# Auasi di ,olle carne a$$ian "ersona8 D83ny 0ound distills $lood fro, t!e trunks, as if t!ey !ad an e,$odi,ent of soft fles!,8 1%.' E. T!is "assage is one of Tasso=s ,ost evocative allusions to @irgil, as Polydorus returns in t!e forest of Bs,eno, a 8terra scelerata8 fro, 0!ic! Tancredi, like 3eneas, is forced to flee. 3nd, like @irgil=s eerie "assage, Tasso=s !andling of t!e Polydorus e"isode, ,ediated t!oug! it is t!roug! t!e later e"ics of /ucan, 5ante, and 3riosto, is dee"ened and enric!ed $y an understanding of its "recise cultic valences, t!e C!ristian i,agery 0it! 0!ic! it is "reoccu"ied.H%&I T!e staining of t!e ground 0it! $lood recalls us not only to t!e "receding canto of Clorinda=s deat!, in 0!ic! !er $lood is said to flo0 like a 0ar,

strea, D8caldo fiu,e8E over !er vest,ent D1?.)(E $ut to canto %, 0!ere, as 0e !ave seen, t!e Crusaders "ortray for t!e,selves in "rayer t!e i,age of C!rist=s $leeding $ody. But it is not only t!e $leeding $ody of C!rist t!at t!e scene in t!e forest t!reatens to evoke. T!e incarnational language in 0!ic! t!e canto is cast links a Clorinda ostensi$ly tra""ed $et0een life and deat! to a C!rist 0!o took on !u,an fles! to save !u,ankind and, in t!e evocative i,agery of late ,edieval "iety, ena$le !u,ans to i,itate !i,. Bn s!ort, 1ust as C!rist=s $ody 0ill rea""ear in t!e "oe,=s "enulti,ate stan<a as t!e $leeding $odies of t!e fuggiti)i and t!us as an ironic inde. of C!rist=s universality, so does it rea""ear in t!e t!irteent! canto as t!e suffering Clorinda2t!e $leeding $ody tra""ed in a tree2re"roduces C!rist crucified on a tree.H%1I Bn refusing to strike t!e tree again, Tancredi reveals !i,self not only as 8"ius 3eneas8 $ut as a c!aracter 0!o "rivileges incarnational fictions over t!e et!ereal, 8$odiless8 Clorinda !e 0itnessed s!ortly after Clorinda=s deat! in canto 1?. *ne of Clorinda=s final acts is to reAuest $a"tis, at Tancredi=s !ands as s!e dies, a $a"tis, ,ade "oignant $y t!e fact t!at as Clorinda Dand 0e as readersE only $elatedly discover, s!e 0as $orn to a C!ristian ,ot!er. 3lt!oug! s!e cannot s"eak, 8s!e see,ed to tell Tancredi, =Ceaven is o"eningF B de"art in "eace8= D8e in atto di ,orir lieto e vivace,# dir "area: =S=a"re il cieloF io vado in "ace,8= 1?.)ME, and it is as a ne0ly $a"ti<ed C!ristian, no0 in !eaven, t!at s!e a""ears to t!e grieving Tancredi in a drea, later t!at nig!t. Wit! Tasso accentuating t!e language of see,ing Dparere E Clorinda 8see,s to dry HTancredi=sI eyes 0it! s0eet acts of "ity and say t!at !e re,oved H!erI fro, t!ose 0!o are living in t!e ,ortal 0orld8 and ,ade !er 0ort!y 8to rise to ;od=s $oso, a,id t!e $lessed and i,,ortal ones8 D1?. 1: ?E. Tancredi a0akens 8consoled8 and "roceeds to "re"are !er funeral rites. But !is su$seAuent refusal to strike t!e tree attests to !is "rivileging t!e $leeding $ody over an intangi$le vision of a 0o,an su""osedly in !eaven. T!e Clorinda 0!ose $lood !ad flo0ed fro, !er $reast in a 8caldo fiu,e8 in canto 1? !as $eco,e t!e Clorinda 0!o in canto 1% "rotests one ,ore act of suf: - 1?% fering, t!is ti,e on t!e 8,isero tronco8 to 0!ic! s!e is $ound $y !er 8!ars! destiny.8 /ike ;offredo=s slaug!ter of t!e Musli, fugitives, Tancredi=s slaug!ter of Clorinda, not once, $ut t0ice, !as t!e effect of turning !er into C!ristF and in ,any 0ays Tancredi=s second act of violence ,akes t!at analogy even ,ore tangi$le. T!at Tancredi !esitates, t!at !e leaves t!e forest and ad,its to ;offredo t!at !e is una$le to 8s"lit t!e $ark,8 suggests t!e e.tent to 0!ic! !e recogni<es t!e "o0er of an analogy to 0!ic! ;offredo 0ill $e su$seAuently and "ur"osefully $lind 0!en !e "ursues t!e fuggiti)i. Bndeed, fro, ;offredo=s Counter:7efor,ation "ers"ective, only in a 0orld controlled $y forces fro, t!e under0orld are suc! analogies "ossi$le at all. T!is is an under0orld controlled $y Bs,eno, and one t!at insists on co,"arisons $et0een ancient and conte,"orary, $et0een local s"irits incarnated in trees and universal deities incarnated in Mary=s 0o,$. 3nd yet in t!e "o"ular and !agiogra"!ical tradition fro, 0!ic! Bs,eno no less t!an Tancredi ,ig!t $e said to e,erge, suc! analogies are u$iAuitous, as one e.e,"lary story fro, t!e late ,edieval i*ro dei Cin<uanti /iracoli della 7ergine attests. /ike so ,any of t!e accounts of ,iracles "rovoked $y Mary, t!is story !as at its !eart a tale of *vidian ,eta,or"!osis and enc!ant,ent: t!e staff t!at t!ieves left on to" of t!e grave of a saintly ,an t!ey !ad killed in t!e forest $egins to gro0 roots t!at t!rust into t!e dead ,an=s ,out! and leaves t!at are inscri$ed 0it! t!e first 0ords of t!e A)e /aria, 8co,e "iacAue a ,esser 5o,enedio . . . e alla gloriosa vergine Maria8 D8as it "leased ;od our /ord and t!e glorious virgin Mary8E.H%?I T!e 0onder ins"ired $y suc! a su"ernatural event D8fuori di natura8E ulti,ately leads to t!e co,,unity=s sanctification of t!e "lace in t!e forest D8Auella luogo fu avuto in grandissi,a riveren<ia8E and t!e esta$lis!,ent of a local cult of Mary.

T!ese are t!e "o"ular ,arvels t!at Bs,eno i,itates, Tancredi reveres, and ;offredo re1ects, and one ,ig!t venture t!at Tasso !i,self re1ects t!e, as 0ell. T!e enc!anted forest finally does get cut do0n $y t!e C!ristians= ,ost valiant 0arrior, 7inaldo, and !is refusal to listen to t!e cries of t!e trees and t!eir infernal simulacrae>and !ence to Polydorus2is "ortrayed not as an act of sacrilege $ut as an uneAuivocal victory for t!e C!ristians. /ike ;offredo, 7inaldo too !as $een c!osen $y ;od a$ove, as 0e kno0 fro, ;offredo=s !eavenly vision.H%%I Cis conAuest ,erely confir,s 0!at @irgil=s "oe, like0ise ,ade clear: land is given to one $y t!e 8universal8 gods, not $ecause of any "ainstaking and inti,ate relations!i" 0it! it and t!e custo,s and culture t!at derive fro, caring for it D!ence t!e ety,ological links $et0een culti)ation, culture, and cult at 0ork in t!e late ,edieval narratives recounting ,iracles of t!e virginE. Tasso=s e,"!asis on t!e "oet=s interest in 8universals8 follo0s naturally fro, t!e "oe,=s "lot, in 0!ic! e"ic significance can $e i,"arted only fro, a$ove2$y t!ose 0!o kno0 t!e essere intrinseco of t!ings2not fro, $elo0, 0it!in a 0orld of tangi$le local custo,s and stories t!at devolve around t!e $ody of C!rist rat!er t!an official doctrine. - 1?' Wit! 7inaldo=s victory over t!e enc!ant,ent, t!e C!ristians $eseige t!e santa cittO, and ;offredo clai,s C!rist=s se"ulc!re as !is o0n. Bf t!e "arallelis, $et0een C!rist and t!e fuggiti)i 1ust $efore ;offredo reac!es t!e se"ulc!re does not unsettle, it is only $ecause, like ;offredo, 0e too !ave co,e to resist t!e 0ork of analogy as de,onic and to see any co,,ensura$ility $et0een t!e local and t!e universal as in!erently sus"ect. But t!e "rice of t!at decision is !ig!. +or one t!ing, in ignoring t!e ironic re"roduction of C!rist=s $leeding $ody in t!e very "lace 0!ere !e 0as crucified, and in t!ere$y ignoring t!e "oe,=s "enulti,ate stan<a, 0e ignore t!e analogies $et0een t0o 8local8 religions t!at s!are co,,on ground. Tasso !i,self lets us kno0 t!at !e is 0ell a0are of Bsla,=s essentially iconoclastic nature at t!e sa,e ti,e t!at !e generates a generally unconvincing vie0 of t!e Musli,s= dia$olical "ractices. T!ey are la$eled 8"agani8 and accused of 0ors!i""ing idols, 8adoring8 Mu!a,,ad, and consorting 0it! de,ons suc! as 3llecto, of 0!o, it 0as also Juno=s fate ,arginali<ed local deity suc! as s!e is in t!e Aeneid 2to call u" fro, !ell.H%'I +or anot!er t!ing, 0e t!ere$y consent to a vision not only of e"ic "oetry and t!e religion it cele$rates as virtually severed fro, t!eir $asis in a ,aterial landsca"e of s!ared stories and co,,unities, $ut of Tasso=s "oe, as severed fro, t!e e"ic tradition itself. Cutting do0n t!e forest $ot! de"rives its local in!a$itants, t!e $irds and t!e $easts, of t!eir nests28/asciano al suon de l=ar,e, al vario grido,# e le fSre e gli augei la tana e =1 nido8 D8Wit! t!e sounds of ar,s and t!e varied outcry t!e $easts leave t!eir lairs and t!e $irds t!eir nests,8 %.>)E2and u"roots t!ose earlier sel)e of t!e e"ic canon, 5ante=s, 3riosto=s, and @irgil=s as 0ell, relegating t!e, to t!e status of a "oetics not ordained $y ;od.H%(I *ne ,o,ent at t!e e.act center of t!e "oe, ,arks "recisely t!is severing of )ulgo fro, elite, as t!e 0arriors gat!er toget!er for Mass on t!e very site 0!ere C!rist !ad e."erienced t!e Passion. T!e ca"tains and clergy sit close to t!e altar, t!e co,,on soldiers fart!er a0ay, and so it falls out t!at t!e 8"ri,ieri8 are a$le to !ear and see t!e Mass, t!e ot!ers a$le only to see it fro, afar. Turning t!e /ast Su""er, 0!ic! t!e Mass co,,e,orates, into a ritual t!at only t!e elite can fully e."erience se"arates t!e e"ic narrative at t!e !eart of Tasso=s C!ristianity into t0o very different stories. *n t!e one !and, a story for and a$out a ;offredo 0!o !as learned to renounce not only eart!ly delig!t $ut, as in t!e !eavenly 1ourney !e takes s!ortly after Tancredi=s failure in t!e 0ood, t!e eart! itself. *n t!e ot!er !and, a story for and a$out t!e )ulgo, 0!o are dra0n to t!e "al"a$le and $odily, to t!at 0!ic! can $e ,anifested as "!ysical "resence. Blliterate in /atin and Tasso=s learned Btalian, t!ey can only see t!e ,ysteries t!at de"end on local ,anifestation for fulfill,ent. T!ese are "recisely t!e $odily ,anifestations t!at ;offredo and t!e Counter:7efor,ation "oe, t!at glorifies !i, need to contain and critiAue, 0it! t!e ai, of ensuring t!at t!e 0orld 0ill no longer suffer fro, enc!ant,ents of any kind.

Bn a decisively different vein fro, @ir: - 1?( gil $ut 0it! strikingly si,ilar results, Tasso c!arts a narrative 0!ere$y e"ic "oetry and t!e i,"erial "ro1ects to 0!ic! e"ic attends efface t!eir origins in local cults and local co,,unities, t!ere$y silencing 0!at for 9liot 0ould $e t!e taint of "rovincialis,. T!e result, as Tasso !i,self see,s to !ave reali<ed, given !is "ainstaking revisions of t!e Gerusalemme li*erata after it 0as "u$lis!ed, 0as a da<<ling, $ut finally disa""ointing vision of universality.

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Tasso, TorAuato. 1 M>. Ferusalem "eli)ered. Translated $y 7al"! 4as!. 5etroit: Wayne State University Press. 1 M?. Gerusalemme li*erata. 9dited $y +redi C!ia""elli. Milan: 7usconi. 1 %'. Gerusalemme con<uistata. 9dited $y /uigi Bonfigli. Bari: /ater<a. 1M>(. e prose di)erse di Tor<uato Tasso. 9dited $y Cesare ;uasti. ? vols. +lorence: /e Monnier. - 1%& @irgil 1 >'. 7irgil. Wit! an 9nglis! translation $y C. 7uston +aircloug!. ? vols. 7ev. ed. Ca,$ridge: Carvard University Press. Willia,s, ;ordon. 1 M Techni<ue and #dea in the 4Aeneid 8 4e0 Caven: Lale University Press. Wofford, Susanne. 1 ?. The Choice of Achilles: The #deology of 1igure in the Epic. Stanford: Stanford University Press. - 1%1 -

@0 %ppropriating the Epic2 .ender, Caste, and !egional Identity in Middle India
Joyce Bur/halter $luec/iger Bndian e"ic includes not only t!e 0ell:kno0n /aha*harata and -amayana> narratives dating fro, antiAuity t!at !ave survived for centuries2$ut also a ,yriad of ot!er traditional stories in verse t!at vary in t!eir t!e,es and social ,eanings fro, co,,unity to co,,unity. Bn t!e central Bndian region of C!!attisgar!, t!e Candaini e"ic vividly dra0s on t!e local folklore re"ertoireF it is an oral tradition "erfor,ed2like ot!er conte,"orary Bndian e"ic2in discrete e"isodes t!at figure in t!e larger narrative kno0n to t!e audience. T!e narrative, a distinctly non!eroic tale t!at c!allenges conventional notions of e"ic, relates a love story and features a fe,ale !eroine. Joyce +lueckiger argues t!at it derives ,uc! of its cultural and "olitical ,eaning fro, its strong identification 0it! t!e region and t!us stands as "er!a"s t!e ,ost resonant e."ression of 0!at ,ig!t $e called C!!attisgar!i folklore, constantly vie0ed $y t!e co,,unity as its 8o0n8 e"ic.H1I

Bn t!e first essay of t!is volu,e,H?I ;regory 4agy suggests t!at a "articular genre can $e identified as e"ic only $y "lacing it in relations!i" to ot!er genres "erfor,ed 0it!in a "articular folklore co,,unity. 3ccordingly, features of narrative, "oetic co,"osition, and !eroic c!aracters and t!e,es t!at !ave ty"ically c!aracteri<ed t!e analytic category of e"ic 0ould not in and of t!e,selves $e enoug! to give definition to 8e"ic.8H%I Suc! is true in Bndia, 0!ere t!ere are nu,erous folk narrative traditions t!at are long, sung, and !eroic $ut t!at do not !old t!e significance of 8e"ic8 for t!e co,,unities in 0!ic! t!ey are "erfor,ed. W!at distinguis!es 8e"ic8 fro, t!ese narratives is t!e nature of t!e relations!i" e"ic narratives !ave 0it! t!e co,,unities in 0!ic! t!ey are "erfor,ed: 89"ics stand a"art fro, ot!er =songs= and =stories= in t!e e.tent and intensity of a folklore co,,unity=s identification 0it! t!e,F . . . t!e oral e"ic is t!e ,ost geogra"!ically 0ide:s"read for, t!at still "reserves a co,,unity=s identity.8H'I T!us narratives t!at serve as 8e"ic8 in one region, in 0!ic! "erfor,ers T!is essay a""eared in Joyce Burk!alter +lueckiger, Gender and Genre in the 1ol,lore of /iddle America, co"yrig!t Z 1 ) $y Cornell University. Used $y "er,ission of Cornell University Press. - 1%? and audiences self:consciously identify t!e narrative as 8t!eirs,8 ,ay $e "erfor,ed in anot!er region 0it!out t!e level of necessary self:identification to $e categori<ed as 8e"ic.8 +or e.a,"le, t!e 5!ola: Maru e"ic tradition of nort!ern and 0estern Bndia is also "erfor,ed in t!e central Bndian region of C!!attisgar!, t!e area of study for t!is essay, and yet it is kno0n !ere s"ecifically as a 7a1ast!ani D0estern Bndian "rovince and cultural regionE story, re"resenting a so,e0!at e.otici<ed 8ot!er,8 e.e,"lified $y t!e !ero flying a0ay on a desert ca,el not native to C!!attisgar!. T!e nort!ern and central Bndian ,artial e"ic of 3l!a is also "erfor,ed in C!!attisgar! $ut is associated 0it! s"ecific !istorical kingdo,s outside t!e region and is "erceived to $e so,eone else=s !istory. /ike0ise, alt!oug! t!e "an:Bndian -amayana e"ic tradition is argua$ly t!e ,ost significant religious narrative in t!e "lains of C!!attisgar!, its singers and audiences call it a Cindi, rat!er t!an C!!attisgar!i, story D,atha E T!e !ero and !eroine, 7a, and Sita, are divine royalty and, in dra,atic "erfor,ances of t!e tradition, are dressed in generic nort! Bndian royal costu,ing rat!er t!an C!!attisgar!i dress and 1e0elry t!at 0ould identify t!e, $y region and caste. Placed in t!e conte.t of t!ese long, sung, !eroic narratives availa$le in t!e re"ertoire of C!!attisgar!i regional "erfor,ance genres, t!e e"ic of Candaini stands a"art in t!e e.tent to 0!ic! it !as $een a""ro"riated $y various co,,unities 0it!in t!e region as 8t!eir o0n.8 T!is essay e.a,ines t!e 0ays in 0!ic! t!is "rocess of a""ro"riation !as identified and given identity to t!e folklore region of C!!attisgar!.

.eographic and Social Boundaries of the Epic

Perfor,ance of t!e Candaini narrative is not li,ited to C!!attisgar!F its "erfor,ance s"reads across geogra"!ic and linguistic $orders, fro, C!!attisgar! to t!e ;angetic "lains of nort!ern Bndia, in t!e "rovince of Uttar Prades! Dor U.P.E. T!e tradition is called Candaini in C!!attisgar! and Canaini or /oriki Dfro, t!e na,es of its !ero and !eroineE in U.P. Candaini differs fro, ,any Bndian e"ic traditions in t!at it is not associated 0it! a "articular caste or regional !istorical events, nor is it associated 0it! a religious cult. T!us it can and !as $een a""ro"riated $y a s"ectru, of co,,unities as 8t!eirs8 in a 0ay in 0!ic! ,any ot!er narrative traditions cannot $e. W!ile folklorists ,ay identify t!e narrative traditions in t!ese t0o regions as 8t!e sa,e8 $ecause of t!eir s!ared c!aracters, constant "lot ele,ents, and s!ared ,otifs, it is i,"ortant to "oint out t!at t!e 0ide geogra"!ic ,a""ing of Candaini is a reality to t!ose folklorists and not to t!e e"ic=s "erfor,ers

and audiences. T!ey kno0 and understand t!e tradition as rooted in geogra"!ically circu,scri$ed "erfor,ance and social conte.ts, as $eing identified 0it!28$elonging to82s"ecific co,,unities, in t!is case, a co0!erding caste in U.P. and t!e $roader regional folklore co,,unity in C!!attisgar!. 4one of t!e singers 0!o, B ,et on t!e "lains of C!!attisgar! kne0 t!e - 1%% 8sa,e8 story 0as sung in U.P. W!en B ,entioned t!is to one of t!e e"ic singers, !e e.clai,ed: 85o you ,ean t!ey really sing our Chhattisgarhi Candaini 0ay u" t!ereG8 W!en B 0ent to C!!attisgar! to $egin ,y dissertation field0ork in 1 M&, one of ,y first 8strategies8 0as to elicit fro, villagers a core re"ertoire of folklore genres t!at t!ey considered to $e 8C!!attisgar!i,8 uniAue to or c!aracteri<ing t!at linguistically and !istorically defined region. B 0ould ask so,et!ing like 8W!at do you cele$rate !ere in C!!attisgar!, 0!at do you singG8 3 core re"ertoire gradually e,erged fro, t!e varied res"onses. Bts genres did not e.!aust t!eir "erfor,ance re"ertoire $ut included t!ose traditions 0!ose "erfor,ance t!e in!a$itants t!e,selves "erceived to $e identified 0it! and give identity to t!e region. T!e e"ic traditions of Candaini and Pandvani Da regionali<ed variant of t!e "an:Bndian /aha*harata traditionE 0ere al0ays on t!is list. T!e longer B 0as in C!!attisgar! and as B $eca,e ,ore kno0ledgea$le a$out its various "erfor,ance traditions, and t!us not "erceived to $e Auite suc! an unkno0ing outsider, indigenous co,,entary $egan to $reak do0n t!e nature of t!e social co,,unities 0it! 0!ic! "erfor,ance traditions 0ere identified, $y caste, age, and gender. Candaini and Pandvani ,ost al0ays retained t!eir regional identification, !o0everF t!e co,,unity 0it! 0!ic! t!ey are "ri,arily identified is ,ore inclusive, !aving a 0ider geogra"!ical and social s"read, t!an t!at of any ot!er genre fro, t!e core re"ertoire. Candaini 0as re"eatedly identified as 8a C!!attisgar!i story,8 8our story.8 T!e social $oundaries of t!e "erfor,ance co,,unities Dand note B !ave s!ifted to "lural !ereE associated 0it! t!e Candaini e"ic tradition in C!!attisgar! !ave s!ifted rat!er dra,atically in t!e last t0enty to t0enty:five yearsF so it is i,"ortant to look carefully at 0!at it ,eans for an e"ic to $e 8ours,8 asking 0!o is t!e 80e8 t!at is $eing re"resented. +urt!er, at 0!at level is identification $eing ,ade, te.tually, "erfor,atively, or $ot!G B suggest t!at increasing ,ass ,edia and literacy in C!!attisgar! in recent years !ave affected $ot! t!e "erfor,ances t!at identify and t!e identity of t!e 80e.8

The Epic Story

9"ic narratives e.ist $ot! as oral and "erfor,ance traditions, a distinction /aurie Sears and B ,ade in Boundaries of the Te+t $et0een a general kno0ledge of t!e 80!ole story8 Da su,,aryE t!at ,any in t!e folklore co,,unity 0ould $e a$le to relate and t!e e"ic as it is "erfor,ed in a ,arked, artistic enact,ent of t!at oral tradition.H(I T!e performed e"ic in Bndia is sung in e"isodes,H)I 0it! t!e assu,"tion t!at audience ,e,$ers fra,e t!e "erfor,ance $ot! 0it!in t!e larger e"ic story Doral traditionE as 0ell as 0it!in t!e folklore re"ertoire of 0!ic! it is a "art. T!us 0!ile sc!olars !ave s"ent considera$le energy recording e"ic stories 8fro, $eginning to end,8 counting - 1%' t!e nu,$er of !ours and "ages reAuired to do so, t!is is not !o0 t!e e"ic is received $y indigenous audiences. +urt!er, t!ere are certain e"isodes of t!e e"ic t!at are ,ore freAuently "erfor,ed t!an ot!ersF and t!ere ,ay $e e"isodes t!at e.ist only in t!e oral tradition, and not in "erfor,ance at all.

W!at follo0s is a narrative su,,ary of "ri,arily t!e C!!attisgar!i e"ic variant, dra0n fro, t!e oral tradition Dsu,,aries t!at 0ere told to ,eE and "erfor,ances B attended. B !ave noted so,e of t!e ,a1or differences $et0een t!is and t!e U.P. variant of t!e e"ic, and ,ore of t!e su$stantive differences $et0een t!e t0o variants 0ill $eco,e a""arent in t!e analyses t!at follo0. Bn C!!attisgar!, Candaini is t!e story of t!e !ero /orik and !eroine Candaini, $ot! fro, t!e 7aut co0!erding caste. T!e !ero and !eroine are eac! ,arried to ot!er "artners, $ut Candaini leaves !er !us$and 0!en s!e learns !e !as $een cursed $y t!e goddess to $e i,"otent for t0elve years. *n !er 0ay $ack to !er ,aternal village, Candaini is accosted in t!e 1ungle $y t!e untouc!a$le Bat!ua. S!e cleverly esca"es !is evil intentions, $ut !e c!ases after !er and terrori<es t!e in!a$itants and cattle of t!e village. Bn des"eration, t!e villagers ask t!e !ero /orik to rescue t!e,F ulti,ately !e defeats Bat!ua t!roug! non,artial Dand, B ,ig!t add, rat!er un!eroicE ,eans. 5uring t!is contest, Candaini first lays eyes on !i,, falls in love, and "roceeds to seduce !i,. 3fter so,e delays, "ri,arily due to /orik=s !esitancy and co0ardice in decision ,aking, t!e !ero leaves !is 0ife Man1ari, and !e and Candaini elo"e toget!er to Cardi ;ar!. Bn C!!attisgar!, Candaini "erfor,ances center u"on and ela$orate various adventures fro, t!is elo"e,ent 1ourney Durhar3 literally, 8flig!t8E. Bn fact, 0!en B asked villagers 0!at t!e story 0as a$out, ,ost res"onses $egan 0it! so,e variant of 8Bt is t!e story of t!e elo"e,ent of /orik and Candaini.8 9ventually, /orik receives 0ord t!at !is $rot!ers !ave all died in $attle, and t!eir 0ealt! and cattle !ave $een dissi"ated t!roug!out t!e C!!attisgar!i countryside, leaving !is ,ot!er and 0ife destitute. /orik returns !o,e 0it! Candaini to avenge !is fa,ily=s !onor. Ce succeeds in reclai,ing !is cattle, t!roug! $attle in t!e U.P. variant and $y 0andering t!e countryside as a ,endicant, collecting !is cattle, in C!!attisgar!. W!en t!e task is co,"leted, !e takes u" t!e "osition of !ead of t!e surviving e.tended fa,ily, including !is first 0ife. But, it is said, /orik did not take "ride in !is success. Bn U.P. versions, !e finds t!at !is for,er "!ysical "ro0ess and strengt! !ave dissi"ated, and !e kills !i,self. Bn C!!attisgar!, sad and dissatisfied after !is return, /orik one day ,ysteriously 0anders off into t!e countryside, never to $e seen again. Bn t!e C!!attisgar!i village of ;ar! 7ivan D!o,e of /orik in t!e e"ic and a "resent:day village near t!e cattle $a<aar to0n of 3rang in 7ai"ur 5istrictE, one "erfor,er sang t!e e"ic=s closing e"isode as t!at of a lovers= argu,ent. 3s t!e cou"le 0as sitting in a $oat in t!e ,iddle of t!e village tank Dor "ondE, t!e argu,ent got so ve!e,ent t!at t!e $oat overturned. Candaini s0a, to t!e $ank and took refuge in a goddess te,"le. T!e goddess 0as so angered - 1%( at Candaini=s sudden and inaus"icious intrusion t!at s!e $e!eaded our !eroine, only to regret !er action later and restore t!e !ead. Bn a village goddess te,"le on t!e $anks of t!e tank of ;ar! 7ivan, t!ere are today t0o i,ages Done $e!eaded and t!e ot!er 0!oleE of t!e !eroine Candaini, 0!ic! kee" t!e goddess co,"any. T!e !eroine is not called a goddess, $ut si,"ly !onored as 8our rautin,4 or co0!erdress. /orik, it is said, 0as never seen after t!is e"isode and is "resu,ed to $e still 0andering in t!e C!!attisgar!i countryside. T!e narrative as "erfor,ed in $ot! C!!attisgar! and nort!ern Bndia is not a religious e"ic, nor are its "erfor,ances an integral "art of any "articular ritual or festival, alt!oug! it is often "erfor,ed at t0o festivals t!at !ave t!e,selves $een 8i,"orted8 into t!e C!!attisgar!i ritual calendar, ganes caturthi and durga pu'a, "er!a"s as a 0ay of locali<ing t!e,. @illagers say t!e e"ic is sung "ri,arily for 8entertain,ent8 Dmanoran'an E non"rofessional "erfor,ers ,ay sing for s,all grou"s of friends and neig!$ors, and "rofessionals ,ay "erfor, at annual village fairs or "rovide entertain,ent during long 0inter evenings. T!ese nonritual "erfor,ance conte.ts do not, !o0ever, di,inis! t!e significance of t!e e"ic for t!e co,,unities in 0!ic! it is "erfor,ed. Bn U.P., 0!ile t!e c!aracters are not deified, t!ey

are t!ey !eld u" as ,odels to $e e,ulated, of 80!o 0e 0ould like to $e.8 Bn C!!attisgar!, $y contrast, t!ey are 80!o 0e are,8 in larger:t!an:life "ro"ortions.

The UA'A ariant as Caste Epic

To understand t!e differences in t!e "erfor,atively identified co,,unities of t!e ;angetic "lains of U. P. and C!!attisgar!, it 0ill $e useful for us no0 to take a closer look at $ot! narrative and "erfor,ative variation in t!ese t0o areas. My analysis of t!e U.P. e"ic variant is $ased on t0o "u$lis!ed versions of t!e e"ic collected and transcri$ed $y S. M. Pandey in t!e 1 >&s, one in t!e dialect of 30ad!i and t!e ot!er in B!o1"uri, as 0ell as u"on "ersonal co,,unication 0it! Pandey in t!e early 1 M&s.H>I B 0ill call t!is U.P. variant t!e /oriki#Canaini tradition, taken fro, Pandey=s titles. T!e C!!attisgar!i data is dra0n fro, ,y o0n field0ork D1 M& t!roug! 1 %, inter,ittentlyE and @errier 9l0in=s translation of a "artial version.HMI Uttar Prades! is in t!e !eartland of ort!odo. Bra!,inic Cinduis,, 0!ile C!!attisgar! lies on its "eri"!ery. C!!attisgar!=s cultural and religious traditions are influenced $y t!e !ig! "ercentage of tri$al grou"s t!at !ave no0 $een integrated into t!e Cindu caste syste,. T!ese include folk "erfor,ance and festival genres, social and ,arriage "atterns, and 0o,en=s dress, tattoos, and 1e0elry. *f "articular interest to us in our e.a,ination of t!e e"ic is t!e relatively !ig!er status of 0o,en in C!!attisgar! co,"ared to 0o,en in U.P. T!is ,ay $e "artially e."lained $y tri$al influences, $ut also influential is t!e fact t!at t!e rice:gro0ing econo,y of central Bndia reAuires a !ig!er - 1%) "ro"ortion of fe,ale la$or "artici"ation t!an does t!e 0!eat:gro0ing econo,y of t!e nort!. T!us 0o,en in C!!attisgar! are not considered to $e Auite t!e econo,ic lia$ility t!at t!ey are in U.P.H I Bn $ot! "erfor,ance areas, U.P. and C!!attisgar!, t!e e"ic tradition see,s to !ave originated 0it! t!e local co0!erding castes23!irs in U.P. and 7auts in C!!attisgar!. Bn U.P., 0!ere 3!ir ,ales continue to $e $ot! "ri,ary "erfor,ers and audience ,e,$ers, !o0ever, t!e tradition !as re,ained ,ore closely identified 0it! t!at caste. Pandey cites t0o 30ad!i "rover$s in U.P. t!at clearly identify Canaini 0it! t!e 3!ir caste: Co0ever clever an 3!ir $e 4ot!ing $ut Canaini singet! !e. Co0ever ,any ti,es an 3!ir ,ay read t!e Puranas Ce 0ill not sing anyt!ing $ut Canaini. H1&I Certain clans of 3!irs in U.P. identify 0it! t!e e"ic ,ore t!an 1ust "erfor,ativelyF t!ey look to t!e e"ic as t!e !istory of t!eir caste. ;0al 3!ir singers of t!e conte,"orary folk:song genre called )irha $elieve t!e /oriki:Canaini to $e t!e oldest e.tant record of t!eir caste grou". 3lt!oug! ,ost of t!e, ad,it to not kno0ing t!e e"ic 0ell, t!ey clai, t!at ,any of t!eir songs and narratives are $ased u"on it, and ,any social and religious traditions uniAue to t!e caste derived fro, it.H11I T!e differences $et0een caste:e"ic identification in U.P. and C!!attisgar! can $e "artially attri$uted to t!e differences in eac! caste=s self:"erce"tion, status, organi<ation, and ideology. T!e 3!irs of U.P. !ave traditionally vie0ed t!e,selves as a local 0arrior caste and continue to "ro,ote t!at i,age of t!e,selves. 3s certain 3!irs gained in "olitical and econo,ic "o0er in t!e late nineteent! century, t!ey 1oined forces in an effort to raise t!eir caste status $y a""ro"riating custo,s Dsuc! as donning t!e sacred t!readE and ideologies of t!e ,satriya )arna caste category Da "rocess t!e Bndian ant!ro"ologist Srinivas !as called 8sanskriti<ation8E. H1?I 3not!er 0ay to confir, t!eir 0arrior status 0as to try to

associate t!e,selves 0it! t!e Ladav co0!erding caste of t!e divine co0!erder 6ris!na, calling t!e,selves Ladavs instead of 3!irs. 3!ir intelligentsia 8re0rote8 certain !istorical docu,ents to "rove t!is connectionH1%I and for,ed a national Ladav organi<ation t!at continues to coordinate and "ro,ote t!e ,o$ility drive of t!e caste. Bntegral to t!is ,ove,ent are retellings of caste !istory t!at reflect its ,artial c!aracterF t!e e"ic is an i,"ortant c!annel for so,e of t!ese retellings. Cence t!e co0!erder /orik is "ortrayed as a 0arrior first, 0!ose "ri,ary role is to defend t!e !onor of t!e caste, often t!roug! a defense of t!e !onor of its 0o,en. ConseAuently, e"ic $attles rat!er t!an t!e elo"e,ent $eco,e t!e central e"isodes of t!e narrative, and t!e elo"e,ent is consciously under"layed. 9lo"e,ent and t!e freedo, of individual c!oice it i,"lies t!reaten caste - 1%> endoga,y and t!e strict ,aintenance of caste $oundaries necessary in t!e effort to raise status. +urt!er, t!e i,"licit freedo, of elo"e,ent contradicts t!e social control of 0o,en articulated else0!ere in t!e U.P. variant of t!e e"ic.H1'I +urt!er, t!e ,ale !ero /orik is t!e central c!aracter of t!e U.P. variants, rat!er t!an t!e !eroine Candaini, as is t!e case in C!!attisgar!. T!e nort!ern tradition is, in su,, a ,ale, ,artial e"ic tradition t!at !as $een a""ro"riated to "ro,ote a "articular i,age of t!e 3!ir caste.H1(I 3 co,,on saying in eastern U.P. asserts: 8Bf /oriki is recited for one ,ont!, so,e0!ere t!ere 0ill $e a $attle.8H1)I T!e ,artial et!os of t!e e"ic is "er!a"s ,ost dra,atically visuali<ed in a $a<aar "a,"!let titled Din CindiE ori,ayan: The Battle of 0ardigarh Dinterestingly, t!is e"isode is t!e only one t!at !as $een "u$lis!ed in t!is "o"ular for,atE.H1>I Bts cover "ictures /orik as t!e classical indian 0arrior, standing on a $attlefield, !olding u" a $roken c!ariot 0!eel, 0it! $odies and 0ea"ons stre0n across t!e field and arro0s flying t!roug! t!e air.

The Chhattisgarhi ariant as !egional Epic

*lder C!!attisgar!i infor,ants told ,e in 1 M& t!at in C!!attisgar!, too, Candaini singers used to $e "ri,arily fro, t!e co0!erding 7aut caste. Bts ,ulticaste audiences and t!e see,ingly easy ada"tation of t!e e"ic to innovative "erfor,ance styles availa$le to "erfor,ers fro, a 0ide s"ectru, of castes suggest, !o0ever, t!at it 0as never 8caste:o0ned8 in t!e sense t!at it is in U.P. 3 "ossi$le e."lanation for differences in t!e caste:e"ic relations!i" are t!e res"ective castes= self:i,age. *ne fifty:year:old 7aut ,ale gave t!e follo0ing account of t!e dis"ersion of t!e caste. Bn 8for,er days8 all t!e 7auts of t!e area used to go to ;ar! 7ivan Dt!e !o,e of /orik in t!e e"ic and t!e "resent: day village ,entioned a$oveE to cele$rate t!e 7aut festival of matar.H1MI T!en one year, 6ing 6adra, of a $asket:0eaving caste, $attled against t!e 7auts. Many 7auts 0ere killed, and t!e survivors scattered fro, ;ar! 7ivan and settled 8!ere and t!ere.8 Since t!at ti,e, according to t!e infor,ant, 7auts !ave no longer gat!ered at ;ar! 7ivan to cele$rate matar, $ut rat!er cele$rate it in t!eir o0n villages. We cannot kno0 fro, suc! an account 0!et!er or not t!e caste 0as, in fact, ever a co!esive ,artial or ad,inistrative "o0er. T!eir "erce"tion, !o0ever, is t!at t!ey 0ere once stronger and ,ore unified t!an t!ey are no0. Bn t!e ,ore recent "ast, C!!attisgar!i 7auts !ave traditionally seen t!e,selves as 8village servants,8 0!o !erd and ,ilk t!e village cattle, rat!er t!an as 0arriors 0!o "rotect caste !onor and $oundaries. H1 I /orik, as a C!!attisgar!i 7aut, is not "ortrayed as t!e U.P. ,artial !ero $randis!ing a s0ord, riding on a !orse, $ut "ri,arily as a lover 0!ose only 0ea"on is !is !erding staff and 0!o travels on foot. +urt!er reflecting a C!!attisgar!i et!os in 0!ic! 0o,en !ave ,ore ,o$ility and argua$ly !ig!er status t!an t!eir sis:

- 1%M ters in t!e ;angetic "lains, t!e heroine is t!e "ri,ary initiator of action in C!!attisgar!i "erfor,ancesF it is freAuently s!e 0!o "rotects and saves /orik rat!er t!an t!e ot!er 0ay around. T!us, alt!oug! t!e singing of t!e e"ic ,ay !ave $een first associated 0it! t!e co0!erding caste of its singers, t!e tradition as it !as $een docu,ented in t!e last fifteen to t0enty years does not suggest a strong caste identity. H?&I Part of 0!at gives t!e e"ic tradition its regional identification in C!!attisgar! is its "erfor,ance conte.ts and t!e $road social $ase of its audiences and "erfor,ers today. T0o $asic "erfor,ance styles of Candaini !ave develo"ed in C!!attisgar!. Bot! styles are ,ost co,,only called si,"ly Candaini, $ut 0!en t!e styles are distinguis!ed, t!e first is called Candaini git or song, and t!e second naca, or dance:dra,a. 3s ,entioned earlier, traditionally, Candaini git singers 0ere ,ale ,e,$ers of t!e 7aut caste 0!o sang t!e e"ic $ot! "rofessionally and non"rofessionally to "ri,arily ,ale audiences, $ut 0it! 0o,en sitting on t!e sidelines. 7auts sang 0it!out ,usical acco,"ani,entF $ut essential to t!eir "erfor,ance 0as a co,"anion Dragi or sang)ari E 0!o 1oined in t!e last 0ords of every line and served as a res"ondent. Today, it is difficult to find 7auts 0!o still sing in t!e git style 0it!out instru,ental acco,"ani,ent. T!e only suc! singer B kne0 died in 1 MM, and none of !is sons 0ere interested in learning or continuing !is fat!er=s tradition. 3s one infor,ant o$served, 8Co0 can t!is Ht!at is, style 0it! no ,usical acco,"ani,entI co,"ete 0it! video !allsG8 T!e re"etitious res"onse $y t!e ragi, !o0ever, is still one of t!e "ri,ary c!aracteri<ing features of $ot! instru,entally acco,"anied git and naca Candaini "erfor,ance styles. T!e dates and circu,stances in 0!ic! ,e,$ers of t!e Satna,i caste took u" t!e git style of Candaini "erfor,ance are undocu,ented and vague in caste and regional ,e,ory. Let 0!en B 0as looking for e"ic "erfor,ances in t!e 1 M&s, B 0as freAuently told t!at B 0ould find Candaini only in t!ose areas 0it! large nu,$ers of Satna,is. T!e Satna,is are a sect t!at converted in t!e 1M&&s fro, t!e outcaste Ca,ar, a leat!er:0orking caste, $ut 0!ose conversion did not raise t!eir status fro, t!at of t!e lo0est caste grou"s. Bt is "ro$a$le t!at 0!en they $egan to sing Candaini "rofessionally, it $egan to attract ,ore diverse audiences and to take on its current regional identification. T!e Satna,is added ,usical acco,"ani,ent to t!e git "erfor,ance style, including, ,ini,ally, !ar,oniu, and ta*la3 $ut, as ,entioned a$ove, t!ey !ave retained t!e co,$ination of lead singer and one or ,ore 8co,"anions,8 0!ose res"onse lines end 0it! mor or tor.H?1I Because B !ave little co,"arative data to use fro, 8"urely8 7aut "erfor,ances, it is difficult to kno0 e.actly !o0 t!e narrative ,ay !ave s!ifted 0!en t!e Satna,is $egan to sing t!e e"ic "rofessionally, "articularly in its "ortrayal of t!e 8villain8 c!aracter, t!e Ca,ar Bat!ua 0!o tries to accost Candaini in t!e 1ungle. Bn one Satna,i "erfor,ance, !o0ever, /orik ,eets Bat!ua again - 1% after t!eir initial confrontation in t!e !eroine=s ,aternal village. Bat!ua rea""ears as t!e $odyguard of a foreign king 0!o, /orik !as offended D$y c!o""ing off t!e nose of one of !is su$1ectsE, so t!e king sends Bat!ua to "unis! !i,. T!is ti,e t!eir confrontation is ,artial, and /orik is una$le to defeat t!e untouc!a$le "!ysically. Ce is "inned to t!e ground, and Candaini !as to $eg Bat!ua for ,ercy. T!e Ca,ar gives in $ut says /orik ,ust tie !i, u" so t!at t!e king 0ill t!ink !e !as $een defeated, not co,"assionate. /orik eventually 0ins t!e kingdo, t!roug! $ot! $attle and trickery and na,es it after t!e untouc!a$le Bat!ua. W!en B later discussed t!is e"isode 0it! several non:Satna,i villagers, t!ey told ,e t!at Satna,is !ave tended to glorify t!e c!aracter of Bat!ua and t!at a 7aut singer 0ould never

!ave included suc! an e"isode, glorifying t!e !erois, of t!e Ca,ar. T!e second Candaini "erfor,ance style, called naca Dliterally, 8dance8E, includes song and dance, s"oken conversations $et0een c!aracters, and narration in t!e git, res"onsive style.H??I 3ccording to naca "erfor,ers, t!e naca is said to !ave develo"ed in t!e early 1 >&s in res"onse to t!e strong influence of t!e increasingly "o"ular Cindi cine,a, an essential ele,ent of 0!ic! is also song and dance. 3 naca trou"e consists of u" to eig!t or ten "erfor,ers, so,e of 0!o, are actors and ot!ers ,usicians. 3n i,"ortant feature of t!e naca is t!e inclusion of costu,ing and ,ini,al "ro"s. T!e !ero /orik carries a !erding staff and 0ears traditional 7aut festival dress, decorated 0it! "eacock feat!ers and co0rie s!ellsF ,ale "erfor,ers "ut on saris and ty"ical C!!attisgar!i 1e0elry to act out t!e fe,ale roles. T!e ,usicians sit at t!e side of t!e stage and acco,"any t!e songs of t!e actors or "rovide t!eir o0n sung narration in t!e Candaini git style. Candaini is only one of ,any narratives "erfor,ed in t!e naca style, $ut naca trou"es t!at s"eciali<e in Candaini do so to t!e e.clusion of ot!er narratives. 3lt!oug! t!is style !as gro0n in "o"ularity, it is e."ensive to "atroni<e. W!en sufficient funds for t!e naca cannot $e raised, or if trou"e ,e,$ers are singing non"rofessionally, t!e git style, 0it!out dance, can still $e !eard.H?%I T!e "erfor,ance conte.t of t!e naca is i,"ortant in esta$lis!ing t!e e"ic=s regional c!aracter. Trou"es are usually ,ulticaste, !eavily re"resented $y Satna,is, $ut also $y ot!er ,iddle:level castes, including 7auts. *ne "erfor,ance trou"e B ,et consisted of ten ,e,$ers fro, si. different castes. Trou"es are !ired $y village#neig!$or!ood councils for annual village fairs or festivals or as inde"endent entertain,ent events. *ccasionally, a fa,ily 0ill s"onsor a "erfor,ance to cele$rate t!e $irt! of a son or a 0edding. (aca audiences, too, re"resent t!e caste s"ectru, of a "articular village or ur$an neig!$or!ood, ,ale and fe,ale. (acas are "erfor,ed in "u$lic s"ace suc! as a village or to0n sAuare or ,ain street, accessi$le to everyone. Persons fro, surrounding villages freAuently 0alk several ,iles to attend nacas in neig!$oring villages, and audiences ,ay reac! as ,any as ?&& "artici"ants. T!e ent!usiastic and res"onsive "artici"ation of 0o,en in t!e "ri,ary - 1'& audience of t!e Candaini naca stands in s!ar" contrast to t!e all:,ale audiences and "erfor,ance conte.ts of t!e U.P. variants of t!e e"ic. Bn 1 M& 0!en B asked fe,ale audience ,e,$ers if 2omen ever sang Candaini in C!!attisgar!, t!ey all ans0ered negatively. B did !ear seg,ents of t!e e"ic narrative and reference to its c!aracters in ot!er fe,ale "erfor,ance genres, 0!ic! t!ey did not, !o0ever, identify as 8Candaini8 $ecause of t!e "erfor,ance conte.t and singing style. 8To sing Candaini8 ,eans to sing in a "u$lic conte.t and, ,ore s"ecifically, to incor"orate at so,e level t!e res"onsive singing style of t!e Candaini ragi, 0it! !is end:line 0ords of tor or mor. W!at t!ese 0o,en 0ere singing 0as identified $y conte.t as a !arvest:dance song, not $y content as Candaini. Bn recent years, t!ere !ave $een a !andful of individual fe,ale "erfor,ers 0!o ha)e "erfor,ed "rofessionally t!e git style of Candaini, acco,"anied $y ,ale ragas and ,usicians. T!ey are usually self:taug!t and !ave gained ,eteoric "o"ularity $ecause of t!eir unusual "osition as "rofessional, "u$lic female "erfor,ers. Several audience ,e,$ers told ,e: 8W!o 2ouldn$t go to !ear a 0o,anG T!ere=s ,ore entertain,ent in t!atV8 *ne suc! fe,ale "erfor,er is Sura1 Bai, 0!o, in 1 M>, 0as !ailed in a local 9nglis!:language ne0s"a"er as 8t!e ,elody Aueen.8 S!e !ad re"resented C!!attisgar! at national and state folk festivals and !ad "erfor,ed on nation0ide television and radioF yet, t!e ne0s"a"er article $e,oaned, s!e still 0orked as a daily:0age la$orer. *ver t!e last five years in C!!attisgar!, t!e e"ic tradition of Pandvani is e."eriencing a si,ilar rise in "o"ularity, "ri,arily

attri$uta$le to t!e fact t!at t!e tradition is $eing "erfor,ed $y t0o "rofessional fe,ale singers, Ti1an Bai and 7itu @ar,a, 0!o !ave gained notoriety t!roug! t!eir "erfor,ances on television and radio. Bot! 0o,en !ave traveled e.tensively around Bndia and even as far as Paris and 4e0 Lork for festivals of Bndia. 3lt!oug! Candaini fe,ale "erfor,ers are still unusual, t!e 0orldvie0 e."ressed $y $ot! fe,ale and ,ale "erfor,ers of t!e C!!attisgar!i e"ic is a fe,ale:centered one.H?'I T!e !eroine Candaini is t!e do,inant c!aracter in t!e "air of lovers and t!e initiator of ,ost of t!e e"ic action. S!e and ot!er 0o,en are not "ortrayed as "ro"erty to $e e.c!anged and "rotected Das t!ey are freAuently de"icted in t!e U.P. variantsEF rat!er, t!ey are resourceful and take initiative, relying not on t!e ritual "o0er of t!eir c!astity, as 0o,en freAuently do in do,inant:discourse narratives, $ut u"on t!eir o0n intuitive co,,on sense. Candaini=s do,inant role in t!e C!!attisgar!i e"ic first $eco,es evident 0!en s!e ,akes t!e decision to leave !er !us$and 0!en t!eir relations!i" is not fulfilling to !er. T!en it is s!e, rat!er t!an /orik, 0!o initiates t!eir relations!i"F s!e sees !i, in t!e co,"etition 0it! !er assailant Bat!ua and sets a$out to seduce !i,. Bn one version, s!e asks !er $rot!er to $uild a s0ing for !er ne.t to t!e "at! t!at /orik uses every day to get to !is 0restling grounds. 3s /orik "asses $y, Candaini asks !i, to s0ing !er. W!en !e de: - 1'1 clines, s!e curses !i,. T!is so angers !i, t!at !e violently s0ings !er, causing !er to fall off t!e s0ing and giving !i, t!e o""ortunity to catc! !er.H?(I T!e ne.t ti,e t!ey ,eet, Candaini suggests a 1oking se.ual relations!i" 0it! /orik $y calling !i, !er de)ar Dyounger $rot!er:in:la0E, 0it! 0!o, suc! a relations!i" is "er,issi$le. Caving gro0n u" in t!e sa,e village, t!ey 0ould nor,ally call eac! ot!er $rot!er and sister, "recluding a se.ual relations!i"F c!anging t!e ter,s of address is often one of t!e first indications of a c!ange in t!e nature of a relations!i" in C!!attisgar!i rural life and oral traditions. +inally, Candaini o"enly invites /orik to visit !er during t!e nig!t, telling !i, !o0 to get "ast various guards t!at stand at t!e entrance to !er "alace. 3s t!eir relations!i" develo"s, it is also s!e 0!o suggests and "us!es for t!e elo"e,ent to Cardi ;ar!. Candaini=s resourcefulness and courage are illustrated $y nu,erous e.a,"les fro, C!!attisgar!i e"isodes of t!e e"ic. Bn one "erfor,ance, 0!en t!e cou"le is elo"ing and t!eir 0ay is $locked $y a flooded river, Candaini, not /orik, figures out !o0 to cross. S!e first "rocures a s,all $oat fro, t!e ferry,an stationed at t!e crossing. /orik accuses !er of negotiation of ,ore t!an trans"ortation 0it! t!e ferry,an, !o0ever, and in 1ealousy s"lits t!e $oat and its o0ner in t0o 0it! !is s0ord. Ce t!en goes into t!e 1ungle and cuts do0n so,e green 0ood to $uild a raft, 0!ic!, of course, i,,ediately sinks. Bt is Candaini 0!o kno0s it ,ust $e $uilt 0it! dry $a,$oo, tied toget!er 0it! lengt!s of a forest vine. W!en t!e ferry,an=s 0ife co,es to $ring !i, !is $reakfast and sees !i, dead, s!e i,,ediately sus"ects t!e elo"ing cou"le of ,urder and creates a ,agical ,ouse to !ide in t!eir raft. Calf0ay across t!e river, t!e sto0a0ay ,ouse $ites t!roug! t!e ro"es !olding toget!er t!e raft. Candaini ,anages to reac! t!e far s!ore, $ut /orik does not kno0 !o0 to s0i, and starts to dro0n. T!e !eroine unties !er $raid, 1u,"s in, and saves !i,, "resu,a$ly $y "ulling !i, as!ore 0it! !er !air. H?)I Candaini=s ingenuity and "!ysical strengt! in t!is e"isode stands in s!ar" contrast to a si,ilar scene in t!e U.P. variant in 0!ic! /orik=s 0ife calls u"on t!e "o0er of !er c!astity D!er fait!fulness to !er !us$and, sat E to cause t!e 0aters of a river to "art. 3 fe,ale 0orldvie0 is again reflected in a 0onderful e"isode of t!e elo"ing cou"le=s 1ourney t!roug! a kingdo, of all 0o,en. Candaini sends /orik into t!e to0n to $uy t!e, so,e $etel leaf Dpan E Ce is

tricked $y t!e pan& seller to follo0 !er !o,e, 0!ere s!e 8kee"s !er $est pan4 Dto feed pan to a ,e,$er of t!e o""osite se. in C!!attisgar!i folklore is often to initiate a se.ual relations!i", or ,ay $e used as a ,eta"!or for intercourse itselfE. *nce t!e "an:seller !as tra""ed /orik in !er !ouse, s!e t!reatens to $eat !i, 0it! a $a,$oo "ole and stuff !is skin 0it! stra0, "oke !is eyes out 0it! a needle, and, finally, $rand !i, 0it! a !ot cro0$ar unless !e "ro,ises to ,arry !er. 3fter eac! t!reat, !e gives in, only to recant a fe0 ,inutes later. +inally, Candaini co,es looking for !er "artner and ,eets t!e pan :seller in - 1'? t!e $a<aar. T!e pan :seller $egs t!e e"ic !eroine to !el" !er 0it! a ,an 0!o refuses to ,arry !er. Candaini discovers a sari:clad /orik in t!e 0o,an=s courtyard, !aving $een so disguised so as to !ide !is ,ale identity in t!e all:fe,ale kingdo,. *nce !is identity is ,ade kno0n, t!e t0o 0o,en agree to "lay a round of dice to deter,ine 0!o 0ill 0in !i, as !us$and. 4ote t!at alt!oug! t!is is a reversal of t!e gender roles in Sanskritic, ,ale dicing ga,es, 0!ic! are "layed to 0in a 0o,an in ,arriage or as a se.ual "artner, t!e ,otif of 0o,en dicing over t!e fate of ,en is found in ot!er C!!attisgar!i folk narratives. Candaini triu,"!s in !er dice ga,e 0it! t!e pan :seller and frees /orik fro, !is ca"tivity. *ne can !ardly i,agine t!e ,artial !ero of t!e U.P. variants of t!e e"ic "er,itting t!e pan :seller=s "!ysical !u,iliations to $e forced u"on !i, or to $e de"endent u"on rescue $y a 0o,an in a 0o,en=s 0orld. 9ven in several e"isodes in 0!ic! /orik takes t!e "ri,ary role in a confrontation, it is still a 0o,an 0!o tells !i, !o0 !e can 0in, and t!e ,eans are rarely traditional 8!eroic8 ones. T!e first suc! confrontation is $et0een /orik and t!e Ca,ar Bat!ua. Candaini=s ,ot!er says t!e only ,an 0!o can successfully confront Bat!ua is t!e 8s"orting !ero /orik.8H?>I /orik=s 0ife, Man1ari, !o0ever, 0arns !i, t!at !e 0ill not $e a$le to defeat t!e Ca,ar in a nor,al 0restling co,"etition. S!e suggests t!at t!e confrontation $e one in 0!ic! t!e ,en are $uried u" to t!eir 0aists in se"arate "its $y t!e ot!er ,an=s 0ife. T!e ,an 0!o can first get out of !is "it and $eat t!e ot!er ,an 0ill $e t!e 0inner. /orik agrees to t!is. W!en t!e 0o,en are $urying eac! ot!er=s !us$ands, Man1ari $egins to t!ro0 gold coins on t!e ground. T!is so distracts t!e Ca,ar=s 0ife t!at s!e only loosely "acks t!e dirt around /orik and t!en runs to "ick u" t!e coins. Mean0!ile, Man1ari !as ti,e to $ury Bat!ua fir,ly. W!en t!e ti,e co,es for t!e ,en to try to get out of t!eir "its, Bat!ua is stuck. /orik 1u,"s rig!t out and soundly defeats t!e Ca,ar. Candaini=s $eauty and a ,ale=s desire for !er are t!e source of several ,a1or conflicts in t!e C!!attisgar!i variant, and in t!ese situations s!e is "!ysically t!reatened and needs "!ysical "rotection like t!e 0o,en in t!e U.P. versions. 3s 0e !ave seen a$ove, !o0ever, if /orik is left to !is o0n strengt! and resources, !e ,ay or ,ay not $e a$le to "rovide Candaini 0it! t!e necessary "rotection. Judging $y !er resourcefulness in ot!er situations, one senses t!at if s!e !ad no ,ale to "rotect !er "!ysically, Candaini 0ould co,e u" 0it! alternative solutions. +urt!er,ore, 0!en !er c!astity is "rotected $y /orik, only !er "ersonal !onor is at stake. T!e "ersonal !onor of a C!!attisgar!i 7aut 0o,an does not necessarily e.tend to t!e !onor of !er fa,ily and caste. *ne of t!e ,ain e"isodes in t!e U.P. variant ,aking t!is connection $et0een t!e t!ree levels of !onor2t!e story of /orik saving Man1ari fro, !aving to ,arry a king outside t!e 3!ir caste is not "resent at all in t!e re"orted and "erfor,ed versions B !ave seen in C!!attisgar!. T!e ot!er U.P. e"isode ,aking t!is association e."licit is /orik=s defeat of Bat!ua, - 1'% 0!ic! saves t!e !onor of Candaini and t!e 3!ir caste. Bn C!!attisgar!i versions, Candaini=s ,ot!er, in

asking /orik for !el", is not as concerned 0it! !onor as 0it! "!ysical safety: Bat!ua is terrori<ing t!e entire village, so t!at everyone is afraid to go out of t!eir !o,es, and t!e cattle are dying fro, lack of fodder and 0ater.H?MI 3s t!e role of 0o,en increases in i,"ortance in t!e C!!attisgar! variant, 0e !ave seen t!at t!e c!aracter of t!e !ero also s!ifts. Ce is no longer t!e ideal "rotector and 0arrior. W!en !e does engage in $attle, !e usually e,"loys non,artial, often un!eroic, ,eans to 0inF 0!en t!e $attle is !onest, !e $attles 0it!out t!e aid of large ar,ies, ele"!ants, or ot!er ,ilitary "ara"!ernalia, 0!ic! su""ort !i, in U.P. versions. Ce is a si,"le co0!erder 0!ose 0ea"ons are !is o0n "!ysical strengt! and !erding staff. Bn t!is e"ic variant t!at centers around elo"e,ent love, t!e !ero=s status as 0arrior is less i,"ortant t!an t!at as lover. 3n i,"ortant 0ay /orik=s lover role is !ig!lig!ted in C!!attisgar! is t!roug! t!e ela$oration of t!e c!aracter of Ba0an Bid, Candaini=s i,"otent first !us$and. Cis i,"otence and "assivity give e,"!asis to /orik=s se.ual "ro0ess and virility. *ne naca "erfor,ance "ortrayed Ba0an as a $uffoon 0!o is al0ays 0i"ing !is nose 0it! !is fingers and licking t!e snot off of t!e,. 5uring t!e t0elve years of !is i,"otence, !e 0anders t!e forest as a sadhu Dreligious asceticE $ut is easily frig!tened $y any strange noise and 0elco,es Canda=s co,"any 0!en s!e co,es to t!e forest to try to "ersuade !i, to give u" !is asceticis,. Bot! Satna,i and 7aut versions agree t!at Ba0an Bir=s i,"otence is t!e result of a curse cast u"on !i, $y t!e goddess Parvati. 3 Satna,i version of t!e curse incident recounts t!at Ba0an used to tease t!e 7aut girls 0!o "icked u" co0 dung in t!e 1ungle every day. *ne day, Parvati took t!e for, of one of t!ese girls, and Ba0an $egan to tease !er. S!e revealed !er true for, to !i, and cursed !i, 0it! i,"otence for !is audacity. T!e 7aut version says t!at one day Ba0an Bir left a leaf cu" of ,ilk sitting on t!e ground, fro, 0!ic! !e !ad drunk. S!iva, in t!e for, of a snake, ca,e u" to t!e cu" and drank out of it. Su$seAuently, !e $egan to acAuire t!e rat!er o$no.ious "ersonality of Ba0an Bir, Auarreling 0it! and scolding !is 0ife, Parvati. W!en Parvati reali<ed 0!y t!is "ersonality transfor,ation !ad occurred, s!e cursed Ba0an 0it! i,"otence. Ba0an Bir is also i,"otent in t!e U.P. e"ic variantF t!e fact, !o0ever, is given little ela$oration in t!e "erfor,ances re"orted $y Pandey. Bn t!e 30ad!i version, 0e learn of t!e i,"otence in a single line. T!e "erfor,er tells !is audience t!at Ba0an is a eunuc! 0it! no !air on !is $ody, $ut !e gives no reason for t!e condition, alt!oug! t!e audience kno0s t!e reason is a curse fro, 5urga. 3not!er story circulates in Ballia, U.P., t!at Ba0an encircled !is large "enis around a S!iva liniga, a "!allic re"resentation of S!iva, and t!at t!e god cursed !i, 0it! i,"otence for trying to co,"ete 0it! !i,. H? I W!atever t!e reason, Ba0an=s i,"otence is overs!ado0ed in t!e - 1'' U.P. versions $y !is ,artial nature. Ce, too, is a "o0erful 0arrior 0!en !e $attles and defeats /orik=s older $rot!er and confiscates all of t!eir fa,ily 0ealt! and cattle, and again in t!e $attle in 0!ic! /orik regains t!is 0ealt! at t!e end of t!e e"ic.

%ppropriating the 'erformati+e 7E5terior7 of the Tradition

3s varying social grou"s !ave a""ro"riated t!e e"ic 0it!in its traditional "erfor,ance range fro, U.P. to C!!attisgar!, $ot! t!e te.tual content, 8interior,8 and "erfor,ative 8e.terior8 of t!e tradition !ave res"onded to and reinforced t!e identities of t!ese grou"s. W!ile t!e e"ic in U.P. !as served to re"resent t!e caste $ot! to itself and to ot!er castes in t!e region, in t!e 3!irs= effort to consolidate and raise t!eir caste status, in C!!attisgar!, traditionally, it !as $een self:refle.ive, ,irroring t!e region to itself, contri$uting to a C!!attisgar!i self:a0areness of difference, "articularly, for e.a,"le, regarding

t!e status of 0o,en and ,arriage custo,s. To say t!at t!e region !as 8a""ro"riated8 t!e e"ic in t!e C!!attisgar!i conte.ts descri$ed a$ove is, "er!a"s, to give un0arranted self:conscious agency to a relatively loose social $ody.H%&I Bn t!e last ten to fifteen years, !o0ever, 8a""ro"riation8 is t!e 0ord to descri$e t!e e,ergence of 8ne08 "erfor,ance conte.ts and audiences for Candaini, $ot! 0it!in and outside of C!!attisgar!. T!e tradition !as $een self:consciously crafted and "ackaged for $ot! Bndian and international audiences as re"resentative of t!e region Dnot a "articular caste, class, or genderE. T!is a""ro"riation coincides 0it! increased availa$ility of ,ass ,edia tec!nologies and co,,unications Dtelevision and radioE, as 0ell as t!e acade,ic and "o"ulari<ed interest in 8et!nicity8 t!at !as develo"ed in Bndia over t!e last decade Das evidenced, for e.a,"le, in international festivals of Bndia and ,odified 8et!nic dress8 as !ig! fas!ion a,ong t!e u""er ,iddle class of ur$an BndiaE. 7adio, television, and t!e cassette industry !ave "rovided significant ne0 conte.ts for folklore "erfor,ance, including t!e e"ic. 3kas!vani D3ll Bndia 7adioE !as $ot! local DC!!attisgar!iE and national DCindiE "rogra,,ing, 0it! regularly sc!eduled folklore "rogra,s as a "art of $ot!. Suc! "rogra,,ing e."ands t!e social $oundaries of grou"s to 0!o, ,any "erfor,ance genres are traditionally availa$leF songs t!at 0o,en used to sing a,ong t!e,selves 0!ile trans"lanting rice or in t!e "rivacy of t!eir courtyards are no0 $lared over s"eakers fro, tea stalls and $us stands in ur$an neig!$or!oods and village ,ain streets. 3lt!oug! "rior to its a""earance on ,edia c!annels, t!e e"ic 0as s"oken of as $eing 8C!!attisgar!i,8 its "erfor,ance on radio and television !as solidified t!e e"ic=s geogra"!ic regional identity, dra0ing its $oundaries ,ore literally t!an 8live8 e"ic "erfor,ances, since suc! "rogra,,ing is li,ited to s"ecified districts $ut also - 1'( !as $eco,e unifor,ly availa$le t!roug!out t!ose districts, even in t!ose villages and neig!$or!oods in 0!ic! t!e e"ic !as never $een "erfor,ed. Bn 1 M( 0!en B 0as trying to trace do0n various "erfor,ance traditions in t!e $urgeoning to0n of 5!a,tari, B 0as freAuently asked 0!y B didn=t si,"ly turn on t!e radio on Wednesday afternoons for 3kas!vani=s C!!attisgar!i folklore "rogra,,ing, fro, 0!ic! B could si,"ly ta"e t!e 8$est singers8 directly fro, t!e radio, 0it!out all t!e co,"lications of live "erfor,ance. Bot! radio and television "erfor,ances are ta"ed in rat!er sterile recording roo,s, 0it! s"ecific ti,e fra,es D,uc! a$$reviated fro, any live "erfor,anceE, 0it!out a live audience 0it! 0!o, to interact and 1ointly craft t!e "erfor,ance. +urt!er, t!ese "erfor,ances are ta"ed under t!e direction of radio:station "ersonnel 0!o often !ave certain aest!etic criteria t!at t!ey feel 8ty"ify8 t!e "articular genre in Auestion, alt!oug! ,ost of t!e, are not 8native8 to t!e region. T!ese criteria include less re"etition, ,ore instru,entation, and "articular voice Auality and stage "resence of singers. W!en B articulated so,e of t!ese differences $et0een a !alf:!our radio "erfor,ance of a Candaini e"isode and its ela$oration during a four:!our, late:nig!t e"ic "erfor,ance in a village sAuare, adding t!at t!ere 0as little manoran'an Dliterally, 8entertain,ent,8 $ut 0it! t!e i,"lication of e,otional satisfactionE !earing it over t!e radio, t!ese sa,e infor,ants generally 0!ole!eartedly agreed, alt!oug! t!ey often felt so,e0!at differently a$out television "erfor,ances. Bn t!e ,ass ,edia, t!e e"ic is taken out of its traditional "erfor,ance conte.ts and reconte.tuali<ed in a setting in 0!ic! it 8re"resents8 on an e.ternal "erfor,ative level t!roug! style and instru,entation, $ut in 0!ic! its interior is fro<en, unres"onsive, generic. 7adio and television "rogra,,ing !as affected t!e careers of "articular singers 0!o are c!osen and "ro,oted $y t!e staff. T!is !as $een t!e case es"ecially for t!e fe,ale e"ic "erfor,ers referred to a$ove. *nce !eard re"eatedly on local radio or television, t!ey are t!en invited to state0ide folklore

singing co,"etitions and folklore festivals in ,a1or ur$an centers, suc! as 4e0 5el!i, Bo,$ay, Calcutta, and even /ondon, to 8re"resent8 C!!attisgar!. 3s individual singers t!e,selves $eco,e fa,ous, t!e genres associated 0it! t!e, $eco,e ,ore "o"ular as 0ell, $ot! 0it!in and outside of t!e region. 7e"resentative of t!e gro0ing 8acade,ic8 interest in C!!attisgar!i folklore $y ,e,$ers of an ur$an, educated class, 0!o !ave not traditionally "artici"ated in e"ic "erfor,ance as singers or audience, is t!e "lay0rig!t#director Ca$i$ Tanvir, a Musli, $orn in C!!attisgar!=s !eartland, no0 living in 4e0 5el!i. Cis trou"e, 4aya T!eatre D4e0 T!eatreE, consists of a ,a1ority of actors and actresses dra0n fro, C!!attisgar!=s villages, nonliterate 8traditional8 dancers and "erfor,ers. 3long 0it! !is interest in e."eri,ental t!eatrical for,s, an overriding concern of Tanvir=s is to "ro,ote t!e a""reciation and "reservation of C!!attisgar!i folk "erfor,ance traditions. - 1') To t!is end, !e !as !eld nu,erous folklore 0orks!o"s in C!!attisgar! itself for "erfor,ers of t!ese traditions. T!e ai, of t!ese 0orks!o"s is for "erfor,ers to s!are 0it! eac! ot!er t!eir re"ertoires and for Tanvir !i,self to docu,ent t!e,, often t!en integrating t!eir t!e,es and for,s into !is 8ne0 t!eatre.8 Bn a 1 M( intervie0, 0!ile in Calcutta staging !is "lay Charan "as Chor, Tanvir e."lained t!is task as follo0s: B !ad to 0ork in t0o 0ays. B !ad to "urify t!eir for,s and t!e,es to ,ake t!e, ,ore aut!entic and conte,"orary. B found t!at t!e folk for, 0as getting s"oiled and diluted $y t!e co,$ined influence of ur$ani<ation, ,ass ,edia, and lo0:grade Cindi fil,s. T!e first "art of ,y 1o$ 0as to 0eed out t!e falsities and "urify t!e for,. 4ot for t!e sake of "urity, $ut $ecause t!e folk for, is $ot! $eautiful and a "o0erful ,ediu, for a ,essage.H%1I +or one of !is C!!attisgar!i folklore 0orks!o"s, !eld in t!e late 1 >&s, Tanvir called toget!er t!e 8$est8 Candaini singers !e !ad ,et in !is tours of t!e region. Singers fro, a range of castes s!ared t!eir stylistic and t!e,atic re"ertoires. *ne of t!ese singers 0as t!e Satna,i 5evlalF !e 0as also one of several 0orks!o" "artici"ants c!osen to go to 5el!i to 0ork 0it! Tanvir for several ,ore 0eeks. 3ccording to 5evlal, Tanvir stressed to t!e singers t!e i,"ortance of kee"ing t!eir tradition alive, and t!at one of t!e 0ays to do t!is 0as to kee" t!e entire narrative in "erfor,ance, singing it 8fro, t!e $eginning,8 0!en t!e !ero and !eroine 0ere c!ildren and so on, rat!er t!an focusing so e.clusively on t!e elo"e,ent e"isode. B attended Dand 0as t!e "ri,ary "atron ofE one of 5evlal=s Candaini "erfor,ances t!at resulted in 0!at B !ave called a 8failed "erfor,ance,8 0it! ,ost of t!e a""ro.i,ately ?&&:,e,$er audience 0alking a0ay 0it!in t!e first !our of t!e "erfor,ance. B !ave analy<ed t!e reasons for t!is else0!ere,H%?I $ut one i,"ortant reason cited $y audience ,e,$ers 0as t!at !e 0as singing 8stories 0e don=t kno0,8 fro, t!is reconstructed larger re"ertoire of e"ic e"isodes. W!at t!ey e."ected and 0anted to !ear 0as so,e variation of t!e elo"e,ent narrative. 5evlal 0as also e."eri,enting 0it! for,. Ce fra,ed t!e "erfor,ance as if it 0ould $e a naca, a for, influenced $y t!e corru"ting 8lo0:grade Cindi fil,s8 to 0!ic! Tanvir referred, $ut did not 0ear t!e e."ected costu,ing, did not "erfor, t!e e."ected 8song and dance8F so t!at anot!er ,a1or co,"laint of t!e dissatisfied audience 0as t!at 8!e s!ould !ave 0orn a sari.4 /iterate and nonliterate residents of C!!attisgar! alike !ave voiced, over t!e years during 0!ic! B !ave returned to C!!attisgar! since 1 M&, a certain unease a$out Tanvir=s a""ro"riation of C!!attisgar!i folklore for dis"lay outside t!e region. 9ven as !e is atte,"ting to "ro,ote an a""reciation of t!e region and its "erfor,ance genres, ,any in!a$itants feel t!at t!e "rocess serves no $enefit to

C!!attisgar! itself. Several residents of t!e to0n in 0!ic! 5evlal "erfor,ed, 0!o !ave kno0n !i, since !is c!ild!ood and over t!e - 1'> years in 0!ic! !e develo"ed !is e"ic:singing skills, co,"lained t!at 0!en Tanvir c!ose "articular singers suc! as !i,, t!ey often forgot t!e C!!attisgar!i roots fro, 0!ic! t!ey !ad co,e, 0ere no longer satisfied to sing in 8traditional8 conte.ts, de,anded too ,uc! ,oney, and 0ere no longer res"onsive to t!eir audiences. 5ra0ing on a 0orks!o" !eld for Candaini "erfor,ers, Tanvir later 0rote a scri"t $ased on t!e e"ic to $e "erfor,ed $y !is 4aya T!eatre trou"e, called %on %agar, t!e na,e of one of /orik=s $eloved cattle. B 0as a$le to sit in on one of t!e re!earsals of t!is "lay in 1 M(. T!e actors and actresses of t!e trou"e are C!!attisgar!i, as is t!e language of t!e "layF it o"ens 0it! a traditional )andana invocation to t!e goddess SarasvatiE and is fra,ed and inters"ersed 0it! lines sung in t!e traditional git style. But, "erfor,ed on a ,odern stage, outside of traditional "erfor,ance conte.ts, it is not C!!attisgar!i Candaini, at least as it is understood $y t!e folklore regional co,,unity. 3lt!oug!, according to Tanvir, t!ere is roo, for i,"rovisation, t!e lines are relatively fi.ed, ,e,ori<ed, and una$le to $e res"onsive to "articular conte.ts and audiences2and if even if t!ey 0ere, t!e "erfor,ance conte.ts 0ould not $e C!!attisgar!i. Bn ne0ly e,erging "erfor,ance conte.ts suc! as radio, television, and t!e ,odern stage, t!e e"ic !as $eco,e deconte.tuali<ed, so t!at it can $e "erfor,ed any0!ere. Bn a sense, t!e audiences are not 8live8F t!ey are dis"ersed, unkno0n, and unseen. +urt!er, t!e C!!attisgar!i dialect of t!e sung 8te.t8 is itself often not understood fully, if at all, $y ne0ly e,erging Cindi or 9nglis!:s"eaking audiences. W!at c!aracteri<es t!e e"ic for t!ese audiences is its "erfor,ative e+terior, t!e uniAue singing and instru,ental styles of e"ic "erfor,ance, 0!ic! t!e,selves $eco,e relatively fro<en, or at least enoug! so t!at t!ey are recogni<a$le as 8C!!attisgar!i.8 Bn t!ese conte.ts, t!e e"ic tradition !as $eco,e an artifact, fro<en in ti,e and s"ace, !eld u" for ad,iration and nostalgiaF t!us t!oug! "er!a"s unres"onsive to 0!at ,ay $e "erceived to $e ,ore traditional s!ifting "erfor,ative and social conte.ts 8on t!e ground,8 so to s"eak, it is res"onsive in a very different 0ay to ne0ly e,erging ,iddle:class audiences. T!e Candaini living e"ic tradition !as s!o0n a tenacious a$ility to ada"t to s!ifting and e,ergent "erfor,ance conte.ts: to take u" t!e cause of a caste trying to raise its status in U.P., and in C!!attisgar! to integrate non:7aut singers into t!e circle of its "erfor,ers and instru,entation and t!e naca song and dance into its "erfor,ance style as it co,"etes 0it! Cindi cine,a and video !alls. *ver t!e last decade, !o0ever, 0!ile "erfor,ers continue to $e dra0n fro, lo0:caste grou"s, t!e "erfor,ance conte.ts of t!e C!!attisgar!i e"ic !ave $ifurcated. T!e first are t!ose live "erfor,ances in traditional, late:nig!t, o"en:air village sAuares in 0!ic! "ri,arily lo0er:class#caste audiences continue to interact 0it! and !el" to s!a"e t!e interior 8te.t8 of t!e tradition. Bt re,ains to $e seen !o0 fle.i$le t!is interior - 1'M can $e in its interaction 0it! a ra"idly c!anging social 0orld, !o0 long or in 0!at 0ays its "erfor,ances can co,"ete 0it! video !alls, ,ovie t!eaters, and television, and 0!o t!e singers and "erfor,ers 0ill $e in t!e ne.t generation. T!e second conte.t is "!ysically distanced fro, its audiences, on stage or over t!e air0aves, audiences t!at no0 include an increasingly educated ,iddle

class. +or t!ese audiences, t!e e"ic=s narrative interior no longer reflects 80!o 0e are,8 $ut its "erfor,ative e.terior ,ay re,ind t!e, nostalgically of 80!o 0e 0ere.8

Wor/s Cited
Ba$$, /a0rence. 1 >(. The "i)ine 0ierarchy: Popular 0induism in Central #ndia. 4e0 Lork: Colu,$ia University Press. Bau,an, 7ic!ard. 1 >>. 7er*al Art as Performance. 7o0ley, Mass.: 4e0$ury Couse. Black$urn, Stuart, and Joyce Burk!alter +lueckiger. 1 M . Bntroduction to Oral Epics in #ndia, edited $y S. Black$urn, P. Claus, J. +lueckiger, and S. Wadley, 1: 11. Berkeley: University of California Press. Black$urn, S., P. Claus, J. +lueckiger, and S. Wadley, eds. 1 M . Oral Epics in #ndia. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bose, 4andini, and Pradi"ta B!attac!ar1ee. 1 M'. 8+olk T!eatre: 4eit!er 9.clusive nor 9soteric.8 The %unday %tatesman, 3"ril ??. C!ad0ick, 4ora 6ers!a0, and @ictor O!ir,unsky. 1 ) . The Oral Epics of Central Asia. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. Coccari, 5iane. 1 M'. 8T!e Bir Ba*as of Banaras: 3n 3nalysis of a ;uardian 5eity in 4ort! Bndian +olk Cinduis,.8 P!.5. dissertation, University of Wisconsin. 9l0in, @errier. 1 ') 1ol,songs of Chhattisgarh. Madras: *.ford University Press. +lueckiger, Joyce Burk!alter. 1 ). Gender and Genre in the 1ol,lore of /iddle #ndia. Bt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press. 1 M . 8Caste and 7egional @ariants of an 9"ic Tradition.8 Bn Oral Epics in #ndia, edited $y S. Black$urn, P. Claus, J. +lueckiger, and S. Wadley, %%:('. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1 MM. 8=Ce S!ould Cave Worn a Sari=: 3 +ailed Perfor,ance of a C!!attisgar!i *ral 9"ic.8 The "rama -e)ie2 T 11>: 1( :1) .

+lueckiger, Joyce Burk!alter, and /aurie J. Sears, eds. 1 1. Bntroduction to Boundaries of the Te+t: Epic Performances in %outh and %outheast Asia, 1:1). 3nn 3r$or: Center for Sout! and Sout!east 3sian Studies, University of Mic!igan. Jo!nson, Jo!n Willia,. 1 M& 8Les @irginia, T!ere is an 9"ic in 3frica.8 -esearch in African iteratures 11: %&M:%?). 6!edkar, @. 6. 1 ( . The "i)ine 0eritage of the Mada)as. Bndia: n.". Mandel$au,, 5avid ;. 1 >?. 8Cultural 3da"tations and Models for Mo$ility.8 Bn %ociety in #ndia: - 1(1 Change and Continuity, ?: ''?:')>. Berkeley: University of California Press. Miller, Bar$ara 5. 1 M1. The Endangered %e+: (eglect of 1emale Children in -ural (orth #ndia. Bt!aca, 4.L: Cornell University Press. 4arayana 7ao, @. +ort!co,ing 8W!at is +olklore in BndiaG 8Bn %outh Asian 1ol,lore: An Encyclopedia, edited $y Peter J. Claus and Margaret Mills. 4e0 Lork: ;arland Pu$lis!ing. *inas, +eli.. 1 >?. 8+olk 9"ic.8 Bn 1ol,lore and 1ol,life, edited $y 7ic!ard 5orson, C!icago Press. Pandey, S. M. 1 M?. The Oral Epic Canaini. 3lla!a$ad: Sa!itya B!a0an Pvt. 1 > . The Oral Epic ori,i. 3lla!a$ad: Sa!itya B!a0an Pvt. - 1(% :11(. C!icago: University of

SECTI#N T1!EE0 T1E B#UN-%!IES #$ E'IC 'E!$#!M%NCE

- 1(( -

B0 'ro9lematic 'erformances2 #+erlapping .enres and &e+els of 'articipation in %ra9ic #ral Epic;Singing
-6ight !eynolds 50ig!t 7eynolds focuses on t!e 9gy"tian oral e"ic of %irat Bani 0ilal, 0!ic! relates t!e !eroic e."loits and 0est0ard ,igration of t!e Bedouin 3ra$ic Bani Cilal tri$e during t!e tent! and elevent! centuries and $elongs to an age:old narrative cycle t!at includes $ot! "oetic and "rose genres. T!oug! t!e e"ic circulated 0idely for centuries, t!e t0entiet!: century tradition !as survived ,ore narro0ly. Bt is still "erfor,ed in nort!ern 9gy"t, !o0ever, 0!ere it is "er"etuated $y !ereditary, "rofessional singers 0!ose s"irited and ,ultifarious renditions resonate dee"ly 0it!in t!e co,,unity. 7eynolds suggests t!at t!is tradition derives ,uc! of its strengt! and a""eal fro, t!e artistry of t!ese oral "oets, 0!o skillfully ,ani"ulate generic and "erfor,ance $oundaries, constantly generating and sustaining levels of dyna,ic inter"lay $et0een t!e,selves and t!eir audiences. *ne of t!e central ideas of "erfor,ance studies is t!at "erfor,ance is a distinct, identifia$le ty"e of !u,an co,,unication t!at in turn allo0s for or even reAuires s"ecial ty"es of inter"retation. 6ey to t!is idea is t!e understanding t!at "erfor,ances are $ounded or fra,ed $e!aviors t!at are ,arked for t!e "ur"ose of recognition.H1I T!e i,"lication is t!us t!at 0it!in t!e conte.t of "erfor,ance events at least t0o ty"es of co,,unicative $e!avior 0ill $e found: 8"erfor,ance8 and 8non"erfor,ance.8 By e."anding our t!eoretical focus, !o0ever, fro, t!e internal analysis of a single genre of "erfor,ance, suc! as oral e"ic:singing, to t!e larger do,ain of entire "erfor,ance events, 0e encounter "ro$le,atic areas 0!ere genres a""ear to 8overla"8 or 8inter"enetrate,8 0!ere t!e 8$reakt!roug!8 into and out of "erfor,ance occurs over and over again, or 0!ere different 8levels8 of "erfor,ance see, to $e "resent all at t!e sa,e ti,e.H?I T!ese "!eno,ena directly c!allenge any si,"le definition of "erfor,ance as an o$1ect of study. Bn focusing u"on t!is central idea of co,"le. "erfor,ances, B !o"e to suggest a line of t!oug!t t!at ,ig!t lead us to e.a,ine t!e "ro$le, of co,"le. units, suc! as 0!ole "erfor,ance events, co,"osed eit!er of ,ulti"le - 1() genres or ,ulti"le ,ove,ents into and out of "erfor,ance suc! t!at t!e "ro$le, of $oundaries and

t!eir inter"retation arises, and furt!er, to s"eculate on t!e ra,ifications of suc! "ro$le,atic $oundaries for "erfor,ance studies. T!us in t!is essay B 0ould like to e.a,ine t!is ,eta"!orical conce"tuali<ation of $oundaries, fra,es, ,argins, and edges 0it!in t!e Auestion of 0!ere "erfor,ance and non"erfor,ance do Dor do notE ,eet in t!e nort!ern 9gy"tian 3ra$ic oral e"ic tradition of %irat Bani 0ilal DT!e e"ic of t!e Bani Cilal Bedouin tri$eE. S"ecifically, 0!at B 0ant to offer !ere is a "ortrait of a "erfor,ance tradition as a 0!ole, rat!er t!an t!e analysis of t!e style of a s"ecific singer or t!e close analysis of an individual "erfor,ance event. Bn ot!er 0ords, B a, ,aking t!e clai, t!at 1ust as individual singers can $e o$served to de"loy a certain standard re"ertory of tec!niAues of co,"osition and interactions in t!eir "erfor,ances, 0e can also trace t!e roug! "ara,eters of an entire regional tradition t!roug! t!e o$servation of ,any "erfor,ances in order to "rovide an i,age of t!e ty"ical, recurring ele,ents in t!e larger tradition. B !o"e t!at t!is $roader "ortrait ,ay "rovide $ot! t!e ,aterial and i,"etus for co,"arative analysis 0it! ot!er e"ic traditions around t!e 0orld. Bn $rief, B 0ill e.a,ine t!ree ty"es of "ro$le,atic $oundaries !ere. By "ro$le,atic B ,ean as"ects of t!is nort!ern 9gy"tian oral e"ic "erfor,ance tradition t!at a""ear to c!allenge our co,,only received notions of t!e 8$oundedness8 of e"ic as a te.tual genre and as a "erfor,ance genre. T!ese t!ree ty"es are: D1E t!e $oundary $et0een t!e e"ic itself and t!e au.iliary genres of song 0it! 0!ic! it is ,ost co,,only "erfor,edF D?E narrative strategies 0it!in t!e e"ic t!at transgress or $ring into Auestion t!e $oundaries of t!e e"ic story 0orldF and finally, D%E audience interaction and "artici"ation in t!e e"ic "erfor,ance event t!at create 8overla""ing "erfor,ances.8

The Sirat Bani Hilal Tradition

T!e gist of t!e story of %irat Bani 0ilal is !istorical: t!e Bani Cilal Bedouin tri$e did indeed e.ist, and t!ey did indeed e,$ark u"on a ,a1or ,igration fro, t!eir !o,eland in t!e 3ra$ian "eninsula, across 9gy"t and /i$ya, and into Tunisia and 3lgeria. T!e Bani Cilal t!en controlled ,uc! of t!e !interlands of 4ort! 3frica for ,ore t!an a century. T!ese events took "lace $et0een t!e tent! and elevent! centuries and for, t!e core narrative of t!e e"ic tradition. /ater, in t!e ,id:t0elft! century, t!e tri$al confederation suffered a series of ,ilitary defeats at t!e !ands of an east0ard:e."anding Moroccan dynasty, after 0!ic! t!e tri$e ceased to e.ist as a "olitical and social entity. Bnterestingly enoug!, t!oug! it a""ears t!at !istorically t!e Bani Cilal 0ere destroyed $y outside forces Dt!at is, t!e Moroccan 3l,o!ad dynastyE, in t!e folk e"ic tradition t!e tri$e defeats itself. - 1(> Wracked $y a series of internecine conflicts, t!e various clans go to 0ar against one anot!er until t!e tri$e is anni!ilated, "roviding an even ,ore tragic close to t!e tri$e=s !istory. Bn all "ro$a$ility it is t!e disa""earance of t!e tri$e itself t!at !as allo0ed its !istory to $eco,e a""ro"riated as a "an:3ra$ e"ic tradition. Bf t!e tri$e !ad survived, it is Auite "ro$a$le t!at t!e e."loits of t!e Cilali !eroes 0ould !ave re,ained a tri$al !istory restricted to "oets of t!e Bani Cilal tri$e. Bnstead, t!e tales of t!e Cilali ,igration, t!eir $attles and conAuests, t!eir ro,ances, t!eir 0inning of $rides, and so fort! !ave $een 0oven into a narrative of e.traordinary lengt! t!at !as $een docu,ented in 3ra$ic oral tradition in virtually every corner of t!e 3ra$ 0orld, fro, Morocco in t!e 0est to t!e Sultanate of *,an in t!e east. We "ossess !istorical evidence docu,enting t!e "erfor,ance of t!is "oetic tradition fro, t!e fourteent! century on0ardF in addition, a rat!er i,"ressive ,anuscri"t tradition e,erges fro, t!e eig!teent! century on0ard, and a tradition of c!ea" c!a"$ook "u$lications dates fro, t!e late nineteent! and early t0entiet! centuries. +inally, in t!e late t0entiet! century, 0e

!ave a nu,$er of audio and video recordings of live "erfor,ances fro, several different regions.H%I 3 "ri,ary c!aracteristic of t!is tradition, !o0ever, is t!at it e.ists in ,any different ty"es of "erfor,ance. Bn so,e areas it is narrated as a "rose tale cycle, in so,e areas in "rose e,$ellis!ed 0it! $rief "assages in verse, in so,e areas as c!ante:fa$le, 0!ere t!e narration of events is in s"oken "rose, and t!e s"eec!es of t!e !eroes are in sung or cantillated "oetry, and finally, in so,e regions t!e entire story D0it! t!e e.ce"tion of $rief introductory "assagesE is "erfor,ed in sung, r!y,ed verse to t!e acco,"ani,ent of one or ,ore ,usical instru,ents. Bt is t!is latter ,ode of "erfor,ance t!at B 0ill address !ere. T!is sung, versified ,ode of "erfor,ance 0as ,uc! ,ore 0ides"read in "revious centuries, $ut in t!e latter !alf of t!e t0entiet! century it is found in only t0o ,ain regions: nort!ern and sout!ern 9gy"t. B 0ill focus s"ecifically on t!e nort!ern 9gy"tian "erfor,ance tradition as "erfor,ed $y t!e !ereditary, "rofessional e"ic:singers of t!e 4ile 5elta region. By hereditary and professional # ,ean t!at t!e occu"ation is al,ost al0ays in!erited $y descent and t!at t!is is t!e sole liveli!ood of t!ese "erfor,ers. T!ese e"ic:singers constitute a defined social grou" 0it!in nort!ern 9gy"tian rural society and are understood to $e one of t!e several grou"s co,,only referred to as ;y"sies 5Gha'ar6. T!is grou" in "articular, !o0ever, t!e Cala$a, are associated 0it! t0o occu"ations: $lacks,it!ing#tinkering and e"ic: singing. *ver a nu,$er of years B !ave studied a single village t!at is !o,e to fourteen !ouse!olds of "rofessional e"ic:singers. T!ese fourteen !ouse!olds are, in addition, related $y $lood and#or ,arriage to anot!er seventeen !ouse!olds of e"ic:singers scattered across nort!ern 9gy"t. T!is "o"ulation al,ost certainly constitutes t!e entire e.tant $ody of !ereditary e"ic:singers in nort!ern 9gy"t. - 1(M Wit! t!e full understanding t!at t!ere can $e no suc! t!ing as a co,"lete version of t!e e"ic, in order to co,,unicate so,e sense of t!e "ro"ortions of t!is tradition, B can cite t!ree versions of t!e e"ic t!at B recorded fro, t!ree different "oets in t!e village, eac! of 0!ic! can $e said to cover t!e general narrative sco"e of t!e tradition as it e.ists in t!is region. *ne version 0as t!irty:four !ours long, a""ro.i,ately (,(&& verses Dand a verse !ere is an end:r!y,ed unit ?' to %& sylla$les long2in contrast, for e.a,"le, to t!e sout!ern 9gy"tian Auatrain style of "erfor,ance in 0!ic! a verse is M to 1? sylla$les longE. 3 second version is fifty:t!ree !ours long2t!at is, a""ro.i,ately 1?,&&& verses. 3nd a t!ird rendition !ad reac!ed seventy !ours in lengt! 0!en 0e !ad to a$andon t!e effort due to t!e "oet=s !ealt!, and re"resented a""ro.i,ately t0o:t!irds of !is re"ertory. 3 roug! esti,ate $ased u"on t!e "oet=s listing of t!e e"isodes !e !ad yet to sing 0ould "lace !is version at 0ell over a !undred !ours in lengt!. Bncidentally, 0!en t!ese 8full:version8 recordings Dfield e."eri,ents B "ur"osefully conducted to e."lore t!e narrative $readt! of t!e traditionE are contrasted 0it! recordings B ,ade of naturally occurring "erfor,ances, t!e "oet 0!o sang t!e t!irty:four !our version $eginning to end ty"ically takes nearly t0ice t!at ti,e to sing eac! e"isode 0!en "erfor,ing for an ent!usiastic audience. 3s for t!e to"ic of "ro$le,atic $oundaries of "erfor,ance, t!e first area B 0ill e."lore is t!at of t!e interaction $et0een t!e e"ic as genre and t!e au.iliary genres 0it! 0!ic! it is ty"ically "erfor,ed. 5ifferent "erfor,ance situations in t!e village of al:Bakatus! dra0 different ty"es of audiences and create rat!er differently structured events. Until t!e very recent "ast, %irat Bani 0ilal 0as ty"ically "erfor,ed at 0eddings, saints= festivals, in coffee!ouses, at circu,cision cere,onies, at !arvest festivals, or in a "rivate evening gat!ering, t!at is, a sahra or a lela. T!is latter is currently $y far t!e ,ost co,,on e"ic:singing event. 5uring ,y various stays in t!e village in 1 M%, 1 M)1 M>, and 1 MM, B 0as a$le to attend 0ell over a !undred suc! gat!erings and 0as a$le to record seventy:si. full "erfor,ances and frag,ents of an additional t0enty. Bt is fro, t!is s"ecific ty"e of event t!at B dra0 ,ost of t!e follo0ing e.a,"les.

%u5iliary .enres2

adih ,

a!!al , %nd Sira

T!e sahra as a "erfor,ance conte.t for e"ic:singing in al:Bakatus! is defined $y t!e sahra$s "atron or !ost, 0!o 0ill !ave negotiated 0it! a "oet to "erfor, t!at evening. W!en t!e "oet arrives, a round of tea and cigarettes 0ill "ro$a$ly $e offered $efore t!e "erfor,ance is set in ,otion. W!en t!e "oet dee,s fit, !e $egins $y readying !is instru,ent, "utting rosin on t!e $o0 and on t!e ra*a*$s t0o strings, and finally tuning t!e instru,ent and testing it $riefly against !is voice. 3fter first "ronouncing t!e *asmalah D8Bn t!e na,e of ;od, t!e 3ll:Merciful, t!e Co,"assionate8E, !e "lays a $rief ,usical - 1( introduction. T!is instru,ental interlude serves to alert guests 0!o ,ay still $e 0aiting outside t!at t!e "erfor,ance is a$out to $egin. T!e first genre sung is a song of "raise to t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad Dmadih or madh al&na*i E T!is ,ay $e acco,"lis!ed in a fe0 s!ort verses $y citing so,e of t!e Pro"!et=s $est kno0n attri$utes D!is co,"assion, !is $eauty, etc.E, $y allusion to 0ell:kno0n tales fro, t!e Pro"!et=s life D!e 0!o ranso,ed t!e ga<elle . . . , !e to 0!o, t!e ca,el s"oke . . .E, or $y t!e "oet=s c!oosing to recount one or ,ore suc! tales at lengt!. Unlike t!e ,onor!y,ed odes of t!e e"ic, t!ese songs of "raise are constructed in Auatrains, usually r!y,ed a*a*=cdcd=efef. . . T!is o"ening "raise song to t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad unifies t!e audience and casts t!e, i,,ediately into an interactive ,ode t!roug! its re"eated references $y na,e to t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad, to 0!ic! listeners res"ond 0it! one of t!e nearly o$ligatory traditional $lessings, 8May ;od Bless and Preserve !i, Hsalla lla!u =alay!i 0a:salla,I8 or 8U"on !i, Be ;od=s Blessings and Peace H=alay!i al:salat 0a:l: sala,I.8 Bn ,ost "erfor,ances of e"ic:singing in al:Bakatus!, t!e "raise song to t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad 0ill $e follo0ing directly $y a ma22al, a s!ort lyric "oe, of five, seven, or occasionally nine verses t!at is "erfor,ed in a r!yt!,ically free and often very ,elis,atic style in 0!ic! a single sylla$le ,ay $e lengt!ened and sung over several notes. 5uring t!e ma22al t!ere is a ,arked s!ift in "resentation style and in t!e role "layed $y audience ,e,$ers. Cere t!e focus is t!e Auality of t!e singer=s voice, !is a$ility to orna,ent t!e ,elodic "atterns, and rat!er t!an res"onding "!rase $y "!rase, t!e audience ty"ically 0aits until t!e end of t!e $rief song and res"onds to t!e entire te.t as a 0!ole 0it! a""ro$ation or criticis,. T!e t!e,es of t!e ma22al are also Auite distinct fro, t!e earlier "raise of t!e Pro"!et, for t!is is a song for, t!at focuses on t!e trials and tri$ulations of everyday life. Bts te.ts are often couc!ed as advice to t!e listeners in a "rover$ial r!etoric using stock i,ages of 9gy"tian folklore. T!e forces of +ate are addressed directly as Ti,e, 5estiny, t!e 4ig!ts, or t!e WorldF t!e lion functions as a sy,$ol of t!e ruler, t!e ,osAuito as t!e interlo"er or syco"!ant, t!e ca,el as t!e stal0art ,an, t!e doctor as an i,age of t!e Beloved, since s!e or !e alone can cure t!e disease fro, 0!ic! t!e /over suffers. But t!e ma22al is a co,"laint addressed in t!e end to one=s fello0 !u,an $eings and not to ;odF it is not a "lea for intercession, $ut rat!er a "lea for understanding. /a22al D%hay,h Biyali A*u 1ahmi, H=BB=I93 rhyme pattern aa*aa E 1. is:sa$r =uA$u! farag li:lli ns!ag!il $alu! Patience:its result is release for !i, 0!ose ,ind is occu"ied D0it! cares and trou$lesE, ?. a!san ,in illi yifadfad yi!utt il:fikr fi T $alu! - 1)& DW!ic! isE $etter t!an !e 0!o gru,$les and fills !is ,ind 0it! t!oug!ts.

%. ,a fis! a!san ,in illi yis$ur T!ere is not!ing $etter t!an !e 0!o is "atient '. li:!ika, i<:<a,an 0i:a0anu! Dand enduresE t!e 1udg,ents of +ate and !is 9raF (. ,in !usn =aAl il:gad= $iyi =dil a!,alu! +ro, t!e good sense of t!e stal0art fello0 !e is a$le to $alance !is loads Din lifeEV T!is a"!oristic ,ode of t!oug!t is of course re,iniscent of ,any different e"ic:singing traditions, suc! as t!e "rover$ial ,ode used in MandK !unter songs or t!e $rief a"!oris,s used $y Musli, singers in Lugoslavia or even t!e i,"rovised terme songs of Central 3sia traditions.H'I Bn all of t!ese traditions, t!e "rover$ial or a"!oristic song occurs at t!e "oint of transition into t!e ,ore !eroic e"ic genre. Bn t!e case of t!e 3ra$ic tradition, it "ro,otes a funda,ental s!ift a0ay fro, t!e ideal as re"resented in t!e life of t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad to0ard t!e level of identification 0it! t!e c!aracters in t!e e"ic 0!o dis"lay at one and t!e sa,e ti,e $ot! su"er!u,an c!aracteristics and all:too:!u,an 0eaknesses and failings. +inally, t!e "oet directs us into t!e e"ic 0orld, $ut in order to do so !e ,oves carefully t!roug! a co,"le. series of ste"s t!at are re"eated 0!enever !e co,,ences t!e e"ic or returns to t!e e"ic after an interru"tion. T!e "oet $egins 0it! a $rief scene:setting t!at infor,s t!e listeners 0!ere !e is in t!e overall story. Bf t!is is t!e very $eginning of a sahra, !e 0ill include t!e "!rase 8T!e narrator of t!ese 0ords said HAal ar:ra0iI8 or 8T!e aut!or of t!ese 0ords said HAal ,u =allif ik:kala,I .8 T!e follo0ing $rief "rose introduction is narrated in an ordinary, t!oug! occasionally r!yt!,ic, voice. W!ile narrating, !e $egins to orna,ent t!e "rose 0it! r!y,es H3ra$ic sa'$ I 0!ic! occur at "rogressively regular intervals. T!en a c!aracter 0it!in t!e e"ic ,ust $e e,otionally ,oved to s"eak2t!at is, t!e situation a c!aracter is in ,ust "roduce suc! fear, 1oy, or sadness, for e.a,"le, t!at !e or s!e is co,"elled to rise and co,"ose a "oe, t!at addresses t!e situation. W!en t!e c!aracter $egins to recite t!e "oe,, t!e "oet ,oves into full song. Bt is t!is ,ove,ent into an 8aut!oritative s"eec!:act8 t!at $rings us into t!e 0orld of e"ic s"eec!. *nce 0e !ave arrived in t!at 0orld, ,any different voices can $e de"loyed, including t!at of t!ird:"erson narrator, $ut t!e ,ove,ent fro, s"eec! to song, fro, t!e outer 0orld to t!e 0orld of e"ic verse is al0ays acco,"lis!ed $y t!e s!ift into an aut!oritative first: "erson utterance.H(I B !ave else0!ere analy<ed t!is "rocess in ,uc! closer detail as a series of - 1)1 very intricate s!ifts of voice, ,elody, and "oetic for,.H)I T!e $asic ste"s, !o0ever, are as follo0s: instru,ental ,usic 2X r!y,ed "rose 2X e,otional crisis 2X sung e"ic verse W!en entering t!is 0orld of aut!oritative !eroic s"eec!2t!at is, t!e e"ic verse itself2t!e "erfor,ing "oet $riefly reiterates all of t!e fra,ing devices of t!e sahra "erfor,ance. Ce sto"s and "erfor,s a s!ort ,usical interlude. T!en t!e o"ening verses of t!e "oe, 0ill $e in "raise of t!e Pro"!et Da ,iniature madih E T!e "oet t!en calls u"on t!e audience to listen to t!e 0ords of t!e e"ic c!aracter in a ver$ali<ed Auotation ,arker "arallel to t!e o"ening for,ula 8T!e narrator said8 and usually descri$es t!e c!aracter as $eing in e,otional tur,oil: .uotation /ar,er D%hay,h Taha A*u Payd, D=#=I9 E * listeners to t!ese 0ords, 0is! ;od=s $lessings on t!e Pro"!et, Ta!a, fortunate is !e 0!o visits !i, Hi.e., on "ilgri,ageI.H>I

T!e e,ir Barakat said:and !is !eart 0as in "ainF T!e fire of !is !eart in !is soul did sear !i,. W!en t!e e"ic c!aracter actually $egins to sing, !e or s!e sings eit!er a full ma22al or several lines of a"!oristic "oetry in t!e style of t!e ma22al $ut in t!e for, of e"ic verse: Aphoristic 7erses D%hay,h Taha A*u Payd, D=B=I9 E Said 6ing +adl fro, 0!at !ad $efallen !i,: 8Bt is a 0retc!ed 0orld, and +ate is a tyrantV 3!V +ro, t!e 0orld and t!e reversals of all t!at !a""ens in it, Bn ,y o"inion +ate s"ins in circles. 3fter t!e good t!ings of t!e 0orld and t!e cu" of s0eetness, T!ere is no esca"e fro, drinking also fro, t!e cu" of $itterness. 9ac! stage of t!e evening "erfor,ance to t!at "oint is t!us re"roduced in ,iniature as a fra,e for t!e 8language of !eroes8 Dto $orro0 a "!rase fro, 7ic!ard MartinE:HMI instru,ental introduction#"raise of t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad#Auotation ,arker#a"!oristic verse#narrative ,aterial. T!is fra,e is re"eated eac! ti,e t!e "oet $egins to sing, even after $rief interru"tions, "roviding a constant ,irroring $et0een t!e "erfor,ance of t!e living e"ic:singer and t!e "erfor,ances of t!e !eroes of t!e e"ic. Bn t!e follo0ing s!ort e.a,"le, 6!adra t!e 4o$le D,ot!er of t!e !ero 3$u OaydE !as !ad !er livestock stolen $y a ,arauding $and clai,ing to $e collecting a 8ta.8 fro, !er. T!e dialogue $et0een 6!adra and t!e !ead of t!e raiding "arty !as $een recounted succinctly in "rose, and t!e "oet no0 leads us $ack into e"ic verse 0it! 6!adra=s la,ent: - 1)? Transition into Epic 7erse D%hay,h Taha A*u Payd, D=H=I9 E %po,en: 8So 6!adra 0e"t in anguis!F s!e could not !ave 0e"t !arder. See no0 0!at 6!adra 0ill say, and 0e s!all no0 cause t!e listeners all to !ear it. Ce 0!o loves t!e Pro"!et 0is!es ;od=s $lessings u"on !i,V H3udience: May ;od Bless and Preserve !i,VI HMusical BnterludeI %ung: My first 0ords are in "raise of t!e C!osen *ne, t!e Cas!e,ite HMu!a,,adI, We !ave no intercession H0it! ;odI save !i,. Said 6!adra 0!en +ate leaned u"on !er, 8By t!e life of ,y /ord H;odI, t!ere is no god $ut Ce. T!e Creator of creation . . . 3!V . . . and Ce kno0s t!eir reckoning, Bn Cis "o0er Ce kno0s, yes, all ,atters indeed. B s!all co,"lain of ,y sufferings to H6ingI +adl, yes, t!e !ero, Under 0!ose "rotection t!ese long years B !ave re,ained. Bf !e is a$le to defend ,y rig!ts, B s!all stay t!e co,ing years !ere 0it! !i,.

HButI if !e is not a$le to defend ,y rig!ts, B s!all go seek a "eo"le 0!o defend t!eir refuge seekersV W!ere s!all B goG W!ence a, B co,ingG My lo0ly state "ains ,eF 0oe is !e 0!ose strengt! !as $een crus!ed $y +ate.8 Bn ter,s of fra,es and $oundaries, t!e sahra "erfor,ance as conducted in nort!ern 9gy"t t!us c!allenges our ideas of 0!ere t!e $eginning of t!e e"ic lies. T!e "oets t!e,selves ans0er t!at t!e e"ic $egins after t!e for,ula 8T!e narrator said.8 Let t!e intense re"lication of t!e ,usical interlude, t!e "raise song to t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad, t!e ver$ali<ed Auotation ,arker, and t!e a"!oristic r!etoric of t!e ma22al seAuence 0it!in t!e e"ic to fra,e t!e s"eec! of !eroes suggest t!at t!e 8au.iliary8 genres are in fact critical "arts of t!e e"ic itself. 7ic!ard Martin, 0!o !as studied t!e s"eec!:acts of c!aracters 0it!in t!e #liad in suc! ric! detail, !as also "ondered t!e fra,ing of t!e #liad as a 0!ole in order to ask, 8W!at s"eec!:act does t!e "oe, ,akeG8H I My res"onse to Martin=s o$servations and Auestion, in "art, is t!at des"ite t!e !ig!ly significant relations!i" $et0een t!e madih, t!e ma22al, and t!e sira, 0!ic! B !ave su,,ari<ed !ere, 0!en asked to "rovide a translation or su,,ary of t!e e"ic, B instinctively find ,yself $eginning si,"ly 0it! t!e - 1)% sira, t!at is, t!e 8e"ic8 itself, and discarding t!e acco,"anying genres, "er!a"s un0ittingly re"eating a decision "ossi$ly taken $y t!e scri$e of t!e ##iad long ago. Bn nort!ern 9gy"tian "erfor,ances of t!e Cilali e"ic, t!e s"eec!:act of t!e "oe, is indeed "arallel to t!e s"eec!:acts of t!e !eroes 0it!in t!e "oe,. T!us 0it!out t!e constant dyna,ic of t!e interaction $et0een t!e fra,e of t!e larger e"ic: singing event and t!e fra,es of t!e !eroes= "erfor,ances 0it!in t!e e"ic, a !ig!ly significant "art of t!e e"ic tradition as a 0!ole 0ould indeed $e lost. Bn addition, as B !ave e."lored in so,e detail in ot!er "u$lications, t!is constant eAuation of t!e s"eec! of "oets and t!e s"eec! of !eroes is "art of a larger social dyna,ic involving t!e "ro"er roles of "oets and !eroes t!at "laces t!e e"ic at t!e very center of sy,$olic conflict 0it!in t!e conte.t of t!e village.H1&I

Narrati+e Strategies
T!e second set of o$servations B 0ould like to ,ake concerns narrative ,oves 0it!in t!e e"ic "erfor,ance. T!e first e.a,"le is of a "rocess found in ,any traditions2t!at is, t!e "rocess of glossing t!e te.t in a series of asides or e.cursive re,arks t!at overtly de"art fro, t!e narrative and are o"enly addressed to t!e audience. Bn t!e follo0ing e.a,"le, a "oet co,,ents to !is listeners a$out t!e rank and res"ect accorded to t!e "oets of old D0it! o$vious reference to t!e contrasting status of "oets in ,odern village societyE: %hay,h Biyali A*u 1ahmi, H=B:=I9 %po,en (arrati)e So H6ing Casan of t!e Bani CilalI said to !i,, 8* "oet Ja,il.8 Ce ans0ered !i,, 8Les, * fat!er of =3li H[CasanI.8 Ce said to !i,, 8Lou !ave 1ourneyed a,ong ,any "eo"les, a,ong t!e great ones of t!e no$le 3ra$s2!as anyone given you gifts and treated you as generously as !ave B and ,y 3ra$sG8 Poet$s E+cursus 4o0 t!e "oet 0as of great "olitesse H3ra$ic adu*, e,"!atic for, of 8"olite8I. T!e "oet 0as

of great "olitesse, for every "oet 0!o "icks u" t!e ra*a* is of great "olitesse. W!yG Because !e sits 0it! good "eo"le. Because a "oet never "ossesses $ad ,anners. Ce travels 0it! !is ra*a* . . . . B do not laud "oets ,erely $ecause B a, a "oetV Hlaug!ter fro, audienceI. . . . Bt is $ecause t!e !istories tell us soV T!e "oet 0as of great "olitesse. Were !e not of great "olitesse, !e 0ould never "ick u" t!e ra*a* and sit 0it! good "eo"le. Co0 could !e $e a "oet of kings and 3ra$s and $e i,"oliteG Ce 0as of great "olitesse. 3nd t!e audience, as 0ell, 0!en t!ey listened to a "oet, t!ey 0ere t!e "innacle of res"ectfulness. - 1)' T!ere is anot!er less o$vious $ut eAually effective ,eans of ,oving $ack and fort! t!roug! t!e $oundaries of t!e story 0orld: a "oet ,ay ,ake a reAuest or an o$servation concerning !is !ost or audience $y ,ani"ulating a c!aracter 0it!in t!e e"ic. Bf an audience ,e,$er falls aslee", for e.a,"le, t!e "oet ,ay cause a !ero 0it!in t!e story to fall aslee", and $egin singing in a softer and softer voice. 6no0ledgea$le listeners 0ill i,,ediately $egin looking a$out to see 0!o is going to $e t!e $utt of t!e "oet=s 1oke. T!e "oet sings ,ore and ,ore softly, and t!en anot!er c!aracter arrives at t!e scene to s!out 8Wake u"V8 T!e s!out usually rouses t!e unsus"ecting na""er and "rovokes a round of laug!ter a,ong t!e ot!er listeners. *r, 0!en seeking a glass of 0ater, t!e "oet ,ay cause t!e !ero to ride out into t!e desert, and t!en descri$e in great detail t!e sun and t!e !eat and !o0 t!e !ero=s t!roat is getting scratc!y and sore: 8Les, t!e sun is $eating do0n and t!e !eat is intense, . . . !is s0ord is so !ot !e cannot touc! it, . . . and t!e s0eat is "ouring off !is stallion . . . . Ce is getting t!irsty . .. o! so t!irsty.8 HBn fact, 0!en t!is "a"er 0as first "resented, Margaret Beissinger, 0!o 0as sitting in t!e front ro0, lea"t u" to "our t!e s"eaker a glass of 0ater. 7eynolds res"onded, 8Well, it is clear t!at not all $oundaries are "ro$le,atic, since certain r!etorical devices function Auite 0ell cross:culturallyV8 9d.I 3 "articularly fascinating use of $lurred $oundaries occurs in t!is e"ic tradition 0!en !eroes 0it!in t!e e"ic are "ortrayed as also $eing e"ic "oets in t!eir o0n rig!t, and 0e are t!en treated to t!e descri"tion of a "erfor,ance of "raise songs to t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad or $its of e"ic "oetry as sung $y a !ero 0it!in t!e e"ic. T!e result is t!us a co,"lete redu"lication of "erfor,ance event, !ost, "oet, audience, and song. 3nd it is e.actly at t!is ,o,ent t!at nort!ern 9gy"tian e"ic:singers often c!oose to e."ress t!eir social or "olitical co,,entary a$out life in t!e village. T!e !ero in t!e e"ic 0!o is singing as a "oet ,ay critici<e !is "atron or !is audience, and of course s!ould any offense $e taken $y our !ost or listeners, t!e "erfor,ing "oet denies any intent on !is "art and distances !i,self fro, t!e offending 0ords as "art of t!e e"ic2after all, it 0as t!e !ero 3$u Oayd 0!o sang t!e,VH11I Bn t!ese t!ree s!ort e.a,"les2a "oet=s aside to !is audience in an atte,"t to strengt!en !is o0n social "osition $y reference to t!e e"ic story 0orld, 0aking a slee"ing listener or asking for a glass of 0ater $y ,ani"ulating t!e story line, and $urying social co,,entary inside a "erfor,ance 0it!in a "erfor,ance 20e can see in ,iniature t!e "o0erful dialogue t!at e.ists $et0een t!e 0orlds inside and outside t!e e"ic as ,ediated $y t!e "oet 0!o !as "ri,ary control of t!e $oundaries $et0een t!e,.

%udience 'articipation
3udience ,e,$ers listening to a "erfor,ance of %irat Bani 0ilal in nort!ern 9gy"t, as in ,any traditions, ,ay take a very active role in s!a"ing t!e - 1)( "erfor,ance $y critiAuing or encouraging t!e "oet, $y reAuesting "articular scenes, or $y "ointing out

t!at a "articular detail !as $een overlooked. But in t!is tradition, audience ,e,$ers ,ay also find t!e,selves suddenly "art of t!e actual stuff of t!e "erfor,ance, rat!er t!an in t!e so,e0!at e.terior role of su""orters, encouragers, or critics. T!is ,ay occur in one of several different 0ays. +irst, as 0e !ave seen, t!e "oet ,ay direct co,,entary or o$servation to0ard an audience ,e,$er $y ,ani"ulating t!e "lot or c!aracters of t!e e"ic as de,onstrated a$ove. Bn addition, t!ere is a genre of "erfor,ance t!at is often "erfor,ed along 0it! t!e e"ic in 0!ic! audience ,e,$ers t!e,selves are t!e ,aterial used $y t!e "oet. T!is genre is called hitat *aladi, 0!ic! can $e loosely translated as 8$its of local color,8 and consists "ri,arily of a co,ic routine in 0!ic! t!e "oet atte,"ts to 0eave t!e na,es of !is listeners, t!eir c!aracteristics, references to fa,ilies, friends, land, and so on, into a loose narrative recounted in r!y,e. T!is genre also constitutes a for, of social 7ussian roulette, since one never kno0s 0!et!er one is going to $e ,entioned in a "ositive or negative fas!ion, co,"li,ented or ,ade t!e $utt of a 1oke. Bn t!is sense t!e situation is si,ilar to attending "erfor,ances in certain co,edy clu$s in t!e United States, 0!ere t!e "erfor,er is likely to a$andon "re:"re"ared ,aterial and ,ake 1okes 0it! or at audience ,e,$ers at any ,o,ent. T!is is a "erfor,ance dra0n directly fro, t!e "erfor,ance conte.t. But t!ere is still anot!er ,eans $y 0!ic! audience ,e,$ers $eco,e "art of t!e very fa$ric of t!e "erfor,ance. 5uring tea $reaks and ot!er interru"tions, listeners often engage in discussions of t!e e"ic and its c!aractersF t!is in turn often leads to discussion of events e.ternal to t!e e"ic t!at are "arallel or relevant to t!e discussion. +or e.a,"le, t!e ,otif of a !ero in t!e e"ic slee"ing at "rodigious lengt! Dt!e 0eldenschlaffe of 9uro"ean folktalesE one evening "rovoked a long series of first:"erson narratives recounted $y listeners. *ne ,an told of a ti,e 0!en !e !ad $een returning in t!e evening fro, a tri" outside t!e village and 0as so tired t!at !e fell aslee" on !is donkey. W!en !e finally arrived !o,e in t!e ,iddle of t!e nig!t !e si,"ly continued to slee" on !is ,ount at t!e door of t!e !ouse till t!e follo0ing ,orning 0!en !is 0ife finally discovered !i,, still sound aslee"V 3not!er listener 1u,"ed into t!e discussion 0it! t!e tale of !o0 !e !ad one ti,e !ad a si,ilar e."erience $ut !ad actually fallen off !is donkey on t!e 0ay !o,e and re,ained aslee", !is donkey standing $y "eacefully all nig!t long, and !ad a0oken in t!e ,orning alone, in t!e ,iddle of a strange field, lying alongside t!e "at!V T!e final story in t!is series 0as told $y t0o listeners 0!o !ad served in t!e ar,y toget!er and !ad received leave to go !o,e for one of t!e !olidays. T!ey caug!t t!e train 0it! several friends fro, t!e sa,e village and, since t!ey 0ere stationed ,any !ours fro, !o,e, eventually all fell aslee", only to 0ake u" in t!e ,iddle of t!e nig!t in t!e ne.t "rovince !aving trav: - 1)) eled Auite a distance "ast t!e village in t!e ot!er direction. But 0!en t!ey "iled off t!e train in confusion at t0o in t!e ,orning in a strange city, 0!o s!ould t!ey find standing in front of t!e station Dt!roug! ;od=s ,ercyVE $ut a ,an fro, t!eir o0n village 0it! !is ta.ica$ 0!o !ad 1ust delivered so,eone to t!e station and 0as no0 "lanning on !eading !o,e to t!e village for t!e !oliday, too. 9veryone arrived safely and in ti,e for t!e feastV W!en 0e finally returned to t!e e"ic, t!e "oet took !is cue fro, !is listener=s tales and 0ove references to t!eir stories into !is narration of t!e e"ic. Bn t!is tradition, t!is "rocess of 0eaving ele,ents fro, t!e e"ic into discussions t!at t!en "rovoke "erfor,ances $y audience ,e,$ers of first:"erson narratives, "rover$s, folktales, and ot!er conversational genres is Auite co,,on, as is t!e "oet=s res"onse of ,aking reference to, or even citing, t!ese audience "erfor,ances in su$seAuent "ortions of !is rendition of %irat Bani 0ilal. T!e t!read linking different ele,ents of t!e "erfor,ance event as a 0!ole often runs t!roug! an entire series of different genres "erfor,ed $y a series of different "erfor,ers.

Conclusion
Bn our first set of e.a,"les 0e sa0 t!at t!e au.iliary genres co,,only "erfor,ed 0it! e"ic in t!is nort!ern 9gy"tian "erfor,ance tradition "rovide a !ig!ly significant fra,e not only for t!e e"ic as genre $ut for t!e "erfor,ances t!at occur 0it!in t!e e"ic itself. T!ese fra,es or cues are essentially for,al devices and are only "artially rooted in narrative develo",ents. By contrast, t!e second set of e.a,"les 0e e.a,ined 0ere ones in 0!ic! t!e "oets ,ani"ulate narrative ele,ents so as to affect or co,,ent u"on situations outside t!e narrative story 0orld. T!ey constitute narrative strategies ,uc! as 6ennet! Burke conceived or, strategies t!at "ur"osefully a""ear to $lur any "ossi$le divisions $et0een t!e inner and outer 0orld of t!e "erfor,ance.H1?I 3nd finally, 0e !ave seen e.a,"les of !o0 c!ains of "erfor,ances can $e s"arked, creating interactions in 0!ic! t!e role of "erfor,er constantly s!ifts, and a dialogue of "erfor,ances e.ists alongside t!e ,ore usual dialogue of co,,ents, criticis,s, and co,"li,ents. +ro, t!ese e.a,"les B conclude t!at t!e clarity and rigidity 0it! 0!ic! "erfor,ance $oundaries and genre $oundaries are ,aintained, or t!e lack t!ereof, are Aualities s"ecific to individual traditions and ,ust t!erefore $e carefully o$served, docu,ented, and co,"ared along 0it! ot!er ,ore co,,only recogni<ed c!aracteristics of "erfor,ance, te.t, and conte.t. Bt see,s clear t!at so,e traditions ,ay in fact dra0 a great deal of t!eir strengt! and "otency fro, forcefully ,aintaining strict $oundaries of genre or "erfor,ance. B t!ink it also clear t!at t!is "articular oral e"ic tradition, %irat Bani 0ilal as "erfor,ed in nort!ern 9gy"t, t!rives on t!e dyna,ic inter"lay $e: - 1)> t0een t!e creation of "erfor,ance $oundaries and t!e 0illful o$scuring and even violation of t!ose $oundaries. Cere t!en is an e.a,"le of an oral e"ic t!at dra0s a "ortion of its "o"ularity and vitality fro, t!e constant negotiation of its ,argins $y "laying 0it! t!e s"ace in 0!ic! "erfor,ance and non"erfor,ance ,eet. T!ere is surely a s"ectru, of "ossi$ilities of 0!ic! t!is is $ut one, t!us t!is closing Auestion: W!ere do t!e ot!er e"ics of t!e 0orld lie on t!is sa,e s"ectru,G

Wor/s Cited
Bau,an, 7ic!ard. 1 >>. 7er*al Art as Performance. Pros"ect Ceig!ts, Bll.: Waveland Press. Bird, C!arles. 1 >?. 8Ceroic Songs of t!e Mande Cunters.8 Bn African 1ol,lore, edited $y 7ic!ard 5orson, ?>(:? %. Bloo,ington: Bndiana University Press. Briggs, C!arles. 1 MM. Competence in Performance: The Creati)ity of Tradition in /e+icano 7er*al Art. P!iladel"!ia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Burke, 6ennet!. 1 %1. Counter&%tatement. 4e0 Lork: Carcourt Brace.

;off,an, 9rving. 1 >'. 1rame Analysis: An Essay on the Organi!ation of E+perience. Ca,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press. - 1)M Cy,es, 5ell. 1 M1. 4#n 7ain # Tried to Tell Mou4: Essays in (ati)e American Ethopoetics. P!iladel"!ia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 1 >1. 8T!e Contri$ution of +olklore to Sociolinguistic 7esearc!.8Fournal of American 1ol,lore M': '?:(&. /ord, 3l$ert B., trans. 1 >'. %er*o&Croatian 0eroic %ongs Collected *y /ilman Parry. @ol %, The Wedding of %mailagic /eho. Ca,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press. Martin, 7ic!ard P. 1 M . The anguage of 0eroes: %peech and Performance in the 4#liad. 8Bt!aca: Cornell University Press. 7eic!l, 6arl. 1 ?. Tur,ic Oral Epic Poetry: Traditions, 1orms, Poetic %tructure. 4e0 Lork: ;arland Pu$lis!ing. 7eynolds, 50ig!t +letc!er. 1 (. 0eroic Poets, Poetic 0eroes: The Ethnography of Performance in an Ara*ic Oral Tradition. Bt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press. 1 1. 8*rality and @eracity: T!e Construction of @oice in 9arly 3ra$ic /iterature.8 Pa"er "resented at t!e ,eeting of t!e Middle 9ast Studies 3ssociation, Was!ington, 5.C., ?% 4ove,$er. 1 M . 4%irat Bani 0ilal: Bntroduction and 4otes to an 3ra$ *ral 9"ic Tradition.8 Oral Tradition: %pecial #ssue on Ara*ic Oral Traditions : D1:?E: M&:1&&. Slyo,ovics, Susan. 1 M>. The /erchant of Art: An Egyptian 0ilali Oral Epic Poet in Performance. Berkeley: University of California Press. - 1) -

*0 Worshiping Epic illains2 % ,aura+a Cult in the Central 1imalayasC)D

William SA Sa5 Bt is "er!a"s no sur"rise t!at Bndia=s ancient e"ic /aha*harata continues to t!rive in t!e Central Ci,alayas of 4ort! Bndia as a for, of ritual dra,a. More astonis!ing is t!e fact t!at in one re,ote valley t!e villains of /aha*harata are ,a1or cult figures, and su$1ects of religious veneration. Bn t!is essay, Willia, Sa. descri$es t!at cult and analy<es current "rocesses of social c!ange t!at are ra"idly transfor,ing it. Bn t!e Central Ci,alayas of 4ort! Bndia, Bndia=s great e"ic /aha*harata lives on. Bndeed, it is t!e greatest single source of folklore in t!is "redo,inantly Cindu region,H?I constantly invoked to e."lain everyt!ing fro, t!e nature of sout! Bndian cross:cousin ,arriage to t!e origin of 0arts. W!ile t!e vast ,a1ority of local "ersons identify 0it! t!e !eroes of t!e e"ic, t!ere is one valley, !ig! and isolated, in 0!ic! t!e villains rat!er t!an t!e "rotagonists of t!e story are 0ors!i"ed as divine kings. T!e situation, !o0ever, is co,"le. and a,$iguous: as t!e valley is integrated ever ,ore closely into t!e conte,"orary 0orld, its e"ic traditions are transfor,ed. Bn 0!at follo0s, B !o"e to s!o0 !o0 /aha*harata lives on, and also !o0 it c!anges in res"onse to 0ider social "rocesses. But $efore doing so, B ,ust say so,et!ing a$out t!e e"ic itself. /aha*harata is t!e longest e"ic "oe, in t!e 0orld, ,ore t!an eig!t ti,es t!e lengt! of t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey co,$ined, a verita$le encyclo"edia of Bndian culture.H%I Bn one of its recensions, it $oasts: 8W!atever is !ere ,ay $e found else0!ereF 0!at is not !ere cannot $e found any0!ere else8 D4yadihasti tadanyatra, yannehasti na tat,)acit4 E T!e central narrative of /aha*harata involves a dynastic rivalry $et0een t0o sets of cousins, t!e five Pandava $rot!ers versus t!e !undred 6aurava $rot!ers. T!e Pandavas are t!e "rotagonists, sons of gods, $orn in order to rescue 9art! fro, !er o""ression $y de,ons 0!o !ave taken $irt! in ot!er royal lineages. T!eir social fat!er, Pandu, 0as cursed to die if !e ,ade love to a 0o,an, and so t!e five are actually !alf:$rot!ers, $egotten on Pandu=s 0ife 6unti $y various deities. T!ere is also a si.t! !alf:$rot!er na,ed 6arna, $orn $efore 6unti 0as ,arried. Soon after $irt!, s!e set !i, adrift in a river, and later !e 0as found and raised $y a lo0er:caste cou"le, so t!at neit!er !e nor !is five !alf:$rot!ers - 1>& kno0 t!ey are related. T!e irony of t!e situation only increases 0!en 6arna $eco,es a fir, ally of 5uryod!ana, eldest of t!e 6auravas. 6arna is one of t!e t0o 8villains8 0!o is 0ors!i"ed in 0estern ;ar!0alF 5uryod!ana is t!e ot!er. 3lt!oug! t!e 6auravas= fat!er 5!ritaras!tra 0as eldest, !is $lindness ,ade !i, ineligi$le to rule, and so t!e t!rone 0ent to !is younger $rot!er Pandu. T!e t0o sets of cousins gre0 u" in an at,os"!ere of rivalry, 0!ic! intensified after Pandu died and t!e ad,inistration of t!e kingdo, 0as taken over $y t!e 6auravas= $lind fat!er 5!ritaras!tra. +or a ti,e t!e kingdo, 0as divided in t0o, $ut 0!en t!e Pandavas "erfor,ed an ela$orate royal sacrifice to lay clai, to universal lords!i", 5uryod!ana felt t!reatened, and !e res"onded $y inviting t!e Pandavas to a dice ,atc! in 0!ic! t!e eldest $rot!er, Lud!ist!ira, lost everyt!ing: !is 0ealt!, !is kingdo,, !i,self and !is $rot!ers, and finally t!eir co,,on 0ife 5rau"adi. 5uryod!ana ordered !is vicious $rot!er 5u!s!asana to drag !er into t!e asse,$ly !all and stri" !er naked. But t!is "roved to $e i,"ossi$le $ecause in ans0er to !er "rayer,

6ris!na "rovided 5rau"adi 0it! an endless sari. 9nraged $y t!e 6auravas= cruelty, B!i,a, t!e second Pandava $rot!er, vo0ed t!at !e 0ould take revenge $y drinking 5u!s!asana=s $lood and $reaking 5uryod!ana=s t!ig!. T!e $lind king 5!ritaras!tra restored to t!e Pandavas t!eir 0ea"ons and t!eir freedo,, $ut in a su$seAuent ga,$ling ,atc! Lud!ist!ira again lost everyt!ing, and t!ey 0ere e.iled for t!irteen years. T!ey s"ent t!eir final year in e.ile 0it!out $eing recogni<ed, and t!erefore, $y t!e ter,s of t!e 0ager, 5uryod!ana s!ould !ave restored !alf t!e kingdo, to t!e,. But t!is !e refused to do, and !is intransigence led to t!e great /aha*harata 0ar. Bt lasted for eig!teen days2a vast !olocaust, a $loody sacrifice t!at consu,ed t!e eart!=s great kings and c!a,"ions, including 6arna Ddis!onora$ly slain $y 3r1una at t!e urging of 6ris!na, 0!ile atte,"ting to free !is ,ired c!ariotE and 5uryod!ana Dalso treac!erously slain at 6ris!na=s urging, $y B!i,a 0!o violated t!e rules of fair "lay $y $reaking 5uryod!ana=s t!ig! in a clu$ fig!t and t!us fulfilling !is vo0E. T!is great slaug!ter $roug!t to a close t!e t!ird age of t!e 0orld and us!ered in ,aliyuga, t!e final and ,ost decadent age, in 0!ic! 0e no0 live. Bot! t!e 6aurvas and t!e Pandavas $elonged to t!e B!arata lineage, fro, 0!ic! t!e 0ord /aha*harata is conventionally said to $e derived, na,ely, 8t!e great maha Hstory of t!eI B!aratas.8 But according to $ot! "o"ular and learned ety,ologies, t!e "ro"er derivation is 8t!e ;reat Dmaha E War D*harata E,8 and t!e eig!teen:day $attle is undenia$ly t!e central event in t!e e"ic. T!is s!ould co,e as no sur"rise since /aha*harata, like Bndia=s ot!er great e"ic, -amayana, 0as originally co,"osed and "erfor,ed for t!e 0arrior class of 6s!atriyas in ancient Bndia, and t!us reflects t!eir central values and concerns.H'I /aha*harata is in fact a kind of e.tended ,editation on t!e ,oral dile,,as arising fro, t!e fact t!at 0ar is $ot! terri$le and necessary. *n - 1>1 t!e one !and, it is 0rong to slay anyone, es"ecially one=s friends and kin, as 3r1una e."lains to 6ris!na i,,ediately $efore t!e great $attle Dt!eir dialogue is fa,ous as t!e Bhaga)adgita E Bt is also 0rong to gain victory t!roug! dece"tion and trickery, $ut t!is is "recisely 0!at t!e Pandavas did at 6ris!na=s urging, a fact t!at !as generated ,uc! de$ate and discussion a,ongst Cindus. *n t!e ot!er !and, 9art! ,ust $e defended against evil, and t!is res"onsi$ility lies sAuarely 0it! t!e 0arrior class, ,en like t!e Pandavas, 0!ose dharma or code for conduct ,ay include violence. /aha*harata can of course $e inter"reted in ,any 0ays: ,any sc!olars in Bndia and else0!ere !ave tried to discern a !istorical kernel $eneat! t!e s"ra0ling e"ic, 0!ile so,e currently influential inter"retations see it as a vast, transfor,ed sacrifice,H(I or as t!e first and greatest e.a,"le of devotional Cinduis,.H)I But in a general sense2 es"ecially in its conte,"orary re"resentations in co,ic $ooks, fil,s, television, and "erfor,ance genres /aha*harata re,ains a "o0erful Bndian ,eta"!or for t!e struggle $et0een good and evil.

aha"harata in .arh6al
Traveling in Bndia, one is continually struck $y t!e ,any 0ays in 0!ic! $ot! -amayana and /aha*harata are "o"ularly invoked. T!is $oulder is said to !ave $een "laced $y B!i,aF t!at cave is said to !ave $een a resting "lace for 7a,a and /aks!,ana, !eroes of t!e -amayana, as t!ey searc!ed t!e forest for t!e kidna""ed SitaF !ere is t!e site 0!ere 3r1una t!e Pandava "erfor,ed asceticis, in order to gain !is ,agical 0ea"onsF t!ere is t!e "lace 0!ere 7a,a left !is foot"rint in t!e rock. T!roug! suc! locali<ations, t!e e"ics are ,ade i,,ediate on $ot! t!e local and t!e national scale: ,any of Bndia=s !oliest "laces derive t!eir i,"ortance fro, t!eir association 0it! t!e e"ics. 7a,a, /aks!,ana, and Sita s"ent t!e first and ,ost idyllic "art of t!eir forest e.ile in a "lace called C!itrakut, 0!ic! is

today identified as a "ilgri,age "lace in t!e 4ort! Bndian state of Mad!ya Prades!. Before attacking !is ene,y 7avana=s island fortress of /anka, 7a,a "rayed to t!e god S!iva, and t!e "lace 0!ere !e did so is kno0n today as 7a,es!vara,, one of t!e ,ost i,"ortant Cindu "ilgri,age "laces in t!e 0orld. 7a,a=s su""osed $irt!"lace of 3yod!ya is not only a fa,ous "ilgri,age "lace $ut also a "olitically contested site.H>I Places t!roug!out "eninsular Bndia are ,entioned in t!e /aha*harata, $ut t!e ,ain action of t!e story takes "lace in t!e nort!, roug!ly $et0een "resent:day 5el!i and t!e Ci,alayan foot!ills. Bt is 0idely $elieved t!at Bndra"rast!a, t!e ca"ital of t!e Pandavas, 0as located on t!e "resent site of 5el!i=s *ld +ort, 0!ile 6uruks!etra, scene of t!e /aha*harata$s cli,actic $attle, is still a fa,ous "lace of "ilgri,age. But no0!ere does /aha*harata !ave suc! tre,endous social and religious i,"ortance as in t!e for,er Ci: - 1>? ,alayan kingdo, of ;ar!0al, in t!e Ci,alayan districts of t!e state of Uttar Prades!, 0!ere it is invoked to account for t!e origins, not only of social custo,s and features of t!e landsca"e, $ut also of t!e local "eo"le, 0!o consider t!e,selves descendants of t!e Pandavas. Sanskrit versions of t!e e"ic ,ention Badarinat!, t!e fore,ost local "ilgri,age "lace, and one t!at 0as inti,ately associated 0it! t!e kings of ;ar!0al.HMI ;ar!0alis $elieve t!at t!e Pandavas 0ere $orn at t!e local te,"le to0n of Pandukes!vara $elo0 Badarinat!, t!at t!e atte,"ted assassination of t!e Pandavas $y $urning t!e, in t!e "alace ,ade of lac took "lace at /ak!a Mandal in t!e La,una 7iver valley, t!at t!e kingdo, of @irat 0!ere t!e Pandavas s"ent t!eir final year of e.ile 0as in t!e Jaunsar region of ;ar!0al, and t!at t!e Pandavas ,ade t!eir final ascent to !eaven t!roug! t!e ;ar!0al Ci,alayas. T!e ,a1or ve!icle $y 0!ic! ;ar!0alis e."ress and e."lore t!eir understandings of /aha*harata is panda) lila, a local tradition of ritual "erfor,ance. T!e 0ord panda) refers of course to t!e five Pandava $rot!ers, $ut 0!at a$out lilaK T!e 0ord ,eans 8"lay8 in $ot! t!e no,inal and ver$al senses of t!e 9nglis! 0ord.H I Bn t!e first "lace it ,eans free, s"ontaneous "lay, like t!e "lay of a c!ild, and t!is conce"t is, in effect, t!e Cindu ans0er to certain t!eological "ro$le,s. Bf god is self:fulfilled and co,"lete, t!en 0!at could ,otivate !i, Dor !er or itE to create t!e 0orldG Bn so,e strands of Cindu "!iloso"!y t!is Auestion is ans0ered in ter,s of lila, so t!at ;od=s creative activity is likened to t!e "layfulness of a c!ild. T!e ter, is also used in t!is sense to address Auestions of t!eodicy, so t!at 0!en confronted 0it! deat! and suffering, Cindus are ,ore a"t to say 8Bt is ;od=s lila4 t!an 8Bt is ;od=s 0ill.8 But lila& also ,eans 8"lay8 in t!e sense of dra,a and t!eater. 3 lila is a "lay a$out religious t!e,es, so t!at panda) lila is t!e 8"lay of#a$out t!e Pandavas.8 3t t!is "oint, t!e reader ,ig!t su""ose t!at panda) lila is a kind of folk dra,a, $ut it is ,ore "recisely descri$ed as a 8ritual dra,a.8 Bt is a ritual $ecause, like religious cere,onies $ut unlike secular t!eater, it is $elieved to $e efficaciousF t!at is, it is "erfor,ed for s"ecific ends, suc! as !el"ing t!e cro"s gro0, kee"ing disease and ,isfortune at $ay, and "ro,oting !ealt! and 0ell:$eing $y "leasing t!e gods, 0!o are "!ysically "resent u"on t!e stage. 5uring "erfor,ances t!e five Pandava $rot!ers, t!eir co,,on 0ife 5rau"adi, and ot!er gods and goddesses enter t!e $odies of t!e ,en and 0o,en "laying t!eir "arts. T!ere is no 8fourt! 0all8 !ere: "artici"ants are constantly sli""ing $ack and fort! $et0een t!e roles of s"ectator, $ard, c!aracter, and dancer, and as c!aracter or dancer t!ey are nor,ally considered to $e t!e incarnations of t!ose e"ic c!aracters 0!o, t!ey re"resent. Suc! divine incarnation is freAuent in Cinduis,, 0!ere t!ere is no ontological gulf se"arating !u,ans and gods.H1&I Bn "erfor,ing panda) lila, ;ar!0ali society collectively re"resents itself to itself $y ,eans of a "u$lic ritual "erfor,ance. But t!is re"resentation

- 1>% clearly favors t!e 7a1"uts, 0!o identify t!e,selves as ,e,$ers of t!e class of 6s!atriyas or 0arriors. Perfor,ances of panda) lila ,ake i,"licit clai,s a$out 0!o and 0!at t!ese 7a1"uts are.H11I T!ere are several reasons for saying t!is, t!e ,ost i,"ortant !aving to do 0it! $lood and ancestry. Most local 7a1"uts clai, to $e descended fro, t!e Pandavas, and t!us panda) lila is understood as a for, of ancestor 0ors!i". Suc! an understanding is also revealed $y t!e generic ter, for panda) lila in 0estern ;ar!0al: saraddh, fro, Sanskrit sraddha, t!e annual rite of ancestor 0ors!i" t!at is o$ligatory for all Cindus. 7a1"uts are t!us dou$ly linked to t!e Pandavas: not only do t!ey "erfor, a ,eta"!orical sraddha for t!e, $y s"onsoring a panda) lila "erfor,ance, $ut in addition a central "art of t!at lila involves a dra,atic searc! $y t!e Pandavas for t!e necessary ,aterials to "erfor, a sraddha for t!eir dead fat!er, king Pandu. Panda) lila is also self:definitional for ;ar!0alis $ecause ;ar!0al is "ro,inently ,entioned in Sanskrit versions of t!e e"ic, lending "lausi$ility to t!e local $elief t!at ,uc! of t!e story !a""ened t!ere. 3fter all, t!e Bndian literary tradition refers to t!e /aha*harata as 8!istory8 Ditihasa E as o""osed to t!e ,ore "urely literary 8"oetry8 D,a)ya E e.e,"lified $y Bndia=s ot!er great 8e"ic,8 t!e -amayana. 3 t!ird reason t!at panda) lila is self:referential !as to do 0it! t!e i,"ortance of t!e 0ea"ons t!at are carried $y t!e dancers: a scyt!e for 5rau"adi, a staff for Lud!ist!ira, clu$s for B!i,a and !is son Ba$arik, $o0s and arro0s for 3r1una and !is son 4agar1una, a scyt!e for 4akula, and a slate for Sa!adeva. T!e iron arro0!eads of 3r1una and 4agar1una are clearly t!e ,ost "o0erful o$1ects in a "erfor,ance.H1?I T!ey ,ust $e !eld in t!e rig!t and not in t!e unclean left !and. T!ey ,ust never $e allo0ed to touc! t!e ground lest t!eir 8"o0er8 or 8energy8 Dsa,ti E esca"e. /arge "enalties Dusually a goat or its cas! eAuivalentE are levied on t!ose 0!o accidentally dro" t!e,, and 0o,en, lo0:caste "eo"le, and t!ose in a state of "ollution are not allo0ed to !andle t!e,. Bn Jak! village in 1 1 ,y assistant 5a$ar Sing! and B 0ere invited to dance, t!en later told t!at B 0ould !ave to do so 0it! a !eadless s!aft. We "olitely declined. Bn t!e ne.t lila 0e attended, in 6a"!alori village, B 0as allo0ed to dance 0it! an 8e,"o0ered8 s!aft co,"lete 0it! arro0!ead. B found t!e e."erience e.!ilarating.H1%I 3t t!e $eginning of a panda) lila, t!e old 0ea"ons t!at 0ere used $y t!e fat!ers of t!e "resent generation in t!e "revious panda) lila, "er!a"s t0enty or t!irty years ago, are taken do0n fro, a secret and !onored "lace Doften under t!e eaves of a !ouseE 0!ere t!ey !ave $een ke"t free fro, "ollution and negative influences. T!ey are "laced on t!e altar in t!e dancing sAuare, and ke"t t!ere for t!e re,ainder of t!e "erfor,ance. Mean0!ile a ne0 set of 0ea"ons is fas!ioned2so,eti,es on t!e s"ot $y t!e local $lacks,it!2and used in t!e current "erfor,ance. 3fter t!e lila is over, t!ese ne0 0ea"ons are "laced under t!e eaves, and t!e old 0ea"ons of t!e "revious generation are ritually dis"osed of at so,e !oly - 1>' "lace, often a 0ater source. Bn t!is 0ay t!e 7a1"uts= ,artial energy2t!e ,satra of t!e 6s!atriyas2is e,$odied in t!e 0ea"ons of t!e panda) lila and "assed fro, generation to generation. +inally, panda) lila ,ay $e considered a for, of self:re"resentation, $ecause of t!e kinds of e"isodes t!at are selected for dra,atic re"resentation. Because of /aha*harata$s great lengt!, so,e "rinci"les of selection ,ust $e e,"loyed in c!oosing t!ese, and ,artial e"isodes are clearly favored. T!is is in kee"ing 0it! ;ar!0ali 7a1"uts= self:i,age as 0arriors, an i,age t!at 0as strengt!ened 0!en t!ey 0ere defined $y t!e Britis! as one of t!e 8,artial races8 of Bndia and 0ere actively recruited for t!e colonial ar,y. 9ven today, ,ilitary service is a !ig!ly "restigious career, soug!t after $y ,any local yout!s. T!e t!e,e of ,artial "ro0ess runs rig!t t!roug! panda) lila, and t!e fig!t to t!e deat! $et0een 3r1una and

!is son 4agar1una is of "articular i,"ortance. 9ast of t!e 3lakananda 7iver, t!is event is re"resented far ,ore often t!an any ot!er. 4ot only is it sung of $y $ards and enacted $y "ossessed "layers, $ut it is danced literally !undreds of ti,es over t!e course of a nine:day lila. 9very nig!t, eac! surrounding village is given t!e o""ortunity for its t0o $est dancers to dis"lay t!eir skill, 0!ic! t!ey do $y dancing t!e 3r1una:4agar1una dance. T!is lasts until t!e 0ee !ours of t!e nig!t, 0it! any0!ere fro, fifteen to t!irty "airs of dancers "erfor,ing t!e sa,e e"isode. Bn ter,s of s!eer Auantity, t!is fat!er:son $attle is re"resented ,ore t!an any ot!er e"isode. But it is also enacted Din a less co,"le. fas!ionE in t!e Mandakini 7iver $asin and in t!e far 0est in t!e Tons 7iver $asin, ,aking it one of t!e fe0 features t!at is co,,on to panda) lilas t!roug!out ;ar!0al. T!e details of t!e e"isode are ,uc! too co,"le. to $e recited !ereF H1'I suffice it to say t!at one of its ,essages see,s to $e t!at a 6s!atriya ,ust al0ays acce"t a c!allenge, even 0!en it co,es fro, a kins,an, a $rot!er or even a fat!er. To refuse a c!allenge is to lose one=s ,ost "recious "ossession2one=s !onor2and so t!e fig!t $et0een fat!er and son once again "oints to 0ar=s dual nature, its necessity as 0ell as its tragedy. Bt s!ould $e clear $y no0 t!at for t!e "eo"le of ;ar!0al, /aha*harata is ,uc! ,ore t!an 1ust a $ook. T!is see,s an o$vious enoug! state,ent, $ut B find t!at it needs to $e ,ade2re"eatedly2to ,y acade,ic friends and colleagues. 3s ,e,$ers of a $i$liocentric "rofession, ,any us !ave $ound co"ies of /aha*harata on our s!elves, and it is only natural for us to t!ink of it as a $ook. But it 0ould $e 0ell to re,e,$er t!at even t!e critical edition of /aha*harata is only one version a,ong ,anyF t!at t!e story !as $een translated into ,any languages of ,any nationsF t!at it traveled t!roug!out 3sia as far as @ietna, and BndonesiaFH1(I t!at to $egin 0it! it 0as not a $ook at all, $ut rat!er an oral e"icF and t!at t!e "ro$le,s associated 0it! esta$lis!ing a critical edition "roved intracta$le. *ver t!irty years ago t!e editor of t!e critical edition 0rote t!at t!e 8essential fact in /aha*harata te.tual criticis, is t!at t!e /aha*harata is not and never 0as a fi.ed rigid te.t, $ut - 1>( is fluctuating e"ic tradition. . . . To "ut it in ot!er 0ords, t!e /aha*harata is t!e 0!ole of t!e e"ic tradition: t!e entire Critical 3""aratus.8H1)I T!ere are ,any /aha*haratas, not 1ust one, and t!at is 0!y B refer to 4/aha*harata4 and not to 8t!e /aha*harata.4 B 0ant to insist t!at $ooks are 1ust one "art of t!is traditionF t!at t!ey !ave no ontological or e"iste,ological "recedenceF t!at /aha*harata is not only a $ook $ut also a "olitical ,odel, a $edti,e story, a tradition of dance, a dra,atic s"ectacle, and ,uc! ,ore. Bn ;ar!0al, it is an ancestral tale, one t!at is "eriodically enacted as a for, of ancestor 0ors!i", and one t!at "rovides a $asic2"ro$a$ly the $asic2"aradig, for 0!at it is to $e a 7a1"ut.

% Cult of the ,aura+as in Western .arh6al

Bn t!e far 0est of ;ar!0al, near t!e Ci,ac!al Prades! $order, is t!e Tons 7iver $asin, an area t!at !as long $een associated 0it! unort!odo. social and religious custo,s suc! as $ride:"rice, intercaste ,arriage, and es"ecially fraternal "olyandry of t!e sort e.e,"lified $y t!e ,arriage $et0een 5rau"adi and t!e five Pandava $rot!ers. W!en ,y village friends in district C!a,oli, in t!e eastern "art of ;ar!0al, !eard t!at B 0as "lanning to travel to t!is area, t!ey did t!eir $est to dissuade ,e. B 0as 0arned t!at ,en did not return fro, t!e valleys of t!e 7u"in and Su"in rivers Dtri$utaries of t!e TonsE: t!e 0o,en t!ere enslaved t!e,, turning t!e, into goats or frogs $y day, and $ack into ,en at nig!t 8for t!eir "leasure.8 7u,ors of "oison cults a$ound: t!e 0o,en of t!e area are said to 0ors!i" su"ernatural $eings 0!o de,and one !u,an sacrifice "er year. 3 friend of ,ine, a traditional !ealer, 0ent so far as to e,"o0er so,e salt 0it! s"ecial ,agical s"ells, telling ,e t!at if any local 0o,an 0ere to offer ,e food, B s!ould s"rinkle t!is salt on it, and if it turned $lood red, t!en B s!ouldn=t eat it. 3 retired govern,ent officer said t!at several decades ago 0!en !e toured t!roug! t!e area, 0!enever

!e 0as offered food $y t!e local "eo"le it 0ould first $e tasted $y a "re"u$escent girl, in order to de,onstrate t!at it 0as not "oisoned. B !ad long $een a0are of ru,ors of a 6aurava cult in t!is region,H1>I $ut !ad dis,issed t!e, as fantasies. B reasoned t!at $ecause so,e of t!e custo,s of t!e area 0ere very unusual, "eo"le in ot!er "arts of ;ar!0al assu,ed t!at t!e entire culture 0as inverted and strange, and t!is 0as 0!y ;ar!0alis else0!ere 0ere so 0illing to $elieve t!e ,ost outlandis! tales a$out t!e local "eo"le. T!e idea t!at t!ere ,ig!t actually $e a grou" of "eo"le 0!o 0ors!i""ed t!e 6auravas struck ,e t!e 0ay it strikes ,ost ,ost Cindus2as utterly i,"lausi$le. But B 0as 0rong. Soon after arriving in t!e area for t!e first ti,e in t!e 0inter of 1 1, B 0as directed to t!e large and i,"osing te,"le of 7a1a 6aran D86ing 6arna8E, t!e "residing deity of Singtur, a traditional land division or patti 0!ose social and religious life centers on t!e god. 6arna=s ,ain te,: - 1>) "le is in 5yora village, $ut t!ere are ot!ers scattered t!roug!out Singtur, including a te,"le of !is "utative son @ik!asan.H1MI 7a1a 6aran is regarded $y t!e "o"ulation of Singtur as t!eir king: !e is served $y nu,erous lineages of "riests, ,usicians, car"enters, and 0atc!,enF !e is often called u"on to settle local dis"utes, 0!ic! !e does t!roug! !is oracle Dmali E !e is t!e su$1ect of a ric! devotional folkloreF and like ot!er kings !e travels freAuently, so,eti,es in royal "rocessions to t!e villages under !is rule, so,eti,es to drive a0ay ot!er gods encroac!ing on !is do,ains, and so,eti,es as a "ilgri, to local sacred "laces. Bn ,any res"ects, 7a1a 6aran and !is "riests are social and religious refor,ers. +or e.a,"le, t!ey are fierce "ro!i$itionists, o""osed to drinking in general and es"ecially on religious occasions. T!ey are o""osed to ani,al sacrifice 0it!in t!e te,"le co,"ound, even t!oug! it is "racticed in ot!er near$y te,"les, and t!ey seek to refor, local ,arriage custo,s. 5es"ite t!e stereoty"es noted earlier, "olyandry is not generally "racticed in Singtur or t!e neig!$oring areas.H1 I Co0ever, t!e "revalent for, of ,arriage, $y $ride:"rice, is still unort!odo., and 7a1a 6aran=s "riests refuse to acce"t ,oney in e.c!ange for t!eir daug!ters.H?&I T!e reason, t!ey say, is t!at 7a1a 6aran 0as fa,ed for !is generosity Done of t!eir ,ost "o"ular e"it!ets for !i, is dani ra'a or 8t!e giving king8E, and so t!ey, like !i,, are keen to give t!eir daug!ters as a "ure gift. Bn doing so, t!ey confor, to t!e nor,ative ty"e of ,arriage a,ong 4ort! Bndian Cindus, t!e ,anyadana or 8gift of a virgin.8 Bn t!ese and ot!er res"ects t!ey self: consciously distinguis! t!e,selves fro, 5uryod!ana and !is su$1ects !ig!er u" t!e valley, 0!ere suc! refor,s are only 1ust $eginning. Co0 a""ro"riate t!at 7a1a 6aran=s divine kingdo, s!ould lie ,id0ay $et0een t!e ,ore conventional cult of t!e Pandavas in t!e lo0er end of t!e valley and t!e cult of 5uryod!ana in t!e !ig! ,ountains. T!e tragic figure of 6arna, unkno0n $rot!er of t!e Pandavas and devoted ally of t!e 6auravas, still ,ediates $et0een t!e t0o sides, 1ust as !e did in t!e e"ic. T!e "eo"le of Singtur assured ,e t!at t!ere 0ere indeed several te,"les of 5uryod!ana !ig!er u" t!e valley, t!e c!ief ones $eing located in t!e villages of Jak!ol and *sla. So,e of t!e, also told ,e t!at t!ere 0as a 5u!s!asana te,"le near$y.H?1I T!ey said t!at t!e oracle of 5uryod!ana, 0!enever !e 0as "ossessed, !ad to lean on a crutc! for su""ort, since 5uryod!ana=s t!ig!s 0ere $roken in !is final co,$at 0it! B!i,a.H??I B 0as told t!at 5uryod!ana used to go on royal tours t!roug!out t!e region, and t!at 0!erever !e !alted, t!e "eo"le of t!at village 0ere o$liged to offer t!eir finest ani,als, grain, ,ilk, and $utter to t!e god and !is "riests. So frig!tened 0ere t!ey of !is curse t!at t!ey 0ould do so 0it!out de,ur. T!e "eo"le of Singtur asssured ,e t!at t!ey !ad suffered a great deal at t!e !ands of 5uryod!ana and !is ,inions. +or years t!eir !ig!:altitude !erds,en 0ere forced to offer t!e finest of t!eir flocks as annual tri$ute, until one year five $rot!ers

- 1>> defeated 5uryod!ana=s follo0ers, even t!oug! t!ey 0ere vastly outnu,$ered, t!ere$y ending t!e custo,.H?%I W!en B asked 0!y it 0as t!at 5uryod!ana and 6arna 0ere no0 rivals 0!en once t!ey !ad $een allies, "eo"le usually ans0ered t!at t!e Auarrel 0as not $et0een t!e gods, $ut $et0een t!eir !u,an devotees. W!y 0ould anyone 0is! to 0ors!i" t!e 6auravasG 5uryod!ana and !is $rot!ers are sy,$ols of evil, of adharma, and 6arna is a tragic figure strongly associated 0it! deat! and defeat. 5uryod!ana ,akes only t!e $riefest a""earance in panda) lilas else0!ere in ;ar!0al, and 6arna is considered as so inaus"icious t!at "eo"le in t!at area do not even read t!e ,arnapar)a or 8Book of 6arna8 fro, t!e /aha*harata 0it!out first "erfor,ing a goat sacrifice: t!ey $elieve t!at if t!ey do so, catastro"!e 0ill strike. T!e s!ort ans0er is t!at "eo"le do not 0ors!i" 5uryod!ana $ecause !e is evil, $ut rat!er $ecause !e is "o0erful. S"ecifically, !e is t!oug!t to !ave t!e "o0er to $ring rain or to 0it!!old it, so,et!ing t!at is o$viously of crucial i,"ortance to local far,ers. T!ere are ot!er reasons too for 0ors!i""ing t!e 6auravas, and t!ese are really no different fro, t!e reasons "eo"le else0!ere in ;ar!0al give for 0ors!i""ing t!e Pandavas: in $ot! cases t!ey !ave to do 0it! "eo"le=s ideas a$out 0!o t!ey are, and !o0 t!ey $eca,e t!at 0ay. T!e $elligerence of t!e 6auravas, t!eir eagerness to do $attle, fit in 0ell 0it! local 7a1"uts= i,ages of t!e,selves as courageous and 0arlike. Peo"le so,eti,es say t!at 5uryod!ayana did not really die, $ut rat!er fled to t!e Tons Basin after !e 0as in1ured in t!e /aha*harata 0ar. Bt !as $een clai,ed t!at "eo"le fro, t!is area foug!t on t!e side of t!e 6auravas, and t!at t!e "resent in!a$itants are t!eir descendantsH?'I 2in ot!er 0ords, t!at 5uryod!ana is king of !is su$1ects in t!e 7u"in and Su"in valleys, 1ust as !e 0as king of t!eir ancestors. Bn 0ors!i""ing !i, t!ey are re,aining loyal to t!eir ancestral traditionsF to do ot!er0ise 0ould $e dis!onora$le. 4eit!er t!e kings of ;ar!0al nor t!e Britis! ever !ad ,uc! aut!ority in t!is area, and its "eo"le 0ere notoriously 8tur$ulent and refractory,8H?(I a re"utation t!at "ersists to t!e "resent day. Political and religious aut!ority is vested in deities like 5uryod!ana and 6ing 6arna, 0!o are regarded as divine kings. ;ods in t!is region !ave for a long ti,e $een a,ong t!e ,ost "ro,inent "olitical actors, and t!e $oundaries of t!eir do,ains are t!e su$1ects of continual and lively dis"ute.H?)I 5evotion to t!e ancestral god is, t!erefore, a kind of "rotonationalis,, in 0!ic! loyalty to one=s lineage, caste, and region are all ,utually reinforced in t!e cult of t!e deity. To its neig!$ors, 5uryod!ana=s do,ain ,ig!t look like an 8evil e,"ire,8 $ut to t!ose 0it!in it, loyalty to t!e cult is an a""ro"riate and !onora$le attitude. So "er!a"s ,y earlier ske"ticis, 0as 0rong, and t!is e.otic Ci,alayan valley !ar$ored an eAually e.otic religious cult, in 0!ic! t!e ,ost notorious villains of Cindu ,yt!ology 0ere adored $y t!e local "o"ulation. T!is 0as, after all, e."licitly stated $y ;ar!0ali sc!olars and 1ournalists, and $y "eo: - 1>M "le living in t!e area. T!ere !ave al0ays $een t!ose 0!o insist t!at only indigenous inter"retations are valid, so "er!a"s t!is inter"retation, clearly indigenous, 0as correct. T!e "ro$le,, of course, is t!at t!ere is al0ays ,ore t!an one inter"retation: 8natives8 !ave different "oints of vie0 1ust as ant!ro"ologists do, and neit!er "ers"ective is ,onolit!ic. T!is 0as i,"lied $y ,y friends in Singtur, 0!o told ,e t!at in t!e u""er valleys, t!e old 0ays 0ere dying. @illages outside of 5uryod!ana=s core territory 0ere reluctant to invite !i, to visit, and so !is annual tours 0ere gro0ing fe0er, !is do,ain

s!rinking, !is influence di,inis!ing. Bns"ired $y 7a1a 6aran=s e.a,"le, "eo"le 0ere $eginning to Auestion t!e old 0ays, and no0 t!ere 0ere t0o factions in 5uryod!ana=s ,ain village, divided over ani,al sacrifice and t!e use of into.icants. Loung ,en !ad returned 0it! university degrees fro, as far a0ay as 5el!i, and 5uryod!ana=s follo0ers 0ere $eginning to clai, t!at !e 0as actually So,es!vara, a for, of t!e great Cindu god S!iva. But B 0as told t!at des"ite t!ese c!anges, t!ere could $e no dou$t t!at t!at t!e god 0ors!i""ed in t!e u""er valleys 0as 5uryod!ana. B "ondered t!is infor,ation 0!ile trying to arrange a visit to t!e god=s c!ief cult center, in t!e village of Jak!ol. T!is 0as not easy to do, as it 0as 0inter and t!e ,ountain trails 0ere $uried in sno0 and often i,"assa$le. *ne evening B 0as e."laining ,y interest in 5uryod!ana to a fello0 "atron of t!e tiny inn 0!ere B took ,y ,eals, 0!en a s,all grou" of ,en sitting ne.t to us fell silent. *ne of t!e, angrily called out: 8W!o says our god is 5uryod!anaG Cis na,e is So,es!varaV8 B reali<ed t!at ,y o""ortunity !ad arrived. T!e situation 0as very delicate, so B asked t!e ,an, 6ula Sing! fro, Jak!ol village, to co,e outside 0it! ,e 0!ere 0e 0ould not $e over!eard. B a"ologi<ed to !i, for causing offense, and said t!at B 0as only re"eating 0!at B !ad $een told $y t!e local "eo"le. Per!a"s !e 0ould $e 0illing to take ,e to Jak!ol and s!o0 ,e t!e trut!. Ce said t!at !e 0ould indeed $e 0illing to take ,e t!ere, $ut not no02it 0as ,id0inter, and t!e "at!s 0ere too dangerous. But if B 0ould co,e for t!e god=s s"ring festival, B could stay 0it! !i,, and !e 0ould !el" ,e 0it! ,y researc!. /ater t!at s"ring B s"ent several days in 6ula Sing!=s !ouse, o$serving and "artici"ating in t!e god=s festival, and t!ree years later, in 1 ', B returned again. 5uring t!ese t0o tri"s B discovered t!at, 1ust as ,y friends !ad said, t!ere 0ere t0o factions in Jak!ol. T!e 8traditionalists8 su""orted old custo,s suc! as de,anding s!ee" and goats as tri$ute and sacrificing t!e, in front of t!e deity, 0!ile t!e refor,ers regarded t!is as a for, of t!eft ina""ro"riate for a religious institution. T!ere 0as also a dis"ute over t!e 0ay in 0!ic! t!e god ,akes !is a""earance during festivals. Traditionally, !e is carried outside on a 8c!ariot,8 actually a kind of "alanAuin, ,ade of fres!ly cut "ine sa"lings, and t!e young ,en of t!e village !ave great fun lea"ing on t!e sa"lings, 1u,"ing u" and do0n on t!e, and trying to $reak t!e,. DT!e "ractice !earkens $ack to an incident in t!e god=s $iogra"!y 0!en, according - 1> to local folk songs, !e !ad $een forgotten $y everyone e.ce"t a grou" of c!ildren, 0!o $egan a festival in 0!ic! !is i,age 0as 0ors!i""ed in c!ildis! 0ays.E T!e refor,ers felt t!at t!is custo, de,eaned t!e deity $y s!o0ing !i, disres"ectF ,oreover, "eo"le 0ere allo0ed to 0ear s!oes 0!en t!ey a""roac!ed t!e 8c!ariot,8 and it 0as Auite "ossi$le for lo0:caste "ersons to "ollute t!e deity $y co,ing in contact 0it! !i, during t!e ,elee. 7a1a 6aran=s te,"le !ad a$olis!ed si,ilar custo,s, ani,als 0ere no longer sacrificed in front of t!e god, and 0!en !e left t!e inner sanctu, !e 0as "laced on a tiger skin, sy,$ol of royalty, rat!er t!an on a 0ooden "alanAuin. 7efor,ers in Jak!ol 0is!ed to follo0 suit, and to t!at end t!ey convinced t!e rival faction to take t!e god on a "ilgri,age to t!e fa,ous near$y te,"le of 6edarnat!. T!ey felt t!at after co,"leting suc! a virtuous act, !e 0ould certainly ado"t a vegetarian diet and $e ,ore circu,s"ect a$out ritual "ollution. So,eti,es t!e rivalry $et0een t!ese t0o factions fro, t!e sa,e village got rat!er nasty. 5uring ,y visit for t!e s"ring festival in 1 1, t!ere 0as an altercation $et0een t!e refor,ers and t!e traditionalists, and t!at evening t!e refor,ers soug!t ,e out and earnestly reAuested t!at B $ring ,y ca,era t!e ne.t day. T!ey 0ere certain t!at t!eir rivals 0ere going to s!oot t!e,, and t!ey 0anted ,e to docu,ent t!e ,assacre for "osterity. But des"ite t!e de"t! of feeling on t!ese issues, t!e fact re,ains t!at $ot! sides are co,,itted, at least "u$licly, to t!e vie0 t!at t!e god is So,es!vara and not 5uryod!ana. Bn ,y t0o visits to Jak!ol B !ave recorded several of t!e god=s songs, including !is 8!istory8 as sung $y te,"le ,usiciansF s"oken at lengt! 0it! t0o of !is "riestsF recorded a nu,$er of $rief, Auasi:!istorical songs fro, lay villagersF and

conducted a lengt!y intervie0 0it! Sundar Sing!, 0!o, as $ot! village elder and c!ief ad,inistrative officer of t!e deity, "ro$a$ly kno0s ,ore a$out So,es!var and !is !istory t!an any ot!er "erson. 9veryone B talked to in Jak!ol:"riests, 7a1"uts, and ,usicians20as unani,ous t!at t!e god 0as not 5uryod!ana. T!e ,ost co,,on argu,ent in su""ort of t!is "osition 0as $ased on iconogra"!y: t!e i,age 0as !eld to $e t!at of S!iva, 0it! t!e river ;anges e,erging fro, !is !ead, a !alf:,oon in !is !air, a garland of ser"ents on !is t!roat, and earrings, t!oug! t!is 0as i,"ossi$le to confir,, as outsiders Dincluding local officialsE are not allo0ed to vie0 t!e i,age. *t!ers clai,ed t!at t!e traditional for, of 0ors!i" 0as of t!e sort t!at is directed only to S!iva. Pro$a$ly t!e ,ost articulate s"okes"erson for t!is "oint of vie0 0as Sundar Sing!, 0!o told ,e in 1 ' t!at t!e reason t!e old ,en used to call t!e god 85uryod!ana8 is t!at in t!eir day no one !ad taug!t t!e, any $etter. But, !e said, 0!en educated "ersons $egan co,ing fro, outside and looked closely at t!e i,age, t!ey reali<ed t!at it 0as not 5uryod!ana. B !ave also $een told t!at it is not t!e ,ain i,age t!at is called 5uryod!ana, $ut rat!er a s,aller i,age t!at is visi$le on t!e u""er "art of t!e "alanAuin 0!en t!e god e,erges during !is festivals. 3ccording to t!is story, t!e i,age 0as ,ade $y a fa,ous $lacks,it! - 1M& na,ed Bisar 6at!a, fro, across t!e $order in Ci,ac!al Prades!. Ce ,ade t!is second i,age in order to add to t!e s"lendor of t!e ,ain one, $ut 0!en !e ,ade a t!ird i,age, t!e local "eo"le sa0 t!at it 0as a re"lica of t!e first, and t!ey 0ent to kill !i,. Wit! !is dying $reat! !e said: 8B served you, and yet you=re killing ,e, 1ust like t!e 6auravas and t!e Pandavas, so B na,e t!is i,age 5uryod!ana.8H?>I 3lt!oug! so,e of t!ese denials are inconsistent or de,onstra$ly inaccurate, nevert!eless t!e god=s su$1ects agreed t!at !e 0as So,es!vara and not 5uryod!ana. Let it still see,ed to ,e Dand to 7a1a 6aran=s su$1ects fro, SingturE t!at t!e te,"le u" t!e valley $elonged to 5uryod!ana. Per!a"s B acce"ted t!e Singtur "eo"le=s version $ecause t!ey 0ere ,y friends. May$e B $elieved t!e, $ecause ,y ant!ro"ological fascination 0it! cultural difference encouraged ,e to see a 5uryod!ana cult t!at 0asn=t really t!ere. Bn t!e 0elter of inconsistent and ,utually e.clusive inter"retations, one t!ing t!at e,erged Auite clearly 0as t!at eac! inter"retation 0as related to so,e s"ecific interest, not least ,y o0n. But self:interest often reAuires self:dece"tion: 1ust $ecause t!ere are ,ulti"le "ers"ectives on so,e issue does not ,ean t!at t!ey are all eAually true. Bn t!e end, B "ersisted in $elieving t!at t!ere 0as a 5uryod!ana cult $ecause of t!e evidence. T!ere is, for e.a,"le, t!e ,atter of t!e god=s songs. Bn 1 1, one of t!e village ,usicians !ad referred to t!e deity $ot! as 5uryod!ana and as So,es!vara,H?MI $ut $y 1 ' all references to 5uryod!ana !ad disa""eared fro, !is song. Si,ilarly, 0!ile attending a panda) lila in Singtur in 1 1, B recorded so,e folk songs fro, t0o ,en fro, Jak!ol in 0!ic! t!ey referred to t!e god $ot! as 5uryod!ana and as So,es!vara. Bn infor,al conversation in Jak!ol, ,any "eo"le called t!e god 85uryod!ana,8 0!ic! t!e refor,ers found rat!er e,$arrassing. *ne of t!e god=s "riests ad,itted to ,e t!at t!ey used to 0ors!i" t!e god as 5uryod!ana, and only recently $egan 0ors!i"ing !i, as S!iva. 3long t!e to" of t!e e.terior 0alls of t!e te,"le in Jak!ol are a nu,$er of carvings, "ro,inent a,ong 0!ic! is one of t0o ,en facing eac! ot!er, eac! flanked $y t!eir su""orters: underneat! are carved t!e na,es 85uryod!ana8 and 83r1una.8 But t!e ,ost "ersuasive evidence of all 0as "rovided $y t!e god !i,self. Surely !is testi,ony is aut!oritative, since villagers in t!e u""er valleys res"ect and fear !i, as t!eir ruler. Bn 1 ', !e returned fro, a $rief tour to so,e near$y villages and 0as ritually 0elco,ed !o,e to Jak!ol, at 0!ic! ti,e !e "ossessed !is oracle, as is custo,ary. Bt 0as t!e $eginning of 0inter, and t!ere !ad $een a "rolonged dry s"ell, $ut as 0e stood in t!e flagstone sAuare $efore t!e te,"le, dark stor, clouds 0!irled around us, and 0e 0ere $riefly "elted 0it! !ail, 0!ile t!e slo"es a$ove t!e village 0ere

$lanketed 0it! fres! sno0. T!e god=s s"eec! e.e,"lifies ,any of t!e issues already discussed, suc! as t!e tension $et0een t!e t0o village factions, t!e god as a divine king, and t!e difficulties t!at arise 0!en ancestral traditions undergo c!ange and transfor,ation: - 1M1 Oracle: 9ducation Dsi,hi E is !a""eningV B 0ill acce"t 0!atever you do and say. 6ee" your old traditions, kee" t!e,V But ti,es are c!anging, and B=ll c!ange 0it! t!e,. %undar %ingh: We are only c!ildren. *ur ancestors= ancestor25!angkato and t!e ot!ers2 ca,e 0it! you, $ut 0!en t!ey c!allenged you, you destroyed t!e,. We 0ill do as you say. Oracle: Bt 0ould $e $est for you to unite 0it! t!e ot!ers. %undar %ingh: B also 0ant t!is. But t!ings !a""en. Oracle: Lou s!ould unite, yes, $ut t!e t0o sides are al0ays AuarrelingF you 0on=t listen to eac! ot!er. T!is ne0 generation !as also dis!onored ,e. 9veryone !as !is o0n o"inion. %undar %ingh: We are not acting for ourselvesF 0e do 0!atever you tell us. Please "rotect ,y fa,ily. Oracle: B=ll "rotect all ,y su$1ects D'anata E not 1ust your fa,ily. 9veryone kno0s !o0 ,y rituals are conducted, and t!ey s!ould act accordingly. T!ey say t!at even t!e ,usicians !ave t!eir freedo,, $ut 0e=ll see !o0 free t!ey areV %undar %ingh: Musicians, ,essengers, 0atc!,en, "riests, su$1ects2if 0e are se"arate fro, you, t!en 0!ere is our "laceG We follo0 you. Oracle: Stay 0it!in your li,its, follo0 ,y orders, and all 0ill $e 0ell. Maintain your dignity Dmaryada E don=t sli" fro, your old traditions. /et t!e ot!ers sli" instead. %undar %ingh: Lou !ave t!e "o0er and t!e virtue Dgun E, not us. T!e rain !as fallen. Oracle: Les. B=ll take care of t!e rain. %undar %ingh: /et t!e do,ain Dmul, E $e united. Oracle: Wait four days, t!en see. B=ll "rovide rainF don=t 0orry. 5uring t!is s"eec!, t!e oracle su""orted !i,self $y leaning on 0!at looked rat!er like a long ,etal s0ord 0it! an unusually s!ort !andle. Was it not t!e crutc! a$out 0!ic! B !ad already $een told, reAuired $y 5uryod!ana $ecause !is t!ig!s !ad $een dis!onora$ly $roken $y B!i,a in co,$atG Cis s"eec! 0as "unctuated $y freAuent inter1ections283kV 3kV820as t!is not, as one ,an fro, Singtur suggested 0!en !e !eard ,y ta"e recording, an e."ression of "ain fro, !is $roken t!ig!sG 3fter t!e "ossession 0as over, t!e oracle lea"ed u" to a standing "osition, o$viously relieved t!at t!e trance 0as co,"lete20as !e also relieved of 5uryod!ana=s "ainG

Conclusions
W!o is t!e god 0ors!i""ed in t!e u""er valleys of t!e Tons 7iver $asinG Bt see,s likely t!at for,erly !e 0as 0idely recogni<ed as 5uryod!ana, $ut no0adays !is identity is less certain. Per!a"s, $y t!e ti,e t!is essay is "u$lis!ed, !e 0ill !ave co,"letely ,eta,or"!osed into So,es!vara. 5uryod!ana=s follo0ers are clearly a0are t!at ot!er Cindus regard t!e, as "erverse and $ack:

- 1M? 0ard $ecause t!ey 0ors!i" a notorious villainF t!erefore t!ey are in t!e "rocess of 8reinventing8 t!eir deity. T!at t!is "rocess s!ould no0 $e gat!ering ,o,entu, is !ardly sur"rising, given t!e fact t!at t!ese for,erly isolated valleys are $eing integrated 0it! t!e rest of Bndia 0it! un"recedented s"eed. 3 generation ago, t!ere 0ere no roads into t!e area, fe0 visitors fro, outside, and virtually no "u$lic education. Today t!e trans"ortation net0ork is $urgeoning,H? I do,estic and international touris, is ra"idly e."anding, and govern,ent or "rivate sc!ools are found every0!ere. *ne local yout! o$tained a la0 degree in 5el!i several years ago and returned to $eco,e a very influential "ro"onent of t!e vie0 t!at t!e god is So,es!vara and not 5uryod!ana. T!e "ro$le, 0it! trying to deter,ine, once and for all, suc! an a$stract ,atter as t!e identity of a god is t!at it is a ,atter of $eliefs and ,eanings, 0!ic! are notoriously unsta$le. T!e god ,eans different t!ings to different "eo"le and even to t!e sa,e "eo"le2in different conte.ts. Moreover, collective ideas a$out !is identity c!ange over ti,e. T!ere are relatively sta$le "eriods 0!en suc! ideas are fairly consistent, as see,s no0 to $e t!e case in t!e cult of 7a1a 6aran, and t!ere are ti,es of ra"id c!ange, as see,s no0 to $e t!e case in t!e cult of So,es!vara. To assu,e t!at t!e god !as a "er,anent, sta$le "ersonality is as ,istaken as assu,ing t!at a "erson !as one. Cultural re"resentations of gods, like re"resentations of selves, are neit!er ,onolit!ic nor unc!anging, $ut rat!er are related to t!e ever: c!anging conte.ts of culture and !istory.

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1 M>. Garh2al 0imalaya. 4e0 5el!i: +rank Bros Y Co. van Buitenen, J. 3. B. 1 >%:. The /aha*harata. C!icago: University of C!icago Press. van der @eer, Peter. 1 M>. 8=;od Must $e /i$eratedV= 3 Cindu /i$eration Move,ent in 3yod!ya.8 /odern Asian %tudies ?1.?: ?M%:%&1. Wag!orne, Joanne Pun<o, and 4or,an Cutler, eds. 1 M(. Gods of 1lesh, Gods of %tone: The Em*odiment of "i)inity in #ndia. C!a,$ers$urg, Pa.: 3ni,a. - 1M> -

SECTI#N $#U!0 E'IC %N- &%MENT

- 1M -

)E0 The Natural Tears of Epic

Thomas MA .reene Bn !is ,agisterial study of e"ic, The "escent from 0ea)en, 0ritten over t!irty years ago, T!o,as ;reene "rovided us 0it! a ric! 0ay of reading t!e canonical e"ic tradition $y focusing on scenes 0it! ,essengers $earing ne0s fro, t!e gods. Cis essay in t!is volu,e co,,ands a si,ilar s0ee" of e"ic te.ts in its attention to 0!at ;reene calls 8t!e e"ic telos of tears.8 Moving fro, t!e oldest e.tant e"ic, t!e Ba$ylonian Gilgamesh, to Milton=s Paradise ost, ;reene traces t!e literary e"ic=s "rofound engage,ent 0it! grief and tragic ritual, t!ere$y arguing for t!e ca"acity of t!e 0ritten e"ic to create a co,,unity of s!ared ,ourners. T!e adventurous sc!olar 0!o atte,"ts in our day to say so,et!ing fres! a$out t!at class of te.ts conventionally called e"ic is conde,ned to deal 0it! a certain $urden of sus"icion. T!is sus"icion 0ill reasona$ly arise even if t!e sc!olar li,its !i,: or !erself, as B !ave $een asked to do, to canoni<ed te.ts of t!e 9uro"ean tradition. Bt isn=t really clear t!at all t!ose various "oe,s can legiti,ately $e !uddled under a single generic u,$rella. Bt isn=t clear t!at t!e sc!olar=s generali<ations can survive all t!e inevita$le e.ce"tions t!at fail to "rove $ut rat!er su$vert t!e,. Bt isn=t clear 0!at credence is due to a reader 0!o fails to co,,and all t!e relevant original languages2and fe0 of us do co,,and t!e, all,

least of all ,yself. Confronted 0it! t!is for,ida$le and 1ustified $urden of sus"icion, one can "roceed only !u,$ly and "rag,atically, ,oving 0it! caution t!roug! t!e availa$le te.ts and facts in t!e !o"e t!at so,e useful "atterns 0ill e,erge. *ne starting "lace for t!inking a$out Co,eric e"ic is t!e ,alicious little dialogue of Plato, t!e #on. Socrates= interlocutor in t!at 0ork is a fatuous r!a"sode, Auick to $oast of !is Co,eric recitations and i,"ervious to !is co,"anion=s irony. But des"ite its irony, t!e dialogue can serve as a useful source for conventional attitudes to0ard Co,eric "erfor,ance. Wit! Socrates= encourage,ent, Bon d0ells u"on !is o0n e,otional involve,ent in t!e "oetry !e recites, !is ecstasy of intense feeling, a$ove all on t!e tears !e s!eds as !e c!ants Co,eric verse. Socrates goes on to ask Bon if !e is a0are t!at !e "roduces si,ilar effects u"on t!e s"ectators. Les, indeed His t!e re"lyI, B kno0 it very 0ell. 3s B look do0n at t!e, fro, t!e stage a$ove, B see t!e,, every ti,e, 0ee"ing, casting terri$le glances, stricken -1 &0it! a,a<e,ent at t!e deeds recounted. Bn fact, B !ave to give t!e, very close attention, for if B set t!e, 0ee"ing, B ,yself s!all laug! 0!en B get ,y ,oney, $ut if t!ey laug!, it is B 0!o !ave to 0ee" at losing it. D#on (?(c:eEH1I Tears, it a""ears, are t!e $est criteria of t!e r!a"sode=s successF tears are actually t!e goal of !is "erfor,ance. Bt 0ould $e easy to dis,iss as insignificant t!is e."osure of Bon=s artistic calculations if Plato didn=t return to t!e sa,e t!e,e in a ,uc! ,ore i,"ortant and fa,ous "assage, t!e attack on allegedly antisocial "oetry in $ook 1& of t!e -epu*lic. Cere again Plato links Co,eric "oetry 0it! t!e "leasura$le s!edding of tears and in t!is case 0it! tragedy. B t!ink you kno0 t!at t!e very $est of us, 0!en 0e !ear Co,er or so,e ot!er of t!e ,akers of tragedy i,itating one of t!e !eroes 0!o is in grief, and is delivering a long tirade in !is la,entations or c!anting and $eating !is $reast, feel "leasure, and a$andon ourselves and acco,"any t!e re"resentation 0it! sy,"at!y and eagerness, and 0e "raise as an e.cellent "oet t!e one 0!o ,ost strongly affects us in t!is 0ay. D-epu*lic BN .)&(c:dE T!is "assage asserts 0!at 0as already i,"licit in t!e #on, t!e fact t!at t!e s!aring of grief 0as "erceived in t!e fourt! century as t!e c!aracteristic res"onse to t!e ,ost "rivileged "oetry. T!e r!a"sode Bon=s "ride in !is "o0er of eliciting tears does corres"ond to t!e o$1ective 1udg,ent of !is so$er critic. Plato of course 0as 0riting four centuries after Co,er and cannot necessarily instruct us a$out t!e res"onses of arc!aic audiences to "oetic recitations. But at least one distinguis!ed sc!olar, Jo!n Cerington, t!inks t!ere 0as little difference.H?I Bt ,ay $e 0ort! noting at any rate t!at t!e "ro"er res"onse to !eroic "oetry $eco,es an issue al,ost at t!e outset of t!e Odyssey, 0!en t!e $ard P!e,ios=s song of nostoi, 8t!at $itter song, t!e Co,eco,ing of t!e 3c!aians,8 is interru"ted $y Penelo"e in tears, co,,anding !i, to c!oose anot!er su$1ect. Penelo"e=s grief ste,s fro, !er o0n "ersonal loss. But Tele,ac!os=s res"onse see,s to underscore t!e inevita$le convergence of "ain and song. 8Lou ,ust nerve yourself and try to listen,8 !e tells !er, as ot!ers listen to stories of suffering.H%I Penelo"e=s tears !ere at t!e $eginning antici"ate !er !us$and=s tears 0!en later in t!e "oe, !e listens to anot!er $ard. But t!e scene 0!ic! for our "ur"oses is decisive is t!e reunion of !us$and and 0ife in $ook ?%, t!at scene t!at t!e 3le.andrian critics already descri$ed as t!e telos of t!e "oe,=s narrative. W!et!er or not t!e re,ainder of t!e "oe, is aut!entically Co,eric, S!eila Murnag!an !as rig!tly called t!is scene 8t!e definitive conclusion to t!e Odyssey$s "lot.8H'I T!e dra,atic "o0er of t!e reunion lies in its ,ingling of 1oy 0it! t!e $itterness of loss, so t!at t!e ,utual tears ste, fro, t!e

ine.trica$ility of love and "ain. 4o0 fro, !is $reast into !is eyes t!e ac!e of longing ,ounted, and !e 0e"t at last, !is dear 0ife, clear and fait!ful, in !is ar,s. . . . T!e rose 5a0n ,ig!t !ave found t!e, 0ee"ing still -1 1!ad not t!e grey:eyed 3t!ena slo0ed t!e nig!t 0!en nig!t 0as ,ost "rofound, under t!e *cean of t!e 9ast. DOdyssey ?%.?( :?)?F ?>1:?>%E T!at ,utual release cul,inates and resolves t!e long story of t!e cou"le=s "rivation. Bt res"onds to our first encounter 0it! *dysseus, 0ee"ing alone on Caly"so=s island. T!e narrative of t!e !ero is $racketed $y tears, as indeed it is "unctuated 0it! ,ore tears as *dysseus leaves Circe=s s!ore for Cades, as !e first gli,"ses !is ,ot!er 3ntikleia, as !e listens to 5e,odokos, as2once returned to Bt!aka2!e fails to recogni<e it, and as !e is reunited 0it! Tele,ac!os. 3ll t!ose ,o,ents antici"ate t!e final ,o,ent of "oignant reunion, as does t!e incessant grief of Penelo"e t!roug!out t!e "oe, and still ot!er lac!ry,ose scenes suc! as t!e e"isode at Menelaos=s "alace 0!ere t!e !ost, !is 0ife Celen, t!eir guest Tele,ac!os, and even !is co,"anion 3ntiloc!os, all $reak do0n in so$$ing and can only $e restored $y Celen=s ,agical "otion, so "o0erful t!at it in!i$its 0ee"ing for an entire day. T!e corres"onding scene in t!e #liad contrives a far ,ore i,"ro$a$le ,utuality, 0!en t!e old king of Troy is led $y Cer,es to t!e tent of !is son=s killer. T!e su"re,e, s!attering force of t!at confrontation lies in t!e $lessed release of tears accorded Pria, and 3c!illes toget!er, a ,utuality of grief so intense t!at it overrides t!e "resence of t!e cor"se of Cector. So HPria,I s"oke, and stirred in t!e ot!er a "assion of grieving for !is o0n fat!er. Ce took t!e old ,an=s !and and "us!ed !i, gently a0ay, and t!e t0o re,e,$ered, as Pria, sat !uddled at t!e feet of 3c!illeus and 0e"t close for ,anslaug!tering Cektor 3nd 3c!illeus 0e"t no0 for !is o0n fat!er, no0 again for Patroklos. T!e sound of t!eir ,ourning ,oved in t!e !ouse. T!en 0!en great 3c!illeus !ad taken full satisfaction in sorro0 and t!e "assion for it !ad gone fro, !is ,ind and $ody, t!ereafter !e rose fro, !is c!air, and took t!e old ,an $y t!e !and, and set !i, on !is feet again, in "ity for t!e grey !ead and t!e grey $eard. D#liad ?'.(&>:(1)EH(I Bt is !ard to $elieve t!at t!e original audiences of t!e #liad did not res"ond to t!is ,o,ent as fourt!: century audiences a""arently did. 3c!illes !i,self, ;regory 4agy !as argued, !as already $eco,e 8t!e very essence of grief8 0it!in t!e "oe,.H)I T!e release in tears in t!at ,agnificent scene $eco,es ulti,ately a scene of ,ourning for all t!e unnu,$ered dead of t!e "oe, and t!e, 0ar, t!e al,ost un$eara$le toll of t!e fallen t!at t!e narrative "itilessly records. T!at scene of uns"eaka$le "rivate grief is t!en follo0ed $y t!e "u$lic grief of Cektor=s funeral, 0!ere eac! la,ent of t!e t!ree "rinci"al 0o,en ,ourners is follo0ed $y t!e for,ulaic "!rase 8So s!e s"oke in tears.8 Bn t!e calculating senti,entality of t!e r!a"sode Bon, tears ,ay !ave

-1 ?$een t!e "rag,atic telos of t!e recitation, $ut in t!e severe and no$le "at!os of t!e t0o Co,eric "oe,s t!e,selves, tears can "ro"erly $e said to constitute t!e aut!entic narrative telos. T!is is i,"ortant $ecause, as B no0 0ant to argue, t!e resolution of tears t!at ends $ot! Co,eric "oe,s ends most of t!e 9uro"ean "oe,s t!at 0e co,,only descri$e as e"ics. Most of t!e, conclude Auite literally in tears, and t!ose fe0 t!at fail to do so tend to center on a "ivotal scene of ,ourning. T!e only difficulty in ,aking t!is argu,ent is t!at t!e "attern is so co,,on as to risk tediu, in t!e enu,eration. 3 $rief overvie0 0ill !ave to suffice. Beo2ulf, like t!e #liad, ends 0it! a funeral for its e"ony,ous !ero, or rat!er 0it! a dou$le funeral. 3fter t!e dee" "at!os of t!e !ero=s sacrificial deat!, !is $ody is ritually $urned, and t!e sound of 0ee"ing, 0rites t!e "oet, ,ingles 0it! t!e roar of t!e rising fire. T!e as!es are t!en $uried in a $arro0 a$out 0!ic! t0elve 0arriors rideF t!eir la,entation concludes t!e "oe,. Bn t!e Chanson de -oland, t!e grief for t!e $etrayed rear guard 0!en t!e ,ain $ody of t!e ar,y discovers its loss is itself e"ic in sco"e. T0enty t!ousand faint 0it! sorro0F not a single knig!t fails to s!ed tears "iteously. Bn t!e very closing lines, an angel a""ears to t!e $attle:0eary C!arle,agne to send !i, off according to ;od=s 0ill on anot!er e."edition. 8=;od,= cries C!arle,agne, =!o0 0retc!ed is ,y lifeV= Cis eyes s!ed tears, and !e tugs !is 0!ite $eard8D'&&1:'&&?E.H>I T!at is t!e end of t!e "oe,, as t!e one su"re,e loss descri$ed earlier is assi,ilated into a lifeti,e of "ainful service. 3s for t!e (i*elungenlied, its final "ages are da," 0it! universal tears for t!e ,assive $loodletting it records, and as it !a""ens, its last sentence is also devoted to t!e sa,e t!e,e: 8C!ristian and !eat!en, 0ife, ,an, and ,aid, 0ere seen 0ee"ing and ,ourning for t!eir friends.8HMI Bn t!e t0elft!:century 7ussian e"ic #gor$s -aid, t!e narration of t!e raid itself is overs!ado0ed $y t!e ,ourning t!at follo0s it, ,ourning t!at affects not only 0ido0s and survivors $ut even t!e $ereaved landsca"e. T!e grass droo"s 0it! condole,ents and t!e tree 0it! sorro0 $ends to t!e ground. . . . T!e 7ussian 0o,en !ave started to 0ee". . . . anguis! s"read flo0ing over t!e 7ussian land. D? :%'?EH I B 0ill "ass over t!e flood of tears s!ed in t!e Branian %hahndma 0!en t!e !ero 7usta, discovers too late t!at !e !as 0ounded un0ittingly and fatally !is son Su!r_$.H1&I But B !o"e t!at t!ese cu,ulative e.a,"les 0ill suggest t!at t!e "ri,ary e"ic as a genre is not so ,uc! concerned 0it! !eroic ac!ieve,ent in itself as 0it! t!e affective cost of ac!ieve,ent. W!at t!e "oe, 0orks -1 %to0ard, 0!at it leaves us 0it!, is t!at acute "ersonal recognition of "ain, often t!e restorative s!aring of "ain, 0!ic! it "resents as t!e inesca"a$le $urden of action. *ne ,ig!t 0ell ask 0!y t!is s!ould $e t!e case, 0!y so ,any co,,unal "oe,s in so ,any se"arate cultures s!ould ,ove to0ard t!is "articular dra,atic cul,ination. T!is is a ,ystery not easily "enetrated, $ut "er!a"s a kind of clarification $egins to e,erge fro, t!ese lines fro, t!e #liad already Auoted a$ove: W!en great 3c!illeus !ad taken full satisfaction in sorro0 and t!e "assion for it !ad gone fro, !is ,ind and $ody, t!ereafter

!e rose fro, !is c!air, and took t!e old ,an $y t!e !and. T!ese lines do not indicate t!at 3c!illes= sorro0 !as $een dissi"atedF t!ey do not re,ove t!e $urden of loss accu,ulated over t!e "oe, as a 0!ole. T!ey state rat!er t!at t!e "assion of sorro0 !as $een dis"elled, ,eaning "resu,a$ly t!at "rofound restless disAuiet t!at !as !arassed and tor,ented 3c!illes since t!e deat! of Patroklos. 3c!illes !as taken satisfaction in sorro0 t!roug! t!e act of 0ee"ing, as "resu,a$ly !as Pria,, and t!is satisfaction, t!is cat!arsis of "assion, allo0s t!e one ,an to take t!e ot!er $y t!e !and. T!at "eculiar satisfaction t!at does not re"ress loss $ut so,e!o0 finds it acce"ta$le flo0ers in t!e after,at! of "artici"atory ,ourning, and t!is satisfaction, t!is Auiescence in tragedy, is a reconciliation t!at 0e as audience can s!are. Bf, as B=ve suggested, our grief in t!is scene resolves our s!ock fro, t!e unnu,$ered dead of t!e "oe,, 0e still feel t!e 0eig!t of t!at toll, $ut our "assion also !as yielded to so,$er Auietude. We are left 0it! a recogni<a$le res"onse to "ain t!at 0e s!are 0it! 3c!illes and Pria, and t!ose 0!o ,ourn in t!e ot!er "oe,s B=ve Auoted. Ty"ically, e"ic grief is s!ared $y t0o or ,ore c!aracters 0!o are t!en 1oined $y t!e audience. T!at s!ared stillness 0it!in tre,endous ruin is 0!at !eroic "oetry $rings to us and $rings us to, and t!e !ard acAuisition of t!at stillness derives fro, a ritual t!at ,any cultures !ave inde"endently "roduced. Bt is of course a tragic ritual, and to recogni<e t!is is to understand $etter Plato=s reference to 8Co,er or so,e ot!er of t!e tragic co,"osers,8 or !is reference to Co,er else0!ere in t!e -epu*lic as 8t!e ,ost "oetic and first of t!e tragic "oets D-epu*lic BN .)&>aE, or again 3ristotle=s assertion t!at 8HCo,er=sI Margites . . . stands in t!e sa,e relation to our co,edies as t!e #liad and Odyssey to our tragedies8 DPoetics 1''M$:1'' aE. H11I T!e conclusion in tears, t!e e"ic telos of tears, is already found in t!e oldest e.tant "oe, t!at !as earned t!e na,e of e"ic, t!e *ld Ba$ylonian Gilgamesh, alt!oug! in its case t!e cli,actic grief is solitary rat!er t!an s!ared. T!e !ero ;ilga,es! !as $eco,e o$sessed 0it! !is o0n ,ortality and !as undertaken a long voyage to visit a certain Utana"is!ti, in Auest of enduring life. Cis !ost first discourages !is !o"es $ut is finally "ersuaded to give -1 '!i, a ,agic "lant 0!ose na,e is 8T!e *ld Man Beco,es a Loung Man,8 a "lant 8$y 0!ic! a ,an can attain !is survival.8 But ;ilga,es! carelessly allo0s a snake to ro$ !i, of t!e "lant. 3t t!at "oint ;ilga,es! sat do0n, 0ee"ing, !is tears strea,ing over t!e side of !is nose.H1?I 3 fe0 lines later t!e "oe, co,es to an end, leaving ;ilga,es! 0it! t!e tears of !is ,ortality. T!e tears "rovoked $y t!e loss of a ,agical !er$ in t!is ur:e"ic see, to ,e "aradig,atic. T!e "ain of e"ic ,ig!t $e said to ste, fro, a re"udiation of t!at crude ,agic t!at is !ere stolen. T!e ,agic of t!e folktale, t!e ,agic of t!e s"ell, are designed to "rotect !u,an $eings fro, t!e kind of "ain t!at e"ic confronts. Bt is true t!at re,nants of ,agical "o0er, for good or for evil, do survive in ,uc! !eroic "oetry, $ut 0!en it ,atters ,ost, t!ey fail to ,itigate t!e "ain of e.istence, t!e "ain t!at concludes and focuses t!e "oe,. T!us t!e 0ound fro, t!e $oar inflicted on t!e young *dysseus can $e !ealed 0it! incantations, $ut incantations are "o0erless to $ring t!e !ero !o,e fro, Troy. Just as *dysseus !as to $e $ound to t!e ,ast to ignore t!e $e0itc!ing song of t!e Sirens, so t!e genre itself !as to surrender t!at enc!anting "ossi$ility of !eart=s ease. T!e Sirens sing: 83rgos= old soldiery # *n Troy $eac! tee,ing, # C!ar,ed out of ti,e 0e see8DOdyssey 1?.?'1:?'%E. 9"ic, 0e ,ig!t say, refuses to $e c!ar,ed out of ti,e in t!at crude fas!ion t!e Sirens evoke. Bf it de"ends on a kind of enc!ant,ent, as it so,eti,es see,s to clai,, its "o0er is of a finer te,"er t!an t!e Sirens evoke or t!e !er$ of Utana"is!ti, e,$odies.

+ortunately 0e do "ossess a $ody of legendary "oetry t!at suggests 0!at t!e "ri,ary e"ic ,ig!t !ave $een 0it!out t!e renunciation of ,agical solace. T!e collection of narrative "oe,s gat!ered in t!e +innis! Gale)ala re"resents a 0orld t!at does de"end Auite e."licitly on ,agicF in fact a large "ro"ortion of t!e te.t consists of s"ells. T!is circu,stance affects, not sur"risingly, t!e status of tears. Bn "oe, '1 of t!e Gale)ala, t!e "oet:seer @`in`,Uinen sings so s0eetly t!at all of !is auditors 0ee", as !e !i,self 0ee"s at t!e 0onderful sound !e "roduces. T!ese are not t!e tears of e.istential "ain $ut of aest!etic delig!t, and $y t!e close of "oe, '1 t!ey are in fact aest!etici<ed. T!e singer 0ants !is tears returned to !i,, and 0it! !is !er,etic "o0er !e co,,ands a goldeneye $ird to collect t!e, for !i,. 3nd t!e $ird o$eys, returning t!e tears, 0!ic! are no0 transfor,ed into "earls.H1%I T!ese ,agical tears are ,arvelous 1e0els, $rilliant to t!e eye, "roof against erosion, innocent of suffering. /ike t!e Sirens= songs, t!ey are 8c!ar,ed out of ti,e.8 T!is aest!etici<ation of t!e tears "roduced not $y e."erience $ut $y song2a song 0!ose content 0e never learn2can usefully set off t!e severe resignation of e"ic tears t!at are irrecovera$le, un$eautiful, su$1ect to ti,e. 9"ic grief refuses t!e facile co,fort of t!e s"ell or t!e sorcerer or t!e ,ag: -1 (ical !er$ in order to effect t!at difficult ritual of reconciliation t!at refuses to re"ress.H1'I Jose"! 7usso and Bennett Si,on, 0riting on t!e oral e"ic tradition, suggest t!at 8recitation sets u" a kind of co,,on =field= in 0!ic! "oet, audience, and t!e c!aracters 0it!in t!e "oe,s are all defined, 0it! so,e $lurring of t!e $oundaries t!at nor,ally se"arate t!e t!ree.8H1(I Bn t!at co,,on field, t!e grief of t!e "oet, t!e c!aracter, and t!e !earer see, to $lend in a for, of co,,union, and 0!ere t!e "erfor,er can $e distinguis!ed fro, t!e "oet, !is grief also 1oins in a necessary continuu,. T!is continuu, is ,eta"!ori<ed $y Socrates in t!e #on as a series of rings ,agneti<ed $y a lodestone, $eginning 0it! t!e Muse, "assing t!roug! "oet and "erfor,er, and ending 0it! t!e s"ectator D(%%d:e, (%(e:(%)$E. Ce ,ig!t !ave added t!e ring $elonging to t!e c!aracter, t!e Pria, or C!arle,agne or ;ilga,es!. Bn t!e co,,on field of "erfor,ance, in t!e series of ,agneti<ed rings, t!e grief of t!e "oet ,erges 0it! t!e "erfor,er=s, and t!e c!aracter=s, and t!e audience=s. Truly to listen to t!e e"ic is to enter t!at s"ace 0!ere t!e conventional distinctions $reak do0n, Jean:Pierre @ernant=s 8au delR8 of Mne,osyne, 0!ere t!e "artici"ation of "ast and "resent "roduces a !allo0ed co,,union $et0een t!e t0o. T!is co,,union, B su$,it, is ,ost accessi$le t!roug! t!e s!aring of tears. Tears $reak do0n ,ost effectively t!ose $oundaries t!at e"ic "resencing erodes. T!e s!aring of tears "rovides a contact 0it! a !ero ,ore intense t!an t!e 0onder at !is acco,"lis!,entsF it levels t!e "lanes of !u,an e.cellence, and it invites t!e inti,acy of a si,"le s!ared !u,anity. T!is inti,acy is t!e,ati<ed at least once in t!e Odyssey, 0!en *dysseus in Cades tries to e,$race !is ,ot!er 3ntikleia $ut discovers t!at !er $ody !as no su$stance. 4o0 t!is e,$ittered all t!e "ain B $ore, and B cried in t!e darkness: 8* ,y ,ot!er, 0ill you not stay, $e still, !ere in ,y ar,s, ,ay 0e not, in t!is "lace of 5eat!, as 0ell, !old one anot!er, touc! 0it! love, and taste salt tears= relief, t!e t0inge of 0elling tearsG8 D11.?%':?% E T!e failure of t!e son to e,$race !is ,ot!er involves, a""arently, an ina$ility to 0ee" 0it! !er. T!e

8relief8 of salt tears, antici"ating t!e tearful release later 0it! Penelo"e, see,s indistinguis!a$le fro, touc!ing t!e ot!er "erson. Touc!ing 0it! love and t!e 0elling of tears for, a single e."erience. We 0ould not distort greatly, B t!ink, t!e e."erience of t!e Co,eric "oe,s, and ,ore $roadly of !eroic narrative, if 0e allegori<ed t!is conflation of touc!ing and 0ee"ing to descri$e t!e "artici"ation in !eroic sorro0 t!at is t!e goal of e"ic. T!e audience touc!es t!e actors of t!e "oe, and is touc!ed -1 )$y t!e, t!roug! t!e ,ediu, of t!e "erfor,er 0!o is !i,self touc!ed in t0o senses. 9u,aeus t!e s0ine!erd co,"ares *dysseus t!e raconteur to 8a ,instrel taug!t $y !eaven to touc! t!e !earts of ,en8D 1>.)M&:)M1E. We !ave every reason to $elieve t!at t!e !earts of a ,instrel=s audience 0ere indeed "rofoundly affected. Bt is a""ro"riate t!at t!e ,o,ent of su"re,e feeling, t!e ,o,ent of co,,union, s!ould coincide, in ;reece as else0!ere, 0it! t!e contagion of grieving at t!e cul,ination of eac! narrative. Bt is t!is encounter of "resent and "ast in a co,,on reality t!at distinguis!es t!e "ri,ary e"ic fro, ot!er narratives 0it! lac!ry,ose endings2/adame Bo)ary, for instance. But for t!ose of us 0!o seek to understand t!e 0orkings of t!e arc!aic i,agination, 0e of course are o$liged to reconceive t!e status of t!e !eroic "ast in so,e0!at different ter,s. +or us, t!at "ast is not a frag,ent of reality already i,,uta$le and "erennial. Bt is rat!er a constructed reality t!at ,ay or ,ay not contain a grain of !istory, as t!e $attle of 7oncesvalles contains a ,inor attack on C!arle,agne=s rear guard $y BasAue C!ristians. T!e reality invented $y a co,,unal i,agination, fro, our "ers"ective, is a "ro1ection u"on a di, "ast 0!ose $lankness is intolera$le, 0!ose stretc!es of vacuity leave a "eo"le 0it!out a co,,on identity and ,ust $e filled in $y ,yt!. Pri,ary e"ic solaces t!at un$eara$le insufficiency of t!e availa$le "ast so t!at a "eo"le can kno0 0!ere it !as co,e fro,, 0!o, it !as co,e fro,, and t!us 0!o it is. T!e e"ic $ard dra0s u"on a stock of legends and a,"lifies t!e, 0it! fres! detail. But in order for t!e co,,union of grief to occur, t!is construct "ro1ected u"on t!e dark $ack0ard and a$ys, of ti,e !as to contain in itself t!at intuition of vulnera$ility and loss t!at can ,ake a co,,union in sorro0 conceiva$le. T!e !eroic "ast as 0e "erceive it is not an a$solute givenF it $etrays t!e contingency of t!e i,aginary s!a"ed to allo0 a ritual of reconciliation. T!e "ro1ected "ast is arranged to invite t!at e,$race of t!e living 0it! t!e su""osed dead, 0!o, unlike 3ntikleia, are no0 ,ade su$stantial. T!e narrative leading u" to t!is intuitive e,$race !as to guarantee t!e no$ility of t!e accessi$le "astF it !as to ensure t!at t!e "at!os of t!e close 0ill not "rove c!ea"ly senti,ental. 3ll "reliterate societies "ro1ect ,yt!s against t!e terror of !istorical ignoranceF !eroic "oetry is "roduced $y t!ose societies 0!ose "ro1ected ,yt!s "rove t!e,selves availa$le for a "articular kind of co,,union. 3 s"iritual circuit is closed t!at involves $ot! "ro1ection and assi,ilation, t!e "rogressive fa$rication of a ,yt! t!at is t!en rendered "resent t!roug! t!e ,agic of !eig!tened language and is a$sor$ed, as 9u,aeus says, in t!e !earts of ,en. Bn t!e "assage fro, "ri,ary to secondary e"ic, t!at circle of "ro1ection and assi,ilation 0ill continue to o"erate, $ut not 0it!out certain interferences. Bn t!e "oetry of a literate society, t!e story retold no longer ste,s fro, t!e "ast $ut fro, a "ast a,ong ot!ers, a "ast 0!ose !istorical validity is al0ays o"en to Auestion. T!e "oe, functions to recall t!e !eroic story $ut -1 >also to ensure t!at t!e story kee"s its distance along a c!ronological continuu, fa,iliar to t!e reader. T!e story to $e "ro1ected, in order to "er,it an assi,ilation, no longer fills a !istorical voidF it is o$liged rat!er to clear a0ay a "ast cluttered 0it! !istory. T!e ritual of s!ared grief no longer s"rings s"ontaneously fro, a !allo0ed act of ,e,ory, $ut fro, t!e creative energy of a given aut!orial

i,agination. T!ere are ot!er interferences. *ne lies in t!e "rivacy of t!e act of reading, 0!ic! no0 re"laces t!e co,,unal rece"tion of a "erfor,ance. 3not!er interference lies in s!ifting et!ical codes t!at ,ay conde,n t!e very act of 0ee"ing as de,orali<ing. 3nd in a C!ristian "oe,, 0ee"ing c!aracteristically is an e."ression of re,orse for an individual sinful "ast t!at is not necessarily t!e reader=s "ast. Bn vie0 of t!ese interferences, t!e sur"rising feature of latter:day e"ics is t!eir continuity in grief 0it! t!eir generic fore$ears. Bn 9uro"ean cultural !istory, t!e "ivotal te.t t!at alters "er,anently t!e e"ic circle of "ro1ection and "artici"ation is t!e Aeneid. 4o one can deny its suffusion 0it! lacrymae rerum, $ut t!e status of grief in @irgil is attended 0it! "rofound a,$ivalence. Bn fact 3eneas=s very usage of t!e over:fa,iliar "!rase in $ook 1 is e."osed i,,ediately to t!e "oet=s irony. 3l,ost everyone, it see,s, 0ee"s at so,e "oint in t!e Aeneid, $ut t!e reader is not infreAuently left uncertain !o0 to res"ond. @enus 0ee"sF Creusa 0ee"sF 3ndro,ac!e 0ee"sF 3scanius 0ee"sF 9vander 0ee"sF Juno 0ee"sF %inon 0ee"sF t!e !ero re"eatedly and unstintingly 0ee"s. Most fa,ously, 5ido 0ee"s, and so "oignantly t!at Saint 3ugustine 0as co,"elled like countless ot!er readers to i,itate !er. But t!e tears of 5ido lead to suicidal neurosis, and t!e line $et0een no$le sorro0 and de,orali<ing self:"ity is "rogressively $lurred as !er story nears its terri$le end. T!e Aeneid does ,ove closer to aut!entic tears in $ook 11, in 3eneas=s elegiac valedictory over t!e $ody of Pallas and later 9vander=s "assionate la,entation. But $ook 1? s0ings $ack to a !ars!er "olari<ation, 0!ic! assigns t!e stig,a of 0ee"ing to a series of !ysterical fe,ales23,ata, Juturna, even /avinia, and finally all t!e 0o,en of /aurentu, 0ailing over t!eir dead Aueen. 3eneas in t!e last $ook re,ains coldly dry:eyed, and t!e te.t, never ,ore a,$ivalent, invites us 0it! one of its voices to ad,ire !is self:control. *ften t!e s!aring of grief t!at t!e te.t invites see,s to re,ain in an et!ical li,$o. *ne fa,iliar ,o,ent can $e taken to enca"sulate t!e force of tears in t!e Aeneid. 3eneas in t!e under0orld sees 5ido, or t!inks !e sees !er, so 0is"y and clouded is !er "resence. Bs s!e really t!ereG Ce cries out to !er any0ay, 0ee"ing, "rotesting !is reluctance to leave !er at Cart!age and $egging !er no0 to linger. Wit! t!ese "rotests, continues t!e te.t, !e tries to soot!e t!e $urning s"irit staring !i, do0n in fury, and su,,ons tears28lacri,as cie$at.8 Bot! +it<gerald and Mandel$au, translate t!is "!rase to say t!at 3eneas 0e"t. But @irgil !as already told us t!at. T!e ver$ ciere ,eans 8to stir,8 8to arouse,8 8to su,,on.8 Bsn=t it 5ido=s tears !e 0ants to elicit, res"onding -1 Mto !is o0nG We can=t $e sure, and one ,ig!t take t!at undecida$ility to allegori<e t!e "oe,=s o0n a,$ivalence, full of tears $ut ,aking a,$iguous a""eals to its audience.H1)I Cere at any rate is a ,o,ent of grief t!e ,odern reader can s!are, co,"ounded of inci"ient regret, stirrings of guilt, love t!at is al,ost sincere, vague intuitions of loss, ine.trica$le feelings of s!ado0y inadeAuacy voiced into t!e di, s!ado0s around t!e s"eaker. 5oes s!e really !ear !i,, if s!e=s t!ereG 5oes !e succeed in stirring !er tearsG *r is !e only su,,oning deli$erately ,ore of !is o0nG Bs !e telling t!e full trut!G 8Pue, fugisG8 !e asksF 8W!o is it you=re fleeingG82a radical Auestion t!at ,ig!t $e read as "utting !is o0n self!ood in dou$t. Bn t!is ,o,ent of su"re,e anguis! and su"re,e indeter,inacy, ,any ,odern readers 0ill $e a$le to "artici"ate. 9."ressions of grief in t!e secondary e"ic of t!e later Middle 3ges and t!e 7enaissance 0ould furnis! in t!e,selves ,atter for a ,onogra"!, and in t!e s"ace availa$le B can recall only a fe0 scenes t!at a ,onogra"! on t!e su$1ect 0ould !ave to consider. Bt 0ould need to recall t!e titanic !o0ling of *rlando in 3riosto=s Orlando furioso, t!e scene t!at is located "recisely !alf0ay t!roug! t!e "oe, and fro, 0!ic! it rig!tly takes its title. *rlando=s $erserk rage at t!e loss of 3ngelica is t!e ,ig!tiest and ,ost fearful t!ing in t!at long "oe,F it transfor,s !i, into a ,urderous ,ad,anF not!ing availa$le to

3riosto can contain it, e.ce"t a fanciful 0!i,sy, 0!ic! is trans"arently fictitious. T!at fren<y of suffering tends to $e ,ore ,uted in one of t!e darkest of 7enaissance e"ics, S"enser=s 1aerie .ueene, alt!oug! it too contains ,o,ents of $itter tears. But even ,ore significant t!an t!ose ,o,ents is t!e re"eated $lunting of S"enser=s !eroic narratives $y !is c!aracteristic "ull$ack in $ook after $ook fro, acco,"lis!,ent and affir,ation, ,aking t!e ostensi$ly successful story into a fa$le of regret. T!e 7ed Crosse 6nig!t ,ay $e united to Una, $ut !e is soon o$liged to leave !er, 8T!e 0!ic! !e s!ortly did, and Una left to ,ourne.8 T!at deadening line ends t!e narrative of $ook 1, as t!e 0!ole "oe, ends 0it! a "iercing cry for a cul,inating Sa$$aot! t!at never co,es. Bn S"enser=s "oe, as in ot!er C!ristian e"ics, t!e co,,union of t!e reader 0it! t!e fictive c!aracter no longer crosses so ,uc! a stretc! of ti,e $ut rat!er t!e ga" $et0een t!e "articular guilty e."erience of t!e one and t!e ot!er. T!e "oet=s "rinci"al task in t!ese instances is to effect a "resencing of t!e ,ore or less invented c!aracter t!at s"ecifies !is or !er guilt, $ut not so narro0ly t!at t!e reader is una$le to s!are sy,"at!etically t!at re,orse t!at t!e C!ristian e"ic takes as its telos. T!us S"enser=s reader, not a resident of +aeryland, ,ust $e a$le to res"ond to t!e torture of 7ed Crosse $y Penance, 7e,orse, and 7e"entance at t!e Couse of Coliness, 0!ere 8!is tor,ent often 0as so great, # T!at like a /yon !e 0ould cry and rore, # 3nd rend !is fles!8 D1.1&.?ME. T!e C!ristian "oet "ro1ects a ,yt! of rede,"tion not on t!e darkness of t!e "ast $ut on t!e darkness of t!e errant !u,an -1 -

soul in order t!at t!e reader can co,"lete t!e "ro1ective circle 0it! an assi,ilation of "urgative "ain. T!e su"re,e e.a,"le of t!at circle in Western literature is found in cantos %& and %1 of 5ante=s Purgatorio, after 5ante t!e "ilgri, is faced 0it! t!e $eloved and accusing eyes of Beatrice. Ce turns instinctively to @irgil for su""ort, only to discover t!at !is guide !as disa""eared, after 0!ic!, !e 0rites, not all t!e eart!ly "aradise could 8kee" ,y de0:0as!ed c!eeks fro, turning dark again 0it! tears8D%&.(%:('E.H1>I .But t!is loss is only t!e $eginning of 5ante=s ordeal, !is o0n "ersonal crisis in t!e "oe,, as !e !ears t!e re"roving voice of t!e 0o,an 0atc!ing !i, re"roac!fully. 85ante, $ecause @irgil leaves you, do not 0ee" yet, do not 0ee" yet, for you ,ust 0ee" for anot!er s0ord.8 D%&.((:(>E T!e ot!er s0ord is 1udg,ent for !is life of sin after t!e deat! of !is lady. T!e t!reefold re"etition of t!e ver$ piangere Dto 0ee"E antici"ates t!e "ilgri,=s conduct during t!e "itiless inAuisition t!at follo0s, dra0ing tears so co"ious t!at !e is $riefly rendered inca"a$le of s"eec!. T!e ,o,ent of t!eir anguis!ed release is evoked $y a si,ile of e.ce"tional "eri"!rastic ela$oration, a si,ile t!at co,"ares t!e rigidity of t!e sinner=s !eart to t!e sno0s of t!e 3""enines, "acked and congealed, until finally 8t!e ice t!at 0as $ound tig!t around ,y !eart $eca,e $reat! and 0ater, and 0it! anguis! "oured fro, ,y $reast t!roug! ,y ,out! and eyes8D%&. >: E. T!e scene $et0een t!e accuser and accused is at once t!e ,ost inti,ate of t!e "oe,, t!e ,ost "rivate e."osure of !is "ersonal !istory, and at t!e sa,e ti,e a reenact,ent of t!e sacra,ent of "enance, 0!ic! reAuires t!ose tears of contrition t!at are s!ed as 0ell as t!e ver$al confession of ,isconduct t!at t!e tears al,ost c!oke into silence. But after t!e sno0 !as ,elted, after t!e !ardened !eart !as "u$licly ,elted, t!en in effect t!e story of 5ante=s "urgation is over. Ce is allo0ed to cross t!e strea, of /et!e, 0!ic! 0as!es a0ay t!e ,e,ories of evil action, and t!en t!e strea, of 9unoe, 0!ic! restores t!e ,e,ories of good. Bn all t!e re,ainder of t!e "oe,, 5ante 0ill 0itness ,uc! and learn ,uc!, $ut !is o0n "ersonal odyssey is over. Beatrice ,akes it clear t!at t!e 1ourney t!roug! !ell and "urgatory !as $een necessary to ,elt t!e ice of !is !ardened conscience. Bts ,elting 0as t!e true telos of t!e "ilgri,age of t!e first t0o canticles.

T!e si,ile of t!e ,elting ,ountain sno0 0ill recur in t!e closing "ages of Tasso=s Gerusalemme li*erata, a ric! e.a,"le of dialectical i,itation, in t!e lac!ry,ose reunion of t!e C!ristian knig!t 7inaldo and !is for,er lover, t!e for,er enc!antress 3r,ida. T!e "agan ar,ies !ave $een defeatedF Jerusale, !as $een 0onF 3r,ida t!e infidel is conte,"lating suicide near t!e $attlefield 0!en t!e a""roac! of 7inaldo causes !er to faint. Cis tears revive !erF !is "ro,ises of devotion and service restore !er, and like ,oun: - ?&& tain sno0s ,elted $y t!e sun, s!e also 0ee"s and surrenders !er future to !i,. Cis tears, co,,ents 5avid Puint, signal 8a ne0 ,utuality in t!eir love,8 re"lacing t!e over!eated narcissis, t!at !ad earlier "assed for "assion.H1MI T!e ,utuality is reinforced $y t!e ,ingling of tears, tokens of co,"assion, tenderness, and 1oy. S"ecifically, 3r,ida=s tears signal t!e re"udiation of enc!ant,ent as 7inaldo=s signal t!e sacrifice of !eroic self:0ill. T!is scene, 0!ic! really ends Tasso=s narrative, reca"tures t!at austerity of t!e "ost:,agical, t!at surrender to co,,on !u,anity, 0!ic! 0e !ave already found in t!e stark endings of t!e older e"ics. Bn t!at surrender "unctuated 0it! 0ee"ing, Tasso=s "oe, like so ,any ot!ers finds its goal. We can finis! t!is Auick overvie0 $y recalling t!e close of t!e "lot of Paradise ost. T!e crisis of t!e ,arriage $et0een 3da, and 9ve, 0!ic! is also a crisis in t!e future of !u,anity, is resolved at t!e end of $ook io. *nce t!ey !ave fallen, t!ey don=t kno0 0!o t!ey are or 0!ere t!ey areF t!ey don=t kno0 0!at t!e future contains, if t!ere 0ill $e any futureF t!ey don=t kno0 0!at t!eir ,arriage 0ill $e, "oisoned as it is $y ,utual rancor. 3da, in a soliloAuy searc!es for ans0ers fruitlessly $ut ends, as !e says, only in an 8a$yss of fears and !orrors8D 1&.M'?:M''E. Bt is 9ve 0!o takes t!e first ste" to0ard rede,"tion $y asking !er !us$and=s forgiveness, as !e t!en accords it and asks for !ers. Toget!er t!ey gro"e t!eir 0ay as a cou"le t!roug! t!e re,ainder of t!e $ook to0ard 0!at, in Milton=s vie0, is t!e only rig!t solution. t!ey fort!0it! to t!e "lace 7e"airing 0!ere !e H;odI 1udg=d t!e, "rostrate fell Before !i, reverent, and $ot! confessed Cu,$ly t!ir faults, and "ardon $egd, 0it! tears Watering t!e ground, and 0it! t!ir sig!s t!e 3ir +reAuenting. D1&.1& M:11&%E Wit! t!is ritual of contrition, a ritual not 0it!out its !erois,, a future $eco,es "ossi$le for t!e ,arriage and for all of us. T!e ne.t t0o $ooks 0ill $e devoted to t!at severe future, until !us$and and 0ife, fully instructed, are led out of t!e garden into a 0orld of struggle and !o"e. T!ey looking $ack, all t!= 9astern side $e!eld *f Paradise, so late t!ir !a""ie seat. . . So,e natural tears t!ey dro"d, $ut 0i"=d t!e, soonF T!e World 0as all $efore t!e,, 0!ere to c!oose T!ir "lace of rest, and Providence t!ir guide. D1?.)'1:)'?, )'(:)'>E Bn t!e Judeo:C!ristian !istory of fallen !u,anity, t!is ,arks a $eginning, $ut in t!e !istory of e"ic "oetry, 0e can read t!is "assage retros"ectively as a kind of end "oint. T!ere 0ould $e later narrative 0orks of e"ic resonance,

- ?&1 ,any ,arvelous 0orks, $ut t!e s"ecific ,ingling of credi$le !u,an ac!ieve,ent 0it! t!e "erce"tion of terri$le cost 0ould, after Milton, $eco,e ,ore difficult to $ring off. Bts availa$ility in Paradise ost is already in dou$t. /ater, t!e "ro1ective circle of e"ic 0ould encounter t!e interference of 9nlig!ten,ent rationality. Milton=s guilty cou"le 0i"e a0ay t!eir tears as a gesture of C!ristian !o"e, des"ite its severe constraints, $ut for Milton=s "osterity, t!at !o"e 0ould $eco,e less constrained, and tears 0ould $e relegated to t!e $ourgeois larmoyant. T!e ritual of reconciliation 0ould $eco,e "rogressively rare or else conventionally facile. 3s 3da, and 9ve 0i"e t!eir faces, t!ey are 0i"ing a0ay so,et!ing "recious, t!e vestiges of a traditionF t!e c!ain of Plato=s rings !as slackened and dissolved.

Wor/s Cited
Cerington, Jo!n. 1 M(. Poetry into "rama: Early Tragedy and the Gree, Poetic Tradition. Berkeley: University of California Press. Murnag!an, S!eila. 1 M>. "isguise and -ecognition in the 8Odyssey .8 Princeton: Princeton University Press. 4agy, ;regory. 1 > . The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the 0ero in Archaic Gree, Poetry. Balti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press. Puint, 5avid. 1 M%. Origin and Originality in -enaissance iterature: 7ersions of the %ource. 4e0 Caven: Lale University Press. 7usso, Jose"!, and Bennett Si,on. 1 )M. 8Co,eric Psyc!ology and t!e *ral 9"ic Tradition.8Fournal of the 0istory of #deas H8: ' ?. @ernant, Jean:Pierre. 1 MM. /ythe et pens;e che! les Grecs: Atudes de psychologie histori<ue. Paris: \ditions la 5Kcouverte. - ?&% -

))0 The 'oetics of &oss in .ree/ Epic

Sheila Murnaghan Study of la,ent !as $egun to $e a ,a1or "art of t!e fe,inist reinter"retation of e"ic, including $ot! te.tual study and ant!ro"ological accounts of fe,ale la,ent in ,odern ;reece. S!eila Murnag!an dra0s on t!is sc!olars!i" to trace a continuu, fro, ,ale la,ent, 0!ic! turns t!e s"eaker $ack to0ard an affir,ation of kleos and e"ic "ur"oses, to fe,ale la,ent, 0!ic! ignores t!e deat!:defying fa,e t!at e"ic "rovides as co,"ensation for !eroic loss. Murnag!an=s essay ,akes an i,"ortant contri$ution to de$ates a$out 1ust !o0 su$versive la,ent can $e in e"ic. Bn s"ite of t!e 0ays t!at fe,ale la,ent can see, to disru"t or c!allenge t!e !eroic code, Murnag!an argues t!at e"ic cannot do 0it!out la,ent, since la,ent not only $egins t!e "rocess of generating "raise fro, grief $ut also "resents t!e $ody of t!e enslaved and ,ournful 0ido0 as ins"iration for t!e creation of t!e !us$and=s unending fa,e. Murnag!an=s inter"retation leads us to for, a ,ore "olyvocal and "erfor,ative2and less ,onu,ental2t!eory of e"ic t!an ,ore traditional readings 0ould, one in 0!ic! t!e "oe,=s cele$ration of ,artial and !eroic values coe.ists 0it! t!e c!allenges to t!ose values raised $y la,ent. T!e classical e"ic e.!i$its a co,"licated, a,$iguous, and so,eti,es trou$led relations!i" to t!e genre of la,entation. T!e la,ent is at once constitutive of e"ic and antit!etical to it, one of e"ic=s "ro$a$le sources and a su$versive ele,ent 0it!in e"ic t!at can 0ork against 0!at e"ic is trying to ac!ieve. /a,entation t!us !as an i,"ortant role to "lay in current atte,"ts to ret!ink t!e nature of e"ic, to c!allenge a vision of e"ic t!at can $e su,,ed u" in t!e ter, 8,onu,ental.8 T!is vision, 0!ic! is e,$odied $ot! in critical accounts of t!e e"ic and in t!e clai,s various e"ics ,ake for t!e,selves Dand 0!ic! t!is $rief su,,ary inevita$ly caricaturesE, "resents e"ic as a ,assive, univocal, and cele$ratory for, of !ig! art. 3s a genre of "oetry "erfor,ed on a "articular social occasion and !aving an i,"ortant function 0it!in a ,a1or and "ervasive social ritual, la,ent !el"s us to find t!e connections $et0een e"ic and ,ore occasional, ,ore "o"ular "oetic for,sF it allo0s us to trace e"ic=s de"endence on t!e 8s"eec! genres8 of ordinary co,,unal lifeH1I and to a""reciate e"ic=s ,ore dialogic, "olyvocal di,ensions. +or 0ritten "roducts of oral traditions suc! as t!e Co,eric e"ics, focusing on t!e "oe,=s connections to la,ent !el"s us to recogni<e 0orks like t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey as originally t!e,selves - ?&' for,s of "erfor,ed and "erfor,ative s"eec! e,$edded in s"ecific social occasions. 3s a genre of 0!ic! t!e c!ief "ractitioners are 0o,en, la,entation also !as an i,"ortant role to "lay in fe,inist rea""raisals of e"ic. T!e la,ents incor"orated into t!e larger structures of e"ic ,ay $ear traces of aut!entic 0o,en=s voices and offer 0o,en=s "ers"ectives on actions t!at are carried out "ri,arily $y ,en and "ri,arily to "ro,ote ,ale interests. +or t!e Co,eric e"ics, t!ese "ro1ects are furt!ered $y an ongoing, living tradition of 0o,en=s la,ents in rural ,odern ;reece, 0!ic! !ave $een collected and studied $y ant!ro"ologists suc! as 3nna Caraveli:C!aves, /oring 5anfort! and 4adia Sere,etakis. T!e connection $et0een t!ese conte,"orary la,ents and t!ose "reserved in ancient ;reek literary sources 0as esta$lis!ed in Margaret 3le.iou=s ground$reaking 0ork The -itual ament in Gree, Tradition and !as $een furt!er analy<ed $y ;ail Colst:War!aft in !er recent study "angerous 7oices:

Women$s aments and Gree, iterature. T!roug! ,odern ;reek 0o,en=s la,ents, t!e Co,eric e"ics can $e "laced in a "oetic tradition t!at is "erfor,ed, nonliterary, tied to ritual, fe,ale:aut!ored, and re,ote fro, t!e su""osed ,ainstrea, of Western 9uro"ean !ig! culture: a tradition very different fro, t!e Co,er:@irgil:5ante:Milton seAuence on 0!ic! co,"arative studies of t!e e"ic often focus. +inally, t!e content of la,entation gives it an eAuivocal relations!i" to e"ic. 3s a grieving res"onse to t!e loss of an individual, la,entation is an urgent e."ression of t!at "erson=s value, and so is a for, of "raise. /a,ent is t!us "rototy"ical of e"ic as a genre t!at confers "raise2,leos in Co,eric e"ic2on t!e actions of !eroes, and ,ore "articularly on t!e actions of dead !eroes, 0!o !ave earned t!eir rig!t to $e "raised t!roug! t!e ,anner of t!eir deat!s. T!us la,ents, along 0it! "anegyrics delivered to living leaders, lie at t!e source of ,any traditions of !eroic "oetry. But, unlike "anegyric, la,ent is "raise ins"ired $y t!e s"eaker=s sorro0 and regret at t!e su$1ect=s loss. 3s C. M. Bo0ra "uts it, 8/a,ent is $orn fro, grief for t!e dead, and t!oug! "raise is naturally co,$ined 0it! it, grief !as t!e c!ief "lace.8H?I /a,entation t!reatens to under,ine t!e kleos:conferring function of e"ic $ecause it stresses t!e suffering caused $y !eroic deat! rat!er t!an t!e glory 0on $y itF la,entation calls into Auestion t!e glorification of deat! s"onsored $y ,artial societies and t!e e"ics t!at cele$rate t!e,. T!e anti:e"ic di,ension of la,ent is e."lored in t!is volu,e for 7o,an e"ic $y 9laine +ant!a,. Bn t!e dra,a of e"ic=s reali<ation of its generic identity, t!e fe,ale:do,inated su$genre of la,ent "lays a role analogous to t!at of e"ic=s fe,ale c!aracters in its !eroes= reali<ations of t!eir goals: originary yet ,arginal, indis"ensa$le yet su$versive. 3nd t!is is also t!e role of t!e locality ;reece in t!e dra,a of e"ic=s ac!ieve,ent of its "lace at t!e !eart of t!e Western 9uro"ean tradition. 3lt!oug! no actual 0o,en=s la,ents survive fro, ancient ;reece, t!eir "o0er can still $e ,easured in t!e legal and literary res"onses t!ey called - ?&( fort!. Wo,en=s la,ents 0ere felt to $e sufficiently t!reatening to society, 0!et!er as s"urs to violent revenge or as c!allenges to t!e value of dying for t!e state, t!at t!ey 0ere officially restricted t!roug! legislation, ,ost fa,ously t!at enacted $y Solon in 3t!ens in t!e si.t! century B.C.9.H%I Bn addition, t!eir functions 0ere a""ro"riated for t!e classical city $y t0o state:s"onsored literary genres. Bn one, t!e epitaphios logos, or "u$lic funeral oration, designed to glorify deat! in $attle for t!e city and ,ini,i<e its cost in individual suffering, 0o,en=s la,ents are su$,erged in a ne0 official, ,ale: centered discourse.H'I But in t!e ot!er, tragedy, 0o,en=s la,ents are re"resented as "art of a co,"le. $ut controlled e."loration of t!e social order and t!e t!reats t!at it faces, es"ecially fro, t!e intense "ersonal attac!,ents e."ressed in la,entation.H(I /ike tragedy, t!e Co,eric e"ics confront la,entation $y re"resenting it, incor"orating la,ents into t!e larger structures of t!eir "lots. T!is is "articularly t!e case in t!e #liad, 0!ere t!e final t!ird of t!e "oe, is centered on t!e conseAuential and ,uc!:la,ented deat!s of Patroclus and Cector. T!e discussion t!at follo0s 0ill focus on !o0 t!e Co,eric e"ics de"ict t!eir o0n relations!i" to la,entation, "articularly as a transitional event t!at in!a$its t!e $order $et0een e."erience and song. Because la,ents transcend t!e distinction $et0een s"eec! and act2in t!at a song of la,ent can eAuate itself 0it! t!e activity of ,ourning t!e dead2la,entation "lays a key role in t!e Co,eric e"ics= re,arka$ly t!oroug! canvassing of t!e "rocess of e"ic co,,e,oration, fro, t!e ,o,ent of !eroic deat! to its eventual glorification in everlasting song. 3 sense t!at la,ent $ot! is and is not to $e eAuated 0it! e"ic and 0it! kleos:conferring "oetry in general is conveniently e."ressed 0it!in Co,eric "oetry $y a le.ical distinction. T!e e"ics include t0o

different ter,s for la,entation: threnos and goos. T!e threnos is t!e co,,issioned 0ork of "rofessional outsiders, 8co,"osed and "erfor,ed at t!e funeral $y non:kins,en.8 T!e goos is a less for,al co,"osition, i,"rovised in res"onse to t!e grief of t!e occasion and al0ays sung2or 0ailed2 $y t!e dead ,an=s relations or close friends.H)I T!e threnos clearly re"resents t!e kind of for,al, enduring art0ork t!at t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey see t!eir events as turning into, even t!oug! t!e ter, is used only once in eac! e"ic. 3lt!oug! rare, t!ose references to threnos are significant, involving t!e co,,e,oration in deat! of t!e #liad$s t0o c!ief !eroes, Cector and 3c!illes. *ne occurs in t!e account of Cector=s funeral at t!e end of #liad H:, 0!ere 0e are told t!at "rofessional singers 0ere t!e e+archous threnon, 8leaders of threnoi4 D#liad ?'.>?1E. T!is ,ention of threnoi is follo0ed $y t!ree s"eec!es la$eled gooi delivered $y Cector=s fe,ale relatives 3ndro,ac!e, Cecu$a, and Celen. T!e ot!er ,ention of threnoi co,es in t!e last $ook of t!e Odyssey, 0!ere 0e learn t!at t!e Muses t!e,selves threneon, 8sang threnoi4 DOdyssey ?'.)1E at t!e funeral of 3c!illes. T!e connection $et0een t!ese threnoi sung - ?&) at 3c!illes= funeral and enduring ,leos in "oetry as co,"ensation for !eroic deat! is ,ade e."licit $y t!e later lyric "oet Pindar in a key "assage in one of !is odes: 84or did songs desert !i, 0!en !e died,# $ut t!e ,aidens of Celicon stood around !is "yre and !is to,$# and "oured fort! a threnos full of fa,e 5threnon poluphamon6.= +or it see,ed 1ust to t!e gods# t!at a great ,an2even t!oug! dead2$e endo0ed 0it! t!e songs of goddesses8 D#sthmian M.)?:))E. 3nd threnos 0as t!e tec!nical ter, for a genre of lyric "oetry t!at continued t!e traditions of arc!aic e"ic2and ,ay 0ell also !ave "redated e"ic and contri$uted to its develo",ent. 3lt!oug! t!e threnoi ,entioned in t!e #liad t!us fulfill t!e "ur"ose Co,eric e"ics clai, for t!e,selves and are evoked at strategically i,"ortant ,o,ents of su,,ing u" in t!e "lots of t!e t0o "oe,s, t!ey are not t!e,selves actually re"resented. 7at!er, t!e narratives of t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey>their accounts of t!e events t!at t!ey are converting into ,leos contain ,any references to t!e ,ore infor,al, "ersonal, "erfor,ative, and transient for, of t!e goos, and a nu,$er of gooi are actually Auoted 0it!in t!e #liad. T!e ,ost structurally "ro,inent are t!e t!ree la,ents at Cector=s funeral ,entioned a$ove, $ut t!ese are "receded $y T!etis=s "role"tic goos for 3c!illes and 3c!illes= la,ent for Patroclus in $ook 1M D#liad BI.JH&D:, %?':%'?EF $y t0o la,ents delivered $y Briseis and 3c!illes over t!e $ody of Patroclus in $ook 1 D#liad 1 .?M>:%&&, %1(:%%>EF $y t!e s"ontaneous la,ents of Cecu$a and 3ndro,ac!e 0!en t!ey learn of Cector=s deat! in $ook ?? D#liad ??.'%1:'%), '>>:(1'EF and $y 3c!illes= furt!er la,ent for Patroclus during !is funeral in $ook ?% D#liad ?%.1 :?%E. Bn addition, ,uc! of t!e s"eec! of 0o,en in t!e Co,eric e"ics, alt!oug! not for,ally ,arked off as la,ent, is closely related to t!e goos in language and t!e,e. 3s t!e e"ics t!e,ati<e t!e creation of ,leos out of t!e lived e."erience of !eroic society, t!eir ,any internal de"ictions of goos occu"y an inter,ediate status $et0een t!at e."erience and its reflection in song. T!is inter,ediate status can $e seen in t!e 0ay in 0!ic! la,ents affect t!eir audiences, evoking a ,arkedly "ersonal res"onse in eac! listener. +ar fro, dra0ing t!eir listeners= attention to t!e glorious ac!ieve,ents of t!eir su$1ects, t!ese la,ents ins"ire t!e, to t!ink of t!eir o0n sorro0s, frag,enting t!eir audiences into isolated and "rivate ,ourners. T!is is es"ecially clear in t!e res"onses of t!e 0o,en, $ot! 3c!aean 0o,en and Tro1an ca"tives, 0!o !ear Briseis=s la,ent for Patroclus: 8T!us s!e s"oke, grieving, and t!e 0o,en groaned in res"onse, # 0it! Patroclus as t!eir e.cuse 5Patro,lon prophasin6 $ut eac! for !er o0n trou$les8 D#liad 1 .%&1:%&?F cf. 1 .%%M:%% ,?'.(& :(1?E. T!ese "rivate, unarticulated e."eriences of grief stand at one end of a s"ectru, of "ossi$le res"onses to

song "resented in t!e Co,eric e"ics. 4e.t to t!e, one ,ig!t "ut Tele,ac!us=s 0ee"ing in $ook ' of t!e Odyssey 0!en !e !ears Menelaus and Celen tell stories a$out t!e Tro1an War. Tele,ac!us=s 0ee"ing is to $e co,"ared to *dysseus=s in $ook M of t!e Odyssey, triggered - ?&> $y an actual "erfor,ance of songs fro, t!e Tro1an cycle $y a "rofessional $ard. *dysseus=s 0ee"ing is "ointedly 1u.ta"osed to t!e different res"onse of t!e P!aeacians, 0!ic! "resu,a$ly ,ost nearly reflects t!e res"onse t!at e"ic e."ects for itself: in contrast to t!at of t!e 0o,en around t!e $ody of Patroclus, t!e res"onse of t!e P!aeacians is co,,unal Dand one function of song dra,ati<ed in t!at e"isode is its ca"acity to "ro,ote social co!esionE, detac!ed fro, t!e e."eriences involved, and at t!e sa,e ti,e attentive to t!e,. +or audiences like t!e P!aeacians, e"ic song "ro,otes forgetfulness of one=s o0n "ersonal concerns. /ike t!e "erfor,ers of "raise0ort!y acts, t!e listeners 0!o allo0 t!at "raise to $e reali<ed cannot "ro"erly "erfor, t!eir function if t!ey are distracted $y grief.H>I 3s $rief e,$edded narratives, t!e la,ents in t!e Co,eric e"ics !int at a $roader range of e."eriences t!an t!ose t!at are selected to for, t!e su$1ects of e"ic song, telling stories t!at are "eri"!eral to t!e ,ain "lots of t!e larger e"ics or "ointedly e.cluded fro, t!ose "lots. T!e ,e,ories evoked in la,ents are often of "rivate ,o,ents, out of t!e arena of "u$lic, !eroic action, suc! as t!e 0ords of encourage,ent Briseis re,e,$ers !earing fro, Patroclus 0!en !er !us$and and $rot!ers !ad all $een killed D#liad 1 .? (:? E or Cector=s interventions on Celen=s $e!alf a,id t!e $e!ind:t!e:scenes re"roac!es uttered in t!e Tro1an court D#liad ?'.>)M:>>(E. Unlike e"ic itself, 0!ic! clai,s to "rovide an accurate record of "ast events,HMI t!e la,ent is, in "art, a fictional genre, in t!at its s"eakers d0ell on fantasies, !o"ed:for events t!at no0 can never take "lace: for e.a,"le, t!e deat!$ed "arting of Cector and 3ndro,ac!e, in 0!ic!, as s!e regretfully i,agines it, !e 0ould !ave stretc!ed out !is !ands to !er and 0ould !ave s"oken a s"ecial pu,inon epos, a 80ise 0ord,8 t!at s!e could al0ays !ave re,e,$ered in !er grief D#liad ?'.>''E. Bet0een t!e,, as t!ey ,ourn Patroclus, Briseis and 3c!illes tell 0!at is in effect a version of t!e story t!at t!e #liad itself cannot tell, t!e i,"ossi$le alternative to t!e #liad$s "lot, 3c!illes= return to P!t!ia, a version in 0!ic! Patroclus acts as 3c!illes= surrogate. Briseis evokes 3c!illes= ,arriage to !er, 0!ic! Patroclus 0as to !ave $roug!t a$out: 8Lou said t!at you 0ould ,ake ,e t!e 0edded 0ife# of 3c!illes, and 0ould lead ,e in s!i"s# to P!t!ia, and 0ould cele$rate t!e ,arriage feast a,ong t!e Myr,idons8 D#liad 1 .? >:? E. 3c!illes i,agines Patroclus filling in for !i, as fat!er to 4eo"tole,us, introducing 4eo"tole,us to !is "atri,ony: 8Before t!is ,y !eart in ,y c!est !ad !o"es# t!at B alone 0ould die far fro, !orse:"asturing 3rgos,# !ere in Troy, and you 0ould go $ack to P!t!ia,# so t!at you ,ig!t $ring $ack ,y son fro, Scyros# in a s0ift, dark s!i", and you ,ig!t s!o0 !i, everyt!ing:# ,y "ossessions, ,y slaves, and ,y great, !ig!:roofed !ouse8 D#liad 1 .%?M:%%%E. S"oken largely $y 0o,en, la,ents are t!e ,ediu, $y 0!ic! a fe,ale "ers"ective on e"ic action ,akes its 0ay into t!ese ,ale:centered te.ts.H I /ike - ?&M t!e ,odern ;reek 0o,en=s la,ents t!at descend fro, t!e, Dor fro, t!eir real:life ,odelsE, t!ese "u$lic o""ortunities $eco,e testa,ents of 0!at it is like to $e a 0o,an in a 0orld focused on ,ale interests and values. 8Tears $eco,e ideas,8 to $orro0 a "!rase fro, t!e ant!ro"ologist Ste"!en +eld, and t!e unsettling e."erience of loss generates a descri"tion of t!e social structure as seen $y its ,ost vulnera$le ,e,$ers. 9.tending t!e status of ,ourning as an i,itation of deat!, la,enting 0o,en

"rovide accounts ver$al i,itations2of t!e social deat! t!ey e."erience 0!en t!ey lose t!e ,en t!roug! 0!o, t!ey are defined. T!us 3ndro,ac!e=s la,ents for Cector stress !er future as a ca"tive, recalling !er s"eec! to !i, in $ook ) 0!ere t!is "ros"ect is linked to !er total de"endence: 8Cector, for you are ,y fat!er and ,y revered ,ot!er,# and ,y $rot!er, and you are ,y flouris!ing !us$and8 D#liad ).'? :'%&E. +or Briseis, 0!o !as a si,ilar !istory, Patroclus=s deat! is a ,a,on e, ,a,ou , 8evil follo0ing on evil8 DBliad 1 .? &E, one of a string of ,isfortunes consisting of t!e deat!s of t!e ,en t!roug! 0!o, s!e !as kno0n !er "lace in t!e 0orld: first !er !us$and, t!en !er $rot!ers, no0 Patroclus, 0!o, s!e 0as counting on to attac! !er to 3c!illes and resituate !er in P!t!ia. Wit! Patroclus=s deat!, Briseis !as $een derailed on !er 0ido0=s 1ourney fro, t!e care of !er !us$and $ack to !er original fa,ily and on to a ne0 !us$and. T!e link $et0een la,entation and t!e social dislocations to 0!ic! 0o,en are su$1ect is ,ade clear in a s"eec! of Penelo"e=s to t!e disguised *dysseus in Odyssey 1 . T!ere s!e descri$es !er unresolved relations!i"s to *dysseus D0!o is a$sent $ut not certainly deadE and to Tele,ac!us D0!o is in transition fro, $eing a reason to stay in *dysseus=s !ouse to $eing a reason to leave itE as t!e causes of !er constant ,ourning2s!e grieves and la,ents 0!ile going a$out !er daily tasks2and of !er si,ilarity to t!e nig!tingale, 0!ose song is a "er"etual e."ression of fe,ale la,entation DOdysse y 1 .(& :((%E.H1&I Particularly interesting in t!is res"ect is Celen in !er la,ent for Cector in #liad ?', since s!e, like Briseis, re"resents a co,"licated variant on t!e 0ife 0!o !as lost !er !us$and and is !erself lost 0it!out !i,. Celen in Troy !as clearly $een a dis"laced "erson, 0!ose sense of self:0ort! is no longer adeAuately e."ressed in !er relations!i" to !er no,inal !us$and Paris and 0!o is surrounded $y $la,e fro, t!e ot!er Tro1ans. Bt a""ears s!e !as $een atte,"ting to re"air !er status, and !er sense of !er o0n value, $y for,ing a link to t!e ,ore ad,ira$le Cector. T!is effort is reflected in !er seductive atte,"t to get !i, to sit do0n and stay 0!en !e visits !er and Paris in $ook ), 0!ere s!e also voices !er regret at !aving follo0ed Paris to Troy in t!e first "lace D#liad ).%'':%(ME. Bn $ook ?' s!e ,ourns Cector as a kind of c!a,"ion 0!o "rotected !er "osition a,ong t!e Tro1ans. S!e addresses !i, as 8$y far t!e dearest of all ,y $rot!ers:in:la08 and descri$es !o0 8B never !eard an evil or rude 0ord fro, you,# $ut if so,eone else in t!e !alls s!ould s"eak one,# one of ,y !us$and=s $rot!ers or sisters or $rot!ers= 0ives,# or - ?& ,y ,ot!er:in:la0 D,y fat!er:in:la0 0as gentle al0aysE,# you 0ould c!eck t!at "erson, advising against it8 D#liad ?'.>)M:>>1E. /ike ot!er s"eec! for,s e,$edded in t!e Co,eric e"ics, la,ent is an agonistic genre, and ,ourning can $e a co,"etitive event.H11I Celen=s 1i$e at t!e "revious s"eaker, Cecu$a, $rings to lig!t a nor,ally !idden 0orld of co,"etition a,ong 0o,en, centered on t!e validating attention of ,en. Critics !ave noted t!at t!e la,ents delivered at Cector=s funeral recall t!e s"eec!es of t!e sa,e t!ree 0o,en earlier in t!e "oe,, and es"ecially during t!e e"isode in $ook ) 0!en !e encounters all t!ree of t!e, during !is return to Troy. 3s noted a$ove, 3ndro,ac!e in $ot! "laces d0ells on !er future as Cector=s 0ido0, and Celen cou"les regret at !er "ast $e!avior 0it! an atte,"t to esta$lis! a tie to Cector. Cecu$a=s la,ent focuses on t!e favor s!o0n to Cector $y t!e gods, es"ecially as e."ressed in t!e ,iraculous "reservation of !is $ody, and t!is recalls !er ,aternal concern for !is "!ysical needs, as e."ressed in !er atte,"t to get !i, to drink 0ine in $ook ) and !er "ointing to !er once:nouris!ing $reast as s!e tries to kee" !i, fro, facing 3c!illes in $ook ??. T!is t!e,atic re"etition can $e read as a for,al device, a 0ay of "roviding closure $y ,aking t!ese

la,ents su, u" eac! s"eaker=s "revious role. But it can also $e understood as an inde. of !o0 fully 0o,en=s s"eec! is in general identified 0it! t!e genre of la,entation, so t!at t!e t!e,es of la,ents naturally s!o0 u" in s"eec! t!at is not ,arked as suc!. Penelo"e=s ,etala,ent in Odyssey 1 ,akes it clear t!at la,entation is !er "er"etual ,ode, and it is striking !o0 ,uc! of ot!er 0o,en=s s"eec! in t!e e"ics s!ares t!e t!e,es of for,al la,ents. Bn t!is res"ect, e"ic rese,$les tragedy, t!e for, t!at !as $een c!aracteri<ed as an a""ro"riation and re0orking of 0o,en=s la,ents, in t!at 0o,en $eco,e s"eakers t!ere "ri,arily 0!en so,et!ing !as gone 0rong, and so t!eir "ro"er language is t!at of co,"laint. +or e.a,"le, 0!en in t!e story of Meleager told $y P!oeni. in #liad 8, Cleo"atra, Meleager=s 0ife, succeeds 0!ere all ot!ers !ave failed in inducing Meleager to fig!t, !er intervention is descri$ed in ter,s t!at suggest a la,ent.H1?I We are told t!at s!e lisset$ oduromene, 8i,"lored !i, grieving,8 and t!e content of !er s"eec! is a co,"ressed version of one of t!e to"oi of for,al la,ent, t!e sufferings of a fallen city: 8S!e told !i, all# t!e trou$les t!at co,e to "eo"le 0!ose city is ca"tured.# T!ey kill t!e ,enF fire reduces t!e city to dust,# and strangers lead a0ay t!e c!ildren and t!e long:ro$ed 0o,en8 D#liad .( 1:( 'E. Cleo"atra=s identity as a ,ourner is underscored $y !er alternative na,e, 3lcyone, 0!ic! s!e gets fro, !er ,ot!er, 0!o like t!e !alcyon, anot!er $ird 0!o re"resents "er"etual la,entation, constantly ,ourns !er ra"e $y 3"ollo. Si,ilarly, 7ic!ard Martin !as "ointed out t!at t0o s"eec!es $y 0o,en in t!e #liad t!at are la$eled 0it! t!e ter, muthos, 0!ic! designates s"eec! t!at is also a significant for, of social "erfor,ance, are $ot! effectively la,ents.H1%I - ?1& *ne is Celen=s res"onse to Pria,=s reAuest for an identification of 3ga,e,non during t!e scene on t!e 0all in $ook % D#liad %.1>1:1M&E. Celen=s muthos $egins 0it! a state,ent designed to ce,ent t!e relations!i" to Pria, s!e later cele$rates in !er la,ent for Cector: 8Lou are revered $y ,e, dear fat!er: in:la0, and ad,ired.8 Bt evokes t!e lost !o,e and fa,ily s!e !as left $e!ind and includes a 0is! to !ave died rat!er t!an to !ave acted as s!e did: since s!e did not die, s!e is in a constant state of grief, to ,ai ,laiousa tete,a, 8t!erefore B a, 0asted a0ay 0it! 0ee"ing.8 /ike Penelo"e, 0!o often e."resses !er sense of loss $y voicing dou$t a$out 0!et!er !er life 0it! *dysseus really !a""ened, Celen concludes $y identifying 3ga,e,non as !er $rot!er:in:la0 8if t!is ever 0as.8 T!e second muthos uttered $y a 0o,an in t!e #liad is s"oken Dor rat!er 80ailed,8 ,o,usen E $y Cecu$a to Pria, as !e de"arts for t!e 3c!aean ca," to ranso, Cector=s $ody D#liad ?'.?&&:?1)E and e."resses grief $ot! for !er dead son and for !er !us$and, 0!o s!e feels sure 0ill never return. W!ile la,entation is t!e ,ain ,ode of fe,ale s"eec!, it is not e.clusive to 0o,en. T!roug!out t!e Co,eric e"ics ,en are "ortrayed as uttering gooi and dra0 on t!e to"oi of la,entation in t!eir ot!er s"eec!es. T!is is "articularly t!e case 0it! 3c!illes, 0!o is t!e only ,ale c!aracter 0!ose goos is actually Auoted in Co,er, and 0!o stands out for !is "ree,inence in all t!e s"eec! genres of !eroic life.H1'I 3c!illes= use of la,entation is not, !o0ever, to $e understood si,"ly as a sign of !is ver$al co,"etenceF it is also a ,ark of t!e unusual, ,arginali<ed "osition !e ado"ts in !is "ro1ect of 0inning ,leos $y staying out of $attle rat!er t!an entering it. 3c!illes= alienation fro, ,ale 3c!aean society leads !i, into a closer association 0it! la,entation, 0!ic! is registered in a variety of 0ays: !is close tie to !is ,ot!er T!etis, a figure es"ecially identified 0it! la,entationF !is vision of !i,self in !is s"eec! to t!e e,$assy in $ook as a ,ot!er $ird, t!e arc!ety"al figure of la,entation, as 0e !ave seen D#liad .%?%:%?>EF and ,ost overtly in !is actual la,ents, es"ecially t!e one in $ook 1 , 0!ic! follo0s on and ec!oes t!e s"eec! of Briseis, 0!o is not only a 0o,an $ut also a slave.H1(I

4ot only is 3c!illes= role as a s"eaker of la,ents aty"ical, $ut it is also li,ited $y !is ongoing allegiance to !is identity as a 0arrior. T!is is clear fro, !is earliest res"onses to Patroclus=s deat!, in t!e e.c!anges !e !as 0it! T!etis at t!e $eginning of $ook 1M. 3c!illes= situation at t!at "oint dra,ati<es one of t!e central and ,ost enduring t!e,es of la,entation, t!e contrast $et0een t!e living s"eaker and t!e dead "erson.H1)I T!is is underscored at t!e $eginning of t!e $ook 0!en, 1ust $efore !e learns of Patroclus=s deat!, 3c!illes recalls t!e "ro"!etic 0ords of T!etis, 0!o told !i, t!at t!e $est of t!e Myr,idons 0ould die eti !oontos emeio, 80!ile B 0as still living8 D#liad 1M. 1&E. Bn ,any ,yt!ic dra,ati<ations of grief t!e ,ourner=s survival is treated as ,ore t!an a ,atter of c!ance, as !e or s!e is "ortrayed as actually res"onsi$le for t!e deat! of t!e "erson 0!o is ,ourned. 3 co,,on version of t!is - ?11 is t!e figure of t!e ,urderous ,ot!er, ,ost ,e,ora$ly re"resented $y Procne, t!e 0o,an 0!o $eco,es t!e nig!tingale, 0!ose unending la,entation $ot! e."resses !er loss of !er son Btys and re"resents !er "unis!,ent for killing !i,.H1>I 3c!illes= story also re"resents t!e ,ourner as res"onsi$le for t!e deat! !e ,ourns, and 3c!illes voices a "ainful sense of t!at res"onsi$ility: nor 0as B at all for Patroclus t!e lig!t of salvation, nor for ,y ot!er co,"anions, of 0!o, ,any 0ere $roken $y s"lendid Cector, $ut B sat $y t!e s!i"s, a useless $urden on t!e eart!. D#liad 1M.1&?:1&'E Bn t!e case of t!e ,ale 0arrior, !is res"onsi$ility de,ands not a state of "er"etual la,entation, $ut t!e transfor,ation of grief into action. Wit! 3c!illes, t!e ,ourner=s c!aracteristic 0is! to die is ,odified into a resolution to avenge !is loss: 4o0 t!ere 0ill $e even for you endless grief for your dead c!ild, 0!o, you 0ill not receive again returning !o,e, since ,y s"irit does not urge ,e to live or to go a,ong ,en, unless first Cector, struck $y ,y s"ear, is destroyed in !is s"irit and "ays $ack !is des"oiling of Patroclus, son of Menoetius. D#liad 1M.MM: %E By "refacing !is resolve 0it! t!e grief it 0ill cause for T!etis, 3c!illes ackno0ledges t!at t!e vengeful action t!at assuages !is ,ournful 0is! to die 0ill also itself lead to !is deat!. T!e difference, of course, is t!at !is deat! in $attle 0ill also $ring !i, ,leos, as !is 0ords later in t!e sa,e s"eec! ,ake clear: 4o0 let ,e gain good glory 5,leos esthlon6, and ,ake so,e one of t!e long:ro$ed Tro1an and 5ardanian 0o,en, 0i"ing tears 0it! $ot! !ands fro, !er tender c!eeks, groan $itterly, so t!at t!ey ,ay kno0 !o0 long B stayed a0ay fro, t!e 0ar. 5on=t !old ,e $ack fro, t!e $attle, ,uc! as you love ,e. Lou 0ill not dissuade ,e. D#liad 1M.1?1:1?)E T!is s"eec! also s!o0s !o0 3c!illes= ent0ined ai,s of alleviating !is "ain and increasing !is glory involve transferring !is suffering to so,eone else, in t!is case a Tro1an 0o,an. T!e ,ourning of t!e Tro1an 0o,an is $ot! reAuital for t!e deat! of Patroclus and a sign of 3c!illes= "o0erF furt!er,ore, !er

grief ins"ires a0areness of 3c!illes= greatness in t!e "articular for, in - ?1? 0!ic! !e !as $een de,onstrating it t!roug!out t!e #liad: t!e Tro1ans= lack of suffering during !is a$sence fro, $attle. W!en 3c!illes introduces !is resolve to fig!t Cector $y telling T!etis s!e 0ill !ave to grieve, !e registers t!e 0ay a 0arrior=s glory $rings suffering to !is friends and relatives as 0ell as to !is ene,yF t!is is "articularly ,arked in t!e case of "arents, 0!ose grief for t!eir slain sons res"onds to a ,isfortune $eyond 0!at is natural or e."ected. Bt is !ardly sur"rising, t!en, t!at t!e !ero=s ,ot!er is often "ortrayed as trying to dissuade !i, fro, action, as 3c!illes antici"ates t!at T!etis 0ill at t!e end of t!e s"eec! 1ust Auoted. T!is fe,ale i,"ulse to $lock !eroic action is linked to t!e "redo,inantly fe,ale activity of ,ourning in t!e la,entlike muthos of Cecu$a in $ook ?', ,entioned a$ove. T!ere Cecu$a e."licitly "ro"oses to Pria, t!at, rat!er t!an !i, going off to a""roac! 3c!illes, !e and s!e s!ould sit a"art in t!e "alace and 0ee" for Cector Dnun de ,laiomen aneuthen= hemenoi en megaro, #liad ?'.?&M:?& 2alt!oug! s!e does go on to add t!at s!e 0is!es s!e could take revenge on 3c!illes $y sinking !er teet! into !is liverE. Bn kee"ing 0it! 3c!illes= role as a "ree,inent 0arrior, 0!ose function is to turn grief into action, !e $eco,es at t!e end of !is story an advocate of kee"ing la,entation in its "lace. Bn !is ,eeting 0it! Pria, in $ook ?', once !e and Pria, !ave e."erienced t!eir "arallel ,ourning2!e for !is fat!er and Patroclus, Pria, for Cector2t!e desire for goos leaves 3c!illes= ,ind and $ody, and !e ,akes Pria, sto" ,ourning too, telling !i,: ou gar tis pre+is peletai ,rueroio gooio, 8T!ere is no "ractical use to c!illing la,entation8 D#liad ?'.(?'E. T!is deter,ination ,arks 3c!illes= return, !o0ever $rief, to t!e 0orld of t!e ,ale fig!ting force, for 0!o, la,entation is a transient e."erience t!at ,erely "unctuates recurrent action in $attle. T!e sa,e tension $et0een la,entation and !eroic action is found in t!e ,eeting of Cector and 3ndro,ac!e in #liad ). Bn t!is e"isode of transitory connection $et0een !us$and and 0ife, Cector, in effect, res"onds to 3ndro,ac!e $y ado"ting !er language. Cector dra0s on t!e conventions of fe,ale la,entation to e."ress sy,"at!y for 3ndro,ac!e=s "osition, $ut !e also recasts t!e, so as to incor"orate an e,"!asis on ac!ieved ,leos t!at is a$sent or ,uted in 0o,en=s o0n la,ents. Bn a c!aracteristically fe,ale atte,"t to restrain a !ero=s devotion to co,$at, 3ndro,ac!e asks Cector to return to t!e city 0all and fig!t ,ore defensively, $asing !er a""eal on !er "ast and future status as a ,ourner. S!e evokes !er "ast losses of "arents and $rot!ers and urges !i, to "ity !er 8so t!at you do not ,ake your c!ild an or"!an and your 0ife a 0ido08 D#liad ).'%?E. T!e "o0er of !er a""eal can $e seen in Cector=s sy,"at!etic res"onse, in 0!ic! !e ec!oes !er "role"tic grief and e."ands on !er one: line account of !er future. Ce s"eaks of !is certainty t!at Troy 0ill one day fall and says t!at no one=s suffering2not !is ,ot!er=s and fat!er=s nor t!at of !is ,any $rot!ers2!orrifies !i, as ,uc! as t!e t!oug!t of !ers 80!en so,e one of t!e $ron<e:0earing - ?1% 3c!aeans# leads you off 0ee"ing, !aving taken a0ay your day of freedo,8 D#liad ).'(':'((E. Cector=s use of t!e 8ascending scale of affection8H1MI to identify 3ndro,ac!e as t!e one for 0!o, !e grieves ,ost links t!is s"eec! to ,ore for,al la,ents, in 0!ic! t!at ,otif is co,,on as a 0ay of asserting t!e intensity of t!e s"eaker=s "ain. T!us 3c!illes, in !is la,ent for Patroclus in $ook 1 , "roclai,s, 8B could not suffer anyt!ing 0orse,# even if B 0ere to learn of t!e deat! of ,y fat!er8 D#liad

1 .%?1:%??EF and Pria, res"onds to t!e ne0s of Cector=s deat! $y t!inking of 3c!illes, 0!o !as killed so ,any of !is sons, 8for none of 0!o,, ,uc! as B grieve, do B ,ourn so ,uc!# as for one, for 0!o, s!ar" grief 0ill carry ,e do0n to Cades:# Cector8 D#liad ??.'?':'?)E.H1 I Cector follo0s t!is e."ression of concern 0it! an even ,ore detailed vision of 3ndro,ac!e=s future !u,iliation as s!e is forced, suffering and against !er 0ill, to 0eave and dra0 0ater for !er ca"tors. But !e t!en s!ifts gears to i,"ort into t!is vision an account of !is o0n future ,leos, for 0!ic! 3ndro,ac!e 0ill serve as a carrier. Turning !is attention a0ay fro, !er "ain, !e i,agines 0!at s!e 0ill signify to so,eone looking at !er, and actually Auotes t!at i,aginary onlooker=s 0ords of "raise for !i,: 3nd so,eone ,ig!t say, looking at you s!edding tears, 8T!is is t!e 0ife of Cector, 0!o 0as t!e $est at fig!ting of t!e !orse:ta,ing Tro1ans, 0!en t!ey foug!t around Blion.8 D#liad ).'( :')1 E 9ven 0!ile grieving for 3ndro,ac!e, Cector is concerned 0it! !is future re"utation, fantasi<ing a$out t!e figure !e 0ill cut in t!e eyes of a detac!ed s"ectator at a later ti,e, 0!en 0!at is $est re,e,$ered is 0!o 0as t!e $est fig!ter and 0!en t!e fig!ting around Troy !as $eco,e a ,e,ory fro, t!e "ast. Ce $riefly reconceives 3ndro,ac!e=s ca"tivity in a foreign land, not as a !ards!i", $ut as a ,eans for trans,itting !is fa,e to a distant "lace and a different ti,e. T!us t!is vision links t!e content of la,ent Dt!e t!e,e of t!e ca"tive 0o,anE to la,ent=s "ossi$le function of "ro,oting "raise. T!e intrusion of t!is $it of "roto:,leos !ere s!o0s t!e inevita$le li,its of Cector=s engage,ent 0it! t!e language and "ers"ective of la,entation. 3nd, in any case, Cector=s Auasi la,ent itself co,es already "refaced $y !is e."lanation of 0!y !e cannot !onor !is feelings of grief: My s"irit does not co,,and ,e Hto fig!t defensivelyI since B !ave $een trained to $e e.cellent al0ays and to fig!t a,ong t!e fore,ost Tro1ans, 0inning kleos for ,y fat!er and for ,yself. DBliad ).''':'')E Bt !as $een suggested t!at Cector=s "ro1ection of !is o0n future ,leos !ere is ty"ical of !i, in "articular, "art of a "attern in t!e #liad of c!aracteri<ing - ?1' Cector as 8a ,an already living in t!e "oetic tradition t!at is to overtake !i,.8H?&I 3 si,ilar Auotation of future "raise occurs in !is ne.t s"eec!, !is "rayer to Oeus for !is son 3styana.. T!ere Cector=s i,agination fi.es on t!e successful trans,ission of glory fro, fat!er to son, 0!ic! ,akes !eroic ac!ieve,ent co,"lete: Oeus and t!e ot!er gods, grant t!at t!is one, ,y c!ild, $e, even as B a,, outstanding a,ong t!e Tro1ans, and great in force, and ,ay !e rule over Bliu,. 3nd ,ay so,eone one day say, 8T!is one is greater t!an !is fat!er,8 as !e returns fro, $attle. 3nd ,ay !e $ear $loody s"oils, !aving killed an ene,y ,an, and ,ay !e delig!t t!e !eart of !is ,ot!er. D#liad ).'>):'M1E S!ortly after0ards, in $ook >, t!ere is also a "assage in 0!ic! Cector i,agines t!e to,$ of a ,an 0!o, !e !as slain as ins"iring a eulogy si,ilar to t!at evoked $y 3ndro,ac!e,: 8T!is is t!e to,$ of a

,an 0!o died long ago,# 0!o, once s!ining Cector killed as !e 0as e.celling8 D#liad >.M: &E. T!e si,ilarity of t!ese "assages "oints u" !o0 Cector=s s"eec! to 3ndro,ac!e assigns to !is $eloved 0ife a role t!at is ty"ically t!at of a defeated ene,y and t!us su""orts t!e vision of !eroic 0arfare as ulti,ately self:defeating e."ressed $y 3ndro,ac!e 0!en s!e o"ens !er a""eal to Cector 0it! t!e 0ords 8Lour force 0ill destroy you8 D#liad ).'&>E. Bndeed, 3ndro,ac!e "erfor,s in Cector=s fantasy a function ,uc! like t!at of t!e unna,ed Tro1an 0o,an 0!ose ,ourning 3c!illes envisions as a ,ark of !is success in avenging Patroclus. Since t!at 0o,an is, in t!e event, 3ndro,ac!e !erself, t!e #liad reveals t!at 3ndro,ac!e=s suffering actually $enefits $ot! of t!e ,ortal ene,ies Cector and 3c!illes: $ot! 0in glory $y causing !er grief. 3lt!oug! Cector=s fantasy of 3styana.=s future glory also incor"orates 3ndro,ac!e as an ent!usiastic o$server of !er son=s ac!ieve,ents, 3ndro,ac!e=s o0n la,ents for Cector s!are none of !is interest in !is future fa,e.H?1I Bn general, t!e concern of la,enting 0o,en for t!eir o0n sufferings ,eans t!at t!ey !ave no use for 0!at concerns a 0arrior ,ost: t!e dise,$odied re"utation t!at outlives t!e services t!roug! 0!ic! it is earned.H??I T!eir stress on t!e discontinuity created $y deat! leads t!e, to underrate t!e sense of un$roken tradition on 0!ic! t!e notion of !eroic i,,ortality t!roug! ,leos rests. T!is can $e seen in t!e la,ent of Cecu$a 0!en s!e first learns of Cector=s deat!: C!ild, B a, 0retc!ed. W!y s!ould B live, suffering as B a, $itter sorro0s, since you are deadG Lou 0!o 0ere for ,e nig!t and day a $oast Heuchole I t!roug!out t!e to0n, and a $enefit - ?1( to all t!e Tro1an ,en and 0o,en in t!e city, 0!o revered you like a god. +or you 0ere for t!e, a great glory 5,udos6 0!ile you 0ere alive. But no0 deat! and fate !ave co,e u"on you. D#liad HH.:C 1:'%)E Cecu$a !ere s"eaks of Cector=s fa,e as it 0as 0!en !e 0as alive, using terms>euchole, 8$oast,8 and ,udos, 8glory82t!at are closely related to ,leos, t!e ter, for eternal fa,e as reali<ed in e"ic song, $ut connote t!e ,ore "rovisional, ti,e:$ound c!aracter of a living "erson=s re"utation.H?%I Cer language actually attri$utes Cector=s fa,e to !erself and to t!e Tro1ans, reflecting t!e 0ay in 0!ic! suc! fa,e is s!ared $et0een t!e living !ero and !is $eneficiaries, 0!o at once confer t!at fa,e $y !onoring !i, and "artake of it. Cere t!e 0ides"read tendency of la,enters to d0ell on t!e contrast $et0een "ast and "resentH?'I $eco,es an assault on t!e continuity of fa,e, 0!ic! is 0!at t!e Co,eric 0arrior values a$ove all else Das Cector=s a"ology to 3ndro,ac!e, Auoted a$ove, ,akes clearE. T!e "raise contained in Cecu$a=s la,ent is undercut $y t!e 0ay s!e "resents Cector=s glory as tied to !is living "resence. Bn t!e conte.t of Co,eric "oetry, t!en, 0o,en=s la,ents are su$versive, not 1ust $ecause t!ey d0ell on t!e negative conseAuences of !eroic action, $ut $ecause t!ey ignore t!e deat!:defying ,leos t!at "rovides a "ositive co,"ensation for !eroic sacrifice and constitutes a ,a1or function of e"ic itself. 3ndro,ac!e=s t0o la,ents for Cector focus on !er 0ido0!ood 0!olly as a state of !u,iliation and "ain and include a very different vision of 3styana.=s future fro, t!at in Cector=s "rayer. Bn t!e first of t!e,, s!e descri$es !o0 Cector=s "!ysical deat! 0ill lead to social deat! for !is son. S!e "redicts t!at 3styana. 0ill $e dis"ossessed of !is ancestral lands, and gives a detailed account of t!e life of an or"!an, 0!ose fat!er=s deat! ,akes !i, panapheli,a, 8entirely cut off fro, !is conte,"oraries8 D#liad ??.' &E. Bncluded in t!is account is a Auoted taunt t!at counters and inverts t!e Auoted "raise in Cector=s "rayer. 3s t!e or"!aned c!ild $egs for food at a no$le $anAuet, a c!ild 0it! $ot! "arents living s!oves !i, a0ay fro, t!e feast,

striking !i, 0it! !is !ands and taunting !i, 0it! re"roac!es, 8;o a0ay, youV Lour fat!er is not feasting 0it! us.8 D#liad ? H.:8D&:8I E 3ndro,ac!e sees Cector=s deat! as disru"ting t!e co,,unication of glory $et0een fat!er and son in $ot! directions. 3s s!e "uts it, 84eit!er can you $e for !i,,# Cector, a $enefit, since you !ave died, nor !e for you8 D#liad ??.'M(:'M)E. Bnstead, it $rings to fulfill,ent t!e o""osite, a $itter !eritage of ,isfortune trans,itted to 3ndro,ac!e fro, !er fat!er and s!ared $y !er 0it! Cector. T!is co,,unity of suffering is stressed in 3ndro,ac!e=s language: Cector=s deat! "roves t!at s!e and Cector 80ere $ot! $orn to a - ?1) single fate8 D#liad ??.'>>:'>MEF s!e descri$es !er fat!er as raising !er dusmoros ainomoron, 8!e ill: fated, ,e $itter:fated8 D#liad ??.'M1E, and !erself and Cector as !aving "roduced 3styana. su t$ego te dusammoroi, 8you and B ill:fated $ot!8 D#liad ??.'M(E. 3ndro,ac!e !ere rese,$les Briseis, for 0!o, Patroclus=s deat! $elongs to an endless c!ain of ,isfortunes t!at 0as $riefly sus"ended 0!ile !e lived, a vision t!at is si,ilarly conveyed t!roug! ver$al re"etition in Briseis=s la,ent: hos moi dechetai ,a,on e, ,a,ou aiei, 8!o0 evil follo0ing on evil co,es over ,e al0ays8 D#liad 1 .? &E. Patroclus=s deat! $ot! activates and e.tends Briseis=s "revious ,isfortunes, t!e deat! of !er !us$and and t!e destruction of !er city, 0!ic! Patroclus, 0!ile alive, !ad "revented !er fro, ,ourning D#liad 1 .? (:? >E. Bn !er second la,ent, delivered at Cector=s funeral, 3ndro,ac!e again stresses 3styana.=s ruined future and t!is ti,e dra0s a direct connection $et0een t!e $attlefield ac!ieve,ents on 0!ic! Cector "rides !i,self and t!e suffering t!at a0ait !er and 3styana.. 3ddressing 3styana., 3ndro,ac!e envisions t0o terri$le futures for !i,: 3nd you, ,y c!ild, eit!er you 0ill follo0 ,e and t!ere you 0ill "erfor, un0ort!y la$ors, toiling for an ungentle ,an Hpro ana,tos ameilichou I, or so,e one of t!e 3c!aeans 0ill !url you, taking you $y t!e !and, fro, t!e to0er, to a grievous deat! H lugron olethron I, enraged $ecause Cector killed !is $rot!er, or !is fat!er or !is son, since indeed ,any 3c!aeans $it t!e vast eart! at t!e !ands of Cector. Lour fat!er 0as not gentle Hou gar meilichos I in grievous co,$at Hen dai lugre I. D#liad ?'.>%?:>% E Cector=s success in co,$at is inti,ately tied to $ot! versions of 3styana.=s future, $ot! t!e ,urder t!at 0ould $e an avenging i,itation of Cector=s o0n actions and enslave,ent to an o""ressive ,aster, 0it! 0!o, Cector is identified $y t!e ec!o of ameilichou, 8ungentle8 in ou gar meilichos 8not gentle.8 Si,ilarly, t!e grievous co,$at in 0!ic! Cector "artici"ated is linked $y t!e ad1ective lugre to t!e grievous deat!, t!e lugron olethron, of 3styana. and2 a fe0 lines later2to t!e grievous sufferings, t!e algea lugra, of 3ndro,ac!e !erself D#liad ?'.>'?E. Bn t!e line t!at i,,ediately follo0s t!is "assage, 3ndro,ac!e identifies Cector=s lack of gentleness as t!e reason t!at !e is la,ented: T!erefore 5to6 t!e "eo"le ,ourn !i, in t!e city, and you !ave i,"osed un$eara$le la,entation and grief u"on your "arents, Cector, and to ,e es"ecially you !ave left grievous sufferings. D#liad ?'.>'&:>'?E

- ?1> T!is suggestive to, 8t!erefore,8 links t!e "raise i,"licit in la,entation to t!e $rutality essential to co,$at. 3s s!e gives voice to !er role as t!e $earer of Cector=s ,leos, 3ndro,ac!e=s 0ords fill in 0!at Cector=s gloss over 0!en !e i,agines !er enslaved and ,ournful figure as t!e ins"iration for a detac!ed assess,ent of !is e.cellence as a 0arrior. Making a connection t!at recalls 3c!illes= declaration in $ook 1M t!at !e 0ill reesta$lis! !i,self as a 0arrior $y ,aking a Tro1an 0o,an ,ourn, 3ndro,ac!e insists t!at t!e creation of ,leos $egins 0it! grief for t!e !ero=s friends and ene,ies alike. Bn doing so, s!e gives an i,"licit analysis of 0!y !eroic e"ic cannot do 0it!out la,entation, t!e genre in 0!ic! 8grief !as t!e c!ief "lace,8 even t!oug! la,ents often see, to su$vert e"ic=s "ur"oses or at least to distract us fro, e"ic=s central clai,s. Before it can $e converted into "leasant, care:dis"elling song, a !ero=s ac!ieve,ent is ,easured in t!e suffering t!at it causes, in t!e grief t!at it ins"ires.H?(I

Wor/s Cited
3le.iou, Margaret. 1 >'. The -itual ament in Gree, Tradition. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. - ?1 Bo0ra, C. M. 1 (?. 0eroic Poetry. /ondon: Mac,illan. Caraveli:C!aves, 3nna. 1 M&. 8Bridge $et0een Worlds: T!e ;reek Wo,en=s /a,ent as Co,,unicative 9vent. 4 Fournal of American 1ol,lore %: 1? :1(>. 5anfort!, /oring. 1 M?. The "eath -ituals of -ural Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 9asterling, P. 9. 1 1. 8Men=s ,leos and Wo,en=s goos: +e,ale @oices in t!e #liad. 8 Fournal of /odern Gree, %tudies 8: 1'(: 1(1. +eld, Steven. 1 M?. %ound and %entiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and %ong in Galuli E+presssion. P!iladel"!ia: University of Pennsylvania Press. +oley, Celene. 1 ?.

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1 M). The #n)ention of Athens. Translated $y 3lan S!eridan. Ca,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press. Martin, 7ic!ard P. 1 M . The anguage of 0eroes: %peech and Performance in the 4#liad.4 Bt!aca, 4.L: Cornell University Press. Muellner, /eonard C!arles. 1 >) The /eaning of 0omeric ELC0O/A# through #ts 1ormulas. Bnns$ruck: Bnstitut fTr S"rac!0issensc!aft der Universit`t Bnns$ruck. Murnag!an, S!eila. 1 ?. 8Maternity and Mortality in Co,eric Poetry.8 Classical Anti<uity 11 4==;4?=A 4agy, ;regory. 1 > . The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the 0ero in Archaic Gree, Poetry. Balti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press. Pucci, Pietro. 1 %. 83nti"!onal /a,ent $et0een 3c!illes and Briseis.8 Col*y .uarterly ? ?(M:?>?.

- ??& Sere,etakis, C. 4adia. 1 1. The ast Word: Women, "eath, and "i)ination in #nner /ani. C!icago: University of C!icago Press. Sultan, 4ancy. 1 1. 8Wo,en in =3kritic= Song: T!e Cero=s =*t!er= @oice.8 Fournal of /odern Gree, %tudies 8: 1(%:1>&. - ??1 -

)40 The !ole of &ament in the .ro6th and Eclipse of !oman Epic
Elaine $antham T!is essay focuses on an ele,ent of e"ic "er!a"s ,ore often associated 0it! tragedy: t!e la,ent, a necessary res"onse to e"ic deat!, t!at reconciles t!e readers as 0ell as t!e "artici"ants to great loss. 9laine +ant!a, develo"s for t!e 7o,an e"ic a t!eory of t!e function of "u$lic and "rivate la,ent, reinter"reting in a 7o,an conte.t t!e ,eanings of rituals of la,entation and grief t!at !ave $een e."lored until recently ,ore often in ;reek t!an in 7o,an literature. S!e considers not only @irgil=s Aeneid, $ut t!e earliest 7o,an e"ic, 9nnius=s Annales Dfinis!ed $efore 1) B.C.9., t!oug! it e.ists today only in frag,entsE, /ucan=s "e Bello Ci)ili Dan e"ic on t!e civil 0ar co,"leted $et0een 3.5. )? and )(, 0!en /ucan 0as forced to co,,it suicide after !is involve,ent in a "lot against 4ero=s life 0as discoveredE, and Statius=s The*aid, "u$lis!ed in 3.5. 1# ?2e"ics t!at are ,uc! less 0ell:kno0n t!an @irgil=s "oe,2and traces t!e use ,ade $y e"ic of $ot! "u$lic and "rivate la,ent. +ant!a, argues t!at only in t!e late and so,$er The*aid of Statius does la,ent $eco,e a counter:,ove,ent eAual in force to t!e deat!s t!at are its occasion, itself serving as occasion and sti,ulus to furt!er conflict t!at only divine intervention can resolve. 3lt!oug! s!e "oints out !o0 often in 7o,an e"ic t!e language of la,ent is given to ,ale figures and ,ade to $e "art of an !eroic res"onse to loss, +ant!a, also reveals !o0 in @irgil, and es"ecially in Statius, "rivate la,ent can $eco,e a 8dangerous voice8 t!at c!allenges t!e !eroic ideology. /a,ent in Statius=s "oe, is t!us seen as out0eig!ing !eroic action, as t!e e"ic suffocates in a 0orld too conscious of t!e negative ,otivation of deeds of 8valor8 D)irtus E. /a,ent is "ree,inently t!e 0o,en=s contri$ution to cele$rating t!e life and deat! of a ,an or a co,,unity. Sy,"at!y and even "ride in t!is 0o,en=s t!e,e are reflected in t!e nu,$er of distinguis!ed 0o,en sc!olars 0!o !ave studied t!e social role of la,ent in ;reek civili<ation: see 4icole /orau.=s /?res en deuil, Celene +oley=s 8Politics of Tragic /a,entation,8 and t!e 0ork of Margaret 3le.iou on ritual la,ent in ancient and ,odern ;reece, 0!ic! !el"ed ,e to understand t!e $ackground to la,ent in Senecan tragedy.H1I 3le.iou=s "ioneer 0ork !as $een follo0ed $y t!e social studies of /oring 5anfort! and ;ail Colst:War!aft on t!e ne.us $et0een la,ent and vengeance in ;reek co,,unities. Bt ,ig!t 0ell see, t!at t!e "u$lic and "rivate as"ects of ;reek la,ent considered in t!ese studies leaves no sco"e for eit!er 7o:

- ??? ,an society or its literature to offer ,ore t!an variations. Certainly ,any as"ects of ancient la,ent are co,,on to $ot! societies, and t!e cultural "ree,inence of Co,er !as ensured t!at as"ects of t!e great la,ents of t!e #liad are re"roduced in 7o,an literature and develo"ed $y eac! successive co,"oser of 7o,an e"ic. 9"ic is $y no ,eans t!e only "oetic genre at 7o,e to incor"orate references to and e.a,"les of la,ent, $ut alt!oug! t!e la,ents of Senecan tragedy, for e.a,"le, stay close to t!e ;reek tradition, t!ere are several 0ays in 0!ic! 7o,an e"ic ,odifies and innovates. +ro, t!e genre of !istory, and "er!a"s also fro, tragedy,H?I 7o,an e"ic introduces t!e "u$lic collective la,ent as a narrative ,ove,ent, "roviding closure or rene0ed resolution. Secondly la,ent in "ost:@irgilian e"ic a""ro"riates fro, t!e miseratio or con<uestioH%I of forensic r!etoric t!e role of generating resent,ent Din)idia E against t!e adversary. T!is effect a""roac!es $ut "er!a"s sto"s s!ort of t!e ;reek cou"ling of la,ent and revenge: given t!e for,al, ur$an nature of 7o,an life and literature, 0e do not !ave instances of s"ontaneous fa,ilial la,ents 0it!out a larger "olitical di,ension. +inally, as B !o"e to s!o0, la,ent, already a "ro,inent narrative ,arker in @irgil=s Aeneid, develo"s a self:conscious, reiterated, structural role in t!e gendered anti"!ony of ,ale !eroic deat! and fe,ale la,ent of Statius=s The*aid. Because of t!e ,any leaders and as ,any co,$ats and deat!s, Statius=s great 0ar e"ic is do,inated and s!a"ed $y its recurrent la,ents. +or t!is reason B 0ill give far ,ore attention to t!is late narrative t!an to t!e $etter kno0n Aeneid, 0!ose su"eriority Statius !i,self 0ill !onor "recisely in t!e conte.t of !is final, aut!orial la,ent.

Ennius and &ucan2 National Epic and 'u9lic %cts of &amentation

5es"ite 7o,an e"ic=s i,,ense res"ect for t!e Co,eric ,odel, 7o,e=s first self:styled "oet, 9nnius, created for t!e o"ening $ook of !is national !istorical e"ic a ne0 kind of la,ent, t!e ,ourning of t!e "eo"le de"rived of t!eir leader. *nly frag,ents of 9nnius= Annales survive, $ut one of t!eir greatest and ,ost ,e,ora$le scenes, designed to ,atc! t!e great scene of 7o,e=s ritual founding $y 7o,ulus, is t!e narrative of 7o,ulus=s ,ysterious disa""earance and t!e "eo"le=s grief for t!eir lost leader until t!ey are told t!at !e 0ill return to t!e, as a god: +or so,e long 0!ile longing "ossessed t!eir !earts until t!ey cried out, 8* 7o,ulus, godlike 7o,ulus, !o0 great a "rotector t!e gods $egat for us in you. * fat!er, * $egetter, * $lood descended fro, t!e godsV Lou $roug!t us fort! into t!e real,s of lig!t.8H'I D9nnius frag. l.i, ed. Skutsc!E Co,,unal "u$lic la,ent, given $y t!e ,arried 0o,en of 7o,e to /ucius Brutus, t!eir country=s first li$erator fro, t!e 9truscan ,onarc!y,H(I is also - ??% used in /ucan=s e"ic of civil 0ar, "e Bello Ci)ili, to antici"ate t!e catastro"!e of Po,"ey=s deat!. +or /ucan, Po,"ey, t!e failed defender of t!e free state of 7o,e, serves as a counter"art of t!ose 0!o created t!at state: !ere e."licitly /ucius Brutus, $ut i,"licitly t!e city founder 7o,ulus, and else0!ere @irgil=s 3eneas !i,self. /ucan derives ,uc! of t!e e,otional intensity in !is e"ic fro, syste,atic antici"ation of its tragic events: t!us t!e "oet fores!ado0s in $ook > t!e future "u$lic ,ourning for Po,"ey $efore 0e, t!e readers, live t!roug! t!e !u,iliating and treac!erous scene of t!e great general=s assassination $y 9gy"tian cons"irators. 3t t!e gri, da0n on t!e day of Po,"ey=s defeat at

P!arsalus, /ucan ,arks !is a""roac!ing deat! $y descri$ing t!e s"ontaneous la,ents not only of ,arried 0o,en $ut of ,en, old ,en and $oys.H)I Bndeed, for /ucan "u$lic ,ourning is so "o0erful a sy,$ol t!at !e ,arks t!e out$reak of civil 0ar in !is second $ook 0it! all t!e sy,"to,s of official and unofficial ,ourning. 3s if so,e national !ero 0ere dead, t!ere is a "u$lic decree sus"ending $usiness,H>I 7o,e=s ,agistrates "ut off t!eir cere,onial clot!ing, and t!e 0o,en s"ontaneously cro0d to t!e te,"les 0it! antici"atory la,ent, la,ent designed, 0e are told, to generate resent,ent Din)idia E to0ard t!e gods. Bt is natural to co,"are t!is 0it! t!e o,inous antici"atory grief of 3ndro,ac!e for Cector in #liad ), $ut /ucan !i,self does not ,ake t!is "oint. Bnstead !e co,"ares t!e 0o,en=s "u$lic "rostration and 0ailing and tearing of face and !air to t!e "rivate grief of a fa,ily da<ed $y a sudden deat!, 0!ere t!e ,ot!er is sus"ended $et0een old fear and ne0 grief.HMI T!e "oet con1ures u" t!is "u$lic la,ent and its "rivate analogy not to censure suc! fe,ale ,ourning as disru"tive, $ut to use its des"eration, as /ivy did t!e la,enting 0ido0s after t!e defeat of Cannae,H I to force u"on t!e reader a full a0areness of t!e deat! of li$erty fores!ado0ed $y t!is 0ar. Bn t!is o"ening "!ase of /ucan=s "olitical e"ic t!e ,en do not la,ent $ut de"art to 1oin t!e o""osing forces 0it! gri, resolve. 9ven Cato, t!e one ,an "resented t!roug!out t!is narrative as a ,odel of rig!t decision, ,ourns lost "u$lic li$erty as if it 0ere t!e greatest of "rivate losses, grieving over t!e $ody of t!e 7e"u$lic 8like a fat!er left c!ildless $y t!e deat! of !is sons8 D"e Bello Ci)ili ?.? >:%&'E. But !e too 0ill reconcile !i,self to serving in a conflict 0!ere t!e only integrity is on t!e side of t!e loser.

irgil:s Aeneid 2 &ament $or Men and Cities

/a,ent for a leader, and la,ent for a doo,ed city, ,ay converge and coincide. +ro, 9nnius it 0as t!e la,ent for a leader t!at survived in t!e i,agination of later 7o,ans: in /ucan, 0riting after @irgil, 0e !ave seen t!e deli$erate assi,ilation $y co,"arison of la,ent for t!e city and t!e individual. Bn t!e Aeneid scenes of la,entation for fallen cities ,ark t!e course of 0ar=s destruction and articulate 3eneas=s "rogress, starting 0it! t!e fall of - ??' !is city, Troy. T!e first $ook "resents to 3eneas Dand to t!e readerE t!e B1iadic scenes de"icted on Juno=s te,"le at Cart!age, including t!e 0o,en=s su""lication in #liad ), 1ust $efore t!e deat! of Cector t!at $rings on t!e end of Troy. Bn t!e ne.t $ook 3eneas=s retros"ective narrative of !is city=s ca"ture reveals t!e ,eaning of t!is scene of su""lication, going $eyond Co,er=s narrative to descri$e t!e 0ailing t!at fills t!e "alace of Pria, as 0o,en e,$race t!e door"osts and a0ait t!eir ca"ture.H1&I 3gain @irgil ends !is fourt! $ook 0it! t!e sa,e s!ock and la,ents of 0o,en=s 0ailing t!at follo0 t!e ne0s of 5ido=s deat!. Cis language re"resents t!eir grief for t!eir dead Aueen and leader as ,ourning for t!e city itself. T!ey 0ail as if Cart!age itself 0ere ca"tured and cras!ing a$out t!eir !eads in fla,es.H11I +ro, Troy to Cart!age to /atiu,, 3eneas=s course 0ill $e ,arked $y la,ents until like anot!er 5ido, Pueen 3,ata, 0ife of /atinus, $rings on !er o0n deat!, and t!e 0o,en of yet anot!er city, including 3eneas=s intended $ride, fill t!e air 0it! t!eir cries. 3s soon as t!e un!a""y /atin 0o,en !ave !eard of t!is affliction, first /avinia ragesF s!e tears at !er $rig!t !air and c!eeks of rose, t!en all t!e cro0d around !er ravesF t!e 0ailing fills t!e "alace=s 0ide !alls. T!e sad re"ort goes out across t!e city.

4o0 !earts sink do0n, /atinus in torn gar,ents, da<ed $y !is 0ife=s fate and !is city=s ruin defiles !is aged !airs 0it! filt!y dust. DAeneid 1?.)&'::)11, trans. Mandel$au,E Cere too @irgil !as created sy,,etry 0it! t!e tale of Troy: for t!e 0o,en t!at 0e no0 !ear 0ailing 0ere seen offering t!eir su""lications to t!e goddess in t!e "receding $ook D11.'>M:'M1E. 4o0 /atinus is $roug!t to defile,ent in t!e dust, like Pria,, and like Cector, $ut not $y t!e s0ord of a $rutal ;reek. T!is is t!e self:defile,ent of ritual grief at !is 0ife=s deat! and t!e attendant fall of t!e city. T!ese are scenes of co,,unal la,ent. But in t!e second !alf of @irgil=s e"ic, 0it! its narrative of 0ar in /atiu,, ,ore t!an one "rivate la,ent is articulated. Bn $ook > t!ere is grief for $ot! ani,al and !u,an deat!, $ut no for,al or direct s"eec! of la,ent. T!is 0ill co,e 0!en t!e cli,ate of violence ,ounts, and 0e follo0 t!e e."loits and deat!s of fully c!aracteri<ed !eroes. T!e first of t!ese la,ents, "er!a"s t!e ,ost resonant 0it! ,odern sensi$ilities, is t!e terri$le outcry of t!e young 0arrior 9uryalus=s ,ot!er, on 0!ic! Susan Wilts!ire !as 0ritten "erce"tively in !er study of t!e tension $et0een "u$lic duty and "ersonal feeling in t!e Aeneid.H1?I T!is 0o,an is not even na,edF s!e is his ,ot!er DAeneid .?1)f.E, and @irgil introduces !er o$liAuely, t!roug! t!e 0ords of !er son=s lover, and !is o0n last reAuest - ??( to !is "rince as !e volunteers for t!eir dangerous ,ission. We learn t!at t!is 0o,an alone of t!e Tro1an ,ot!ers !as follo0ed !er son into t!e 0arfare of /atiu,, 0!en s!e could !ave stayed 0it! ot!er 0o,en and old "eo"le in t!e "eaceful Sicilian settle,ent DAeneid .?M':?M)E. T!e young "rince "ro,ises t!at !e 0ill treat 9uryalus=s ,ot!er like !is o0n ,ot!er, Creusat!e 0ife 3eneas lost in !is flig!t fro, Troy2and if 9uryalus s!ould "eris!, 0ill give to !er !is "ri<es, in gratitude for suc! a son. T!e son does "eris!, and !is !ead is "araded $efore t!e Tro1an enca,",ent on a s"ear "oint. 3nd !is ,ot!er, at t!e ne0s, rus!es to t!e 0alls, ,indless of t!e "resence of ,en and danger, and fills t!e sky 0it! !er la,ents2not 1ust t!e ritual 0ailing already ,entioned, $ut <uesti*us D .'M&E, a 0ord t!at denotes $ot! la,ent and "rotest or co,"laint. H1%I T!ese are t!e "rotests of a survivor for 0!o, life no longer !as ,eaning. C!ildless, !o,eless, and driven $y !er natural grief t!at s!e cannot even $ury !er son, s!e cries out i,"loring t!e 7utuli 0!o "ossess !is $ody to kill !er, unless "er!a"s Ju"iter 0ill "ity !er $y ena$ling !er to die. T!is is indeed a 8dangerous voice,8 to $orro0 fro, Colst:War!aft=s title, $ut not as a generator of vengeance. 7at!er t!is ,ot!er=s la,ent is dangerous to Tro1an ,orale, and t!e fig!ting ,en are un,anned and $roug!t to 0ee"ing, until t!e 0o,an is uncere,oniously $undled out of sig!t and into t!e !ut 0!ere s!e $elongs.H1'I Bn contrast to t!is "ainful indignity, t!e Aeneid !as still to trans,it t!e unre"ressed la,ents of t0o i,,ortal 0o,en and one ,an. Men of course did not "erfor, ritual la,ent at 7o,eF in any for,al cere,ony t!eir role 0ould $e t!at of 0alking silently in "rocession in !ierarc!ically deter,ined clot!ing, t!eir identities transfor,ed $y 0earing t!e deat! ,asks of t!eir distinguis!ed ancestors. *nly t!e ne.t of kin 0ould $e set a"art to "ronounce a for,al eulogy or laudatio $efore t!e "u$lic and to lig!t t!e "yre under t!e $ody at t!e "lace of cre,ation. 3t least so,e funerals !ired "rofessional 0o,en ,ourners, praeficae, to sing dirges, and one striking funeral relief fro, 3,iternu, s!o0s all t!is2t!e $ier, t!e "rocession, and t!e "rofessional 0o,en ,ourners, $ut also t!e 0ife, no0 0ido0, 0it! !er ar,s raised in la,ent, flanked $y !er t0o c!ildren. Let t!e closest analogy to t!is ,ot!er=s la,ent is t!e la,ent of anot!er $ereaved "arent, 9vander. @irgil !as already re"orted t!e full funeral !onors and $rief fare0ell given $y 3eneas over t!e $ody of young

Pallas DAeneid 11. ): ME $efore t!e $oy=s cor"se is escorted $ack to !is city and !is fat!er 9vander. Bn !is anguis! t!e old ,an utters a s"eec! al,ost identical in its o"ening ,ove,ent to t!at of 9uryalus=s ,ot!er, longing for !is o0n deat! DAeneid 11.1(?:1)1E, $ut it ,oves a!ead fro, $ack0ard:looking grief to t!e need for vengeance on Turnus. 7at!er t!an delay t!e Tro1ans fro, rene0ing t!e action, 9vander t!inks as a co,,ander and addresses !is c!osen successor, sending a last ,essage or c!allenge to 3eneas: it is !is duty to fat!er and son to take Turnus=s life DAeneid 11.1)?:1M1E. So too t!e ny,"! - ??) *"is sent $y 5iana to "rotect Ca,illa ,oves fro, grief at !er fated deat! to "ro,ise and i,"le,ent vengeance DAeneid 11.M'1:M' E. Bn contrast, Turnus=s sister Juturna re"eats t!e Bliadic "attern, antici"ating !er $rot!er=s fate as 3ndro,ac!e foresees t!e deat! of Cector, a$andoning !o"e $efore t!e event.H1(I *f all t!e la,ents in t!e Aeneid t!is alone ,ust "recede its occasion, $ecause t!e e"ic $y design ends at Turnus=s deat!, denying t!e traditional reconciliatory closure of $urial and ,ourning. But t!ese la,ents $y i,,ortals cannot affect t!e ,ortal "artici"ants: t!ey go un!eard e.ce"t $y @irgil=s audience2and !is successor "oets. @irgil=s too literal:,inded i,itator Silius Btalicus understands t!e "oetic c!allenge of la,ent. 3s !e a""roac!es t!e dreadful defeat of Trasi,ene !e even transfers to la,ent t!e Co,eric tec!niAue for en!ancing a !ero=s feats in $attle, addressing !is ,uses to ask 0!at god 0ill "rovide !is "oe, 0it! la,ents 0ort!y of suc! no$le deeds. H1)I But "ious ,en felt t!at deat!s needed la,ent, not necessarily a for,al s"eec! of la,entation $ut a sense of la,entation "erfor,ed. T!is is 0!y t!ere is suc! a sense of co,"letion 0it!!eld in t!e Aeneid. We, @irgil=s readers, !ear t!e i,,ortal Juturna=s fearful outcry at !er enforced survival, $ut any "otential consolation fro, !u,an !onor or sy,"at!y for Turnus=s fate is cut off $eyond our kno0ledge.

Statius: The"aid and the ThematiFation of &ament

3lt!oug! @irgil raises la,ent a$ove t!e status of an e"ic to"os $y !is use of la,entation to ,ark t!e end of eac! failed co,,unity2Troy, Cart!age, /atinus=s city2it is only 0it! Pa"inius Statius, t!e last of t!e +lavian e"icists, t!at la,entation $eco,es a regular or reAuired co,"onent of t!e r!yt!, and structure of e"ic.H1>I Statius, 0!o !ad received a ;reek education in r!etoric and "oetics fro, !is fat!er and 0as !i,self a "rofessional "oet, also co,"osed e.tensive "oe,s of la,ent for !is "atrons and on !is o0n $e!alf.H1MI Taking u" so,e of t!e i,"lications of Jo!n Cenderson=s study 8Statius= The*aid: +or, Pre:,ade,8H1 I B 0ould like to illustrate !o0 Statius=s narrative e."loits t!e r!etoric of la,ent as reaction to t!e action of co,$at and deat!. Cenderson !as ,ade !is readers fully a0are of t!e "ro,inence of la,ent and in t!e /atin version of !is diagra,,atic analysis enu,erates its ,any for,s in t!e e"ic.H?&I T!is is $roug!t out in !is eAuation: 8T!e$es is a ,ot!er=s la,ent. . . Bno: Bde: 9urydice: Jocasta: Bs,enis: 3talanta . . . t!e cla0ed c!eeks# sockets of Menoeceus= ,ot!er . . . in !er la,ent after 3en. .=s 9uryalus= ,ot!er.8H?1I /ooking for0ard to t!e e"ic=s final $ook, concerned "ri,arily 0it! t!e 0o,en=s Auest for fulfill,ent in la,entation, Cenderson co,,ents t!at Statius leaves t!e reader on 8t!is one last 4e0 Mourning, 0it! t!e 0o,en of 3rgos and T!e$es to find t!eir very o0n la,ent, since t!e e"ic cannot find $reat! ,ore.8H??I Let since !e inter"rets t!is e"ic as a "oe, governed $y deferral, Cenderson concentrates on t!e delaying of co,: - ??> -

$at, deat!, and la,ent, rat!er t!an analy<ing Statius=s careful and "rogressive construction of !is narrative around t!e continuing alternation and causal reci"rocity of grief and killing. Structurally t!e "oet of t!e 8Seven against T!e$es8 certainly faced "ro$le,s of deferral2t!e "ost"one,ent of 0arfare to t!e last si. of t!e t0elve $ooks, a legacy of $ot! t!e T!e$an ,yt! and t!e "ost:@irgilian tradition and t!e ,yt!ically deter,ined denial and 0it!!olding of $urial until t!e "oe,=s last "!ase. Ce also !ad to ,eet t!e need for variation entailed $y t!e reiterated deat!s of t!e 3rgive leaders2si. in all, t!e last t!e dou$ly:significant deat! of t!e ado"tive T!e$an:3rgive, t!e e.iled $rot!er Polynices2and a $alancing array of T!e$an !eroes. Let des"ite t!e enforced "ost"one,ent of la,ent and $urial for t!e 3rgive leaders, scenes of la,ent in t!e The*aid ,atc! scenes of deat! in freAuency and scale, in $ook %, $ook (, and every one of t!e last four $ooks. T!e first ,iniature of future 0arfare occurs in $ook ? 0!en Tydeus as 3rgive envoy kills t!e T!e$ans sent to a,$us! !i, $ut s"ares one ,an, Maeon, to carry !is ,essage of defiance to t!e tyrant 9teocles. Bn t!e counter:,ove,ent of $ook % Maeon e."resses !is s!a,e at survival and !atred of 9teocles in t!e "u$lic act of suicide. Cere Statius offers $ot! !is o0n aut!orial "raise for Maeon and a scene of T!e$an la,entation for !is lost co,rades, as a tragedian ,ig!t reinforce t!e ,essage of a ,onologue 0it! a confir,atory c!orus. Suc! "raises as Statius addresses to Maeon D8But you fine s"irit, fine in deat!, s!all never2your due re0ard2suffer o$livion. # . . . W!at strain of ,ine, $lest seer 0!o, !eaven loves,# 0!at eulogy can add reno0n to ,atc! # your "ro0ess8EH?%I are not, of course, la,ent $ut its co,"le,ent, eulogy or $lessing,H?'I and t!e do<en aut!orial lines of "raise and fare0ell to t!e dead ,an are ecli"sed $y 0!at follo0s2t!e 1ourney of t!e T!e$an $ereaved to t!e site of a,$us!, and t!e single violent out$reak Dfragor E of t!eir unani,ous ,ourning and fury at t!e sig!t of t!eir dead kins,en 4o0 fro, t!e city 0ives deat!:"ale and c!ildren 3nd ailing "arents "oured $y $road !ig!0ays *r "at!less 0astes in "iteous rivalry, 3ll rus!ing to t!eir tears, and t!ousands ,ore +or solace= sake t!rong too, and so,e 0ere !ot to see t!e one ,an=s deeds, t!at ,ig!t=s travails. T!e road 0as loud 0it! 0ailing and t!e fields 7ec!oed cries of grief. Let 0!en t!ey reac!ed T!ose infa,ous rocks, t!at g!astly 0ood, as t!oug! 4one !ad $e0ailed $efore, no stor, of tears Cad strea,ed, as fro, a single t!roat t!ere rose 3 cry of utter anguis!. W!en t!ey sa0 T!e $loody carnage, fren<y fired t!e, all, - ??M ;7B9+ fla,ing fierce, 0it! $loody rai,ent rent stands t!ere and $eats !is $reast and leads along T!e 0ives and ,ot!ers. DThe*aid %. 11':1?), trans. MelvilleE B Auote t!is first instance of t!e recurring la,ents of t!e e"ic in e.tenso to $ring out Statius=s counter"oint of 8deeds8 D[ killingE and la,ent. B !ave ca"itali<ed ;7B9+ Dluctus E to dra0 attention to 0!at is still for /atin e"ic an innovation2t!e "ersonification of sorro0, standing like a c!orus leader and urging on t!e !u,an la,entation. T!is, t!e first "ersonification of grief to stalk a,ong t!e living in

7o,an e"ic, ,arks t!e significance t!at grief and ,ourning 0ill clai, in t!e rest of t!e "oe,.H?(I 4e.t, Statius "articulari<es: Bde, !er fertility en!anced as ,ot!er of t0in sons, searc!es t!e scene of t!e a,$us! and 80ails over every cor"se.8H?)I Let Bde=s s"eec!, 0!en s!e finds !er sons dead in eac! ot!er=s ar,s, stands for $ut still does not e.!aust t!e la,ent of t!e, all. Bnstead t!eir $ereave,ent finds its o0n e"ic ,odel as an old fat!er, 3letes, recalls a do,estic ,yt! of T!e$an suffering inflicted fro, a$ove2t!e ,yt! of 4io$e 0!ose c!ildren 0ere killed in revenge $y 3"ollo and 5iana. *ne ne0 detail is significant in !is retelling of t!e ,yt!: t!e T!e$an funeral "rocessions for 4io$e=s c!ildren "oured out of t!e gates 8and ,ot!ers $eat t!eir $reasts in !ate of !eaven,8 Din)idiamplan+ere deis, The*aid %.1 >E. Bn t!is final "!ase 3letes turns to o"en denunciation of t!eir undeserved losses caused $y t!e guilt of a cruel king.H?>I Statius ,akes only too clear t!e use to 0!ic! t!is ,ourning is "ut, to ins"ire anger and t!reaten "unis!,ent u"on t!e !ead of 9teocles. But t!is, like Maeon=s curse on 9teocles, is t!e ,ale res"onse to grief: $ot! ;reek and 7o,an "olitical r!etoric kne0 !o0 to e."loit anger at t!e casualties of 0ar against t!eir o0n co,,anders, as t!e 3t!enians did 0!en t!ey "araded cro0ds of ,ourners for dead 8kins,en8 to re"roac! t!e co,,anders in t!e naval $attle of 3rginusae, and as 3ntonius turned t!e 7o,an 1ury against Servilius Cae"io for t!e casualties of !is defeat at 3rausio.H?MI 7evenge is t!e co,"anion of la,ent even in t!e neutral 0orld of 4e,ea, 0!ere t!e accidental deat! of t!e c!ild *"!eltes is ,ourned $y t!e i,,ediate outcry of !is nurse Cy"si"yle D The*aid (.)&M:)%(E. T!e full out"ouring of !er la,ent ,akes "ossi$le a different e,otional res"onse fro, t!at of !is "arents2t!e restrained grief of t!e c!ild=s fat!er D(.)(%:)((E is contrasted 0it! !is ,ot!er=s un0o,anly de,and for vengeance u"on t!e distracted Cy"si"yle D(.)():))&E. T!e c!ild=s sole,n funeral cele$ration and ga,es fill $ook ), rounding off t!e e"ic=s first, su""osedly "eaceful !alf. Bn contrast t!e second !alf of t!e "oe, is constructed around a "attern of ,a1or deat!sF only t!e T!e$an casualties receive for,al la,ent, $ut eac! $ook 0ill see one or even t0o of t!e 3rgive leaders ,eet deat!. 5ying on - ?? t!e $attlefield, t!e ado"tive 3rgive Tydeus earns a s"ontaneous outcry of loss and s!a,e at !is o0n res"onsi$ility and survival fro, !is $lood $rot!er Polynices D The*aid .' :>?E: t!is deat! !as a seAuel 0!en t0o young !eroes atte,"t to retrieve Tydeus=s $ody fro, under T!e$an guard and t!e,selves die !eroically, receiving fro, t!e "oet a $lessing and eulogy ,odeled on @irgil=s salute to t!e young !eroes 4isus and 9uryalus. Bn fact t!e nint! $ook is articulated $y t!ree la,ents for t!ree of t!e four focal deat!s. Beside Polynices= outcry at t!e loss of Tydeus t!e la,ents for t!e young T!e$an Crenaeus and 3rgive ally Part!eno"aeus are distinguis!ed not so ,uc! $y t!eir grief, as $y t!eir conte.t and relation to t!e deat!. Statius offsets t!e la,ent of Crenaeus=s i,,ortal ,ot!er, t!e river ny,"!, for !er son killed s0i,,ing in !is grandfat!er=s 0aters, D .%(), %>):'&%E, 0it! t!e fore$odings, "rayer, and la,ent of t!e ny,"! 3talanta 0!en s!e discovers t!at !er ,ortal son Part!eno"aeus !as left for t!e 0ar against !er 0ill D .)&M:)%(E. T!e $ook co,es to an end 0it! !is dying 0ords to !is distant ,ot!er.H? I T0o "re,ature victi,s fall on o""osing sides in t!is one $ook, and t!e ordering of t!eir deat! and its recognition in la,ent $efore and after t!e fact "lay c!iastic variations on t!e e."ected seAuence. T!e sa,e seAuence of deat!, la,ent, and urge to revenge t!at 0e sa0 after t!e a,$us! in $ook % controls t!e last t!ree $ooks of t!e "oe,, $ut no0 t!e links are e.tended and reconnected in a crossing of causalities. T!e self:sacrifice of t!e T!e$an Menoeceus in o$edience to t!e oracle t!at reAuires !is deat! to save t!e city receives a traditional, "er!a"s ty"ically unco,"re!ending 0o,an=s la,ent fro,

!is ,ot!er: 8Lou, ,y cruel son,# Lou rus!ed a!ead, you doo,ed your 0retc!ed ,ot!erV8 DThe*aid 1&.M&?:M?%E. Blind to !is !ig!er "atriotic "ur"ose, t!is unna,ed successor of 9uryalus=s ,ot!er illustrates ot!er "syc!ological features in t!e de"iction of grieving or aggrieved 0o,en in 7o,an e"ic and !istorical tradition2t!e tendency to t!ink in ter,s of a,our "ro"re, and envy and $la,e of ot!er 0o,en. W!en *"!eltes= ,ot!er calls u" vengeance against !is nurse Cy"si"yle it arises fro, Cy"si"yle=s direct res"onsi$ility for t!e c!ild=s deat!, $ut t!e la,ent of Menoeceus=s ,ot!er is "ersonali<ed in a different 0ay2it is distorted $y anger against !er sister:in:la0 Jocasta, 0!ose 0o,$ conceived $ot! t!e offending *edi"us and t!eir sons: Was it to $e a sca"egoat for fierce T!e$es, 3 creature doo,ed, B reared you, glorious $oy, /ike so,e ,ean lo0:do0n ,ot!erG W!at vile sin Cave B co,,ittedG W!at gods !ate ,e soG B !ave not s!a,ed incestuous "rogeny $y ,onstrous intercourse, nor !as ,y 0o,$ Born grandsons to ,y son in 0ickedness. Bt ,atters notV Jocasta kee"s !er sons 3nd sees t!e, kings. S!all B t!en e."iate - ?%& T!e 0ar so cruelly . . . t!at *edi"us= t0o sons May take turns on t!e t!roneG DThe*aid 1&.> %:M&1, trans. MelvilleE T!is self:centered resent,ent and re"roac! against divine in1ustice actually "recedes t!e a"ostro"!e to !er dead son, furt!er conta,inated $y !er o$sessive disavo0al of any "art in Menoeceus=s !eredity of 0arrior <eal, 0!ic! s!e $la,es on !is "aternal in!eritance.H%&I Bn t!is ,ot!er=s long s"eec! t!ere is ,ore of anger t!an grief, ,ore of "rotest t!an la,ent, and 8t!e ill:starred 0o,an=s 0ords 0ould still !ave flo0ed,# +illing t!e "lace 0it! "rotests8 D1&.M1':M(E if servants !ad not confined !er, again like 9uryalus=s ,ot!er, in de,ented isolation, to grieve as if s!e 0ere so,e savage tigress. Bn fact Statius=s inter"retation of t!e ,yt! "uts a ne0 face u"on Menoeceus=s act of self:sacrifice for T!e$es. Bn Statius it is t!e unco,"re!ending res"onse, falling s!ort of true la,ent, $y $ot! Menoeceus=s "arents t!at nullifies t!e sacrifice. T!e triu,"! of self over sorro0, of anger over grief, is ,ore ,arked still in Menoeceus=s fat!er, Creon: !is "ain s,olders longer and is ,ore terri$le. Bndeed, Creon=s anger 0ill over0!el, not only !is grief $ut !is res"ect for divine la0. But first Statius ,ust carry t!roug! t!e deadly duel of t!e fratricides and t!e "erverted ,ourning of t!eir fat!er *edi"us, 0!ose curse !ad created t!eir ,utual loat!ing. *edi"us=s grief leads !i, to lay angry !ands u"on !i,self, 0!ile Creon, no0 king, is furt!er cra<ed $y "o0er and t!e curse t!at co,es 0it! t!e t!rone of T!e$es, su$,erging any grief for !is son in an al,ost universal !atred. Taking on t!e i,"iety and cruelty of t!e tyrant 9teocles, !e re"eats t!e tyrant=s "ro!i$ition of all $urial rites for t!e 3rgive dead D11.)(>:))'E. Burial and la,ent no0 re"lace "o0er over T!e$es as t!e ne0 o$1ect of !u,an conflict. Statius o"ens $ook 1?, like $ook 11 of t!e Aeneid, 0it! t!e collective $urial $y all t!e T!e$ans of t!eir unna,ed casualties.H%1I T!e lesser conflict $et0een rival T!e$an kins,en co,"eting to $ury t!e sa,e unidentifia$le cor"ses DThe*aid 1?. %%:%'E fores!ado0s t!e greater conflict $et0een Creon=s "ro!i$ition of $urial and t!e deter,ination of 3ntigone and ot!er ,ourners to find and $ury t!e $odies of t!eir $eloved and !is ene,ies2$ut !ere too t!ere 0ill $e conflict and co,"etition $et0een t!e

$ereaved. T!e "oet needs t!ese straig!tfor0ard T!e$an funerals to serve as foil to Creon=s la,ent for Menoeceus, 0!en !e rea""ears, conducting !is son=s grandiose funeral rites. T!is s"eec!2a "erverted version of @irgil=s 9vander la,ent2is t!e last of t!e ,ale la,ents in t!e The*aid. Creon see,s to start 0ell, $e0ailing Menoeceus=s deat! yet ackno0ledging t!e e.alted divine status !is !erois, !as 0on. But !is ,ind !as $een "erverted $y !is in!eritance of t!e cursed t!rone of T!e$es: first !e tries to assuage t!e $itterness of ne0 kings!i" 0it!out !is son as !eir $y setting t!e sce"ter and - ?%1 diade, of T!e$es u"on Menoeceus=s cor"se DThe*aid 1?.MM: ?E. Cis grief !as turned sour. 9ven t!e sce"ter and diade, are set t!ere to s"ite t!e s!ade of 9teocles, and grief yields to anger in t!e ,ove,ent 0e !ave seen $efore, to anger and to Creon=s oat! s0orn $y !is dead son to "unis! anyone 0!o atte,"ts to give $urial to t!e 3rgive dead D The*aid 1?. ':1&'E. Statius ,arks t!e enor,ity of Creon=s fren<y $y t!e un"recedented division of t!e la,ent into t0o s"eec!es and $y t!e reactions of t!e $ystanders. Suc! is t!e king=s angry fury of grief t!at servants !ave to drag !i, a0ay, as if !e 0ere so,e 0o,an out of control. T!us t!e $urial of t!e 3rgive leaders re,ains as t!e last focus of conflict. Before t!e ac!ieve,ent of t!is $urial under 3t!enian "rotection, and t!e ,oral resolution of t!e e"ic, t!e "rivate sorro0s of t!e !ouse of *edi"us reac! t!eir e,otional resolution. Polynices= cor"se receives not one $ut t0o la,ents, as a T!e$an and an 3rgive, first fro, !is 3rgive 0ife, 0!o !as scoured t!e $attlefield $y nig!t to find !is cor"se D The*aid 1?.%??:%')E, t!en fro, $ot! 0ife and sister, alternating t!eir dirges as t!ey 8s!ared t!e tale of T!e$es= and 3rgos= tragedy8 D8,utuaAue e.orsae T!e$as 3rgosAue renarrant,8 The*aid 1?.% &E. T!ese la,ents create a mise&en&a*Sme, a reliving of t!e 0!ole e"ic, or rat!er a rival version of t!e e"ic Statius !as 1ust told, seen t!roug! 0o,en=s eyes and in 0o,en=s ter,s. But in t!is conte.t la,ent $eco,es a kind of 0eird triu,"!. Bt is not 1ust t!e Auest for "at!os t!at !as led Statius to give suc! "ro,inence to its for,al utterance: indeed, !e casts aside any !int of "at!os 0!en t!e 3rgive ,ot!ers and 0ido0s ac!ieve access to t!eir dead. +or t!e, la,ent is fulfill,ent. 8T!eir la,ents re1oice 5gaudent lamenta6,4 Statius says, 8and t!eir rene0ed tears are 1u$ilant 5no)ae<ue e+ultant lacrimae6,4 as t!eir ,ourning, !o,ing on its "!ysical o$1ect, leads t!e, to t!e $eloved $odies DThe*aid 1?.> %:> (E. 4o 0onder t!at Statius su$stitutes !is o0n voice for t!at of t!ese triu,"!ant ,ourners to $ring !is "oe, to a close: T!oug! Ceaven s!ould s0ell ,y voice a !undredfold to free ,y !eart, ,y strains could never ,atc! t!ose funerals of kings and co,,oners, t!ose la,entations s!ared. DThe*aid BH.989&IN E, trans. MelvilleEH%?I +. M. 3!l !as dra0n on t!e affinity $et0een Statius=s reiterated la,ent for !is young 0arrior Part!eno"aeusH%%I and !is "oe, of la,ent for !is ado"ted son, to stress a co,"assionate if "essi,istic ,essage t!at runs t!roug! t!e e"ic. 3s 3!l "oints out, 8Bnnocence, $eauty and life itself ,ust al,ost inevita$ly $e destroyed82$ut t!e e"ic narrative itself is t!ere to 8"revent t!e inevita$ility. 8H%'I T!is co,"ensatory !o"e see,s to ,e $ot! ,ore "ositive and ,ore senti,ental t!an t!e outco,e of Statius=s killing fields. Just as t!ese recurring - ?%? -

s"eec!es of ,ourning $y t!e "oet and !is "ersonages are a ,easure of t!e dead !eroes= 0ort!, so t!eir iteration drives !o,e Statius=s ,essage t!at t!is 0ort! !as $een ,isused, and t!e grief is greater t!an t!e glory. T!ere is no glory in t!is 0ar. T!ese !eroes !ave died for not!ing. T!ere is no ne0 li$erty, no !eroic code of values, to cele$rate: t!ere is only a tale of destruction 0illed $y t!e gods as "unis!,ent for !u,ankind. T!is 0ar, like /ucan=s, is a civil 0ar, t!e negation of constructive, coloni<ing, or even defensive ,ale ac!ieve,ent, and Statius=s "oe, goes a long 0ay to $eco,ing t!e negation of e"ic. 3lt!oug! Statius !as funda,entally t!e sa,e ,essage as /ucan, da,ning civil 0ar as un!eroic, antie"ic, !e differs fro, /ucan in !is intensive use of la,ent as an instru,ent of conde,nation, a verdict on !u,an greed, cruelty, and folly. /a,ent !as triu,"!ed over !eroics and "ut t!e, to s!a,e. S,all 0onder t!at t!e The*aid !ad no 7o,an successor.H%(I

Wor/s Cited
3!l, +. M. 1 M). 8Statius= The*aid: 3 7econsideration.8 Bn Aufstieg und (iedergang der -Tmischen Welt, edited $y C. Te,"orini and W. Caase, ?.%?.(: ?M&%? 1?. Berlin and 4e0 Lork: 5e ;ruyter. 3le.iou, Margaret. 1 >1. The -itual ament in Gree, Tradition. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. Barc!iesi, 3. 1 >M. 8B1 la,ento di ;iuturna.8 /ateriali e discussioni B: 5anfort!, /oring. 1 M?. "eath -ituals of -ural Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press. +oley, Celene. 1 1. 8T!e Politics of Tragic /a,entation.8 Bn Tragedy, Comedy, and the Polis, edited $y 3. C. So,,erstein, S. Calli0ell, J. Cenderson, and B Oi,,er,ann, 1&1:1'%. Bari: /evante 9ditori. - ?%( Cardie, P!ili". 1 %. The Epic %uccessors of 7irgil3 %tudies in the "ynamics of a Tradition. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. Cenderson, Jo!n. 1 ?. 8Statius= The*aid: +or, 7e,ade.8 Bn -oman Epic, edited $y 3. J. Boyle, 1)?:1 1. /ondon: 7outledge. 4e0 revised version in 1ighting for -ome DCa,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press, 1 ME, ?1?:?(' Dte.t greatly ,odifiedE. 1 1. :1?1.

8Statius= The*aid: +or, Pre:,ade.8 Proceedings of the Cam*ridge Philological %ociety %>: %&:> . Colst:War!aft, ;ail. 1 ?. "angerous 7oices: Women$s ament and Gree, iterature. /ondon: 7outledge. /ucan. 1 ?. "e Bello Ci)ili. Boo, H. 9dited $y Elaine 1antham. Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. Seneca. 1 M?. Troades. 9dited $y Elaine 1antham. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Statius. 1 ?. The*aid. Translated $y 3. 5. Melville. Bntroduction and notes $y 5. W. T. @essey. *.ford: Clarendon Press. @essey, 5avid. 1 >%. %tatius and the 4The*aid.4 Ca,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press. 1 >1. 8T!e 5eat! of Menoeceus.8 Classical Philology )): ?%):?'%. @irgil. 1 M1. The Aeneid of 7irgil. A 7erse Translation *y Allen /andel*aum. 4e0 Lork: Banta,. Wilts!ire, Susan. 1 M . Pu*lic and Pri)ate in 7ergil$s 4Aeneid. 83,!erst: University of Massac!usetts Press. - ?%> -

SECTI#N $I E0 E'IC %N- 'E-%.#."

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)80 Epics and the 'olitics of the #rigin Tale2 irgil, #+id, Spenser, and Nati+e %merican %etiology
Susanne &A Wofford T!is essay resituates study of t!e e"ic $y co,"aring t!e use of origin ,yt!s in e"ic to t!e origin tale as a distinct genre, including e.a,"les fro, *vid, fro, Joel C!andler Carris=s retelling of 3frican and Bndian stories of origin, and fro, t0o /a$rador Bndian aetiologies. Susanne Wofford argues t!at e"ic stands against aetiology and origin tale as genres t!at contrast in for, and "ur"ose. 3lt!oug! stories of origin often naturali<e violent c!ange at t!e foundation of a society or nation, t!ey also e."ose t!at violence, re"resenting t!e $eginnings of custo,, ritual, or ele,ents of landsca"e in forced i,"ositions on a different original for,. 9"ic, in contrast, alt!oug! it a""ears to searc! for causes, in "ractice usually occludes t!e, and evades es"ecially t!e kinds of revelations t!e aetiology or origin story "resents. Wofford=s essay suggests t!at study of t!e traditional Western e"ic can $e e."anded and illu,inated $y conte.tuali<ing e"ic 0it! t!e lived oral traditions re"resented in indigenous origin tales and !eroic narratives and "oe,s, and argues for teac!ing t!e 9uro"ean e"ic in a $road 3,erican conte.t. T!e Auestion of 0!et!er and !o0 to teac! t!e classic e"ic "oetry of t!e West !as $eco,e an urgent one in universities in t!e United States, es"ecially as de$ates a$out t!e value of t!e literary canon !ave ,oved to center stage in recent years. 5ecades ago, t!oug!, in t!e "ost0ar "eriod, 0!en ;reat Books "rogra,s 0ere esta$lis!ed at sc!ools like t!e University of C!icago Dunder t!e leaders!i" of Morti,er 3dlerE and Colu,$ia University D0!ere a t0o:year general !u,anities reAuire,ent still is a ,a1or feature of every student=s undergraduate educationE, t!e Auestion !ad already $een "osed as a c!allenge to t!e e,ergence of t!e ,odern, de"art,ent:$ased U.S. college or university. Bn arguing a$out 0!et!er to include ,ore literature fro, ot!er cultures or ,ore 0orks 0ritten $y 0o,en or ,ore e.a,"les of 0orks re"resenting t!e ,inority literatures of t!e United States in college reAuire,ents, ,ost universities see, to !ave "osed t!e de$ate as a c!oice: eit!er 0e teac! t!e traditional canon or 0e s!rink t!e nu,$er of classic 0orks and 8o"en u"8 t!e canon to include ot!er ,aterial. Bn t!is essay, B !o"e to suggest, $riefly and in a su,,ary 0ay, a different, "er!a"s ,ore 3,erican or - ?'& ,ore 4e0 World conte.t for teac!ing t!e ancient and 7enaissance e"ic: t!e oral literature and traditions of 4ative 3,ericans. Bn addition, B look at origin tales 0ritten do0n $y Joel C!andler Carris, 0!ic! ,ay !ave roots in 3,erican Bndian as 0ell as 3frican storytelling traditions, and ,ore $riefly at an origin tale $y 6i"ling. T!ese te.ts, B 0ill argue, "rovide a very different conte.t 0it!in 0!ic! to vie0 t!e e"ic stories, and !el" to re,ind t!e student of t!ose as"ects of early e"ic, often su$,erged in t!e literature class, t!at connect it to conte,"orary "erfor,ances of oral !eroic narrative and storytelling in t!e late t0entiet! century. T!e reader 0ill find in t!e a""endi. to t!is essay t0o 4ative 3,erican origin tales to 0!ic! B 0ill refer, and in ,y $rief $i$liogra"!y, notes on 0!ere to find ,ore e.a,"les of si,ilar tales. T!is essay is less e."licitly a$out "edagogical ,et!od20!at e.actly to do and say 0!en teac!ing e"ic t!is 0ay2t!an it is a$out t!e value of t!is very different conte.t for teac!ing and inter"reting e"ic. 3 cautionary note ,ust $e $riefly a""ended a$out t!e use of 4ative 3,erican ,aterials. Sc!olars,

critics, and students ,ust use Bndian stories and legends carefully, 0it! an a0areness of t!e e.tent to 0!ic! 0!atever is 0ritten and "u$lis!ed ,ay $e distant fro, t!e oral original. Many Bndian stories are not availa$le in "rinted for,, $ecause t!ey can $e told only at a certain ti,e or only $y a certain "erson or $ecause to "rint t!e, 0ould $e to lend s"ecial aut!ority to one or anot!er version of t!e tales or $ecause t!ey are used in sacred ritual or $ecause t!e teller is not literate. T!at said, t!e ,any strong Bndian traditions in t!is country of !eroic song, !eroic legend, and origin tale re,ain largely unkno0n to ,ost non:Bndian college students. To study ancient e"ic and ancient aetiologies in con1unction 0it! t0entiet!:century oral traditions of !eroic and ,yt!ic narrative can ,ake t!e Western e"ic central to a ne0 and $roader understanding of t!e 3,erican literary !eritage.H1I T!e 7a$$it and t!e Muse Musa, ,i!i causas ,e,ora, Auo nu,ine laeso Auidve dolens regina deu, tot volvere casus insigne, "ietate viru,, tot aide la$ores i,"ulerit. tantaene ani,is caelesti$us iraeG DAeneid 1.M:11E Tell ,e t!e causes no0, * Muse, !o0 galled Bn !er divine "ride, and !o0 sore at !eart +ro, !er old 0ound, t!e Aueen of gods co,"elled !i,: 3 ,an a"art, devoted to !is ,ission: To undergo so ,any "erilous days 3nd enter on so ,any trials. Can anger Black as t!is "rey on t!e ,inds of !eavenG D1.1%:1 E - ?'1 T!e Aeneid $egins 0it! t!e Auestion of cause, and later e"ic "oets !ave follo0ed in @irgil=s footste"s, clai,ing t!at t!e "oetic for, t!ey !ave c!osen 0ill "rovide reasons and e."lanations for suffering, action, and ,otive, not to ,ention t!e "resence of deat! or evil.H?I T!e cause or origin t!e "oet needs !el" to kno0 in @irgil=s case is a transcendental one, and one t!at su,s u" a range of related Auestions: Can suc! anger fill t!e godsG Bf so, 0!yG 5o t!e gods e.ist as ant!ro"o,or"!i<ed $eings t!at can feel angerG W!at is t!e relation of t!e divine and !u,an s"!eres, and is t!e relation $et0een t!e, one of causeG T!ese are Auestions t!at, as t!e story goes on, @irgil=s narrator see,s less and less certain !is "oe, can ans0er. T!e o"ening of t!e Aeneid gives t!ree stories to account for Juno=s anger. T!is dis"lace,ent to anot!er narrative level2!ere, a dis"lace,ent to ,yt!2suggests t!at t!e origin itself is narrative or ,yt!ic, or at least, t!at t!at is 0!at 0e can kno0 a$out it D8W!o !as kno0n !is o0n engenderingG8 asks Tele,ac!os in t!e o"ening of t!e Odyssey H1.?1)I,H%I $efore !e goes to !ear story after story a$out !is fat!erE. Moreover, neit!er t!e "oet nor t!e readers are likely to feel t!at t!e Auestion of cause !as $een ans0ered $y t!ese t!ree ,yt!ic narratives. Bn "osing t!e Auestion of cause at t!e $eginning, @irgil ,ay $e calling fort! again t!e /ucretian ec!oes of Georgic H: 8feli. Aui "otuit reru, cognoscere causas8 D8Ca""y is t!e one 0!o could kno0 t!e causes of t!ings,8 Georgics ?.' &E. /ucretius=s assertion t!at to kno0 8t!e first $eginnings of t!ings8 D"e -erum (atura 1.((E is to overco,e fear of deat! t!roug! "!iloso"!ical understanding of t!e nature of t!e universe is clearly t!e su$te.t of t!is "assage in t!e Georgics. But in t!e Aeneid, t!is kno0ledge of causes "roves elusive, s!ado0y. T!e e"ic "oet asks for ins"iration to find t!e cause2to kno0 t!e origin and "rovide t!e story t!at arises fro, it2$ut !e can

never fully ac!ieve t!is task. B !ave argued else0!ere t!at t!is cause cannot $e kno0n "artly $ecause of t!e circularity of figure and narrative in t!e "oe,2do Juno and 3llecto cause 3,ata=s fury or re"resent itGH'I Bf t!ey cause it, do t!ey ,erely ,ove t!e Auestion of cause to anot!er level, in a regress of narratives "resent on ot!er occasions 0!en e"ic "oets seek causesGH(I W!en t!e "oet does atte,"t to re"resent cause, t!e included aetiology usually disru"ts, co,"licates, or e."oses t!e costs of t!e narrative construction of value t!at ,akes t!e e"ic a national "oe,. 9"ics, t!en, seek to re"resent cause and to tell a story of origins, and an i,"ortant su$set of e"ic also seeks to ,ake t!at story into a national !istory, "roviding a surrogate ,e,ory for t!e nation. But 0!en 0e look closely at t!e effort to re"resent origin in e"ic, 0e encounter eit!er out:and:out evasion or t!e sort of narrative regression ,entioned a$ove2$ot! ,o,ents in 0!ic! t!e e"ic dis"lays an.iety a$out t!e very "ro1ect it !as undertaken. T!e structure of e"ic, es"ecially in regard to its efforts to narrate origin, contrasts 0it! and cannot easily $e ,ade to incor"orate t!e origin tale or aetiology. 5ividing t!e t0o, as B 0ill do "rovisionally in t!is essay, is a !euristic - ?'? device, since t!e e"ic clearly includes versions of origin tales fro, t!e start, and "art of t!e interest of t!e for, co,es fro, t!e ,o,ents of intersection2"laces 0!ere t!e origin tale is e,$edded in e"ic, often "laces of s"ecial figurative and allegorical density t!at e."ose t!e risks of re"resenting t!at 0!ic! itself ,ay need to $e !idden. T!ese risks include t!e danger of de,ystifying a sacred origin $y ,aking it "u$licly availa$le, and t!e t!reat t!at revealing violence, cri,e, or se.ual transgression at t!e origin 0ill de"rive t!e society of its founding aut!ority. T!ere is a long tradition, re"resented ,ost recently in t!e 0ork of 5avid Puint and 9li<a$et! Bella,y, t!at sees e"ic as linear and teleological, a narration t!at encodes t!e ontological o""osite of t!e 0anderings of ro,ance.H)I /ooking at so,e of t!e roles of aetiologies 0it!in e"ic 0ill s!o0, !o0ever, t!at e"ic ,ay not $e a$le to trace t!e narrative line fro, origin to goal and ,ay $e ,uc! less linear and ,uc! ,ore circling t!an critics !ave allo0ed.H>I Just as ,any e"ics see, not to reac! t!eir desired endings Dt!e #liad, t!e Aeneid, The 1aerie .ueene E so ,any also $etray uneasiness a$out incor"orated stories of origin, t!e grounds on 0!ic! t!e e"ic is itself esta$lis!ed. Bf t!e e"ic as a genre is linear, t!en, it often tells a linear story 0it!out real $eginning or ending2$eginning in medias res and ending also e+ mediis re*us. 3etiologies can $e told for t!e origins of certain custo,s or rituals2as in so,e of Calli,ac!us=s Aitia. T!e e"ic ga,es in $ook ( of t!e Aeneid, for instance, function as fictional aetiologies $ot! for t!e 7o,an fa,ilies 0!ose na,es are ,entioned and for t!e dis"lay of !orse,ans!i" at t!e end for t!e lusus Troiae, a "ageant or cere,ony revised $y Julius Caesar and esta$lis!ed under 3ugustus as a regular institution.HMI T!ey also can $e told to e."lain t!e "resence of a certain na,e or of t!e ele,ents of t!e landsca"e2a tree, a "articular flo0er. 9.a,"les of aetiologies in t!e Aeneid include t!e na,ing of several i,"ortant land,arks, suc! as t!e Punta di Palinuro in sout!ern Btaly, t!e Punta di Miseno in t!e Cu,ae area, and Dnot to leave out 3eneas=s nurse,aidE Caieta, as 0ell as aetiologies for 3ugustan custo,. 9.a,"les in *vid include t!e stories of t!e na,ing and creation of t!e laurel tree D5a"!ne: /etamorphoses, $ook 1E and of ot!er trees2t!e 0ee"ing 0illo0 DCy"arissus: $ook 1&E, t!e 0ee"ing ,yrr! DMyrr!a: $ook 1&E2, of t!e origins of various flo0ers D4arcissus: $ook %F Cyacint!: $ook 1&E, $irds DProcne and P!ilo,ela: nig!tingale and s0allo0, $ook )E, and s"rings DBy$lis: $ook F t!e "oisoned "ool in t!e story of Sal,acis and Cer,a"!rodite: $ook 'E.H I 3ll of t!ese tales involve t!e descri"tion of !o0 t!e "oe,=s landsca"e ca,e into $eing, and t!ey "ose t!e Auestion of !o0 t!at landsca"e s!ould $e inter"reted.H1&I

*ne encounters very si,ilar story ty"es in indigenous tales fro, ,any cultures around t!e 0orld. B !ave c!osen t0o /a$rador Bndian tales t!at s!o0 interesting si,ilarities to aetiologies in t!e Western classical tradition: 8T!e +irst /oon8 and 8T!e *rigin of 7o$ins8 Dretold $y /a0rence Mill,anE Dsee a""endi.E. B cannot do 1ustice !ere to t!e co,"le. local, "olitical, or ideological roles t!at t!ese tales ,ay "lay in t!eir individual cultures, $ut in teac!: - ?'% ing t!ese 0orks it 0ould $e i,"ortant to develo" a fuller understanding of t!eir cultural conte.t and t!e conditions in 0!ic! t!ey are "erfor,ed or related. Cere B "ro"ose a for,al analysis t!at 0ill allo0, B !o"e, so,e legiti,ate co,"arison. Tales of origin, in contrast to e"ic, !ave a different $ut recogni<a$le narrative for, and set of conseAuences. 3 $rief look at several tales 0it! 0!ic! ,any readers 0ill $e fa,iliar2Joel C!andler Carris=s rendition of t!e story of !o0 Brer 7a$$it lost !is fine $us!y tail, and 6i"ling=s 8Co0 t!e 9le"!ant ;ot Cis Trunk820ill !el" to identify c!aracteristic traits of t!e origin tale. Bn t!e case of Brer 7a$$it, t!e tale t!at results is like t!e ra$$it=s tail itself s!ort, indeed s!ort enoug! to $e included !ere in full: 8*ne day Brer 7a$$it 0u< g0ine do0n de road s!akin= !is long $us!y tail, 0=en 0!o s!ould !e strike u" 0id $ut ole Brer +o. g0ine a,$lin= long 0id a $ig string er fis!V W=en dey "ass de ti,e er day 0id 0unner nudder, Brer 7a$$it, !e o"en u" de confa$, !e did, an !e a. Brer +o. 0!ar !e git dat nice string er fis!, en Brer +o., !e u"=n =s"on= dat !e katc! u,, en Brer 7a$$it, !e say 0!ar=$outs, en Brer +o., !e say do0n at de $a$ti<in= creek, en Brer 7a$$it !e a. !o0, ka<e in de, days dey 0u< ,onstus fon= er ,inners, en Brer +o., !e sot do0n on a log, !e did, en !e u"=n tell Brer 7a$$it dat all !e gotter do fer ter git er $ig ,ess er ,inners is ter go ter de creek atter sundo0n, en dra" !is tail in de 0ater en set dar t0el day:lig!t, en den dra0 u" a 0!ole ar,ful er fis!es, en de, 0=at !e don=t 0ant, !e kin fling $ack. 7ig!t dar=s 0!ar Brer 7a$$it dra" !is 0ater,illion, ka<e !e tuck=n sot out dat nig!t en 0ent a fis!in=. 5e 0edder 0u< sorter cole, en Brer 7a$$it, !e got =i, a $ottle er dra, en "ut out fer de creek, en 0=en !e git dar !e "ick out a good "lace, en !e sorter sAuot do0n, !e did, en let !is tail !ang in de 0ater. Ce sot dar, en !e sot dar, en !e drunk !is dra,, en !e t!ink !e g0ineter free<e, $ut $i,e$y day co,e, en dar !e 0u<. Ce ,ake a "ull, en !e feel like !e co,in= in t0o, en !e fetc! nudder 1erk, en lo en $e!oles, 0!ar 0u< !is tailG8 T!ere 0as a long "ause. 85id it co,e off, Uncle 7e,usG8 asked t!e little $oy, "resently. 8S!e did datV8 re"lied t!e old ,an 0it! unction. 8S!e did dat, and dat 0=at ,ake all de<e yer $o$:tail ra$$its 0=at you see !o""in= en skaddlin= t!oo de 0oods.8 83re t!ey all t!at 0ay 1ust $ecause t!e old 7a$$it lost !is tail in t!e creekG8 asked t!e little $oy. 85at=s it, !oney,8 re"lied t!e old ,an. 85at=s 0=at dey tells ,e. /ook like dey er $leed<d ter take atter der "a.8 D"". 1?(:1?)E *ne of t!e features of t!is tale, $esides t!e dis1unction $et0een t!e voices of t!e 0!ite c!ild and t!e 3frican slave, is t!at it tells of a transfor,ation t!at cannot $e reversed. W!ile so,e of t!e stories

Carris records in Lncle -emus see, to encode an allegory of !o0 a clever individual can out0it an o""ressor 0!ose clai, to control is $ased si,"ly on su"erior "o0er D8Born and $red in de $riar "atc!, Brer +o., $orn and $red8E, t!is one suggests t!at - ?'' Brer +o.=s trick !as "er,anently altered t!e s!a"e of t!ings283re t!ey all t!at 0ay 1ust $ecause t!e old 7a$$it lost !is tail in t!e creekG82and, ,oreover, t!at t!at "er,anent c!ange is connected to a kind of "atriarc!al descent28/ook like dey er $leed<d ter take atter der "a82a state,ent Aualified only $y 85at=s 0=at dey tells ,e,8 0!ic! leaves t!e source of t!e oral tradition unidentified20!o are 8t!ey8G Bn ,ost suc! tales of origin, 0e are asked to consider 0!at kinds of trut! clai,s are $eing ,ade: !ere t!e 8trut!8 is a fictional one2neit!er Uncle 7e,us nor Joel C!andler Carris nor t!e reader t!inks t!at t!ere ever really 0as a ra$$it 0!o said t!ese t!ings, and yet t!e tale tells so,et!ing t!at is felt to $e 8true8 ,eta"!orically or fictionally. Uncle 7e,us o$scures t!is "ro$le, $y !is allusion to !is aut!ority in telling t!e tale285at=s 0=at dey tells ,e.8H11I Ce is an oral narrator 0!ose clai, to kno0ledge is a c!ain of storytellers t!at fictionally reac!es $ack to t!e $eginning2!e, too, 0e ,ig!t say, takes after !is "a. T!is Auestion of t!e fictive trut! clai,s ,ade $y origin tales 0ill return s!ortly, as 0e look at fictions t!at clai, a religious or "seudoreligious aut!ority. +or no0, it suffices to !ig!lig!t t!e unidirectional ,eta,or"!osis: t!e c!ange cannot $e undone. Most of t!ese tales2including t!e *vidian ones2re"resent an e.cessive violence, often e.e,"lified in or co,$ined 0it! an account of for$idden se.uality or desire2$rot!er:sister incest, fat!er:daug!ter incest, ra"e, self:love to t!e "oint of self:destruction2follo0ed $y a catastro"!ic and irreversi$le ,eta,or"!osis t!at "roduces t!e ele,ent of landsca"e or $eing in Auestion.H1?I T!e ,eta,or"!osis ,arks t!e ending of t!e tale, a clear closure t!at defines also t!e cause or reason for t!e c!ange. Bndeed, t!e ,eta,or"!osis itself could $e said to $e a figure of closure, an event t!at resolves see,ingly irresolva$le tensions or o""ositions in t!e narrative. T!e ,eta,or"!oses so,eti,es involve a deat! Das in 8T!e +irst /oon8E, 0!ic!, $y t!e sy,$olic econo,y of t!e genre, see,s to $e t!e cost of an all: "o0erful intervention, so,eti,es $y t!e gods, so,eti,es $y an ot!er0ise unidentified source of narrative "o0er. So,eti,es, also, t!ese stories s!are t!e odd feature t!at t!eir endings see, relatively uni,"ortant co,"ared to t!e route taken to arrive at t!e "oint of conclusion. *ne 0ay to read t!ese stories of origin, t!en, is to consider to 0!at e.tent t!ey are narratives a$out t!e naturali<ation of force or violence2to 0!at e.tent t!ey are stories in 0!ic! a sudden, revolutionary, and instantaneous act of force is ,ade to see, a natural event. T!e fact t!at t!e endings are irreversi$le e,"!asi<es !o0 t!e tales ,ake suc! catastro"!ic acts of force see, to "roduce t!e natural 0orld as 0e kno0 it, everyt!ing a""earing =1ust t!e 0ay t!ings are,8 inca"a$le of furt!er c!ange. 6i"ling=s =T!e 9le"!ant=s C!ild8 and t!e aetiology of Brer 7a$$it=s tail discussed a$ove are $ot! stories set in t!e fra,e of a colonial "ro1ect, a colonial occu"ation or enslaving t!at ,arks one culture=s violent acAuisition of anot!er. Bn t!is setting, t!e vie0 t!at t!ese catastro"!ic ,eta,or"!oses !ave si,"ly "roduced 8nature82indeed an - ?'( i,"roved nature, since in t!e case of t!e 6i"ling tale t!e ele"!ant can use its long trunk to s"ank its irritating relatives2,ig!t see, to sy,$oli<e or redu"licate t!e colonial "ro1ect itself, in 0!ic! a violent acAuisition and ostensi$le transfor,ation of t!e coloni<ed can $e ,ade to see, $ot! irreversi$le D1ust t!e 0ay t!ings areE and ,orally su"erior. *$viously t!ese tales are not all identical, and Brer 7a$$it is not clearly i,"roved $y t!e s!ortening of !is tail2in fact, t!e transfor,ation of t!e

$ig $us!y tale is told as a tale of loss. 3lso, in neit!er of t!ese t0o cases does a divine "o0er intervene to aut!ori<e t!e ,eta,or"!osis: 0it itself, enforcing its stratage,s aggressively, deter,ines t!e definitive s!a"e of t!e ra$$it=s tail. But t!e fantasy of irreversi$ility serves t!e cultural and ideological function of esta$lis!ing and legiti,i<ing 8t!e 0ay t!ings are8 in a society Dslavery, coloni<ationE or in a story, and of ,aking t!e desire to c!ange suc! t!ings corres"ondingly fantastical and unnatural.H1%I

#+id
*vid=s account of 3"ollo=s desire for 5a"!ne, t!e first of t!e a,atory tales in t!e /etamorphoses, carries a si,ilar resonance.8H1'I T!e natural 0orld !ere see,s at first glance a 0orld of tranAuillity, a "lace of esca"e fro, t!e violence of !istory enacted in t!e "lot of desire. T!e source of t!e "o0er to $eco,e a tree is associated 0it! 5a"!ne=s connection t!roug! !er fat!er to t!e 0aters and t!e local setting itself: 8Cel", fat!er !el"V8 s!e cries, as 3"ollo=s $reat! touc!es !er s!oulders and !er tre,$ling !air. 8Bf ,ystic "o0er#50ells in your 0aters, c!ange ,e and destroy#My $aleful $eauty t!at !as "leased too 0ell8 D/etamorphoses 1.('(:('>F ". 1>E. Peneus, !er fat!er, is, like ,ost of t!e local deities in *vid, $ot! t!e river in T!essaly of t!is na,e and its god. Cis 8,ystic "o0er,8 t!en, is fictionally t!at of a god, $ut figuratively t!at of t!e river and locality itself. T!is inter"retation "er!a"s illu,inates t!e "oetic logic in t!e transfor,ation of !is daug!ter into an ele,ent of t!is setting, as 0ell as esta$lis!es t!e li,its of !er esca"e. T!e locality !ere resists t!e force of 3"ollo and transfor,s 5a"!ne, t!oug! it does not ans0er !er "rayer and destroy !er $eauty. 5a"!ne loses !er s"eed in !er ,eta,or"!osis $ut gains a luster, a gla,orous $eauty Dnitor E: Scarce !ad s!e ,ade !er "rayer 0!en t!roug! !er li,$s 3 dragging languor s"read, !er tender $oso, Was 0ra""ed in t!in s,oot! $ark, !er slender ar,s Were c!anged to $ranc!es and !er !air to leavesF Cer feet $ut no0 so s0ift 0ere anc!ored fast Bn nu,$ stiff roots, !er face and !ead $eca,e T!e cro0n of a green treeF all t!at re,ained *f 5a"!ne 0as !er s!ining loveliness Hre,anet nitor unus in illaI. D/etamorphoses 1.('M:((?F ". 1>E - ?') T!e loss !ere2of !er ny,"! for,, of !er s"eed, of !er sinuous ,ove,ent is ,atc!ed and co,"ensated for aest!etically $y t!e evocation of t!e $eautiful tree and tranAuil landsca"e.H1(I 3s a ny,"!, 5a"!ne ,ig!t $e said to re"resent literally 0!at s!ould $e !er figurative relation to t!e local setting: s!e s!ould serve as t!e s"irit of t!e 0aters and t!e trees, and $efore !er transfor,ation s!e !ad loved to roa, t!e 0oods. 4o0, !o0ever, s!e !as $eco,e literally anc!ored in t!e setting. 3s 0it! ,ost c!aracters 0!ose 0is!es are fulfilled, too, !er 0is! to re,ain a virgin is granted in a ,ore literal 0ay t!an s!e could !ave e."ected, yet even so 3"ollo e,$races !er and a""ro"riates !er sy,$olic "o0er for !i,self. Bf 3"ollo is read in "art as a figure for 3ugustan i,"erial "o0er, t!is tale de"icts, as does t!at of Juturna at t!e end of t!e Aeneid, t!e local landsca"e resisting t!e national drive of e"ic.H1)I 3t first, t!en, t!e ,eta,or"!osis see,s to re"resent a real esca"e fro, t!e violence of "olitical or !istorical struggle, even if at t!e cost of t!e loss of su$1ectivity. But 3"ollo is not deterred: !e sei<es t!e laurel and succeeds in a near ra"eF t!e tree recoils fro, !is kisses $ut cannot get a0ay, $ecause it is rooted. 3fter e,$racing and kissing t!e $ark, 3"ollo takes t!e leaves of t!e laurel as !is sy,$ol28My lyre, ,y locks, ,y Auiver you s!all 0reat!e82and "ro,ises to set t!e laurel tree on eit!er side of

3ugustus=s "alace gates. Ce concludes: 8My $ro0 is ever young, ,y locks uns!ornF So kee" your leaves= "roud glory ever green.8 T!us s"oke t!e godF t!e laurel in assent Bnclined !er ne0 ,ade $ranc!es and $ent do0n, *r see,ed to $end, !er !ead, !er leafy cro0n. D/etamorphoses B.JD:&JD93 ". 1ME T!e aetion ends 0it! !er a""arent acAuiescence to !is a""ro"riation of !er for, and its ,eaning. We ,ust stress t!e a""earance of agree,ent !ere, t!oug!, $ecause *vid does: 0e are not to kno0 5a"!ne=s true t!oug!ts !ere, $ut at least !er recoil and !orror !ave disa""eared. T!e 0orld of i,"erial triu,"!, like t!at of erotic desire Dor !atred of loveE, is a 0orld of tur,oil and ,ove,ent, $ut 5a"!ne !as 1oined t!e landsca"e2t!e nodding !ead of t!e leafy cro0n of t!e tree ,o,entarily evokes t!e i,age of t!e $eautiful grove in 0!ic! t!e action takes "lace2and taken on a different kind of figurative life. *n t!e ot!er !and, *vid leaves o"en t!e "ossi$ility t!at 3"ollo si,"ly does not recogni<e !er resistance to !is use of !er, since no0 s!e is a tree.H1>I T!is story ,ig!t at first $e read as a tale of t!e origin of "oetry, !inted at 0it! t!e ,ention of 3"ollo=s lyre. 3s a god skilled in "ro"!ecy and ,usic, 3"ollo is closely associated 0it! "oetry, a Auality t!at e."lains !o0 t!e laurel 0reat! co,es to $e t!e "oet=s sy,$ol. Certainly t!is second:level aetiology of t!e story of 5a"!ne as an account of t!e origin of "oetry !as deter: - ?'> ,ined ,uc! of t!e sy,$olics of later 9uro"ean "oetry, e.e,"lified $est, "er!a"s, in Petrarc!=s a""ro"riation of t!e 8laurel8 as t!e figure si,ultaneously for !is "oetry and !is $eloved. Bf so, it suggests t!at "oetic "o0er and control co,e at great cost2t!at t!e natural ,aterials of t!e "oet resist !is desire and cannot $e ,ade to fit !is needs 0it!out 8a dragging languor8 Dtorpor gra)is, /etamorphoses 1.('M28a do0n:dragging nu,$ness8 in t!e /oe$E t!at roots t!e, and ,akes t!e, tracta$le. To su""ort t!is reading, *vid=s ,et!od of detailing t!e stages of ,eta,or"!osis ,ig!t $e read as a literali<ing of t!e ,et!od of ,eta"!or: a natural si,ile 0ould 0ork $y clai,ing t!at a c!aracter is like a tree, 0!ile a ,eta"!or says t!at a given c!aracter is a tree. T!e loss of t!e distance ,aintained in t!e si,ile is re0ritten !ere as a violent i,"osition of 0ill. T!e i,"licit set of analogies t!at are su$,erged in t!e ,eta"!or $ut t!at nonet!eless give it its efficacy are recounted in eery detail Dar,s are like $ranc!es, and so onE. T!e fact t!at t!e laurel 0ill $e ever green2t!e final stage of t!e aetiology2is itself deter,ined $y 3"ollo t!roug! analogy to !i,self: t!e leaves of t!e laurel are al0ays green so t!at t!e analogy $et0een ;od and tree can $e ,aintained, so t!at t!e leaves 0ill retain t!e ,ark of t!e divine, so t!at 0e re,e,$er t!at t!ey !ave $een a""ro"riated as 3"ollo=s sy,$ol. T!e e."osure of t!e "oet=s figurative ,et!od as itself de"ending on a kind of force, and on t!e su$1ection and near ra"e of a fe,ale figure, fits also 0it! a ,ore e."licitly "olitical reading of t!e aetiology.H1MI *vid=s story concludes 0it! 0!at see,s to $e flattery of 3ugustus. 9. J. 6enney notes t!at 8t!e laurel 0as "ro,inent in t!e cult of 3"ollo, and !ere is t!e god !i,self giving "ride of "lace to its associations 0it! 3ugustus.8H1 I T!e story itself $eco,es ,o,entarily transfor,ed into t!e aetiology of 3ugustus=s association 0it! t!e laurel. T!e account of resistance and violent transfor,ation is 0renc!ed $riefly $ut conclusively into a tri$ute to i,"erial "o0er, 0!ere t!e transfor,ation of resistance into natural landsca"e does see, to naturali<e t!at "o0er2to suggest t!at t!is is, irreversi$ly, !o0 t!e 0orld is. 9ven nature, in t!is understanding of t!e story, e.ists to cele$rate 3ugustus, and t!e landsca"e t!at !ad served as "rotection against t!e violences of t!e "olitical 0orld

itself $eco,es an ideological sy,$ol, 0!ere its tranAuility and $eauty serve to !ide, not deflect, t!e violence in t!e narrative. T!at t!is is also one aetiology for "oetry only see,s to identify "oetic ,eta,or"!ic "o0er 0it! t!e "olitical "o0er of 3ugustus. *ne ,ust Aualify t!is last clai,, !o0ever, $ot! $ecause *vid !as e.tensively detailed t!at violence and $ecause !e re,inds us of t!e tale of resistance and esca"e in t!e ,o,ent of dou$t !e reca"tures in t!e ending of t!e tale: 8factis ,odo laurea ra,is,#adnuit utAue ca"ut visa est agitasse cacu,en,8 8T!e laurel in assent# Bnclines !er ne0:,ade $ranc!es and $ent do0n,# *r see,ed to $end, !er !ead, !er leafy cro0n8 D1.()):()>F ". 1ME. *vid=s 0it also !ints - ?'M !ere t!at t!ere is no reason to inter"ret t!e $ending of t!e cro0n of a tree as a su""ressed language. Ce ackno0ledges i,"licitly !ere t!at t!e narrator !as lost !is ca"acity to guess at !er ,otives and o"inions. Per!a"s s!e !as esca"ed ,ore co,"letely fro, $eing a kno0n o$1ect of "oetic narration t!an 0e or 3"ollo could !ave guessed. T!e ,o,ents of narrative e.cess in t!e story2t!e c!ase, 3"ollo=s desire, !is caressing of t!e $ark of t!e tree as it recoils, for instance2are in fact so,e of t!e ,ost ,e,ora$le. Suc! e.cess20!at one ,ig!t call t!e *vidian grotesAue2is so freAuent in *vid=s aetiologies t!at one ,ust include t!e, 0it!in any t!eory of !o0 to read t!ese tales. Cis account of t!e ra"e and ,utilation of P!ilo,ela can serve as an e.a,"le in 0!ic! t!e violence and grotesAuerie "revent, or at least co,"licate enor,ously, t!e kind of "olitical reading "ro"osed a$ove. Cere is *vid=s account of P!ilo,ela=s tongue fla""ing on t!e ground: radi. ,icat ulti,a linguae, B"sa iacet terraeAue tre,ens in,ur,urat atrae, UtAue salire solet ,utilatae cauda colu$rae, Pal"itat et ,oriens do,inae vestigia Auaerit. D/etamorphoses ).((>:()&E T!e tongue lay on t!e dark soil ,uttering 3nd 0riggling, as t!e tail cut off $y a snake Wriggles, and, as it died, it tried to reac! Bts ,istress= feet. D". 1%ME T!e terri$le !u,or of t!is account along 0it! t!e recurring violent acts in t!e rest of t!e story Dincluding t!e ,urder and dis,e,$er,ent of Procne=s c!ildE ,ake it difficult to read t!e tale "ri,arily t!roug! an ideological lens, since t!ey vividly "resent and d0ell u"on i,ages Auite e.traneous to t!e ideological "ur"ose or !istorical "lot. 3t a$out t!e !alf0ay "oint in t!e story, 0e see, again to $e i,,ersed in an account of !o0 art e,erges fro, violence2t!is ti,e visual art, since once !er tongue is cut off, P!ilo,ela 0eaves a ta"estry to de"ict t!e ra"e. But t!e revenge of P!ilo,ela and Procne co,"licates t!e "icture: ,ore clearly t!an in t!e case of 5a"!ne, if for a very different reason, t!e fe,ale victi, resists $eco,ing "art of t!is aetiology. *nce t!e ,urder of t!e c!ild and t!e $anAuet !ave occurred, t!e reader=s sense of !orror is co,"lete. T!e transfor,ations t!at end t!e story, t!en, "rovide an esca"e for t!e reader as 0ell as for t!e c!aracters fro, t!e violences t!at !ave eru"ted every0!ere2violence "er"etrated on t!e,, $ut also discovered 0it!in t!e,. T!e s0allo0 and t!e nig!tingale *vid 0ittily avoids saying 0!o 0as 0!o, since t!e sc!olarly tradition !ad $een ,i.ed2 sail off to forest and to roof, 0!ile Tereus too $eco,es a $ird D)olucrem E 0it!

- ?' a long fantastic $ill2a !oo"oe. 4ature in t!e for, of t!ese t!ree $irds $eco,es an esca"e for all t!ree fro, t!e narrative of desire, ra"e, and revenge, yet it is a nature ,arked forever $y t!is narrative. T!is is not a setting infused 0it! tranAuillity and $eauty: t!e transfor,ation "roduces a ,ourning landsca"e t!at continually "oints to t!e cri,e and grief t!at it !ides.H?&I T!e transfor,ation also calls attention to t!e role of art in t!e tale, in t!at it literali<es one of *vid=s ,eta"!ors:. Ce 0e"t and 0ailed and called !i,self !is son=s 5isastrous to,$, t!en 0it! !is naked s0ord Pursued Pandion=s daug!ters. 3s t!ey flee, Lou=d t!ink t!ey float on 0ings. Les, sure enoug!, T!ey float on 0ingsV *ne daug!ter seeks t!e 0oodsF *ne rises to t!e roof, and even no0 T!e ,arks of ,urder rise u"on a $reast 3nd feat!ers carry still t!e sta," of $lood. 3nd !e, grief:s"urred, s0ift:s0oo"ing for revenge, Bs c!anged into a $ird t!at $ears a crest, Wit!, for a s0ord, a long fantastic $ill: 3 !oo"oe, every inc! a fig!ter still. D/etamorphoses ).))(:)>'F ". 1'?E T!e "lay on 0ords 0!ere$y t!e ,eta"!or $eco,es literal is e."licit in t!e /atin: 8Cor"ora Cecro"idu, "ennis "endere "utares:# Pende$ant "ennis8 D).))>:))ME. T!e c!iastic order e,"!asi<es t!e 0it $ut also t!e closure of t!e story: as so often in *vid, 0!at ,ig!t !ave $een a ,eta"!or or an e."ressive gesture $eco,es "!ysical. 3s Willia, 3nderson "oints out in !is co,,entary, t!e t0o sisters !ave not esca"ed t!eir cri,e against Btys, nor !as Tereus esca"ed !is grief or !is desire for revenge. 3s $irds, 8t!e sisters continue to recall t!e cri,es t!ey !ave co,,itted and suffered. . . . T!ey are eternally ,arked 0it! t!e $lood of t!eir cri,e. . . . T!e cruel vengeance 0!ic! do,inated and 0ar"ed t!e ,inds of Procne and !er sister !as no0 $eco,e t!e one "assion of HTereusI.8H?1I T!e !u,an c!aracteristics of t!e !oo"oe Dt!e crest looks like a crest on a !el,et, t!e $eak re"laces t!e s"ear2pro cuspide E reinforces t!e sense t!at Tereus cannot esca"e !is 0arrior identity and t!e violence it led !i, to. By stressing !is o0n artistic "o0er to effect t!is ,eta,or"!osis, *vid calls attention to t!e "o0er of art to re0ork violence into so,et!ing t!at at least accuses t!e evildoer if it cannot transfor, or deflect t!at violence utterly. 3nd !e differentiates !is art fro, P!ilo,ela=s ,ore retri$utive craft, 0!ose roug! ta"estry 0it! 0ords 0orked in 0as used to s"ur Procne to revenge. *vid=s ,eta"!orical transfor,ation2 t!ey are like $irds, t!ey are $irds2creates not revenge $ut t!ree creatures t!at sy,$oli<e and ,ark a nature inesca"a$ly sy,$oli<ing cri,e and "assion, 0!at later "oets in a different tradition ,ig!t recogni<e as fallen na: - ?(& ture. *vid also see,s to $e differentiating !is tale fro, earlier versions of t!e story, since !e so e."licitly avoids suggesting any divine intervention in t!e ,o,ent of t!e transfor,ation. Bn t!is case, t!en, t!e origin story can serve to resist t!e tendency to re"resent its founding act of violence as natural and can e."ose, rat!er t!an !ide, t!e violence at t!e origin of t!e creature or setting. Suc! a landsca"e, "olluted, "oisoned or disfigured $y desire or "o0er, is sur"risingly co,,on in *vid. 9.a,"les of t!e landsca"es, land,arks, trees, and ot!er creatures t!at retain al0ays t!e ,arks of

cri,e, grief, or e.cessive "assion include 4io$e 0ee"ing forever as a rock faceF By$lis, 0!ose unsatisfied lust for !er t0in $rot!er ,akes !er first a 0riter, t!en a 0anderer, searc!ing for !er $rot!er, until, as s!e lies 0ee"ing on t!e ground, t!e ny,"!s turn !er into a s"ring, 0!ic! still 0ee"s and kee"s !er na,eF and Myrr!a, 0!ose consu,,ation of an incestuous love for !er fat!er sends !er into e.ile 0!ere s!e $eco,es a tree. Myrr!a, as "enitent, asked to $e transfor,ed: t!oug! t!e tree see,s to 0ee", s!e eagerly seeks t!e transfor,ation. S!e 8$uried !er face and fore!ead even in t!e $ark8 0!ile t!e tree oo<ed ,yrr!, !er tears, and groans in la$or as !er c!ild $urst t!e $ark in c!ild$irt!. *vid tells us t!at she !as forgotten !er for,er feeling, $ut t!e 0ee"ing continues still, trans"osed into t!e landsca"e: Puae Aua,Aua, a,isit veteres cu, cor"ore sensus, +let ta,en, et te"idae ,anant e. ar$ore guttae. D/etamorphoses 1&.' :(&&E T!oug! 0it! !er $ody s!e !ad forfeited Cer for,er feelings, still s!e 0ee"s and do0n T!e tree t!e 0ar, dro"s oo<e. D". ?'1E Bndeed, trees often see, to $eco,e or "rovide an o,inous setting. Tereus re1oiced on t!e $oat as !e $roug!t P!ilo,ela to !is !o,e, and *vid tells us t!at 8t!e $rute could !ardly 0ait to sei<e !is 1oys8 D/etamorphoses ).(1'(1(F ". 1%>E. But !e does 0ait, until !e can drag !er off to a ca$in in t!e 0oods, 8silvis o$scura vetustis,8 8!idden a0ay a,ong dark ancient trees8 D). (?&:(??E. We already kno0 0!at deeds are a""ro"riate for t!ese ancient 0oods, t!e 0oods 0!ere one of t!e sisters 0ill re,ain once s!e takes !er $ird for,. Bn Myrr!a=s case, finally, t!e tree stands as ,e,orial $ot! to t!e ta$oo:$reaking !eroine and !er desires, and to t!e force used in t!e "olicing of t!at ta$oo. 7at!er t!an !iding or aest!etici<ing t!at violence2or 1ustifying it t!roug! a sacrificial econo,y2t!ese tales tell t!e story of a different origin. Bf read as ,arking an origin in cri,e, illegiti,ate "assion, or !orror, *vid=s /etamorphoses can si,ultaneously illustrate t!e dangers for t!e e"ic of e."osing t!ese origins. - ?(1 -

T6o &a9rador #rigin Tales

8T!e +irst /oon,8 a /a$rador Bndian origin tale, can $e usefully co,"ared to ,any of *vid=s aetiologies, es"ecially t!e tales of P!ilo,ela and of Myrr!a.H??I /ike t!e,, it is a tale t!at involves t!e $reaking of a se.ual ta$oo Dt!is ti,e against incestE and a transfor,ation t!at $ot! "rovides t!e c!aracters 0it! an esca"e and "resents a la,enting $ird 0!ose song re,inds listeners of t!e story. T!e tale see,s told to ans0er t!e Auestion, 8W!y do loons sing in suc! a ,ournful 0ayG8 and like t!e *vidian aetiologies, it suggests t!at $e!ind every natural for, or s!a"e or ele,ent t!ere is a narrative. 7eading t!e landsca"e, t!en, is reading t!ese su""ressed stories of ,eta,or"!osis. T!e violence in 8T!e +irst /oon8 occurs not in t!e transgression itself, 0!ic! is ,uc! en1oyed $y $ot! "arties, $ut in t!e "olicing efforts of t!e $rot!ers, 0!o stand in for t!e larger social grou" Dfollo0ing t!e orders of t!e mistapeo E in insisting on 8!ealt!iness.8 T!e ,o,ent of transfor,ation, not detailed as in *vid,H?%I see,s to !ide or disguise t!e ,urder of t!e $rot!er, 0!ic! 0as t!e original "lan: 8T!e $est 0ay to get rid of t!is s!a,e, t!ey figured, 0as to get rid of t!e $oy !i,self.8 T!e ,urder is dis"laced $y t!e $rot!er=s esca"e into song, 0!ic! is literali<ed as !is transfor,ation into a $ird: if !e can sing a !ole into t!e ice, t!en !e ,ust $eco,e a singer. Singing !ad already $een !is 0ay of identifying !i,self to !is lover:sister: 8But 0!erever !e !id, near or far, !e=d only need to sing and !is sister 0ould !ear !i,.8

4o0 !e !as literally $eco,e t!e distant singer !eard over t!e ice and in t!e nort! 0oods, t!e loon. Moreover, like 5a"!ne and es"ecially like Myrr!a, t!e incestuous $rot!er !ere see,s to 0is! u"on !i,self a for, of self:destruction: to lea" into a !ole in t!e ice is to risk deat!, so t!at t!e $ird for, t!at e,erges see,s to contain $ot! t!ese su""ressed deat!s2t!e ,urder "lanned $y t!e $rot!ers, and t!e near suicide of t!e $a$y=s fat!er. T!e violent "olicing of social nor,s ,arks t!e li,it 0!ere transfor,ation is necessary in order for t!e tale not si,"ly to end in ,urder. But one is struck $y t!e e.tent to 0!ic! t!e story sides not 0it! t!e efforts to "ro!i$it incest $ut 0it! t!e creative !a""iness of t!e lovers2not 0it! 8!ealt!8 as a social category $ut 0it! 8!ealt!8 as a "!ysical reality D8To !er, t!e $a$y looked as !ealt!y as any s!e=d ever seen8E. T!e tale also e,"!asi<es aest!etic value in t!e girl=s "raise of t!e $a$y=s 8loveliness8: loveliness is ,arred $y t!e ,urder of t!e c!ild, aest!etics $y violence, $ut t!e tale=s o0n status as an aest!etic for, t!at contains $ot! transgression and violence "oints to anot!er 8loveliness8 t!at "ersists, li,e and in t!e cry of t!e loon, as t!e story ends. T!is loveliness "ersists, t!en, in t!e tale=s odd allegiance to t!e t0o lovers and t!eir $a$y, and its creative force lives on in t!e loon, a creature t!at is $ot! "roduced $y and serves as a figure for t!e fat!er=s grief. 3nd like t!e figure of t!e loon, t!e story itself is ,arked $y su""ressed grief, as it registers t!e irreversi$le c!ange in its ending28!is s0eet!eart 0ould never - ?(? co,e to !i, again.8 Wit!in t!at grief t!ere !ides a less o"enly ad,itted sense of sorro0: t!at t!is original e"oc! 0!en incest could occur 0it! "leasure and 0it!out a0areness of transgression is also irreversi$ly closed off, its distance fro, t!e "resent ,arked $y t!e "resence of t!e loon.H?'I 8T!e +irst /oon,8 t!en, see,s initially to "rovide aut!ority for t!e esta$lis!,ent of an incest ta$oo, for in t!e story t!e very for,s of nature Dor at least one of t!e,E are s!o0n to arise in t!e ,o,ent t!at t!e !u,an s"!ere is ,arked off $y t!is distinction. 3t t!e sa,e ti,e, !o0ever, it $ot! reveals t!e violence needed to enforce t!e ta$oo and develo"s a su$terranean fantasy of a 0orld 0it!out suc! "ro!i$ition, a 0orld s!o0n as $ot! creative, 8lovely,8 and associated 0it! t!e story itself. Cere too t!e origin tale can $e read dou$ly: it naturali<es t!e !u,an ta$oo2suggesting t!at it ,arks 8t!ings as t!ey are8 in nature Dloons do e.istE and culture Dt!e society continues to "ro!i$it incest and to clai, t!e rig!t to decide 0!at is 8!ealt!y8E2$ut it also ,arks t!e origin of t!is social structure in transgression and violence, ad,itting in a ,ore under!anded 0ay t!e artificial and "otentially destructive result of t!e ta$oo. 3 si,ilar dou$leness e.ists in anot!er /a$rador tale, 8T!e *rigin of 7o$ins.8H?(I Cere again t!e t!reat of incest "rovokes a violent res"onse, violence t!at ,ysteriously transfor,s its victi, into a figure 0it! ,eta,or"!ic "o0ers. T!e "arricide, 0!ic! is felt to $e a 1ustified res"onse to t!e fat!er=s re"eated a$usive acts2t!e a$andon,ent of t!e c!ild, t!e $urning of t!e 0ife2a""arently does not save t!e ,ot!er, alt!oug!, as in 8T!e +irst /oon,8 deat! $eco,es ,eta,or"!osis !ere 0!en t!e son 8HtakesI "ity on !er, saying t!at s!e didn=t !ave to $e a !u,an $eing any ,ore.8 3s 5a"!ne turns to !er fat!er to esca"e an overly aggressive suitor, so t!is 0o,an turns to !er son to esca"e t!e aggression of !er !us$and. Bn eac! case, t!e ,eta,or"!osis is "resented as a for, of esca"e at first, and !ere t!ere is no Aualification of t!at esca"e at t!e end of t!e tale. T!e 0o,an c!ooses to $eco,e a $irdF t!e analogy of !er $urned, reddened $reast "roduces t!e ro$in: 83nd all at once t!e old 0o,an 0as flying u" into t!e sky, 0it! red feat!ers on !er $reast 0!ere s!e=s $een $urned. T!at=s !o0 ro$ins ca,e into t!e 0orld.8 /ike 8T!e +irst /oon,8 t!is tale e."oses t!e violence of t!e enforce,ent of t!e incest ta$oo, t!oug! it does so under t!e ru$ric of 1ealousy and t!e danger of t!e fantasy of incest. T!e coloring of t!e ro$in reveals t!e !u,an ca"acity to act on violent fantasy, and ,ore indirectly t!e costs of i,"osing t!e incest ta$oo Dsince 0e never kno0 for certain 0!et!er incest !as occurred or not2and t!e tale see,s to "resent fat!erly 1ealousy of t!e ,ot!er:son tie as a fantasy of incestE.

T!e t0o 0ays B !ave suggested of reading origin tales "oint, t!en, to t0o "ossi$le and o""osed results of suc! narratives. +irst, to identify an origin 0ould see, to $e to clai, an aut!ority, es"ecially cultural aut!ority. *rigin e."lains, gives cause for, custo,s, rituals, and e.clusions and clai,s a rela: - ?(% tion to s"ecific settingsF it even identifies $irds and ani,als as $elonging to t!at nation=s self: understanding. 3s t!e later 9nglis! student of r!etoric ;eorge Putten!a, "ut it in 1(M), 8etiology8 is t!e figure of 8tell cause,8 0!ic! one does to gain credit2to ,ake oneself ,ore $elieva$le and aut!oritative.H?)I Presu,a$ly, t!e convention of narrating a national !istory in e"ic arises in "art fro, an analogous desire to clai, aut!ority for t!e 0riter and for t!e res"ective literature. Most e"ics tell t!e origin of a nation or narrate a crucial early event t!at defines a given culture. But2and t!is is t!e second "oint2once t!at origin is narrated, and t!e aetiology is no longer ,ystified into a for, of secret kno0ledge !eld $y an elite, t!en t!e violence t!at often "recedes and causes t!e ,eta,or"!osis is also e."osed. T!e "ossi$ility t!at t!e origin 0ill $e de,ystified once it is re"resented, and t!e conseAuent likeli!ood t!at a counternarrative 0ill $e generated t!at tells a very different version of national or cultural origin, $ot! suggest !o0 risky e.tensive use of suc! aetiologies can $e.

#rigin in Epic
*ne ,easure of t!e risk of incor"orating aetiology in e"ic is t!e e.tent to 0!ic! it disru"ts t!e ot!er0ise rat!er carefully ,aintained dou$le narration, according to 0!ic! t!e actions of t!e gods are given as e."lanations for events $ut ke"t se"arate fro, t!e,. *ne early e.a,"le occurs in t!e Odyssey, 0!ere t!e $ard sings of *dysseus=s !o,eco,ing and t!en tells !is listeners a$out t!e cost to t!e P!aeacians of !aving aided !i,. Poseidon 0is!es not only to i,"ale t!e s!i" t!at t!e P!aeacians use to trans"ort *dysseus !o,e and to end its voyage $ut to end all ocean2crossing 0it! "assengers2 essentially cutting t!e P!aeacians off fro, all Mediterranean trade. Oeus restricts Poseidon, !o0ever, and "er,its !i, only to !urt t!e s!i": 8/et !er $e turned to stone2 an island like a s!i", 1ust off t!e $ay. Mortals ,ay ga"e at t!at for generationsV But t!ro0 no ,ountain round t!e sea "ort city.8 W!en !e !eard t!is, Poseidon, god of eart!Auake, de"arted for Sk!eria, 0!ere t!e P!aiakians are $orn and d0ell. T!eir ocean:going s!i" !e sa0 already near, !eading for !ar$orF so u" $e!ind !er !e s0a,, t!e island:s!aker, and struck !er into stone, rooted in stone, at one $lo0 of !is "al,, t!en took to t!e o"en sea. DOdyssey 1%.1():1)'F +it<gerald, ". ?%'E T!e P!aeacians are "unis!ed for conveying t!e slee"ing *dysseus !o,e. T!ey "ay t!e "rice t!at !e "er!a"s oug!t, sy,$olically, to "ay: t!e e"ic re: - ?(' Auires !ars! la$or and valiant effort for success, not tranAuil slee" t!at takes "lace during a ,agical voyage. 3fter t!is event, t!e P!aeacians decide to cease offering free "assage to t!ose 0ayfarers

stranded on t!eir $eac!es. Bf Sk!eria is a "lace so,e0!ere in $et0een ordinary ,ortality DBt!acaE and i,,ortality D9lysiu,E, t!e "oe, tells us t!at "assage fro, t!at 0orld to t!e ordinary 0orld sy,$oli<ed $y rocky Bt!aca sto""ed after *dysseus=s !o,eco,ing: !e 0ill $e t!e last voyager to carry ,yt!ic 0ealt! !o,e, to trans"ort Das in a ,eta"!orE t!e ric!es of t!is idyllic setting into t!e roug! and far: fro,:ideal setting of !is !o,eland. T!e tale is an aetiology, t!en, for so,et!ing t!e e"ic is not very interested in2t!e island off t!e $ay of P!aeacia, a "lace t!e "oe, never visits again. But t!e "oe, is interested in t!e $reak $et0een t!e ,yt!ic adventures of *dysseus in $ooks :1? and t!e largely realistic $ooks of !is return. W!ile certain i,,ortal "o0ers are lent !i, at ti,es $y 3t!ena Das 0!en !e is $eautified and re1uvenated20!ic! occurs once in P!aeacia and again at t!e end of t!e story in Bt!aca, in a rare re"eated si,ileE,H?>I *dysseus returns to an island 0!ere all seasons do not occur si,ultaneously, 0!ere t!e land is "oor not a$undant, t!e gardens cultivated 0it! !ard la$or and "overty. T!e 8!ard "astoral8 Das +ran< Boas and 3rt!ur *. /ove1oy 0ould "ut itE of !is visit 0it! 9u,aeus only serves to ,ark out all t!e ,ore e,"!atically !o0 far t!is is fro, P!aeacia, a "lace t!at see,s all too ,uc! like t!e *gygia !e s"ent seven years leaving. T!e aetiology t!en is in a 0ay an aetiology for e"ic itself: it is t!e origin tale t!at identifies t!e conditions t!at define t!e rest of t!e "oe,, t!e conditions t!at define t!e constraints on !u,an 0ill and ac!ieve,ent t!at ,ake !erois, "ossi$le, t!e conditions t!at *dysseus !as soug!t for ten years in order to reesta$lis! !is !eroic self!ood. T!e fact t!at t!is is an origin tale tends to get lost in t!e reading of t!e Odyssey $ecause t!e 8tale8 is seven $ooks long2t!e adventures on Sk!eria $eginning as *dysseus cra0ls u" on t!e $eac! at t!e end of $ook (. T!e aetiology of t!e $oat:island also descri$es a c!ange t!at is irreversi$le, a c!ange t!at confir,s t!e "o0er of t!e gods, $ot! $ecause it is t!e "!ysical ,arker of t!e negotiation $et0een Oeus and Poseidon and $ecause it ,arks in its larger conseAuences t!e e.tent of Poseidon=s "o0er. T!e sea 0ill not $e ta,edF t!e anger 0ill not a$ate until long after t!e "oe,=s end Das Oeus "ro"!esies in $ook 1GH and t!e cost of a s,oot! !o,e0ard 1ourney is t!e conclusion of an !eroic e"oc!. T!e e"isode also e."oses so,e of t!e narrative strain t!at occurs 0!en an outrig!tly ,agical "o0er is needed to ,ake t!e e"ic reac! its desired end. T!e story of *dysseus=s !o,eco,ing can $e read as a ,eta"!orical account of !is e.cellence2!is arete&>the e.traordinary !erois, t!at allo0ed !i, to $rave t!e sea and $ring $ack its ric!es, $ut it also !ints t!at 0it!out t!is ,yt!ical or se,i,yt!ical aid, *dysseus ,ig!t never !ave ,ade it !o,e and ,ig!t, in fact, !ave $eco,e far ,ore like t!e 0andering adventurer !e "retends to $e t!an like t!e !eroic figure !e "re: - ?(( sents on P!aeacia. T!e "oe, 0ants !i, to $e $ot!, and it is in t!e ,o,ent of !is "assage to Bt!aca t!at one i,age is to $e laid over t!e second: !is e.tended conversation 0it! 3t!ena2rare in e"ic2and !is careful "acking a0ay of t!e P!aeacian gold in t!e Bt!acan caves ,ark t!e co,"le. dou$leness t!at t!is "oe, de,ands of its !ero:$eggar. 3 co,"ara$le e.a,"le fro, t!e Aeneid, t!e deat! of Palinurus and t!e na,ing of t!e Point of Palinurus after !i,, si,ilarly reveals t!is disco,fort of e"ic at a ,o,ent of ,agical intervention. /ike *dysseus, 3eneas is "ro"elled to0ard !is destination $y a ,agical "o0er t!at ,akes t!e fleet run s,oot!ly. T!is "o0er is divine indirectly24e"tune !as "ro,ised @enus t!at !e 0ill allo0 t!e fleet to arrive, $ut t!e cost !e e.acts is 8one life given for ,any8 D8unu, "ro ,ultis da$itur ca"ut,8 Aeneid (.M1(F +it<gerald, ". 1('E. 3eneas is reAuired to take t!e !el, eventually2after 0e !ave $een told t!at 8t!e fleet ran safely on its course8F !e is not allo0ed si,"ly to slee" t!e 0!ole 0ay, as *dysseus 0as. But !e ,istakenly t!inks t!at Palinurus !ad failed to $e sufficiently on guard, 0!ile t!e "oe, tells us t!at Palinurus !as $een selected as t!e sacrificial victi,, t!e one 0!o "ays t!e "rice for t!e ta,ing of t!e

sea, and indirectly for t!e e"ic need to use su"ernatural ,eans to $ring its !ero !o,e. T!e Co,eric detail of t!e s!i" $eing turned into stone is ,atc!ed !ere in t!e ,o,ent 0!en Palinurus nearly saves !i,self: as Palinurus reac!es Btaly and "ulls !i,self onto t!e $eac!, 8savages#3ttacked ,e as B clutc!ed at a cliffto", #Weig!ted do0n $y ,y 0et clot!es. Poor fools,# T!ey took ,e for a "ri<e and ran ,e t!roug!8 DAeneid ).%(M:%)1F +it<gerald, ". 1>?E. Cis gras" on t!e cliff edge gives t!at s"ot its na,e: !e is not turned to stone, $ut as !e touc!es t!e cliff !e ,arks t!e landsca"e. Cere too t!e e"ic dodges t!e full i,"lications of t!e aetiology: a sacrifice of a !u,an $eing is necessary for 3eneas to reac! Btaly=s s!ores, a sacrifice t!at is do,esticated $y $eing transfor,ed into an aetiology for a local custo, and "lace:na,e. T!e Si$yl assuages Palinurus=s "ain, saying: 4eig!$oring folk Bn cities u" and do0n t!e coast 0ill $e Bnduced $y "ortents to a""ease your $ones, Building a to,$ and ,aking offerings t!ere *n a ca"e forever na,ed for Palinurus. DAeneid D.C99&CIB3 +it<gerald, ". 1>%E T!is irreversi$le narrative ,arking of t!e Btalian landsca"e t!reatens to e."ose a "olitical structure underlying 3eneas=s conAuest of Btaly: deat!s 0ill $e reAuired for !is victory, $ut t!ey 0ill $e ,ade to see, less devastating $y $eing incor"orated into t!e 7o,an future as t!e na,e of a locality. 3n even greater t!reat to t!e "iety su""osedly cele$rated in t!e "oe, co,es during one of t!e fe0 efforts @irgil ,akes to re"resent origin directly: 3eneas=s account of t!e fall of Troy in $ook ?. Si,"ly narrating t!e city=s - ?() fall2identifying t!e original trau,atic event2does not really identify t!e cause, since cause can al0ays $e "us!ed $ack one ste" fart!er: t!e e"isode i,"licitly asks t!e Auestion, W!at caused t!e fall of TroyG W!en during 3eneas=s s"eec! t!e "oe, does ,o,entarily reveal a kind of i,,ediate cause, t!e effect see,s to $e devastating. T!is occurs 0!en @enus, trying to convince 3eneas to save !i,self, dra0s aside t!e cloud t!at !ad veiled 3eneas=s sig!t and invites !i, to see t!e gods directly as t!ey tear Troy do0n: /ook: 0!ere you see !ig! ,asonry t!ro0n do0n Stone torn fro, stone, 0it! $illo0ing s,oke and dust, 4e"tune is s!aking fro, t!eir $eds t!e 0alls T!at !is great trident "ried u", under,ining, To""ling t!e 0!ole city do0n. . . .. 5read s!a"es co,e to vie02,ig!ty "o0ers 5ivine, 0arring against Troy Ha""arent dirae facies ini,icaAue Troiae nu,ina ,agna deu,I. DAeneid ?.)&M:)?'E Cere a violent act of force $rings a$out irreversi$le destruction. 3lt!oug! 3eneas=s 0ords don=t confir, t!at !e sees e.actly 0!at @enus says !e s!ould see,H?MI !e does !ave a vision !ere t!at dire divine forces are t!e cause of Troy=s destruction. T!e difficulty 0it! t!is revelation of origin is "recisely its !orror: even 4e"tune is 0orking to tear do0n !is o0n city D!ence t!e irony of !is e"it!etE. T!e !orror of t!is scene dee"ly influences 3eneas: 8T!en truly it see,ed to ,e t!at all Troy fell in fla,es8 DAeneid ?.)?':)?(E. @enus !as told !i, t!at it is not Paris or t!e !ated face of Celen t!at is to

$la,e, $ut t!e gods, t!e relentless gods: 8divu, incle,entia, divu,8 DAeneid ?.)&?E. But to clai, t!at it is t!e gods at fault is to "resent t!e o"ening for a critiAue of t!e "oe,=s ideology2and fro, 3eneas=s "oint of vie0 to recogni<e t!e faulty logic of t!e civili<ation !e !as tried to defend.H? I Per!a"s t!is "rovides a different "ers"ective fro, 0!ic! 0e can vie0 3eneas=s deter,ination to $ring !is household gods 0it! !i,, as !e ,ust feel a$andoned $y ,uc! of t!e *ly,"ic "ant!eon. Moreover, t!e notion t!at t!e gods can $e $la,ed for !u,an suffering and loss !as $een critici<ed $y Oeus !i,self fro, early in t!e e"ic tradition Din t!e $eginning of t!e Odyssey, for e.a,"leE. Bn any case, e.a,"les like t!is of revealed origin are rare in t!e e"ic, "er!a"s $ecause suc! ,o,ents are sources of enor,ous trau,a for t!e !ero and of ideological disru"tion for t!e "oe,. Bn Epic and Empire 5avid Puint !as 0ritten of t0o kinds of returning to origins, one of 0!ic! !e, follo0ing +reud, sees as an un!ealt!y re"etition of origins2t!e re"etition co,"ulsion e.e,"lified in t!e si,ulacra of Troy in $ook %. T!e ot!er kind !e sees as a ,ore successful 80orking t!roug!8 of - ?(> t!e "ast, one t!at truly allo0s a ,aking ne0 to follo0.H%&I Puint sees t!is ,ore successful return to t!e "ast as occurring in t!e second si. $ooks of t!e Aeneid, during t!e 0ar in Btaly2a successful, $ut nonet!eless very violent for, of 80orking t!roug!.8 Bf t!e inter"retation "resented !ere is correct, !o0ever, t!en t!e 8re"etition co,"ulsion8 re"resented in t!e little Troy of $ook % and in ot!er efforts to return to Troy s!ould $e read as an effort not to return to t!e "ast $ut to avoid t!e story of origins2to $lind us, or t!e narrator, to t!e real origin, to t!e lessons t!at t!e revelation of t!e cause of Troy=s fall !ad forced on 3eneas. T!ese re"eated returns to t!e "ast in si,ulacru, re"resent a re1ection of t!e origin tale and a desire to forget 0!at t!e origin tale kno0s. T!e an.iety a$out 0!at narratives of origin ,ay reveal is 0ritten into t!e "oe, $y t!e desire t!e Tro1ans and t!e "oe, !ave to recreate Troy. 3s Bella,y !as suggested, t!e "oe, is !aunted $y and yet evades Troy and t!e Tro1an "ast, as "er!a"s it is also $y t!e 7o,an 7e"u$lic and t!e 7e"u$lican "ast. 9"ic, t!en, ,ig!t $e said to $e a genre t!at ,ystifies rat!er t!an reveals origins, and t!at de,onstrates t!e reasons not to e."ose t!e cause. T!is resistance to t!e origin tale in t!e e"ic !el"s to s!o0 0!y @irgil distinguis!es t!e 0riter of e"ic fro, t!e !a""y ,an of Georgics H 0!o kno0s causes. 3lt!oug! t!e Aeneid includes ,any /ucretian allusions and analyses, and alt!oug! as"ects of t!e "oe, allo0 for a fuller /ucretian reading Das P!ili" Cardie !as arguedE, t!e "oe, ,ore often resists kno0ledge of causes t!an seeks it, and in doing so, it is ,ore easily aligned 0it! national and i,"erial ideology. T!ose ,o,ents in t!e e"ic 0!en origins are narrated can, in contrast, so,eti,es $e ,o,ents 0!en a su$,erged counternarrative is allo0ed to surface.

Spenser and Source

3s e"ic narratives often re,ind us, their origin is in ot!er te.ts or ot!er "oe,s, t!e "un on 8source8 Dfountain, s"ring, t!e originalE serving to link t!e ,o,ent of ins"iration 0it! t!e turn $ack to literary tradition. S"enser uses t!is "un directly in Book ' of The 1aerie .ueene 0!en !e refers to C!aucer D0!ose unfinis!ed tale !e is no0 co,"letingE as t!e 80ell of 9nglis! undefiled8 D'.?.%?E.H%1I Bn S"enser=s "oe,, ,any of t!e sources2,any of t!e fountains and s"rings2are defiled, and t!e cause for t!is is t0ofold: first, according to t!e fiction, t!ey are "olluted or given s"ecial 8vertue82S"enser "rovides a fictional aetiology for a given s"ring t!at e."lains, 1ust as any narrative of origins 0ill, !o0 t!e s"ring ca,e to $e as it isF $ut secondly, !e i,"lies t!at t!ey are "olluted $ecause *vid "olluted t!e,. *vid=s aetiologies are t!e source of t!e s"ring 7edcrosse and 5uessa dally $y in 1.>.>F and an i,itative *vidian narrative e."laining t!e ny,"!=s failure to "ursue t!e 8c!ace8 is itself e,$edded in

t!e te.t to "oint to t!is origin. T!e cause is - ?(M t!us dou$ly dis"laced, for it is fictionally t!e ny,"!=s la<iness, $ut it is also t!e fact of narrative itself 2in t!is case, t!e "receding narrative of *vid. T!e s"ring of s"ecial 8vertue8 in t!e $eginning of $ook ? even ,ore e."licitly ec!oes *vid, es"ecially !is accounts of t!e "ursuit of 5a"!ne and t!e transfor,ation of 4io$e. T!e reader is ,ade to 0onder, t!en, 0!et!er t!e original stain is really t!at of fallen !u,an nature or si,"ly t!e corru"ting and transgressive literary tradition re"resented $y *vid t!at !as "assed on to our ne0 aut!or s"rings and sources t!at 0ere already defiled.H%?I *f course, in any oral tradition, t!e source of a tale is t!e tradition itself2$ut in @irgil, and ,ore insistently in S"enser, t!e e,"!asis on re"etition of a source te.t is so self:conscious t!at it li,its t!e degree of e."lanation of cause or origin t!at any suc! aetiology can !ave. S"enser t!eori<es t!is "attern of re"etition 0!en !e na,es an *vidian narrative as t!e cause of a given e,$le,, "ersonification, or ele,ent of landsca"e. Ce t!us allegori<es t!e effacing of origin in e"ic. Si,ilarly, 0!ile @irgil=s narrative is still ostensi$ly clai,ing to re"resent national origins Das 0ell as to a""ro"riate t!e locali<ed origins of individual "laces and geogra"!ic na,esE, S"enser is clearer a$out t!e need to evade direct re"resentation of origin. Consider t!e lack of re"resentation of t!e origin or conclusion of t!e knig!t=s Auests Dno i,agined originary scene in t!e +aery Pueen=s courtF no return to courtEF 3rt!ur=s lack of kno0ledge of !is origins Dkno0ledge t!at !e never gains in t!e "oe,EF and t!e related to"ic of t!e i,"ortance attac!ed to foundlings in t!e "oe, D$a$ies 0it! no e."lained origin or fa,ilyE. 3long 0it! t!ese t!e,atic e.a,"les, one ,ig!t "oint to t!e nearly o$sessive allegori<ation in The 1aerie .ueene of t!e inversion of cause and effect in narrative.H%%I T!e "oe, is "assionately divided a$out 0!et!er origin or cause can ever $e re"resented as so,et!ing sta$le, an inevita$le "ro$le, in a "oe, 0!ere every e.ternal event can $e a figure for an internal event. Bn any case, The 1aerie .ueene see,s sur"risingly clear a$out t!e i,"ossi$ility of re"resenting cause or origin, e.ce"t as anot!er story or anot!er figure or e,$le,. To take one e.a,"le, in t!e story of t!e $a$y 0it! t!e $loody !ands in t!e o"ening of $ook ?, S"enser tells us t!e un0as!a$le $lood is a 8sacred Sy,$ole8 D?.?.1&E t!is $lood is t!e ,ark of !is origin on t!e $a$y and is usually read as an allegory for original sin, t!e C!ristian version of t!e "olluted origin t!at defiles all. To contrast t!is i,age of origin as and in sin2so,et!ing ,arked, fated, and irreversi$le2 !o0ever, S"enser offers us t!e $a$y !eld $y t!e $ear in $ook ), 0!ic! Cale"ine gives to Sir Bruin and Matilde D).).? E. T!is $a$y also is 0renc!ed fro, violence, $ut given no !istory, no ,arking, no s!a"ing. T!is treat,ent of origin as a$solute and ine."lica$le ru"ture ironically leads to a ,ore !o"eful future, 0!ere, a,ong ot!er t!ings, t!is c!ild 0on=t !ave to $e a 8sacred Hyet "ollutedI Sy,$ole.8 T!e $ear $a$y also disa""ears at t!is ,o,ent fro, t!e "oe, as if no narrative is no0 "ossi$le a$out !i,. - ?( S"enser differs strikingly fro, $ot! @irgil and *vid in t!at in their "oe,s= ,eta,or"!osis is al0ays irreversi$le, 0!ile in The 1aerie .ueene, ,eta,or"!osis is so,eti,es irreversi$le Dfor e.a,"le, t!e ny,"! turned to fountain in Book ?, or t!e fate of Mal$eccoE and so,eti,es reversi$le D+ra 5u$io, ;rill, t!oug! !e c!ooses ot!er0iseE.H%'I +ra 5u$io, in contrast to Myrr!a and 5a"!ne, 0!o soug!t to $e transfor,ed to trees as acts of "enance or esca"e, does not 0ant to $e a tree: 8once a ,an, 1radu*io, no0 a tree8 D1.?.%%E. Ce !as learned t!at !e ,ust 0ait until t!e ordained a,ount of ti,e !as "assed in order to $e released fro, !is 0ooden

"rison. To find t!e !u,an $ody $ound in nature is for S"enser so,et!ing dee"ly distur$ing2a distortion of !u,an for,, a defor,ation t!at s!o0s "!ysically t!at !u,an for, !as $een a$andoned internally2$ut t!e defor,ation of +ra 5u$io also e,"!asi<es t!at t!e refor,ation ,ust take "lace. 4ature is no saving arena of refuge !ere, and t!e narrative "ro,ises a te,"oral return to +ra 5u$io Da "ro,ise not fulfilled in t!e "oe,E rat!er t!an !eading irreversi$ly in one direction. S"enser learned so,et!ing a$out reversi$le and irreversi$le ,eta,or"!osis fro, 5ante, for t!e C!ristian e"ic is designed to reveal "recisely ;od=s "o0er to c!ange 8t!ings as t!ey are82t!at is, to redee, fallen nature. T!e fact t!at t!is rede,"tion2t!e "ro,ised 8ti,e and suffised fates8 D1.?.'%E for +ra 5u$io2 does not take "lace 0it!in t!e "oe, indicates an uncertainty in The 1aerie .ueene $et0een t!e do,inance of its "olitical "ur"ose and t!e allegiance to its C!ristian conclusions and conseAuences. 8T!ings as t!ey are8 include $ot! t!e fallen 0orld so central to Protestant understandings of !u,an ,orality and also t!e li,itations of court society, 0!ere S"enser=s "oe, 0as not as fully a""reciated as !e !ad !o"ed. Bt is !el"ful, t!en, to conclude $y considering 0!at function t!e fantasy of reversi$ility ,ig!t !ave served in 9li<a$et!an society, a fantasy suggesting t!at t!e origin in cri,e, transgression, or Dfor t!e TudorsE civil 0ar can $e altered, and a ne0 $eginning ,ade. T!e "resentation of reversi$le origin in S"enser clearly !as its roots in !is religious conviction Dand in t!e "recedent of earlier C!ristian e"icE, $ut "er!a"s it also serves t!is $roader cultural "ur"ose. S"enser=s ,yt!ological origin tale a$out t!e fall, told in t!e 3rlo Cill digression in 8T!e Muta$ilitie Cantos,8 takes "lace in Breland. Cere in t!e colonial setting, t!e c!ange narrated in t!e tale is re"resented as irreversi$le, suggesting t!at Bris! $ar$aris, s!ould $e understood as 8nature,8 as 8t!ings as t!ey are8: 4at!=lesse, "iana, full of indignation, T!ence:fort! a$andond !er delicious $rookeF Bn 0!ose s0eet strea,e, $efore t!at $ad occasion, So ,uc! delig!t to $at!e !er li,$es s!e tooke: 4e onely !er, $ut also Auite forsooke 3ll t!ose faire forrests a$out Arlo !id, 3nd all t!at Mountaine, 0!ic! dot! over:looke - ?)& T!e ric!est c!a,"ian t!at ,ay else $e rid, 3nd t!e faire %hure, in 0!ic! are t!ousand Sal,ons $red. T!e, all, and all t!at s!e so deare did 0ay, T!ence:fort! s!e leftF and "arting fro, t!e "lace, T!ere:on an !eauy !a"lesse curse did lay, To 0eet, t!at Wolues, 0!ere s!e 0as 0ont to s"ace, S!ould !ar$our=d $e, and all t!ose Woods deface, 3nd T!ieues s!ould ro$ and s"oile t!at Coast around. Since 0!ic!, t!ose Woods, and all t!at goodly C!ase, 5ot! to t!is day 0it! Wolues and T!ieues a$ound: W!ic! too:too true t!at lands in:d0ellers since !aue found. D1aerie .ueene >.).(':((E S"enser=s divided feelings a$out Breland are figured !ere in a te,"oral dis"lace,ent: t!e $eauty of t!e landsca"e, 0!ic! t!e 3rlo Cill digression and t!e entire Muta$ility Cantos suggest !e felt Auite keenly, is largely "laced into t!e "ast once 5iana utters !er curse, 0!ile t!e "resent in!a$itants are co,"ared to 0olves in t!e 0ildness. T!e curse is irreversi$leF t!e de"arture of 5iana fro, 3rlo Cill is a$soluteF and t!e 9nglis! coloni<ation of Breland all t!e ,ore necessary and itself ,ade to see, irreversi$le. But t!e

"rivate story of t!e origins of sin or dou$t in t!e individual2+ra 5u$io, for instance2,ust never $eco,e an irreversi$le one, even if t!e return to original for, can only $e !o"ed for, "redicted, $ut never ,ade co,"lete. - ?)1 -

%ppendi5 to Chapter )8 The $irst &oon

/ong ago t!ere 0ere t0o lovers, a $rot!er and sister. 3ll nig!t long t!ey 0ould fondle and e,$race on t!eir slee"ing skins. T!is did not "lease t!eir "arents, 0!o said: Lou can love eac! ot!er and $e first cousins, $ut not, certainly not, $rot!er and sister. 8But 0!y can=t B love ,y $rot!erG8 t!e sister asked. 83nd 0!y can=t B love ,y sisterG8 asked t!e $rot!er. 8Because it=s un!ealt!y, t!at=s 0!y,8 t!eir "arents said. Cearing t!is, t!ey loved eac! ot!er even ,ore. 3t last t!e mistapeoU s"oke out against t!e,: 83 $rot!er and sister 0!o are lovers, t!at 0ill $ring a $ad 0inter and "lenty of starving.8 T!e $oy 0as forced to go into !iding. But 0!erever !e !id, near or far, !e=d only need to sing and !is sister 0ould !ear !i,. 3nd t!en s!e 0ould co,e running. Several ,ont!s "assed and t!e girl gave $irt! to a $a$y $oy. S!e 0as carrying it in !er ,oss:$ag 0!en one of !er older $rot!ers said: 8B !o"e a lyn. $ites out its !eartV8 8Co0 can you say suc! a nasty t!ingG8 t!e girl asked. 8Because your $a$y is un!ealt!y, t!at=s 0!y.8 T!e girl did not understand t!is at all. To !er, t!e $a$y looked as !ealt!y as any s!e=d ever seen. 4o0 t!e girl=s $rot!ers decided to do so,et!ing a$out t!e fat!er of t!is $a$y. 3lt!oug! !e 0as t!eir younger $rot!er, !e 0as $ringing !o,e s!a,e on t!e fa,ily. T!e $est 0ay to get rid of t!is s!a,e, t!ey figured, 0as to get rid of t!e $oy !i,self. 3 0!ile later t!e $oy 0as singing for !is sister. T!e girl "ut on !er sno0s!oes and follo0ed !is song. T!e $rot!ers tracked t!eir sister all t!e 0ay to t!e s!ore of Mic!iki,au. 3nd t!ere, in t!e ,iddle of t!e fro<en lake, t!e $oy 0as 0aiting. 8/ook at t!e lovely $a$y B=ve $roug!t youV8 t!e girl e.clai,ed. Just t!en one of t!e $rot!ers s!ot an arro0 directly into t!e $a$y=s !eart. 8Bt=s not lovely any,ore,8 !e said. T!e $oy kne0 t!ey 0ould try to s!oot !is !eart, too. So !e Auickly sang a !ole in t!e ice. Ce took off all !is clot!es and 1u,"ed into t!is !ole. T!e ne.t instant !e 0as a loon, flying u" out of t!e cold 0ater. 3nd as !e fle0, !e cried ,ournfully, for !is s0eet!eart 0ould never co,e to !i, again. 8T!e +irst /oon8 and 8T!e *rigin of 7o$ins8 fro, Wol)erine Creates the World: a*rador #ndian Tales, collected and retold $y /a0rence Mill,an DSanta 7osa, Calif.: Ca"ra Press, 1 %E. 7e"rinted

courtesy of /a0rence Mill,an. U /istapeo ,eans s!a,an. - ?)? -

The #rigin of !o9ins

3 ,an, 3ias!eu, !ad a 0ife and son. *ne day !e noticed so,e scratc!es on !is 0ife=s $reast. 8W!o ,ade t!ose scratc!es, 0o,anG8 !e de,anded. 7e"lied !is 0ife: 8B snared a "artridge. W!ile B 0as getting it out of t!e snare, it scratc!ed ,e.8 8T!ose look like love scratc!es to ,e. 3re you sure you !aven=t $een slee"ing 0it! our sonG8 8Certainly notV8 Let t!e ,ore 3ias!eu t!oug!t a$out t!is, t!e ,ore !e $elieved it. W!y 0ere !is 0ife and son al0ays "icking $erries toget!erG W!at did t!ey do 0!en !e 0ent out !untingG Cadn=t !e once seen t!e $oy fingering !is ,ot!er=s t!ig! at a mu,oshanK 4o0 !e 0as convinced t!at !is 0ife and son 0ere slee"ing toget!er. Ce decided to take t!e $oy on a little tri" . . . a little tri" fro, 0!ic! !e 0ould not return. +at!er and son "addled t!eir canoe to an island. 8T!ere are so,e duck eggs on t!ose rocks, $oy,8 3ias!eu said. 8W!y don=t you gat!er a fe0G8 3fter t!e $oy !ad 1u,"ed out of t!e canoe and 0aded as!ore, 3ias!eu $egan "addling a0ay. 8B=, leaving you !ere,8 !e yelled $ack to !is son, 8$ecause you=re $een slee"ing 0it! your ,ot!er.8 8T!at=s not trueV8 t!e $oy "rotested. 8Tell it to t!e 0olves 0!o=ll $e "icking over your $ones . . .8 Back in ca," 3ias!eu told !is 0ife t!at t!e $oy !ad dro0ned 0!en t!eir canoe !ad fli""ed over. Bt 0as fortunate t!at !e, !er !us$and, kne0 !o0 to s0i, or !e 0ould !ave dro0ned, too. 4o0 t!e ,an started treating !is 0ife very $adly. Ce=d t!ro0 !er out of t!e tent, 0it! no clot!es on, in t!e ,iddle of 0inter. *r !e=d feed !er le,,ings, saying t!at if fo.es could eat le,,ings, so could s!e. *r !e=d si,"ly $eat !er until s!e felt !er $ody 0ould $reak. Several years "assed. T!e 0o,an !ad a drea, a$out !er son. Ce 0as alive, t!e drea, said, and soon 0ould a""ear at !er tent 0it! a ta*as,anU "iled !ig! 0it! ,eat. S!e told !er !us$and t!is drea,, $ut !is only res"onse 0as to $eat !er. 8*ur son is dead,8 !e said. 8Cis $ones !ave turned yello0 $y no0.8 84o,8 t!e 0o,an re"lied. 8Ce is alive. B !ave drea,ed it so. 3nd !e 0ill $ring us ,eat.8 4o0 3ias!eu 0as so angry 0it! !is 0ife t!at !e "us!ed !er into t!e fire. 8Taste your o0n ,eat, 0o,an, if you=re so !ungry,8 !e told !er. Just t!en a young ,an e,erged fro, t!e $us! 0it! a ta*as,an. Ce dro""ed t!e lead and reac!ed into t!e fire, "ulling out t!e 0o,an. 3fter !e=d done t!is, !e "us!ed in 3ias!eu. U Ta*as,an ,eans sled. - ?)% -

8Lou are ,y son,8 3ias!eu screa,ed. 8Please don=t let ,e $urn u"V8 8B don=t !ave a fat!er any,ore,8 t!e young ,an said, t!ro0ing a $irc! log onto t!e fire to ,ake it $urn faster. T!e 0o,an !ad so,e very $ad $urns on !er c!est and see,ed to $e in "ain. T!e young ,an took "ity on !er, saying t!at s!e didn=t !ave to $e a !u,an $eing any,ore. Ce asked 0!at creature s!e 0ould like to $e. 8B 0ould like to $e a $ird, ,y son,8 s!e said. 3nd all at once t!e old 0o,an 0as flying u" into t!e sky, 0it! red feat!ers on !er $reast 0!ere s!e=d $een $urned. T!at=s !o0 ro$ins ca,e into t!e 0orld. - ?)' -

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1 ?a The Choice of Achilles: The #deology of 1igure in the Epic. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1 ?$. 8T!e Social 3est!etics of 7a"e: Closural @iolence in Boccaccio and Botticelli.8 Bn Creati)e #mitation: (e2 Essays .on -enaissance iterature in 0onor of Thomas /. Greene, edited $y 5avid Puint, Margaret W. +erguson, ;. W. Pig,an BBB, and Wayne 3. 7e$!orn, 1M :?%M. Bing!a,ton, 4.L.: Medieval and 7enaissance Te.ts and Studies. - ?>& -

)=0 Walcott:s Omeros 2 The Classical Epic in a 'ostmodern World

Joseph $arrell Wit! !is "lays dra0n fro, ;reek ,yt!ology and !is evocative e"ic !y,n to t!e Cari$$ean, Omeros, 4o$el laureate 5erek Walcott !as forced ,any to ret!ink t!e relations!i"s $et0een arc!aic ;reek society and t!e conte,"orary 0orld. Jose"! +arrell, kno0n es"ecially for !is 0ork on classical e"ic, takes u" a de$ate as to 0!et!er Omeros can $e considered an e"ic at all, and suggests t!at in forcing us even to ask t!is Auestion, Walcott de,ands t!at 0e reassess t!e "osition and assu,ed su"re,acy of Western literary e"ic. Bn de,onstrating t!e co,"le. relations!i" of Omeros to t!e tradition of classical e"ic, +arrell reveals t!e contingencies of t!at tradition and t!e ric!ness of Walcott=s "oe, as a 0ork t!at straddles $ot! e"ic and novel, classical and ,odern, scri$al and oral. /et ,e $egin 0it! an anecdote. B !ave a daug!ter 0!o is a student in t!e P!iladel"!ia "u$lic sc!ool syste,. /ike any ot!er $ig:city sc!ool syste,, ours !as its "ro$le,s, $ut so far t!ey !ave see,ed ,anagea$le. Bf not!ing else, trying to negotiate t!e sc!ool:district $ureaucracy "rovides "arents 0it! a ric! store of strange e."eriences t!at 0e en1oy s!aring 0it! one anot!er. T!is "articular story concerns race. 3gain like ,ost cities, P!iladel"!ia !as !ad to co"e 0it! t!e "ro$le, of segregation $y race and !as c!osen to address t!e "ro$le, in sc!ools not $y $using, $ut $y esta$lis!ing a voluntary desegregation "rogra,. Sc!ools in t!e 8deseg8 "rogra, receive e.tra funding fro, t!e central district and conseAuently !ave ,ore instructional and su""ort staff, enric!,ent "rogra,s, and so fort!. Parents c!oose 0!et!er to "artici"ate in t!e "rogra, and designate in order of "reference t!e sc!ools t!ey 0ould like t!eir c!ild to attend. T!e c!ildren are selected $y lottery and are assigned to a sc!ool on t!e $asis of t!eir nu,$er and t!eir race: al,ost everyt!ing de"ends on 0!et!er t!e sc!ool you 0ant needs ,ore 0!ite, $lack, 3sian, or Cis"anic c!ildren in t!at "articular year. T!e year 0e a""lied ,arked t!e first ti,e t!at t!e as"irations of anyone in our fa,ily !ad so e."licitly $een tied to !is or !er race. My daug!ter=s na,e is +lannery2not t!e ,ost co,,on na,e, and 0!en a c!ild 0!o $ears it encounters anot!er, t!eir co,,on na,e creates a s"e: - ?>1 -

cial $ond. *ne of t!e +lannerys 0e kno0 is furt!er distinguis!ed $y t!e fact t!at s!e is also a t0in and t!at s!e and !er $rot!er Sc!uyler !ave one 0!ite and one $lack "arent. Bt is t!eir e."erience 0it! t!e deseg syste,, a "arental 0ar story, t!at B 0ant to recount. Because race is t!e only criterion for ad,itting a c!ild to a deseg sc!ool, t!e district reAuires interested "arents to s"ecify t!eir c!ild=s race, and to do so in ter,s t!at are, literally, $lack and 0!ite: t!ey recogni<e not!ing in $et0een. +lannery and Sc!uyler=s "arents $alked at t!is. To identify t!eir c!ildren as eit!er $lack or 0!ite 0ould go against everyt!ing t!at t!ey stand for, $ot! in t!eir ,arriage and in t!e a$solutely interracial identity t!at t!ey c!eris! in t!eir c!ildren. But a c!oice !ad to $e ,ade. W!en t!ey si,"ly refused, t!e $ureaucrat in c!arge of t!e intervie0, 0!o !ad no dou$t $een t!roug! t!is $efore, sig!ed 0earily and said: 8Well, B guess 0e=re 1ust going to !ave to su$1ect t!e, to t!e eye$all test.8 T!e "arents 0ere too astonis!ed to "rotest $efore t!e c!ildren 0ere si<ed u" $y t!e $ureaucrat, 0!ose 1o$ at t!at ,o,ent 0as si,"ly to deter,ine t!e race of t!e c!ildren $y !is o0n 1udg,ent a$out t!e color of t!eir skin. 3nd in a decision t!at could !ave $een scri"ted $y Solo,on, $ut ,ore likely $y 6afka, !e found t!at one of t!e t0ins 0as $lack and t!e ot!er 0as 0!ite. 5erek Walcott !as $een su$1ected re"eatedly to t!e literary:critical eAuivalent of t!is test and indeed invites suc! scrutiny $y t!e 0ay in 0!ic! !e t!e,ati<es !is o0n racially ,i.ed ancestry.H1I 3s !e 0rote over t!irty years ago in t!e often:Auoted "oe, 83 +ar Cry fro, 3frica,8 B 0!o a, "oisoned 0it! t!e $lood of $ot!, W!ere s!all B turn, divided to t!e veinG B 0!o !ave cursed T!e drunken officer of Britis! rule, !o0 c!oose Bet0een t!is 3frica and t!e 9nglis! tongue B loveG Betray t!e, $ot!, or give $ack 0!at t!ey giveG Co0 can B face suc! slaug!ter and $e coolG Co0 can B turn fro, 3frica and liveGH?I Lears later in 8T!e Cotel 4or,andie Pool,8 t!e t!e,e returns: 3nd B, 0!ose ancestors 0ere slave and 7o,an, !ave seen $ot! sides of t!e i,"erial foa,, !eard "al, and "ine tree alternate a""lause as t!e 0!ite $reakers rose in galleries to settle, 0!is"ering at t!e tilted "al, of t!e $oy:god 3ugustus. My o0n face !eld negro 4eros, c!alk CaligulasF ,y o0n reflection slid along t!e glass of faces foa,ing "ast triu,"!al cars.H%I T!e ,otif of racial indeter,inacy "resents itself t!roug!out Walcott=s "oetry in ot!er registers as 0ell: t!e linguistic register, in 0!ic! 9nglis! t!reat: - ?>? ens to occlude t!e Creole dialects of St. /uciaF t!e literary:!istorical register, in 0!ic! Walcott s"eculates on !is storyteller=s craft in its relation to t!at of t!e Cari$$ean 8,an of 0ords8 and to t!at of S!akes"eare, to na,e $ut t0o of !is ,any ,odelsF t!e religious register, in 0!ic! St. /ucia=s Cat!olic culture contrasts 0it! Walcott=s o0n Met!odist u"$ringing, 0!ile $ot! C!ristian traditions e.ist in dialogue 0it! t!e folk religion of t!e co,,on "eo"le and 0it! t!e ani,is, of t!e islands= ancient in!a$itantsF and in ,any ot!er registers. *ne of t!ese ot!ers is t!e one on 0!ic! B 0ill focus, t!e

generic registerF for t!e de$ate Dif B ,ay call it t!atE over t!e genre of Omeros s!ares 0it! t!ese ot!er Auestions t!e t0in ,otifs of dic!oto,y and indeter,inacy in 0ays t!at cast a strong and useful lig!t on t!e "oe, and on t!e conce"t of genre itself. To $egin, even c!aracteri<ing discussion of t!e "oe,=s genre as a de$ate is an overstate,ent. 5iverging o"inions t!ere !ave $een, $ut little dialogue. Classicists like Mary /efko0it<, *liver Ta"lin, and Bernard 6no. and 9urocentric co,"aratists like ;eorge Steiner !ave e."ressed little dou$t a$out t!e "oe,=s e"ic c!aracter.H'I But Sidney Burris, 0!ile !ailing Omeros as a 8s"ra0ling ne0 "oe,8 of 8!erculean a,$ition,8 "ointedly avoids using t!e 0ord 8e"ic,8 calling Omeros a Cari$$ean 8national narrati)e.4H(I Si,ilarly, longti,e students of Walcott and of West Bndian literature generally !ave $een c!ary of t!e e"ic la$el. Bt is true t!at 7o$ert Ca,ner, one of t!e 0orld=s fore,ost e."erts on Walcott, !as not s!ied a0ay fro, it.H)I But Jo!n +igueroa, "er!a"s t!e dean of West Bndian literary studies and a for,er teac!er of Walcott=s, in 0!at 0as "ro$a$ly t!e first sc!olarly co,,entary on t!e "oe,, stated flatly and "ree,"tively: 4Omeros is not an e"ic.8H>I Si,ilarly Patricia Bs,ond, anot!er distinguis!ed West Bndianist and Walcott s"ecialist, finds Omeros infor,ed $y a lyric rat!er t!an an e"ic sensi$ility. HMI +inally, B s!ould ,ention t!at t!is is t!e tack taken $y Walcott !i,self, 0!o !as said: 8B do not t!ink of it as an e"ic. Certainly not in t!e sense of e"ic design. W!ere are t!e $attlesG T!ere are a fe0, B su""ose. But =e"ic= ,akes "eo"le t!ink of great 0ars and great 0arriors. T!at isn=t t!e Co,er B 0as t!inking ofF B 0as t!inking of Co,er t!e "oet of t!e seven seas.8H I T!is last re,ark "oints to t!e different 0ays in 0!ic! critics !ave vie0ed t!e "oe,=s relations!i" to t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey. 9urocentric critics !ave $een Auick to identify t!e "oe,=s 8de$t8 to Co,er as its essential distinguis!ing c!aracteristicF Ta"lin "er!a"s goes fart!est in t!is regard.H1&I Burris, in contrast, "redicts t!at 8co,,entators on Omeros . . . 0ill understanda$ly $usy t!e,selves in tracking do0n t!e Co,eric "arallels in Walcott=s "oe,,8 $ut argues t!at t!is 0ill $e 8a "articularly ill:fated a""roac! $ecause "art of t!e "oe,=s task, its atte,"t to recreate t!e original aut!enticity of Walcott=s Cari$$ean culture, lies in its deli$erate deflation of analogy.8H11I T!e ,ost i,"ortant antecedents of Omeros, Burris suggests, are to $e found in Walcott=s o0n dra,atic 0orks and in anot!er Auasi: Co,eric 0ork of great generic in: - ?>% deter,inacy, Joyce=s Llysses.H1?I +igueroa goes even fart!er, stating t!at 8Walcott=s "oe, is not an i,itation of eit!er t!e #liad or t!e Odyssey. . . . T!e "oint of t!e use of Co,er lies else0!ere,8 t!at is, in !is ,eta"!orical or allegorical significance 8as t!e great creator,8 es"ecially of "oetic language, and 8as t!e Blind Seer,8 !i,self a 0anderer !eld in no great !onor 0!ose suffering !as gained !i, an acute understanding of t!e nature of t!ings, even as a kind of "oetic savior 0!o rescues Walcott=s 4arrator fro, t!e sins t!at !ave $eset ot!er "oets.H1%I But t!is Co,er is, finally, a sy,$ol of 8t!e foreign in West Bndian culture, es"ecially . . . t!e non:3frican foreign,8 an ele,ent t!at is itself in need of rede,"tion: for +igueroa, t!e value of a "oe, like Omeros 8is a Auestion not so ,uc! of 0!at influences are at "lay82of 0!et!er t!e "oe, ,erits a "lace in t!e a"ostolic succession of Co,eric i,itators2$ut of 8t!e Auality of 0!at is ,ade8 out of t!ese influences, 0!et!er t!ey $ear t!e aut!entic sta," of Co,eric originality.H1'I T!ere !as t!us $een considera$le an.iety a,ong critics and on t!e "art of t!e "oet !i,self a$out t!e generic affinities of *,eros. *ne ,ay con1ecture t!at ,any of t!ose 0!o !ail t!e "oe, as an e"ic do so 0it!out ,uc! interest in genre t!eory, $ut rat!er out of a desire to !onor Walcott for 0!at is indeed a re,arka$le ac!ieve,ent. Bn general ,ost critics a""ear to regard t!e entire issue of genre as unfortunate, any c!oice a,ong t!e availa$le categories $eing difficult if not i,"ossi$le for ,ost readers to ,ake. 5es"ite t!e difficulty, !o0ever, critics raise t!e issue as one t!at is so,e!o0

necessary to confront, even if so,e can ,anage only an eAuivocal solution, like t!at of t!e revie0er 0!o descri$ed t!e "oe, as, 8if anyt!ing,8 a novel in verse.H1(I 3ny uncertainty raised $y t!e e"ic "retensions of *,eros ste,s fro, t!e o$vious fact t!at t!e "oe, does not confor, rigidly to t!e generic e."ectations t!at ,ost readers $ring to classical 9uro"ean e"ic "oetry. Bn a 0ay, t!is attitude is "refera$le to its o""osite, 0!ic! regards *,eros as un"ro$le,atically an e"ic in t!e Co,eric tradition. T!e "oe, is, 0it!out Auestion, a$out "ro$le,s of $elonging, concerning itself 0it! t!e du$ious "ros"ect t!at any of us ,ig!t find real co,fort in a sense of $elonging to so,e "utatively !o,ogeneous grou". T!e "ro$le, of literary categori<ation is t!us ,erely a s"ecial case of one of t!e "oe,=s central t!e,esF $ut it gains "oint fro, t!e fact t!at e"ic !as $een "erceived2"articularly 9uro"ean e"ic in t!e classical tradition2as, to use Bak!tin=s ter,, t!e 8,onologic8 genre "ar e.cellence and as t!e antit!esis of t!e ,ost t!oroug!ly o"en and dialogic genre, 0!ic! Bak!tin ter,s t!e novel.H1)I Wit! res"ect to t!e assess,ent of "ostcolonial literature, t!e critical discourse of e"ic "oetry acAuires a racist tinge. Ulti,ately, B $elieve, it is t!e notion t!at t!e 9uro"ean e"ic s"eaks 0it! t!e voice of t!e accu,ulated aut!ority of generations of 0!ite i,"erialist culture t!at leads ,any readers to deny Omeros any ,eaningful association 0it! t!e e"ic genre, 0!ile in t!e o"en "oly"!ony of novelistic genres t!ey find a Auality $etter suited to t!e Cre: - ?>' oli<ation of language, t!e racial and literary ,iscegenation, t!at c!aracteri<e t!e "oe,. T!e de$ate clearly goes far $eyond ,ere ta.ono,y and $eco,es a "olitical $attle for Walcott=s racial identity and et!nic soul: is t!e aut!or of Omeros 8really8 t!e 0!ite Walcott descended in $lood fro, ,en of War0icks!ire and in ink fro, t!e $ard of 3von, or is !e t!e $lack descendant of slaves 0!ose !istory and language !ave all $ut disa""eared fro, t!e official record, a ,an 0!ose story can $e told only in novelistic o""osition to t!e e"ic culture t!at seeks to co:o"t !i, as its o0n s"okes,anG Bn t!is lig!t, it $eco,es clear t!at t!e e"ic ele,ent in Omeros t!reatens to reo"en an old de$ate over Walcott=s relations!i" to t!e 9uro"ean and 3frican ele,ents in !is "ersonal !eritage and in t!e culture of t!e West Bndies as a 0!ole.H1>I Bn t!is essay B 0ould like to ,ake t0o res"onses to t!ose critics 0!o feel co,"elled to deny t!at Omeros is an e"ic "oe,. +irst, to $ase suc! a denial on a desire to clai, Omeros as an 3fro:Cari$$ean "oe, ignores t!ose conte,"orary studies in 0orld e"ic t!at go 0ell $eyond t!e literary tradition defined $y 9uro"ean "oets suc! as Co,er and Milton. Second, to distinguis! t!e "oe, fro, its "redecessors in t!e canonical e"ic tradition on t!e $asis of its ca"acity to cele$rate alterity is to ignore t!e 9uro"ean e"ic=s ca"acity for self:Auestioning and for radical reinter"retation of its o0n generic roots. /et ,e e."and u"on $ot! "oints.

%frica and the Epic

T!ose critics 0!o are e,$arrassed $y t!e "ossi$ility t!at Omeros ,ig!t $e taken for an e"ic, and !ence as a 0!ite ,an=s "oe,, are, no dou$t unkno0ingly, endorsing an untena$le and e.tre,ely reactionary vie0 of 0!at e"ic "oetry is in its racial and 0orld:cultural di,ensions. Suc! a vie0, to $e sure, !as $een ,aintained $y a nu,$er of 8aut!oritative8 discussions of e"ic as a 0orld genreF $ut t!ese discussions can easily $e s!o0n to $e dee"ly, if un0ittingly, i,"licated in a racist discourse of s!ocking naivetK. T!e idea t!at t!e 3frican nations 0ere actually inca"a$le of "roducing an e"ic literature 0as

articulated, not "er!a"s for t!e first ti,e, $ut 0it! e,$arrassing clarity, $y Maurice Bo0ra in !is 1 (? study 0eroic Poetry.H 1MI Bn surveying t!e !eroic "oetry of a 0ide variety of 0orld literatures, Bo0ra noted t!e close relations!i"s $et0een "oetry of "raise or of la,entation and t!e !eroic "oetry 0it! 0!ic! !e 0as concerned, $ut o$served t!at t!e t0o for,er categories 8e.ist in so,e societies 0!ere !eroic "oetry is lacking.8 Ce ascri$es t!is lack to an 8ina$ility to rise $eyond a single occasion to t!e conce"tion of a detac!ed art.8 T!e e.a,"les !e cites are fro, 3frica2s"ecifically, fro, Uganda and 9t!io"ia2and !e concludes !is discussion 0it! t!ese 0ords: 8T!oug! t!ese "oe,s, and ,any ot!ers like t!e,, s!o0 a real ad,iration for active and generous ,an!ood, t!ey co,e fro, "eo"les 0!o !ave no !eroic "oetry and !ave never advanced $eyond "anegyric and - ?>( la,ent. T!e intellectual effort reAuired for suc! an advance see,s to !ave $een $eyond t!eir "o0ers.8H1 I Bt is e.tre,ely de"ressing to o$serve !o0 often t!ese and si,ilarly de,eaning cultural stereoty"es lea" to Bo0ra=s ,ind as !e discusses t!e literary ac!ieve,ents of 3frican "eo"les. C!aracteristic is t!e "resu,"tion t!at !eroic verse re"resents a later and ,ore develo"ed stage of t!e "anegyric and la,ent t!at Bo0ra finds in 3frica, t!e idea t!at a literary culture ,ust "rogress fro, t!ese early stages to0ard a true !eroic literature, and t!at !eroic "oetry calls for a degree of intellectual a$straction of 0!ic! 3fricans are not, in !is vie0, ca"a$leF rat!er, t!e "oetry t!at t!ey do "roduce is nota$le for its 8si,"le and "ri,itive8 Aualities, its 8e."ression of an i,,ediate and violent e.cite,ent.8 Bo0ra=s vie0s, 0!ic! strike us today as ignorant and insulting, are fully re"resentative of literary sc!olars!i" in !is day, and !e 0as far fro, alone in $elieving t!at e"ic 0as si,"ly not an 3frican genre. 3 si,ilar o"inion 0as voiced in 1 >&, t!is ti,e on "urely for,al grounds rat!er t!an as a 1udg,ent on t!e intellectual ca"acities of t!e 3frican artist, $y t!e influential folklorist 7ut! +innegan.H?&I But $y t!at ti,e t!e tide !ad $egun to turn, and since t!en considera$le 0ork !as $een done $ot! to ,ake kno0n t!e e.istence of an e"ic literature a,ong a nu,$er of 3frican "eo"les and to study its "articular Aualities. T!e "rocedure follo0ed $y ,any studies of t!e 3frican e"ic is dou$le. Sc!olars like Bsidore *k"e0!o and Jo!n Willia, Jo!nson ai, to s!o0, on t!e one !and, t!at t!e 3frican e"ic is recogni<a$le as e"ic on t!e sa,e ter,s as canonical 9uro"ean s"eci,ens, and, on t!e ot!er !and, t!at it dis"lays certain distinctive c!aracteristics as a "ri,arily oral and "erfor,ative rat!er t!an literary genre.H?1I +or t!is reason 3fricanists !ave an i,"ortant role to "lay, first and self:evidently, in t!e co,"arative study of oral e"ic as a "!eno,enon of 0orld literature, $ut also, to t!e e.tent t!at researc! into oral "oetry !as revolutioni<ed t!e study of t!e Co,eric "oe,s, in t!e effort to reinter"ret t!e canonical tradition of 9uro"ean e"ic t!at $oasts of its Co,eric ancestry. *ne conseAuence of t!is activity is t!at t!e 3frican e"ic !as $een su$1ected to so,e of t!e sa,e Auestions t!at !ad $egun to $e asked $ot! of t!e arc!aic ;reek e"ic and of its "utative ,odern 9uro"ean analogues, "rinci"ally, "oetry of t!e Sout! Slavic e"ic tradition recorded and studied $y Mil,an Parry and 3l$ert /ord.H??I Bt can no0 $e seen t!at t!e 3frican ,aterial stands in ,ore or less t!e sa,e relations!i" to te.ts like t!e Co,eric #liad and Odyssey as does t!e Slavic ,aterial, even if one reac!es t!e conclusion t!at t!e Co,eric "oe,s are $y co,"arison only vestigially oral "erfor,ances t!at !ave traveled so,e considera$le 0ay do0n t!e road fro, "erfor,ance to literary fi.edness. +or instance, 0!en *k"e0!o, in order to illustrate oral "oetry=s tendency to strive for i,,ediate effect $y ,eans of !u,or, co,"ares t!e gri, !u,or s!o0n $y t!e narrator of t!e Gam*ili e"ic D8T!e old sandle ,an=s !ead 0as cut off at !is neck. # Big trou$le !as $egun in Ji,iniV # T!e little ,an fell flo""ing a$out like a tra," in t!e cold8EH?%I to Patro: - ?>) -

clus=s ill:ti,ed and entirely out:of:c!aracter 1eering at t!e Tro1an Ce$riones, 0!o, !e !as 1ust killed, it is clear t!at 0!at *k"e0!o regards as a ty"ical and even nor,ative "rocedure for t!e Mandingo "oet is "resent, $ut nevert!eless co,"aratively rare in Co,er.H?'I Bf 0e are unconvinced $y t!is "articular analogy, !o0ever, ot!er e.a,"les co,e to ,ind: t!e Co,eric narrator=s ironic aside concerning t!e $argain struck $y ;laucus, 0!o e.c!anges !is golden ar,or for 5io,edes= $ron<e D#liad ).?%':?%)E , H?(I or "er!a"s *dysseus=s o$servation to !is !ost and "rinci"al listener, 3lcinous, t!at !is story is getting rat!er long, and it ,ig!t $e ti,e si,"ly to sto" and go to $ed DOdyssey 11.%?M:%M'E. T!is e.c!ange occurs a$out !alf0ay t!roug! t!e !ero=s narrative of !is adventures since t!e Tro1an War and, not incidentally, a$out !alf0ay t!roug! t!e "oe, as a 0!ole. W!en 3lcinous refuses to !ear of any delay in t!e co,"letion of t!e tale, 0e ,ay take !is reaction as t!e oral "oet=s scri"t for !is ideal audience, 0!o s!ould $e as eager for t!e rest of !is story as 3lcinous is for t!at of *dysseus.H?)I Passages like t!ese are ad,ittedly not very co,,on in our #liad and Odyssey>or "er!a"s t!ey tend to $e overlooked $y readers unaccusto,ed to finding suc! ele,ents in e"ics of t!e 9uro"ean canon. But des"ite Co,er=s distance fro, actual oral "erfor,ance, co,"arative study esta$lis!es 0it!out Auestion t!e ulti,ately oral and "erfor,ative c!aracter of Co,eric e"ic and in t!is 0ay aligns t!e #liad and t!e Odyssey 0it! ,odern 0orld e"ic as against t!e re,ainder of t!e ancient, ,edieval, and early ,odern tradition of 8classici<ing8 9uro"ean e"ic in t!e Co,eric tradition2suc! as t!e Aeneid, a"i)ina Commedia, Os usVadas, Paradise ost, and so fort!. T!is is a crucial "oint, B suggest, $ecause t!e sc!olarly discovery of an 3frican e"ic linked to Co,er $y virtue of its $eing t!e "roduct of an oral:e"ic "erfor,ance culture actually "arallels one of t!e do,inant conceits of literary a"ologia in Omeros> na,ely Walcott=s construction of Co,er not as a "artici"ant in an e.clusively 9uro"ean scri$al culture, $ut as a singer of folktales 0!o, one ,ig!t find 1ust as readily in an 3frican or 3fro:Cari$$ean conte.t as in t!at of arc!aic ;reece. +or Walcott, t!e Creole culture of t!e Cari$$ean is "ree,inently an oral culture. Bn t!e "oe, 8Cul de Sac @alley8 !e contrasts t!is culture 0it! t!e scri$al culture in 0!ic! !e 0orks, calling Creole 8a tongue t!ey s"eak in, $ut cannot 0rite.8H?>I Ce i,agines !i,self as a "oet:car"enter, creating a 0ork t!at i,ages "erfectly !is Cari$$ean !o,eland: as consonants scroll off ,y s!aving "lane in t!e fragrant Creole of t!eir native grainF fro, a trestle $enc! t!ey=d curl at ,y foot, - ?>> C=s, 7=s, 0it! a +renc! or West 3frican root fro, a dialect t!rong: ing, its leaves unread yet lig!t on t!e tongue of t!eir native road. D8Cul de Sac @alley8 1.1%:?'E But as !e catc!es t!e fres! scent fro, a stand of trees in t!e landsca"e !e 0is!es to re"resent2trees designated in +renc! Creole as *ois canot, *ois campRche>his drea, of !onestly re"resenting t!at landsca"e is s!attered as !e i,agines t!e trees 8!issing8 at !i, 0it! re"roac!:

What you 2ish from us 2ill ne)er *e, your 2ords is English, is a different tree. D1.%%:%)E Cere t!e "oet=s language and !is status as a ,e,$er of t!e scri$al culture distance !i, fro, t!e oral culture of !is Creole !o,e. T!e ,otif of Cari$$ean culture as grounded in orality is $asic to Walcott=s t!inking on language. Cis "lay * Ba*ylonW concerns t!e cultural and "olitical ideals of a 7astafarian co,,unity in 6ingston, Ja,aica. Bn a note on t!e "lay, Walcott 0rites of t!e Ja,aican s"oken dialect in its "ure for, as unintelligi$le e.ce"t to Ja,aicans, and t!us in need of translation to any outsiderF and 80it!in t!at language itself,8 !e 0rites, 8t!e 7astafari !ave created still anot!er for t!eir o0n nation. . . .HT!eyI !ave invented a gra,,ar and a synta. 0!ic! i,,ures t!e, fro, t!e seduction of Ba$ylon, an oral "oetry 0!ic! reAuires translation into t!e language of t!e o""ressor,8 and goes on to o$serve: 8To translate is to $etray.8H?MI T!is confession "ertains in t!e first instance to t!e aut!or=s "ro1ect of re"resenting an oral culture in a scri"ted "layF $ut it s!eds a "ainful lig!t on !is effort to 0rite a West Bndian "oetry at all, and "articularly to 0rite it in 9nglis!. Suc! an effort ,ust $e fatally fla0ed fro, t!e start $ecause any 9nglis! "oe,, any 0ritten 0ork, stands at an e.tra degree of se"aration fro, its su$1ect as co,"ared 0it! Creole utterance. Bt "ossesses t!e Auality not so ,uc! of an original co,"osition as of a translation2and, t!us, as a $etrayal. W!at is crucial, !o0ever, is one=s res"onse to t!e recognition of t!is $etrayal. Bf t!ere is a division $et0een 9nglis! and Creole, $et0een scri$al and oral cultures, $et0een 9uro"e and 3frica, t!ere is also a relations!i" to $e negotiated. Bt is t!is insig!t t!at ,akes "lace for t!e craft of translation, a s"ace t!at is inevita$ly, necessarily there. - ?>M Translation is, !o0ever, an transitive "rocess: if Creole ,ust $e translated into 9nglis!, t!e converse is also true. Bf 9uro"ean colonialists $ring foreign categories of intellection to t!e inter"retation of Cari$$ean realities, it is eAually "ossi$le to translate 9uro"ean culture into West Bndian ter,sF and t!is latter ty"e of translation, 0!ile it is, given t!e asy,,etrical "o0er relations!i" $et0een t!e 9uro"ean colonialists and t!e islanders, less co,,on t!an t!e first, s!ares 0it! all for,s of translation t!e i,"ossi$ility of leaving t!e 8original8 unc!anged. T!e decision to translate Co,eric e"ic into West Bndian ter,s cannot $ut c!ange one=s "erce"tion of Co,er. T!us Walcott=s c!aracteri<ation of Cari$$ean dialects as 8oral "oetry8 finds its "arallel in Walcott=s refusal to cede Co,er to t!e scri$al culture of 9uro"ean colonialists. T!is is no casual t!e,e in Omeros Dor, indeed, in Walcott=s 0ork as a 0!oleE, $ut a central "ro$le, to 0!ic! t!e "oe, constantly and $roodingly recurs. T!e t!e,e is sounded first in t!e i,age of Seven Seas, a $lind old ,an identified $y t!e "oe,=s 4arrator 0it! *,eros D1.?.?:%E. Seven Seas s"ends so,e of !is days sitting in t!e 4o Pain Cafe, o$served $y its "ro"rietor, Ma 6il,an: 8So,eti,es !e 0ould sing. . . But !is 0ords 0ere not clear#T!ey 0ere ;reek to !er. *r old 3frican $a$$le8 D1.%.?E. H? I Bt is Seven Seas 0!o, like a "ro"!et, discloses to P!iloctete t!e ,eaning of 3c!ille=s unusual, overnig!t a$sence fro, "ort: !e !as 1ourneyed to 3frica in searc! of 8!is na,e and !is soul8 D?.? .?E. T!is eAuivalency $et0een ;reek and 8old 3frican $a$$le8 involves an a""ro.i,ation of Co,er=s oral "oetry to ele,ents in West Bndian s"eec! t!at ,ust re,ain, even to ,any West Bndian listeners,

inarticulate and at $est "artially understood. T!is ,otif finds its "arallel in ot!er conte.ts. W!en, for e.a,"le, in t!e 4arrator=s intervie0 0it! Co,er !i,self t!e ancient "oet declares t!at 8a drifter#is t!e !ero of ,y $ook,8 t!e 4arrator sur"rises !i, $y re1oining: 8B never read it,8 0!ic! !e t!en Aualifies: 8not all t!e 0ay t!roug!.8H%&I +or t!e reader alive to t!e "oe,=s engage,ent 0it! literary antecedents, it is a "u<<ling ,o,ent.H%1I B take t!is re"ly as re1ecting 0!at is i,"lied 0!en Co,er refers to !is Odyssey as a 8$ook.8 T!e "assage t!us indicates t!at Co,er is not to $e understood e.clusively as t!e re"resentative, nor Omeros as t!e "roduct, of 9uro"ean scri$al cultureF for, after denying t!at !e !as ever 8read8 Co,er 8all t!e 0ay t!roug!,8 t!e 4arrator declares !is de$t to t!e oral tradition, going on to insist: 8B !ave al0ays !eard your voice in t!at sea, ,aster, it 0as t!e sa,e song of t!e desert s!a,an, and 0!en B 0as a $oy your na,e 0as as 0ide as a $ay, and B 0alked along t!e curled $ro0 of t!e surfF t!e 0ord =Co,er= ,eant 1oy, 1oy in $attle, in 0ork, in deat!, t!en t!e nu,$ered "eace - ?> of t!e surfs $enedictions, it rose in t!e cedars, in t!e laurier&cannelles, "ages of rustling trees. Master, B 0as t!e fres!est of your readers.8H%?I T!is e,"!asis on Co,er as an oral "oet of t!e sea and of nature, one 0!ose "oetry finds its analogue not in literature $ut in t!e un0ritten landsca"e and seasca"e of St. /ucia, in t!e Auotidian e."erience of a gro0ing $oy, constructs a Co,er very different fro, !is @irgilian and Miltonic "rogeny, one 0!o rese,$les ,uc! ,ore t!e Slavic and 3frican e"icists recovered $y folklorists. Bf t!is Co,er can $e encountered at all t!roug! reading, it can only $e a "artial encounter28not all t!e 0ay t!roug!82 involving not 1ust t!e leaves of a $ook $ut also 8t!e "ages of t!e trees.8H%%I Bn t!is res"ect researc! into t!e e.istence and oral "erfor,ative c!aracter of t!e 3frican e"ic and t!e esta$lis!,ent of a link $et0een t!ese traditions and t!ose t!at "roduced t!e songs of Co,er in a sense su$stantiates Walcott=s i,aginative c!aracteri<ation of Co,er, in one of ,any avatars 0it!in Omeros, as Seven Seas, t!e 0i<ened old storyteller of St. /ucia 0!o e,$odies t!e lore and 0isdo, of t!e island "eo"le and 0!ose ulti,ate roots are in 3frica.

Epic as a -ialogical .enre

My second ,ain "oint concerns t!e 0ay in 0!ic! ,ost students of literature !ave $een taug!t to conceive of t!e 9uro"ean e"ic. Bt is clear t!at t!e study of 0orld e"ic in t!e t0entiet! century re"resents a ,a1or c!allenge to traditional definitions of t!e genre $ased on t!e 9uro"ean canon. Bn addition, it can easily $e s!o0n t!at t!ese traditional definitions are 0!olly inadeAuate to descri$e even "oe,s like t!e Aeneid and Paradise ost. 3 good deal of t!e ,odern t!eoretical discourse t!at concerns itself 0it! e"ic2and B a, t!inking !ere "ri,arily of t!e classic for,ulations, descended fro, Sc!iller, of Cegel, /uk_cs, 3uer$ac!, and Bak!tin2s!o0s a "ronounced tendency to e,"loy a discursive caricature of t!e genre as a foil for ,aking clearer t!e less strictly defined, for,ally and culturally !eterogeneous, and in s!ort 8o"en8 c!aracteristics of ot!er genres, es"ecially t!e novel.H%'I T!is discursive strategy !as resulted in a nu,$er of "ernicious literary:!istorical ,isconce"tions, not least of 0!ic! is t!e a$surdly one:di,ensional idea of t!e e"ic genre t!at ,any students of literature

regard as a.io,atic. T!us 0!ile t!e e"ic, 0!en vie0ed fro, a ,ulticultural "ers"ective, ,ay "rove to $e ,any t!ings, in t!e classical tradition of 9uro"ean literature it !as $een accorded a "rivileged "lace a,ong t!e ,ost elevated genres. 3,ong its attri$utes, along 0it! a tone confor,ing to its elevated ,atter, are authority, or t!e idea t!at t!e stories told $y t!e e"ic narrator are o$1ectively trueF transcendence, or t!e idea t!at t!e aut!ority and trut! of t!e e"ic narrative are - ?M& 0!olly inde"endent of any !istorical or cultural contingencyF and originality, t!e idea t!at e"ic is in so,e sense a source of su$seAuent culture, "articularly as t!e literary e,$odi,ent of a nation=s c!aracter. Bf 0e define t!e 9uro"ean e"ic as necessarily "ossessing c!aracteristics suc! as t!ese, it is easy to see 0!y so,e readers 0ould !esitate to regard Omeros as re"resenting t!e genre. Bts tone is seldo, elevated, nor is ,uc! of its ,atter es"ecially dignified. T!e narrative voice, t!oug! sure in a tec!nical sense, is "ersonal Din ,any "assages e."licitly auto$iogra"!icalE, uncertain Dreadier to ask Auestions t!an to "rovide ans0ersE, idiosyncratic D"rone to see,ingly uncontrolled "unningE, unco,forta$le 0it! t!e ,antle of aut!ority. T!e narrative itself is often untrue in any conventional sense: t!e 4arrator does not really s"eak 0it! !is dead fat!er or 0it! Co,er !i,selfF 3c!ille does not really sail to !is ancestral 3fricaF 5enis Plunkett is in fact neit!er t!e fat!er nor t!e descendant of t!e o$scure ,ids!i",an 0!o $ore t!e sa,e surna,e and 0!o died in t!e Battle of /es Saintes. Bt is also clear t!at t!e nationalis, of t!is e"ic is far fro, e,$racing t!e i,"erialist ideology of "revious e"ics. Walcott=s St. /ucia is consistently re"resented as a re,nant and a victi, of e,"ire, 0!ile as one a,ong ,any Cari$$ean islands, t!e for,erly contested "ossession of rival e,"ires no0, left to fend for itself, see,s $ot! an unlikely su$1ect for a triu,"!alist national e"ic and an unlikely !eir to t!e e"ic tradition !anded do0n fro, ;reece, 7o,e, and C!ristendo, in general. Bf t!ere 0ere any dou$t t!at Omeros is a deli$erate none"ic, it 0ould see, to $e dis"elled $y a "air of "assages t!at occur near t!e end of t!e "oe,. Bn t!e first, Walcott i,agines 0!at a conventional e"ic descri"tion of St. /ucia ,ig!t !ave looked like: 8Bn t!e ,ist of t!e sea t!ere is a !orned island 0it! dee" green !ar$ours 0!ere t!e ;reek s!i"s anc!or .................................. Bt 0as a "lace of lig!t 0it! lu,inous valleys under t!underous clouds. 3 ;enoan 0anderer saying t!e $eads of t!e 3ntilles na,ed t!e "lace for a $linded saint. /ater, ot!ers 0ould na,e !er for a 0ild 0ife. Cer ,ountains tinkle 0it! s"rings a,ong ,oss:$earded forests, and t!e screec!ing of $irds stitc!es its ta"estry. T!e 0!ite egret ,akes rings stalking its "ools. 3frican fis!er,en ,ake $oards fro, trees as tall as t!eir gods 0it! t!eir ec!oing a.es and a volcano stinking 0it! sul"!ur !as ,ade it a !ealing "lace.8 DOmeros >. (>.1 E

- ?M1 T!e style of t!is "assage, its $eauty not0it!standing, ,ig!t strike t!e reader as a$surd and !ence s!eerly "arodic in t!e usually un"retentious linguistic conte.t of Omeros, 0it! its stretc!es of "lain dialogue, its Creole, its occasional o$scenities. But t!ere is no ,ockery !ere. T!e "assage is uttered first $y *,eros !i,self, 0!o o$serves t!e 4arrator 0ee"ing like a $oy: and !e sa0 !o0 dee"ly B !ad loved t!is island. Per!a"s t!e oars,an kne0 t!is, $ut B didn=t kno0. T!en B sa0 t!e e$ony of !is lifted !and 3nd *,eros nodded: 8We 0ill $ot! "raise it no0.8 But B could not $efore !i,. My tongue 0as a stone at t!e $otto, of t!e sea, ,y ,out! a "arted conc! fro, 0!ic! not!ing sounded, and t!en B !eard !is o0n ;reek caly"so co,ing fro, t!e ,ar$le trunk, 0idening t!e sea 0it! a $lind ,an=s anger. *,eros t!en sings t!e first t0o lines of t!e song Auoted a$ove. T!e 4arrator continues: and t!e 0aves 0ere s0aying to t!e stroke of !is !and, as B !eard ,y o0n voice riding on !is "raise t!e 0ay a s0ift follo0s a crest, leaving its s!ore. T!ey sing t!e re,aining stan<as toget!er, until t!e 4arrator infor,s us: My voice 0as going under t!e strengt! of !is voice, 0!ic! carried so far t!at a $lack frigate !eard it, steadying its 0ing. T!e concentration of literary ,otifs in t!is "assage2its elevated toneF t!e a""earance, in t!e fact t!at $ot! *,eros and t!e 4arrator are on a $oat, of t!e classical conceit $y 0!ic! co,"osing "oetry is figured as sailing Dto say not!ing of allusions to s"ecific literary voyages, like t!at of 5ante and @irgil across t!e Sty.EF *,eros=s vatic kno0ledge of t!e 4arrator=s love, unsus"ected $y !i,self, for !is native landF t!e res"onse of t!e 0aves and of t!e frigate $ird to t!e *r"!ic "o0er of *,eros=s songF t!e $lending of t!e "oets= voicesF and t!e younger "oet=s ina$ility to sing $efore !earing t!e voice of t!e elder all re"resent a de"arture fro, t!e 8nor,al8 Dif one can s"eak of a nor,E narrative style of t!e "oe, u" to t!is "oint. T!roug! t!is de"arture and in t!e distance it takes us fro, t!e "oe,=s usual stylistic "rocedures 0e can ,easure t!e ga" $et0een Omeros and ot!er e"ics of t!e Co,eric stri"e. 3 second "assage not long after t!is one acco,"lis!es so,et!ing si,ilar, $ut in a less striking 0ay. T!e "oe,=s final c!a"ter $egins as follo0s: B sang of Auiet 3c!ille, 3fola$e=s son, 0!o never ascended an elevator, 0!o !ad no "ass"ort, since t!e !ori<on needs none, - ?M? never $egged nor $orro0ed, 0as no$ody=s 0aiter, 0!ose end, 0!en it co,es, 0ill $e a deat! $y 0ater D0!ic! is not for t!is $ook, 0!ic! 0ill re,ain unkno0n and unread $y !i,E. B sang t!e only slaug!ter

t!at $roug!t !i, delig!t, and t!at fro, necessity: t!e slaug!ter of fis!, sang t!e c!annels of !is $ack in t!e sun. B sang our 0ide country, t!e Cari$$ean Sea. W!o !ated s!oes, 0!ose soles 0ere as cracked as a stone, 0!o 0as gentle 0it! ro"es, 0!o !ad one suit alone, 0!o, no ,an dared insult and 0!o insulted no one, 0!ose grin 0as a 0!ite $reaker cresting, $ut 0!ose fro0n 0as a gro0ing t!under!ead, 0!ose fist of iron 0ould do ,e a greater !onor if it !eld on to ,y casket=s oarlocks t!an ,ine lifting !is o0n 0!en $ot! anc!ors are lo0ered in t!e one island. DOmeros >.)'.1 E Suc! a "assage is literally "erverse, turned $ack0ards, alluding in t!e "oe,=s final c!a"ter to t!e conventional o"ening of a canonical e"ic. Bndeed, one can easily read t!e first line of t!e c!a"ter as an allusion to t!e o"ening lines of t!e #liad, $ut an allusion t!at syste,atically inverts virtually everyt!ing in its source:

D#liad 1.1:?E 8Sing, goddess, t!e $aleful anger of Peleus= son, 3c!illes.8 9very de"arture fro, t!e Co,eric ,odel s"eaks eloAuently of t!e vast difference in "ers"ective $et0een t!e t0o "oe,s. Bn na,ing !is !ero, Walcott re1ects t!e universal for, 3c!illes in favor of t!e dialectal variant 3c!ille, local Creole $y 0ay of colonial +renc!. By including t!e "atrony,ic !e underlines t!e t!e,e of cultural riftF for 0!ile 3c!illes and Peleus s!are ,e,$ers!i" in a single Cellenic culture, t!e very na,es of 3c!ille and 3fola$e re"resent t!e victi,i<ation of 3fricans in t!e 3,ericas at t!e !ands of t!e 9uro"ean slave trade. T!e e"it!et 8Auiet8 is of course uni,agina$le for any Co,eric !ero. +inally, in 8B sang8 t0o crucial reversals occur. +irst, in t!e c!ange of tense and ,ood fro, Co,er=s for0ard:looking 8sing8

is figured t!e dislocation, as ,entioned a$ove, of t!e e"ic invocation fro, t!e "oe,=s $eginning to its end. Second, and ,ore tellingly, Co,er=s 8goddess8 t!e Muse, disa""ears: t!e "oet !as no need to "etition divinity for !is song $ut, ,ortal and falli$le t!oug! !e ,ay $e, sings on !is o0n aut!ority. +or so,e readers it is t!is, ,ore t!an anyt!ing else, t!at "laces Omeros outside t!e $ounds - ?M% of t!e e"ic genre. 4Omeros is not an e"ic,8 0rites +igueroa, 8and it !ardly touc!es on t!e gods.8H%(I 3nd indeed, it is in "assages like t!is t!at 0e sAuarely confront Burris=s 8deli$erate deflation of analogy.8 Bf t!e 9uro"ean e"ic is 0!at t!e t!eorists tell us it s!ould $e, t!en clearly Omeros is no e"ic. But t!ose t!eorists are 0rong. Certainly t!e idea t!at e"ic is a closed, aut!oritative genre, o$1ective in its regard

of t!e !eroic "ast, and so on is a significant discursive construct t!at evidently ans0ers so,e dee": seated cultural longing on t!e "art of readers $roug!t u" on 9uro"ean literature. But a discursive construct it is, and its usefulness in descri$ing or understanding an actual e"ic "oe, is li,ited at $est. T!e discourse on t!e e"ic is, to $e sure, one of t!e longest:lived and ,ost "o0erful ele,ents of literary investigation in t!e West. T!e fact is, !o0ever, t!at t!ere !as al0ays $een a counter tradition of reading e"ic as ,ore o"en to "luralities of inter"retation t!an t!e conventional vie0 of t!e genre 0ould see, to allo0, and suc! inter"retations !ave recently $eco,e a do,inant feature of t!e critical discussion. +ro, ancient allegoresis of t!e Co,eric e"ics, 0!ic! refuses to take t!e "oe,s at face value, to ro,antic readings of Satan as t!e !ero of Paradise ost, to 4e0 Critical readings of t!e Aeneid as a dee"ly divided, gri,ly $rooding ,editation on t!e costs of e,"ire, "ractical critics !ave al0ays s!o0n great acuity and resourcefulness at reading $e!ind t!e o$1ectivity and transcendence t!at 0e !ave all $een taug!t to find in e"ic to t!e cultural an.ieties and !istorical contingencies reflected and refracted 0it!in 0!at "oses as t!e inevita$ility of e"ic narrative.H%)I Bt is in general B t!ink fair to say t!at t!e rigid conce"tion of e"ic t!at B !ave $een outlining is $y and large t!e "rovince of t!eorists, 0!o find suc! a construct useful for t!eir o0n discursive "ur"oses, and of nons"ecialists, 0!o are $y definition not very interested in t!e e"icF 0!ile t!e e.cellent 0ork t!at any nu,$er of connoisseurs !ave done illustrates t!at an acce"tance of alterity is a $asic constitutive feature of t!e 9uro"ean e"ic fro, its ince"tion. To deny t!at Omeros is an e"ic on t!e grounds t!at it is so,et!ing 8ot!er8 t!an t!e #liad or Paradise ost is to ,isunderstand t!e develo",ent of 9uro"ean e"ic as $adly as Bo0ra ,isunderstood t!e e.istence of 3frican e"ic. But if Omeros does not confor, to t!e e."ectations of t!eorists and nons"ecialists, it does not fail to satisfy t!e,. Walcott=s ironic !andling of t!e generic conventions of classical e"ic "oetry is in ,y vie0 ,ore convincingly read as a logical e.tension of t!e e"ic genre=s ca"acity to reinvent itself t!roug! inversion, o""osition to e"ic "redecessors, and ironic self:refle.ion. To return $riefly to t!e end of t!e "oe,: $y announcing !is su$1ect !ere rat!er t!an at t!e $eginning of t!e "oe,, t!e 4arrator inverts nor,al e"ic "rocedure. W!ile t!is "articular stratage, is, B $elieve, an innovation, it is of a "iece 0it! t!e kind of striving for novelty t!at one finds t!roug!out "ost:Co,eric e"ic. T!at is to say, it is "recisely t!e kind of innovation, co,,only identified 0it! ;reek "oetry of t!e Cellenistic "eriod, $ut found - ?M' every0!ere in @irgil, Ca,Jes, and Milton as 0ell, 0!ere$y eit!er ad!erence to e"ic convention or i,itation of a "articular e"ic ,odel is "ointedly varied in suc! a 0ay as to force ret!inking a$out funda,ental as"ects of t!e genre.H%>I T!is ca"acity !as co,e to $e seen as a central c!aracteristic $ot! of individual "oe,s De.g., @irgil=s internal dialogue $et0een t!e voices of cele$ration and la,ent, and !is reduction of t!e !ero and !is ene,y to a single "atternE and of t!e tradition as a 0!ole De.g., Milton=s recasting of t!e classical "agan !ero as a de,on to $e sur"assed and defeated $y a ne0, C!ristian !ero "ossessed of Aualities dia,etrically o""osed to t!ose of !is "rototy"e and foeE.H%MI Bndeed, t0o recent studies of t!e 9uro"ean e"ic argue convincingly t!at t!e genre can $e understood only in dialectical ter,s. +or 5avid Puint, t!e dialectic takes s!a"e over ti,e, 0it! eac! instantiation of e"ic narrative finding its "lace on a continuu, t!at lies $et0een a 0!ole!earted co,,it,ent to t!e cele$ration of triu,"! and a dissenting "oint of vie0 t!at consistently takes t!e side of a defeated resistance. +or Susanne Wofford, t!e e"ic "oe, is dialectical in its very structure: in t!e si,ile, t!e e"ic figure "ar e.cellence, t!e genre atte,"ts to correlate its !eroic ideology 0it! t!e Dlargely antit!eticalE values of t!e e.ternal 0orld.H% I *ver ti,e, Wofford argues, t!e genre develo"s various strategies for negotiating t!is dis1unctive relations!i", 0!ic! nevert!eless re,ains a""arent to t!e reader and "lays an essential role in constituting t!e e"ic. Bot! Puint and Wofford t!us "resent vie0s of t!e e"ic t!at are

"rofoundly at odds 0it! received o"inion concerning t!e closed, ,onologic nature of t!e genreF and, 0!at is ,ore, t!eir ideas, 0!ile develo"ed and e."ressed 0it! great energy and unco,,on insig!t, are $y no ,eans eccentric 0!en considered in relation to t!e $ulk of conte,"orary critical 0ork on t!e 9uro"ean e"ic. Bndeed, one ,ig!t say t!at t!eir 0ork ,arks an i,"ortant stage in t!eoretical 0ork on t!e e"ic and a signal t!at in t!is field t!eory !as finally $egun to catc! u" 0it! "ractice. T!us t!e "olyglossia of Omeros does not 1ust flout e"ic convention or render allusion to t!e classical e"ics ,erely "arodic or uni,"ortant, $ut actually continues t!e e"ic tradition of Auestioning and self: Auestioning engage,ent on t!e "art of t!e "oet 0it! !is "redecessors. Placing at t!e end of t!e "oe, a "assage t!at t!e 8rules8 of t!e genre tell us s!ould co,e at t!e $eginning is a for,al instance of t!e ca"acity for inversion and reinvention t!at is itself a "ro"erty of t!e e"ic genre. We ,ay also take it as a signal t!at ,ore su$stantive for,s of inversion and reinvention are under 0ay as 0ell. *nce 0e reali<e t!is, it $eco,es clear t!at ,y earlier su,,ary of a !y"ot!etical argu,ent in 0!ic! B adduced t!is "assage to "rove t!at Omeros is no e"ic is itself o"en to drastic revision. To $egin 0it!, B called 83c!ille8 a 8dialectal variant8 of 83c!illes,8 t!e 8universal8 na,e for t!e greatest of !eroes. T!is "osition is correct 0it!in t!e confines of a discourse t!at regards e"ic as t!e literary e,$odi,ent of a unitary, undifferentiated 89uro"ean8 cultureF $ut a ,odest a,ount of "!ilological inAuiry reveals 0!at is 0rong - ?M( 0it! t!is "ers"ective. 83c!illes8 !a""ens to $e t!e for, t!at t!e na,e takes in 9nglis! as 0ell is in /atin, and it is t!roug! /atin t!at t!e for, acAuires its a""arent universality. Bn fact, t!oug!, t!is for, is, like 8Ulysses8 for 8*dysseus8 and 8Cercules8 for 8Cerakles,8 a 7o,an corru"tion of t!e ;reek 83k!illeus.8 Bn ot!er 0ords, it is itself a dialectal variant. Bt is clear t!at t!e "oe, invites "recisely t!is kind of scrutinyF consider its title, 0!ic! designates t!e ,aster "oet of t!e tradition it engages not as t!e s"uriously universal /atinate 8Co,er8 DW /atin 8Co,erus8E, $ut $y t!e ;reek 4Omeros.4 Bndeed, even !ere 0e cannot clai, t!at t!e ;reek for, re"resents a fi.ity or an aut!enticity t!at can "ass for universalityF for it is not t!e for, t!at an ancient ;reek 0ould !ave used,

Hi.e., C*:,e:rosI, $ut ,odern ;reek as s"oken to t!e 4arrator $y a ;reek 0o,an and transcri$ed 0it!out regard for t!e conventions of t!e 0ritten ;reek language.H'&I Bt is t!e sound of t!e 0ord t!at ca"tivates t!e 4arrator, 0!o su""lies it 0it! !is o0n idiosyncratic, aural ety,ology: B said 4Omeros,4 and * 0as t!e conc!:s!ell=s invocation, mer 0as $ot! ,ot!er and sea in our 3ntillean "atois, os, a grey $one, and t!e 0!ite surf as it cras!es and s"reads its si$ilant collar on a lace s!ore. *,eros 0as t!e crunc! of dry leaves, and t!e 0as!es t!at ec!oed fro, a cave:,out! 0!en t!e tide !as e$$ed. T!e na,e stayed in ,y ,out!. DOmeros B.H.C E T!e ;reek 0ord is 8derived8 fro, ele,ents of t!e +renc! Creole dialect s"oken, not 0ritten, on t!e islands and fro, t!e natural sounds of t!e Cari$$ean environ,ent.H'1I We ,ay find in t!e a""arent c!ronological inversion t!at derives ;reek fro, +renc! a "arallel to t!e for,al device of ending an

e"ic 0it! a for,ula nor,ally used for $eginnings, t!oug! in t!e sounds of t!e natural environ,ent t!e 4arrator finds a linguistic source t!at is indeed older t!an language itself. W!at is ,ore i,"ortant is to recogni<e in t!e 8de,otion8 of ;reek to a derivative status relative to t!e "ri,acy of 8our 3ntillean "atois82itself a tellingly ironic for,ulation in a "oe, 0ritten c!iefly in 9nglis!2a ,otif re"eated in at least t0o ot!er central conceits of t!e "oe, 0it! ,uc! $roader t!e,atic significance. T!e first of t!ese conceits, 0!ic! descends fro, t!e idea of translatio imperii, involves t!e unending succession 0!ere$y for,erly enslaved and coloni<ed "eo"les $eco,e o""ressors in t!eir o0n rig!t. T!e ,otif first a""ears in t!e early "oe, 87uins of a ;reat Couse,8 of 0!ic! 7ei Terada 0rites: 8Walcott "laces t!e Britis! conAuest of St. /ucia at t!e end of an originless c!ain of conAuests including t!e 7o,an coloni<ation of Britain.8H'?IOmeros neatly - ?M) e.tends t!is ,otif, $eginning 0it! t!e ancient 3t!enian de,ocracy28its demos de,onic and its ocracy crass8H'%I 2t!at enslaved its fello0 ;reeks 0!o in!a$ited t!e islands of t!e 3egean in 0!at $egan as a defensive league against Persian invasion $ut ended as t!e 3t!enian 9,"ire. T!en 7o,an enslaved ;reek and a""ro"riated ;reek culture as a sy,$ol of e,"ire, "assing t!is iconogra"!y of "o0er on to ot!er enslaved "eo"les destined to gain e,"ires of t!eir o0n. T!e Britis! 9,"ire in turn esta$lis!ed colonies t!roug!out t!e 4e0 World and, 0it! its fello0 9uro"ean "o0ers, enslaved and e.ter,inated t!e in!a$itants of t!at 0orld2virtually, in t!e case of t!e 4ort! 3,erican BroAuois and Siou., co,"letely in t!e case of t!e 3ntillean 3ruacs and Cari$s2and t!ere$y created a fres! need for slaves, su""lied $y 3frica, 0!ose descendants re,ain o""ressed $y a "ervasive racis, "articularly in t!e conte,"orary United States.H''I But even t!e enslaved and t!e o""ressed are not free fro, co,"licity. 3 s!ocked 3c!ille 0itnesses a slaving raid on !is ancestral village carried out $y anot!er 3frican tri$e.H'(I T!e 0arlike Cari$s !ad $een res"onsi$le for 0i"ing out t!e "eaceful 3ruacs, 0!ile a regi,ent of freed 4ort! 3,erican slaves2t!e Buffalo Soldiers of t!e United States 4int! Cavalry2 advanced t!e cause of 0!ite i,"erialis, $y carrying out t!e final defeat of t!e Siou..H')I 83ll colonies in!erit t!eir e,"ire=s sin.8H'>I +or our "ur"oses a second ,otif is "er!a"s even ,ore i,"ortant. B refer to t!e figure of lineage or "aternity in Omeros and in e"ic narrative generally. Bn Omeros "aternity is a far fro, si,"le ,atter. 5enis Plunkett grieves $ecause !e 0ill die 0it!out an !eir, and in an act t!at is !alf "edantry and !alf unrestrained i,agination !e ,akes !i,self t!e 8fat!er8 of a young ,ids!i",an also na,ed Plunkett, 0!o, !e discovers, died serving under 3d,iral 7odney in t!e Battle of /es Saintes ?&& years $efore t!e story of Omeros takes "lace. B,agining t!is young ,an as !is son does not "revent Plunkett fro, clai,ing !i, as an ancestor as 0ell, $y a cra<y logic $ased on t!e fact t!at, as Plunkett 0ill do, t!e young ,ids!i",an also died 0it!out leaving an !eir. T!e 4arrator of t!e "oe, stands in a si,ilarly a,$iguous relations!i" to !is fat!er, 0!o died at an age younger t!an t!at of t!e 4arrator, 0!o t!us figures !i,self as 8older8 t!an !is fat!er as !e tells t!e story of Omeros.H'MI 3c!ille e."eriences a !allucination t!at takes !i, to 3frica, 0!ere !e converses 0it! "eo"le 0!o, !e i,agines as !is ancestorsF and as t!e "oe, ends !e "re"ares to raise Celen=s c!ild, 0!o ,ay $e !is o0n son or else t!at of !is de"arted friend and rival, Cector. Bn all t!ese instances t!e relations!i" of fat!ers to sons is dee"ly "ro$le,ati<ed, t!e $asis of t!e relations!i" Auestioned: is it "ri,arily a $iological ,atter, or one de"endent on e,"at!y, i,aginative sy,"at!y, ,utual interest, and acce"tance, or even an act of 0ill asserting itself over reasonG Bs t!e vector of t!e relations!i" al0ays one t!at follo0s t!e arro0 of ti,e fro, fat!er to son, or does t!e son engender t!e fat!er fro, 0!o, !e 0is!es to in!eritG

T!is is, B su$,it, one of t!e central "ro$le,s of t!e 9uro"ean e"ic fro, - ?M> its ince"tion. T!e !eroes of t!e #liad are o$sessed 0it! t!eir o0n ancestry and are $ent on "roving t!at t!ey ,easure u" to t!e standards set $y t!eir fore$ears. Tele,ac!us=s co,ing of age involves ,eeting !is long:lost fat!er for t!e first ti,e in !is life. 3eneas ,ust transfor, !i,self fro, t!e dutiful son of a doo,ed race to t!e "rogenitor of t!e greatest e,"ire in 0orld !istory. Satan re$els against t!e a""ointed succession of t!e +at!er $y t!e Son, so t!at 3da,, fat!erless !i,self, $eco,es t!e $egetter of !u,ankind in general. Bt is difficult not to see in t!e career of t!e 9uro"ean e"ic an ideal instantiation of t!e *edi"al 0arfare t!at for Carold Bloo, constitutes t!e driving force $e!ind all literature.H' I But t!e e"igonal 0ork can never overco,e its o0n $elatedness and derivative status. +or e"ics suc! as t!ese, genealogy2not 1ust t!at of t!e !ero, $ut t!at of t!e "oe, itself2$eco,es all i,"ortant: $y virtue of clai,ing legiti,ate descent fro, Co,er, t!ese e"ics atte,"t to take t!e "lace of Co,er as originary te.ts in t!eir o0n rig!t. But on grounds of originality it is clear t!at t!e "rinci"al 9uro"ean e"ics are co,"ro,ised $y t!eir ,e,$ers!i" in a clearly defined literary tradition stretc!ing $ack to Co,er: $y virtue of t!is fact, t!ey can never $e original as Co,er is. By rene0ing t!is as"ect of t!e e"ic tradition Omeros ,akes of itself a "aradig, for t!e conte,"orary individual=s relations!i" to t!e various cultural legacies t!at !e or s!e in!erits or 0is!es to clai,. Bn a li,ited 0ay, t!e "oe, can t!us $e read as an allegory of our o0n relations!i" to classical culture, or to t!e i,,igrant culture of our "ersonal ancestors, or even of grou"s to 0!ic! 0e feel or i,agine a sy,"at!etic connection rat!er t!an an et!nic or $iological one. T!e central reflection of t!is arrange,ent is t!e relative lack of aut!ority and control t!at Walcott=s 4arrator e.erts over !is story, in s!ar" contrast to t!e o$1ectivity and trut! t!at are conventionally ascri$ed to t!e e"ic "oet. Walcott=s 4arrator is t!us not so far re,oved fro, !is reader, in t!at $ot! are in t!e "osition of needing to "iece toget!er frag,ents of a $roken "ast in order to ,ake sense of t!eir e.istence and e."eriences. T!us Omeros "resents t!e reader 0it! a lit,us test, or rat!er, 0it! t!e illusion of suc! a testF for, like t!e $ureaucrat of t!e story 0it! 0!ic! B $egan, any reader 0!o seeks to a""ly suc! a test to t!is "oe, can only fail. T!ere is in Omeros no $lack or 0!ite, $ut only $lack and 0!ite. Bts roots are not in 9uro"e or 3frica, $ut necessarily in $ot! 9uro"e and 3frica. ConseAuently, it is not e"ic or novel, $ut only e"ic and novel. T!is, !o0ever, it can only $e if its relations!i" to classical e"ic, !o0ever 0e ,ay c!oose to "ro$le,ati<e t!is relations!i", as 0ell as to t!e e"ics of grou"s traditionally ignored $y t!e canonical 9uro"ean e"ic tradition, is fully ackno0ledged and integrated into our reading. T!is is only one of t!e reasons t!at 0e s!ould cele$rate t!is re,arka$le "oe,, 0!ic! is after all still ne0 to us, still in ,any 0ays uncanny and unfa,iliar2for its a$ility to ,ake us see our o0n "ast ane0, to force us to reflect u"on our o0n ancestry, and to understand our o0n !eritage2racial, intellectual, and cultural2 $ot! as it is and as 0e 0ould !ave it $e. - ?MM -

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1 )(. Sundiata: 3n 9"ic of *ld Mali. Translated $y ;. 5. Pickett. /ondon: /ong,an. *riginally "u$lis!ed as Sund1ata, ou l=K"o"Ke ,andingue DParis: Presence 3fricaine, 1 )&E. *k"e0!o, Bsidore. 1 > . The Epic in Africa: To2ard a Poetics of the Oral Performance. 4e0 Lork: Colu,$ia University Press. Putna,, Mic!ael C. J. 1 MM. The Poetry of the 4Aeneid 4 1our %tudies in #maginati)e Lnity and "esign. H1 )(I. 7e"rint. Bt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press. Puint, 5avid. 1 %. Epic and Empire: Politics and Generic 1orm from 7irgil to /ilton. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Steiner, ;eorge. 1 %. 8+ro, Ca.ton to Omeros. 4 Times iterary %upplement ?>: 1%:1). Sven$ro, Jes"er. 1 >). a parole et le mar*re: Au+ origines de la po;sie grrec<ue. /und: Studentlitteratur. Ta"lin, *liver. 1 1. 85erek Walcott=s Omeros and 5erek Walcott=s Co,er.8 Arion %, 1.?: ?1%:??). Terada, 7ei. 1 ?. 5erek Walcott=s Poetry: 3,erican Mi,icry. Boston: 4ort!eastern University Press. Walcott, 5erek. 1 &. Omeros. 4e0 Lork: +arrar, Straus and ;irou.. 1 M). Collected Poems, B8:I&B8I:. 4e0 Lork: +arrar, Straus and ;irou.. 1 >M. The 4Fo,er of %e)ille4 and 4O Ba*ylonW4 4e0 Lork: +arrar, Straus and ;irou.. 1 >'. =T!e Cari$$ean: Culture or Mi,icry. 8Fournal of #nteramerican %tudies and World Affairs 1).1: %:1%. 7e"rinted in Ca,ner 1 %a, (1:(>. 1 )?. #n a Green (ight: Poems, B8:I&B8DN. /ondon: Jonat!an Ca"e. W!ite, J. P.

1 &. 83n Bntervie0 0it! 5erek Walcott. 8 The Green /ountain -e)ie2 n.s. '. 1: 1':%>. -? )Wofford, Susanne /indgren. 1 ?. The Choice of Achilles: The #deology of 1igure in the Epic. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Leats, W. B. 1 M%. 8Meditations in Ti,e of Civil War.8 Bn The Poems: A (e2 Edition, edited $y 7ic!ared J. +inneran. 4e0 Lork: Mac,illan.

Notes
INT!#-UCTI#N
1. 3s Cervantes, often descri$ed as t!e aut!or of t!e first novel, !as !is Canon of Toledo in "on .ui'ote e."lain, 8/a K"ica ta,$ien "uede escre$irse en "rosa co,o en verso8 D8T!e e"ic, ,oreover, can $e 0ritten in "rose as 0ell as in verse8E. T!e date of t!is co,,ent, 0it! 0!ic! ,any 7enaissance 0riters 0ould !ave $een in sy,"at!y, is 1)&(. ?. Bak!tin 1 M1, 1'. +or Bak!tin=s ,ost definitive state,ent on e"ic=s refusal of conte,"oraneity, see "". 1%:1': 8Bn its style, tone and ,anner of e."ression, e"ic discourse is infinitely far re,oved fro, discourse of a conte,"orary a$out conte,"orary issues addressed to conte,"oraries.8 %. 8@o, ;eist der e$raisc!en Poesie8 D1>M?EF 9nglis! translation availa$le in Si,"son 1 MM. '. See $ot! 8T!e Storyteller8 and, for Ben1a,in=s co,,ents on a 0ork=s 8aura,8 8T!e Work of 3rt in t!e 3ge of Mec!anical 7e"roduction,== in Ben1a,in 1 ) , M%:11&F ?1>:?('. (. /ukacs 1 >1, c!a". 1. ). See /ord 1 )&, c!a". ? D8Singers: Perfor,ance and Training8E. >. See Slyo,ovics 1 M>. M. See Beissinger 1 1 Bndian oral e"ic is also "erfor,ed ty"ically $y ,en 0!o are fro, t!e lo0er strata of society and are even untouc!a$les in ,any casesF see Black$urn et al. 1 M . . See 3nn /. T. Bergren=s suggestive essay D1 M%E, "articularly !er co,,ent on ". % on 8$lindness and ,utilation D0it! t!e suggestion of castrationE as ,arks of t!e ,ale "oet8 in ;reek e"ic. 1&. See 5erek Walcott=s res"onse to 4ai"aul=s criticis, D0!ic! !e Auotes in fullE in 8T!e Cari$$ean: Culture or Mi,icryG8 D1 >'E, re"rinted in Ca,ner 1 %, es". PP. (?:('.

)0 Epic as .enre
1. Bak!tin 1 M1, M. ?. See Parry 1 >1F /ord 1 )&, 1 1, 1 (.

%. Cf. 4agy 1 '. Todorov 1 (. See 4agy 1 >. See 4agy 1 . /ord 1 1.

&,%1. &, ?&. &, %)?F +lueckiger 1 &, and %)? n. 1?>. ), ?1.

). Cf. 4agy 1 > , > : %. M. /ord 1 )&, ) D,y e,"!asisE. 1&. 7eic!l 1 ?.

11. Black$urn et al. 1 M . 1?. *k"e0!o 1 > . 1%. See in general t!e valua$le $i$liogra"!y of +oley 1 M(. 1'. Martin 1 M , 1(&. 1(. *k"e0!o 1 > , %' D,y e,"!asisE. 1). See 9d0ards and Sienke0ic< 1 &, 1M>:1M , es". ". 1MM: 8T!e e"ic is considered so i,"ortant and suc! a Auintessential art for, t!at, if e"ic "erfor,ances did not evolve in a "articular society, t!at society 0as considered to $e so,e!o0 deficient.8 1>. /ord 1 )&, ). 1M. See *k"e0!o=s su,,ary D1 > , ?'&:?'%E. 1 . *k"e0!o 1 > , ?'1, 0it! reference to +innegan 1 >&, 1& :11&. Bn fairness to +innegan, B s!ould note t!at B consider !er $ook, Oral iterature in Africa D1 >&E, a verita$le treasure:!ouse of co,"arative evidence. *k"e0!o D". ?'?E "raises +innegan=s $ook for its reliance on 8t!e relevance of 3frican oral literature for co,"arative literature in t!e 0ide sense8 D+innegan, ". (1ME. ?&. Jensen 1 M&, 1M. ?1. Slatkin 1 M>, ?)& D,y e,"!asisEF cf. S,it! 1 >' and Ben:3,os 1 >). ??. 3$solutist notions of genre can $e traced $ack to Plato: eidos, a 0ord used $y Plato in t!e sense of 8genre8 D4agy 1 &, M>, 1& E, is also used in t!e sense of 8for,8 in !is T!eory of +or,s. ?%. Cf. +lueckiger 1 ), 1%?. ?'. Martin 1 M , 1&:?). ?(. B$id., ? D,y e,"!asisE. ?). Martin 1 M , 1? D,y e,"!asisE. ?>. B$id., 1?:'?. ?M. Cf. 4agy 1 %&. B$id., ?):%&. %1. B$id., %&. %?. B$id., %&. )a, 1%?:1%%. ? . Martin 1 M , 1?.

%%. 4agy 1 %'. 4agy 1 %(. 4agy 1 %>. 4agy 1

)a, 1?1. &, %&. )a, 1?1. )a, 1??.

%). Martin 1 M , %&:%>. %M. B$id., 1??:1?M. % . B$id., 1?>. '&. Cf. 4agy 1 '?. 4agy 1 ''. 4agy 1 '(. 4agy 1 '). 4agy 1 '>. 4agy 1 ' . 4agy 1 &, )M n. M'. )a, 1?M, es". n. )M. '1. Martin 1 M , 1%. +or furt!er details and $i$liogra"!y, see 4agy 1 )a, 1?M. &, %MM, % &:% 1F 1 )$, 11&. )a, %>:%M. )$, >1. ), 1%1:1((, es". ". 1'). 1, ). )a, >>:M?. )a, ():(>. ), 1%%, su,,ari<ing +lueckiger and Sears 1 ), 1%%, 0it! reference to Bau,an 1 >>, %. ), 1%%:1%'E. +or ,ore on t!e notion of 8e"isodes,8 see also 4agy 1 >. )$, M1:M?. '%. B$id., 1?M.

'M. +lueckiger 1 M , '&F see also +lueckiger 1 (&. +lueckiger 1 (1. +lueckiger 1 (?. +lueckiger 1 (%. See 4agy 1

40 'erforming Interpretation2 Early %llegorical E5egesis of 1omer

1. *n t!e et!nogra"!y of co,,entary and its inse"ara$ility fro, te.t in "erfor,ance, see Tedlock 1 M%F for a tradition of e.egesis in Bndian e"ic, see /utgendorf 1 M . ?. 7eynolds 1 (, ?1&:?11. See also Slyo,ovics 1 M> for an analysis of a single "oet=s i,"rovisatory ada"tations of !is te.t in a constant negotiation over social status. %. +or a concise overvie0 0it! $i$liogra"!y, see W!it,an 1 surveyed in t!e first c!a"ter of +eeney 1 1. '. T!e ancient ,aterial is e.cellently

'. Por"!yry a"ud sc!ol. B ad #liad ?&.)>. My translation is $ased on t!e te.t of Sc!raeder D1MM&, ?'&.1': ?'1.1?, re"rinted in c!a". M.? of 5iels and 6ran< 1 (? H!ereafter 56IE. (. Tatian #n Graecos %1 D[ M. 1a 56E: 8T!ose res"onsi$le for t!e ,ost ancient researc!es into Co,er=s "oetry, $irt!, and ti,e are T!eagenes of 7!egiu,, at t!e ti,e of Ca,$ysses H(? :(?? B.C.9.I, Stesi,$rotus t!e T!asian, 3nti,ac!us t!e Colo"!onian, Cerodotus of Calicarnassus. . . . 8 ). Certainly Stoic, $ut "er!a"s 4eo"yt!agorean too: see We!rli 1 ?M, M : 1, and Cantarella 1 )>. >. Cf. Pfeiffer 1 )M, ':(.

M. Most D1 'E "ersuasively argues t!at 0!en Patroclus u"$raids 3c!illes for !is !eartlessness $y saying: 8Lour "arents 0ere not T!etis and Peleus, $ut you 0ere $orn fro, t!e sea and t!e cliffs8 D #liad 1).%%:%(E, t!is is an allegoresis of 3c!illes= "arentage2T!etis as sea goddess and Peleus as connected to Mt. Pelion. B t!ank P!ili" Cardie for dra0ing t!is article to ,y attention. . +eeney 1 1, . So too Tate 1 ?>, ?1( n. (. 1&. T!at T!eagenes 2rote a$out Co,er is s"ecified in Por"!yry DM.? 56, Auoted a$oveE and t!e Suda DM.' 56E. 11. Cf. +eeney 1 1 M:1', and Sven$ro 1 M', 1&1:1?1. 1?. Sc!ol. 3 ad #liad 1.%M1 D[ M.% 56E. +or T!eagenes as r!a"sode, see Wila,o0it<:Moellendorff 1 %?, ?1 n. ?. *ften t!is evidence is adduced in su""ort of an ancient inter"retation Dcf. M.? 56E of T!eagenes as a "roto"!ilologist, do0n"laying !is interest in allegory: see Pfeiffer 1 )M, 1&F Sven$ro 1 M', 111 We!rli 1 ?M, 1F 5etienne 1 )?, )(:)>. But 4. J. 7ic!ardson D1 >(, )(:M1, es". )ME !as 0ell s!o0n t!at gra,,atical, 8"!ilological,8 allegorical, and ot!er "ractices coincided in ,any of t!ese early figures. 1%. Suc! defenses see,ed to !ave flouris!ed in so"!istic circles of t!e fift! centuryF see Carroll 1M (. 1'. Tate 1 %', 1&M. 1(. Tate 1 ?>, citing B( 56, on 0!ic! see Sc!i$li 1 &, 1&& n. ('. 1). 5elatte 1 1(, 11':11(F We!rli D1 ?M, &E co,"ares a "!iloso"!er often associated 0it! Pyt!agoreanis,: 3lc,aeon of near$y Croton DB' 56E. +or reservations, see Burkert 1 >?, ? 1 n. )>F cautious acce"tance: /a,$erton 1 M), %1:'&. See also t!e follo0ing note. 1>. Cf. P!ilolaus DGE '' B1' 56F first cited in Plato Gorgias ' %3 and assigned to 8a certain 0ise ,yt!ologer fro, Sicily or Btaly,8 on 0!ic! see 5odds 1 ( ad loc. and "". ? ):? . 1M. Bndeed, allegoresis and ety,ology ,ay $e seen as t0o sides of t!e sa,e coin, as in Burkert=s concise for,ulation: allegory is an ety,ologi<ed narrative 0!ile ety,ology allegori<es an individual 0ord D1 >&, '(&E Plato "lays on suc! traditions in Phaedrus ?(?B 0!en !e allegori<es "assion D eros E as 80inged8 D pteros E $ased on an esoteric !e.a,eter cou"let ascri$ed to Co,eric r!a"sodes. 1 . 4estle 1 '?, 1? :1%&. ?&. #liad ?1.):>: eera d$ 0ere. Cf. note a$ove. ?1. /oralia 1 9. T!e !istory of ter,s for allegory is surveyed 0it! $i$liogra"!y in W!it,an 1 M>, a"". B. Cf. PK"in 1 (M, M>: ?. ??. Bn )& B.C.9.: P!ilode,us -hetoric 1.1)'.??, 1>'.?':?(, 1M1.?( DSud!ausEF Cicero Orator 8:, "e Oratore %.'?, 1)):1)>. Making ,atters uncertain are "assages in 5e,etrius On %tyle D :1&?, 1(1, ?'%E, 0!ic! is dated variously fro, t!e t!ird to t!e first century B.C.9.: see W!it,an 1 M>, ?)', and 6ennedy 1 M , M), 1 ). ?%. Stesi,$rotus co,es second to T!eagenes in Tatian=s catalogue of Co,eric allegori<ers Dsee note ( a$oveEF 3na.i,ander is "ro$a$ly t!e 3na.i,ander t!e Lounger fro, Miletus 0!o at t!e end of t!e fift! century 0rote E+egesis of Pythagorean %ym*ola D(MC) 56 [ 1G08TB3 cf. ( 31. 11 56EF t!is 0ork a""ears to !ave a""lied to Pyt!agorean sayings t!e sa,e kind of allegorical e."lanation t!at !ad $een used on Co,er: cf. Burkert 1 >?, 1)):1>(. ?'. /SJ s.v. Cf. PK"in 1 (M, M(:MM. ?(. *n t!e 5erveni "a"yrus, see no0 /aks and Most 1 >. Pending official "u$lication, B use s,all

7o,an nu,erals for colu,ns of t!e te.t "rinted in Peitschrift fXr Papyrologie und Epigraphi, '> D1 M?E after ". %&&. B !o"e to discuss else0!ere t!e s"ecific "ro$le,s of inter"retation t!at t!e ;reek "resents. ?). West D1 M%, >M n. 1'E and +eeney D1 8allegori<e8 !ere. 1, ??E note in "assing t!at ainittesthai $ears t!e sense

?>. +or t!e inter"reter=s error, see West 1 M%, M(, and, so,e0!at differently, 7usten 1 M(, 1?(. ?M. i.. ):>. +or a discussion of t!is a,$iguous sentence, see 7usten 1 M(, 1%%:1%'. ? . v.1&&:11. Cf. too .iii. 1%, 0!ere t!e "oet=s ,ention of Oeus as 8!ead8 is taken as 8e."ressing so,et!ing else8 D aini!etai E "ro$a$ly sovereignty. %&. 5iscussion in 7usten 1 M(, 1?M:1%&. %1. v.?:'. Cf. t!e distinction in .i..? $et0een 0!at is 8unclear to t!e ,any8 $ut not 8to t!ose 0!o rig!tly understand.8 %?. iii.(. T!e 0ord semainein, 8to indicate $y signs,8 is used for 0!at t!e "oet ,eans $y !is o$scure e."ression in .i..>F cf. ..i. 1%. %%. iii.', on 0!ic! see West 1 M%, >M n. 1'. Bn t!e -epu*lic Plato eAuates s"eaking 8"oetically8 0it! 8s"eaking in riddles8 D eini+ato, -epu*lic %%?B :C1E. %'. 4ote t!at Por"!yry uses ainittesthai in introducing P!erecydes DB) 56EF cf. Sc!i$li 1 and 11> n. %&, and, ,ore generally, 7ein!ardt 1 )&, %(:% , and W!it,an 1 M>, '. &, n. ('

%(. T!eognis )M1:)M?: tauta ,oi einik!t!o kekru,,ena tois= agat!ois, ginoskoi d= an tis kai kakon an so"!is ei. +or te.t and translation, see 4agy 1 M(, ?)ff.F 1 &, 1' . %). +rags. 1>', 1M( in West 1 ?. %>. Pfeiffer D1 )M, (E defines t!e ainos as a fictional story t!at !as s"ecial significance in t!e "resent circu,stances. %M. Odyssey 1'.(&M. Cf. 4agy 1 > , ?%':?%>. % . 4agy 1 M(, ??:%&F cf. 9d,unds 1 M(, 1&(:1&). '&. 4agy 1 > , ???:?'1, es". ?%(:?%MF 1 '?. ;entili 1 MM, '%:'', 1 >ff., ?1?:?1%. '%. 3ristotle -hetoric ?.?& D1% %$M:??EF cf. ?.?1 D1% '$%':1% (a?E, %:11 D1'1?a??:?)EF 4agy 1 &, '?>. So,e a""arently ,eteorological "assages fro, Solon=s "oetry 0ere, at least later, read as "olitical allegories: !e 0as said to $e "redicting t!e tyranny of Peisistratus to t!e 3t!enians 0!en !e sang: 8Just as t!e force of sno0 and !ail co,es fro, a cloud, t!under co,es fro, $rig!t lig!tning,8 so t!e city s!ould recogni<e in advance t!e destruction t!at t!reatens 0!en so,e ,en $eco,e too great. Cf. 5iogenes /aertius 1.(& and ot!ers cited $y West 1 ? on Solon frag. F cf. frag. 1?. ''. 4agy 1 &, 1' , 1 ?:1 ', 1 ):1 M. '(. See discussion in Cole 1 1, ' :('F Cole cites D". 1)' n. >E Pindar Olympian ?.M?ff., 11.1&F (emean >.1?:1 F Pythian ?.>? and %.M&ff. D0!ere it is a Auestion of t!e addressee $eing 0ise enoug! to a""reciate t!e i,"ort of #liad ?'.(?>ff.E. Cf. Battisti 1 &. B t!ank /o0ell 9d,unds for t!is reference and ot!er suggestions. '). 3lcaeus frag. ) in Ca,"$ell 1 M?, ?% F note too t!at T!eognis=s lines on 8riddling for t!e 0ise8 &, 1'M and inde. s.v. ainos. 1, 'M:' F cf. "". ((:)M. '1. 3ristotle -hetoric %.1' D1'1($?%:?'E. Cole 1

Auoted a$ove conclude an allegory of t!e s!i" of state. '>. Used si,ilarly in t!e 5erveni "a"yrus .v.M, 0!ere *r"!eus 8likens8 Oeus to 3ir to e."ress t!e intelligent and universal ruling "rinci"le. 'M. Cf. 8/onginus8 On the %u*lime .), >F BuffiSre 1 (), 1&(. ' . Cf. Ba$ut 1 >', M%:11>, es". 1&?:1&%. (&. See furt!er +ord 1 >. 1, '(?. (1. Si,onides frag. ()' in Ca,"$ell 1

(?. Cesiod is so,eti,es "aired 0it! Co,er DQeno"!anes ?1B11 56E and attacked as an ignorant 8teac!er of t!e ,ultitude8 D didas,alos pleiston 0esiodus, Ceraclitus ??B(> 56E. (%. aeiso +unetoisi Dfrag. %%' 6ernEF West 1 M%, 11&n. M?, co,"ares Ceraclitus=s scorn for t!e 8undiscerning8 D a+unetoi, B1F cf. B%' 56E and Pindar=s e.cursus into *r"!ic esc!atology, figured as arro0s t!at 8s"eak to t!ose 0!o are discerning8 D phonaenta sunetoisin, Olympian ?.M(E. ('. 3 suggestive analysis of t!e "ara$les of Jesus in t!is regard is 6er,ode 1 > . Just $efore Plato re1ects t!e i,"ious ,yt!s of e"ic, !e essays t!at suc! tales oug!t to $e $uried in silence or at least ke"t to a 8very s,all audience, $ound $y "ledges of secrecy and reAuiring e.traordinary sacrifices,8 not t!e ,ere sacrifice of a little "ig, so as to $e !eard $y 8as fe0 "eo"le as "ossi$le8 D -epu*lic %>M3E. T!e re1ection of t!e "iglet as t!e "rice of initiation is a cutting allusion to t!e 9leusinian ,ysteries, 0!ic!, like Co,er, 0ere availa$le to anyone, ;reek or foreigner, slave or free. ((. Cf. Plato Protagoras %1)5, 0it! t!e discussion of 7ic!ardson 1 >(, )M:) . T!e regretta$le de,ocrati<ing i,"lications of t!eir teac!ing are s"elled out at Plato Theaetetus 1M&5: Socrates ironically contrasts t!e 0ay t!e ancients concealed t!e trut! of universal flu. fro, hoi polloi $y e."ressing it DallegoricallyE t!roug! t!e story t!at *cean and Tet!ys are "arents of t!e gods Dcf. #liad 1'.?&1, %&?E 0it! t!eir 80iser8 successors 0!o s"ell out everyt!ing in t!eir "resentations D anaphadnon apodei,numenon E so t!at even co$$lers can s!are t!eir 0isdo,. (). *n 3le.andria, see 5a0son 1 ? for Stoic allegoresis, /ong 1 ?. (>. See t!e e.cellent studies of Murrin D1 M&E. (M. So defined in Ceraclitus t!e 7!etor 0omeric .uestions J D ho gar alla men agoreuon tropos, hetera de hon legei semainon E 3ccounts of t!e rise of ;reek allegoresis often $egin 0it! t!is late r!etorical definition: e.g., BuffiSre 1 ()F Sven$ro 1 M', 11 :1?1. ( . 9.g., de Man 1 > , 1 M%. *n de Man=s c!allenge to t!e "ossi$ility of literary !istory, see Bus! 1 1, %(:( . )&. +rye 1 (>. Useful discussion in Bruns 1 )?. 7eynolds 1 (, ?11. ?, es". M%:M). )1. B,"ortantly $egun in 0orks like Conig 1 ( and +letc!er 1 )'.

80 The %ra9ic Epic 'oet as #utcast, Tric/ster, and Con Man

1. +or a !istorical and $i$liogra"!ical overvie0 of t!e trickster figure, see 5oty and Cynes 1 ?. 3$ra!a,s 1 )M, 1>&:1>M. %. /Kvi:Strauss 1 )%, ??':??). '. +or additional ,aterial on U""er 9gy"tian e"ic singers, see Slyo,ovics 1 MM, 1 M>a and $, 1 M), %.

and 8Praise of ;od, Praise of Self, Praise of t!e Bsla,ic Peo"le: 3ra$ 9"ic 4arrative in Perfor,ance8 Dfort!co,ingE. (. =30adalla! divided t!e e"ic into t!ree "arts: D1E 8t!e Birt! of 3$u Oayd8 D milad a*u !ed E D?E 8t!e 7econnaisance8 D al&riyada E and D%E t!e 8Journey West0ard8 D tagri*a E +or a discussion of t!e e"ic=s divisions according to oral 9gy"tian "oets, see 7eynolds 1 (, 1) n. %&. ). +or a translation of t!e $irt! seAuence according to =30adalla!, see Slyo,ovics 1 >. T!e te.t of =30adalla!=s Candal story is $ased on ,y un"u$lis!ed field0ork ta"es recorded in 1 M% in U""er 9gy"t. 3 co,"lete set of =30adalla!=s version of %irat Bani 0ilal is availa$le in t!e +olk 3rts Center, Ta0fiAiyya, Cairo, 9gy"t. +or te.t and analysis of a Candal tale collected in a nort!ern 9gy"tian 4ile 5elta village $y 50ig!t 7eynolds, see 7eynolds 1 (, > :M> and ?1':?1(. >. 3$u Oayd !as ,any e."loits follo0ing t!e !ero "atterns descri$ed $y /ord 7aglan, *tto 7ank, and 3lan 5undesF see 7aglan 1 %', 1 ()F 5undes 1 M&F 7ank 1 ( . M. So,e !istorians inter"ret t!e e"ic as a literary analogue to t!e religious and "olitical Bsla,ici<ation of 4ort! 3frica: see, for e.a,"le, Brett 1 M?. . =30adalla! "laces Candal=s tale in "art 1, t!e 8Birt! of t!e Cero.8 T!is tale a""ears in "rinted versions: t!e 1 'M Cairo 8yello0 $ook8 edition, .issat al&0ayda*i 2a&al $L<ayli 0andal, "". 1M1:1 M. 1&. See Culler 1 MM, %. 11. Parent!etically, concerning t!e !istory of "un:,aking in 9gy"tian folklore, so "revalent 0as t!e "ractice of 9gy"tian "unning t!at a nint!:century 3ra$ r!etorician, al:Safadi, re,arked on t!is "ro"ensity: 8T!e "oets of 9gy"t, !e 0rites, e.celled in t!e use of t!is difficult figure8 Dt!e "un, 0!ic! !e called ta2riya E T!e reason for t!is, according to al:Safadi, 8is t!at t!e 0ater of t!e 4ile in 9gy"t is of an e.cellent Auality so t!at "oets living in t!ese regions are endo0ed 0it! $ot! delicacy and intellect8 Dcited in Bone$akker 1 )), >'E. 1?. Bart!es 1 >&. 1%. *n t!e a,$iguous se.uality of t!e U""er 9gy"tian "oet, see Slyo,ovics 1 MM, c!a"s. 1 and ?. See also 7eynolds 1 (, M'. 1'. Transliteration "rotocols for Sa=idi Dor U""er 9gy"tianE 3ra$ic follo0 Slyo,ovics 1 MM, ?) :?>% D83""endi. 3: 4otes on Translation and Transliteration8E. 1(. Baker 1 >M discusses Tunisian "ride in Cilali descent. +or a survey of 3ra$ countries 0!ere Cilali genealogy is "roudly clai,ed, see Muk!lis 1 )', M&: M. 1). +or descri"tions of "unning "ossi$ilities, see 7edfern 1 M' and Bro0n 1 (). 1>. +or t!e structural role t!at Je0s and $lacks "lay in =30adalla!=s narrative of t!e Cilali cycle, see Slyo,ovics 1 MM, )&:)'. 1M. al:6!idr freAuently functions as a fairy god,ot!er:like figureF see, for e.a,"le, Slyo,ovics 1 MM, 1?.

=0 Epic, .ender, and Nationalism2 The -e+elopment of Nineteenth;Century Bal/an &iterature

1. 7eference 0ill $e ,ade to Ser$ian, Croatian, Bulgarian, and 7o,anian literatures. ?. Balkan C!ristian e"ic is a ter, used to distinguis! t!e oral e"ic sung $y C!ristian singers as o""osed to Balkan Musli, singers, t!e ,ost 0ell:kno0n $eing t!ose 0!o "erfor,ed in Bosnia:Cercegovina

and 0!o served as ,any of t!e infor,ants for Mil,an Parry and 3l$ert /ord in t!e earlier t0entiet! century. Bn a $roader sense, it also refers to t!e oral e"ic traditions a,ong t!e Bulgarians and 7o,anians. T!e singing of oral e"ic, t!oug! it continued 0ell into t!e t0entiet! century, !as gradually $een in decline, es"ecially since t!e Co,,unist "eriod. 9"ic singers 0ere still "erfor,ing in Lugoslavia and Bulgaria Dto so,e e.tentE during t!e 1 )&s. Bn 7o,ania, 0!ere t!e singing of e"ic is "er"etuated $y "rofessional traditional 7o, D;y"syE ,usicians, t!e genre still continues Dt!oug! it is definitely dying outE. *n Sout! Slavic oral e"ic, see /ord 1 )&F see also Coote 1 >M. *n 7o,anian oral e"ic, see Beissinger 1 1. %. See Loung 1 >), ?Mff. '. +or a discussion of gender issues and Cerder, see +o. 1 (. See 3nderson 1 ). See 3$ra!a,s 1 >. See 6ol1evic 1 1, ?&(. %, 1&, 11. 1, (. %.

M. See /ord 1 >', 1&(. *n t!e influence of @uk=s collections of Ser$ian oral e"ic on t!e develo"ing conce"ts of nation, see 6ol1evic 1 M&. . See 6arad<ic 1 ) . +or an 9nglis! translation of so,e of t!ese "oe,s, see Pennington and /evi 1 M'. 1&. 9.a,"les of t!e 81ailor=s daug!ter8 ty"e of fe,ale !el"er fro, t!e @uk collection include @uca=s 0ife in 8Marko 6ral1evic and ;eneral @uca8 D0!o, u"on t!e !ero Marko=s reAuest, takes 8t!e keys of t!e dungeon== and releases t!ree !eroes, after 0!ic! s!e and Marko negotiate and co,e to ter,sE. Bn 8Marko 6ral1evic and t!e 5aug!ter of t!e 3ra$ 6ing,8 t!e 1ailor=s daug!ter 8o"ened t!e door of t!e dungeon8 and led Marko fort!, t!ere$y releasing !i,. Bn t!is and all future references to t!e @uk collection, see 6arad<ic. See also t!e 1ailor=s daug!ter figures in 8T!e Story of Ba,si Beyrek of t!e ;rey Corse8 fro, t!e Turkic e"ic T!e Book of 5ede 6orkutin /e0is 1 >'. 11. T!e innkee"er=s 0ife is Janka t!e ale0ife in 8Marko 6ral1evic and 51e,o t!e Mountaineer8 D@uk collectionE. +or t!e 7o,anian tradition, see t!e innkee"er=s 0ife in 85oicin t!e Sick Man8 in 3,<ulescu 1 )'. 1?. 9.a,"les fro, t!e @uk collection include Jerina as a counselor to t!e !ero in 8T!e Wedding of 51uro of S,ederevo.8 Clever ,aidens also figure in 8T!e Wedding of Marko 6ral1evic8 and 83 Maiden *ut0its Marko.8 1%. 9.a,"les of t!e 0ise and no$le ,ot!er a$ound in t!e oral e"ics of t!e Balkans Din t!e @uk collection, for e.a,"le, see 8Marko 6ral1evic and Mina of 6ostur8E. T!is stereoty"ical i,age of t!e ,ot!er fits 0!at ,ig!t $e called t!e Balkan Dor larger SlavicE 8cult of t!e ,ot!er.8 1'. Bn 8T!e Wedding of 6ing @ukasin8 D@uk collectionE, for e.a,"le, a !ero=s fait!ful sister DJevrosi,aE is 1u.ta"osed to !is 0ife as !e offers !is sister in ,arriage to t!e king. 1(. Bn t!e @uk collection, t!e ,ost striking e.a,"le is found in 8Marko 6ral1evic and Mina of 6ostur.8 T!e Odyssey is, of course, t!e ,ost o$vious and 0ell:kno0n version of t!is narrative. 1). @idosava in 8T!e Wedding of 6ing @ukasin8 D@uk collectionE is suc! a traitorous 0ife. 8Banovic Stra!in1a8 also includes a treac!erous 0ife, $ut s!e is s"ared. 1>. 8Marko 6ral1evic and t!e 3ra$8 D@uk collectionE "resents an unconventional 0o,an2t!e sultan=s daug!ter, 0!o refuses to ,arry 8t!e 3ra$,8 t!us c!allenging !er fat!er=s orders. 3not!er e.a,"le is found in 7osanda D0!o is $ot! $eautiful and "roudE in ==T!e Sister of /eka 6a"etan.8 W!en 7osanda is

told to c!oose a !us$and fro, a,ong a grou" of !eroes, s!e re1ects t!e idea of ,arriage to any of t!e ,en asse,$led and de$unks !er $rot!er. Cer s"irit does not go un"unis!edF s!e is cruelly in1ured. 1M. See, for e.a,"le, t!e "o0erful 8vila8 0!o "ro!i$its singing in !er territory in 8Marko 6ral1evic and t!e @ila8 D@uk collectionE. 1 . See 8Marko 6ral1evic 3$olis!es t!e Marriage Ta.8 D@uk collectionE. ?&. See 4edic 1 )(, %)?. ?1. See 41egos 1 M). ??. See 41egos=s %rps,o ogledalo D The %er*ian mirror E first "u$lis!ed in 1M'(. Bt includes 41egos=s o0n collections of oral "oetry in Montenegro, as 0ell as "oe,s 0ritten in t!e 8style8 of oral e"ic. +or ,ore on t!e various stages of 41egos=s "oetic out"ut, see 8T!e Transitional Te.t8 in /ord 1 ( and c!a"ter ) in /ord 1 )&. ?%. *ne of t!e t!e,es of t!e "oe, concerns t!e 0arring factions 0it!in t!e state, 0!ic! could not unite in t!e face of t!e Turkis! t!reat. +or a fuller discussion of t!is, see 6ol1evic 1 1. ?'. 8Slava8 refers to t!e traditional cele$ration and feast a,ong Ser$ian *rt!odo. fa,ilies for t!eir "atron saint. ?(. See 4edic 1 )(. +or a discussion of @uk and !is reflections on !istory, see also Milosevic: 51ord1evic 1 '. ?). 41egos 0rote t0o ot!er literary e"ics in 0!ic! 0o,en "lay no roles at all: uca mi,ro,o!ma DT!e ray of t!e ,icrocos,, 1M'(E and a!ni Car %cepan /ali DT!e false c<ar Ste"!en t!e S,all, 1M(1E. ?>. See 41egos 1 M),11. 1 1%:1 1 . ?M. +or a discussion of la,ent in Montenegro, as 0ell as collected e.a,"les, see 5<akovic 1 )?. ? . See 41egos 1 M), 11. ??&%:??&'. %&. See Turner 1 )>, %ff. %1. See 41egos 1 M),11. ??1):??1>. %?. S"eaking of ,en and social structure in Montenegro, Bette 5enic! !as noted t!at 8"ro"erty and "o0er are vested e.clusively in ,en8 D1 >', ?''E. +urt!er,ore, as for ,ale activity and t!e e.ternal 0orld, 8since all "u$lic arenas !ave t!e "otentiality for co,$at, t!ey are designated as ,ale. T!e !ouse!old=s e.ternal environ,ent is e.clusively a ,ale do,ain8 D". ?'ME. %%. See 41egos 1 M), 1. 1&M. %'. B$id., 1. 1. %(. B$id., 1. 1?)(. %). B$id., 11. 1>1M:1>1 . %>. See 5enic! 1 >', ?'), ?(1. %M. See 41egos 1 M),11. % %:% '. 6osovo !ere refers to t!e decisive $attle in 1%M , 0!ic! !eralded t!e $eginning of centuries of *tto,an rule. % . 41egos 1 M), 11. >&):>&>. '&. B$id., 11. > : M1. Mi!ailovic!=s translation of 8vi1enac8 in t!e first verse of t!is e.cer"t as 8garland8 o$scures its connection to t!e noun in t!e title of t!e e"ic D8vi1enac,8 ot!er0ise rendered as 80reat!8E.

'1. See Sa"iro 1

%, '&. (F see also +eld,an

'?. *n t!e use of ra"e in t!e civil 0ar in t!e for,er Lugoslavia see *lu1ic 1 1 %. '%. See 5enic! 1 >', ?(&. ''. See 9nloe 1 M , )?. '(. +or an 9nglis! translation, see Ma<uranic 1 ) a. '). See 6ol1evic 1 'M. See @erdery 1 ' . B$id. (&. See Sa"iro 1 %, %M. (1. See 9nloe 1 M , '?. 1. ), >%. '>. See Mate1ic 1 M1, 1&'.

>0 Metamorphosis, Metaphor, and %llegory in &atin Epic

1. +or discussion of t!e 0ider i,"lications of t!is tension for t!e !istory of e"ic, see Cardie 1 1 D8Closure and Continuation8E. %, c!a".

?. 3!l 1 M(, (%F see also "". 1&, ?( Dgra,,atical and "!ysical senses of forma E (1, 1M? D8SBMB/itudo, like +*7Ma, is a gra,,atical as 0ell as an artistic ter, in /atin8E. %. de Man 1 >M, ?%:?'. '. 9.g., Caege 1 >), &: %. (. Bate 1 %, 1 1F see also ". ?%). ). Barkan 1 M), ?&:?1. See Caege 1 >), M(: %, for a syste,atic treat,ent of t!e literali<ation of si,ile and ,eta"!or. T!is 0as also t!e su$1ect of a "a"er "resented $y Ja,es C. 3$$ott at t!e 1 % ,eeting of t!e 3,erican P!ilological 3ssociation. >. /etamorphoses 1&.1 &:?1). M. 3 ,eta"!orical a""roac! to t!e earlier ,yt!s of ,eta,or"!osis is t!e funda,ental tactic in +or$es Brving=s e.cellent study D1 E see, for e.a,"le, ". )&, on ani,al ,eta,or"!oses: 8T!ese stories "lay u"on traditional ideas and ,eta"!ors a$out t!e relation $et0een ,en and ani,als to "resent an i,aginative and ,yt!ical e."ression of fa,iliar !u,an concerns.8 T!ere is a danger t!at t!e accidents of survival ,ay te,"t an overly *vidian e.egesis of t!e earlier ,aterial: cf. ". )?: 8T!e i,agination *vid s!o0s in !is treat,ent of t!e stories can often $e a !el" in inter"reting t!e,. Ce 0ill "oint to or $ring to t!e surface underlying t!e,es 0!ic! must !ave $een a "art of t!e a""eal of t!e earlier versions of t!e story e)en if t!ey 0ere never ,ade e."licit8 D,y e,"!asisE. +or$es Brving refers to an early essay on t!e linguistic, ,eta"!orical, and allegorical rationali<ation of ,eta,or"!osis $y J. ;. /. Mell,an D Commentatio de causis et auctori*us narrationum de mutatis formis H/ei"<ig, 1>M)IE, 0!ic! B !ave not seen. . T!e "rogra,,atic function is noted $y Solodo0 1 MM, 1>(:1>). T!e Aualifications of 3nderson 1 M do not affect t!e "oints B 0is! to ,ake. 1&. T!is !a""ens to $e t!e e.a,"le used $y Black D1 )?E to illustrate !is 8interaction vie08 of ,eta"!or. +or a se,i"rover$ial e.a,"le in /atin, see Plautus Asinaria ' (: 83 ,an is a 0olf to a ,an,

not a ,an, 0!en !e doesn=t kno0 0!at kind of a "erson !e is.8 11. 3nderson 1 )%, ':(. 1?. +eeney 1 1, 1 ':1 (. &, 1& for an i,"ortant earlier essay, see 7a!n 1 (%F 1 ('. 1, ?&( Ddra0ing on Solodo0 1 MM, 1)?:1)ME. 1, 1 '. 1%. +or$es Brving 1

1'. +or si,ilar reflections, see +eeney 1

1(. *n t!e "lurality of ,yt!s of !u,an origin, see BU,er 1 ) , >&F +eeney 1

1). T!e 1ingle 8,oni,enta ,anerent8 ,ay "lay 0it! a @arronian ety,ology of 8,e,oria a ,anendo ut ,ani,oria "otest esse dicta8 D "e ingua atina ).' E. 1>. See Solodo0 1 MM, 1M):1MM. 1M. Sc!,idt 1 1, )&. 1 . ;ia,atti 1 )MF see "". '%>:''% on t!e 7enaissance i,age of ,an as Proteus. *vid uses Proteus as a figure for t!e infinitely versatile lover at Ars 1.>( :>)?. ?&. Sc!,idt 1 1, '(. Sc!,idt e,$races t!e "arado. at ". % : 89r ist unver`nderlic!, nic!t trot<, sondern 0egen der @er0andlung. 5as ist nur sc!ein$ar "arado..8 Bt 0ill $e clear t!at B do not agree 0it! Caege=s o$servation in t!e conclusion to !is s!ar" discussion of t!e "lace of ,an in nature in t!e /etamorphoses t!at in *vid 8<0isc!en de, Wesen des Mensc!en und de, des Tieres klafft ein 3$grund8 DCaege 1 >), 1 1E. Bn a nu,$er of cases DBo, Callisto, 3ctaeon: see Caege, "". 1& 11(E *vid does narrate a transfor,ation of t!e Co,eric Circe ty"e, contrasting t!e continuity of t!e "rior !u,an consciousness 0it!in a strange ani,al $ody Dsee +rKcaut 1 M(,11(:1'%E, $ut t!ese cases cannot clai, a "rivileged "lace 0it!in t!e *vidian ant!ro"ology. ?1. Sc!,idt 1 1, >>. ??. T!e s"ecific ,eaning in t!e Co,eric conte.t !as $een ,uc! de$ated Dsee Ceu$eck et al. 1 MM, ) E. ?%. Murnag!an 1 M>, 1& n. 1?, dra0ing on t!e classic studies in 5etienne and @ernant 1 >M. But note t!at Pucci D1 M>, 1' E atte,"ts to deconstruct t!e integrity of t!e *dyssean !ero, in ter,s of a 8decentered "olytro"y,8 drifting into 8"anotro"y.8 Polutropos is used only t0ice in t!e Odyssey, t!e second ti,e at 1&.%%&, in Circe=s address, 0!ere it could $e read ironically of Circe=s failure to 8turn8 *dysseus. ?'. Servius ad loc.: 47oluere casus, t!at is to say, to $e rolled $y ,isfortunes 5casi*us uolui6. 3nd it is t!e figure of !y"allage, 0!ic! occurs 0!enever 0ords are to $e understood $y t!e o""osite.8 +or a contrasting co,$ination in @irgil of "er,anency and 8rolling around,8 cf. Georgics ?.? ':? (: 4immota manet ,ultosAue ne"otes, # ,ulta uiru, uoluens durando saecula uincit8 Dsee also note (( $elo0E. ?(. See Cardie 1 ?, >&, 0it! >> n. 1). *n t!e relation $et0een $ird ,eta,or"!oses and t!e esca"e "rayers of ;reek tragedy, see +or$es Brving 1 &, 1&):1&>: e.g., 9uri"ides Ci""olytus 1? &ff.: 8W!y don=t you !ide under t!e ground in s!a,e or c!ange your life for t!at of a $ird to esca"e t!is ,iseryG8 ?). T!e Co,eric ,odel is #liad 1).M&(:M&) DPatroclus after 3"ollo loosens !is $reast"lateE: 8Confusion sei<ed !is ,ind, !is s"lendid li,$s 0ere loosed under !i,, and !e stood t!ere astounded8F Turnus=s ,ore co,"lete forgetfulness of Dat least !is "!ysicalE self is ac!ieved t!roug! si,ultaneous i,itation of /ucretius ).1?1%:1?1' Dt!e effects of "lagueE: 83nd so,e 0ere even gri""ed $y a total o$liviousness, so t!at t!ey could not even recogni<e t!e,selves D8atAue etia, Auosda, ca"ere o$liuia reru, # cunctaru,, neAue se "ossent cognoscere ut i"si,8 0!ic! in turn i,itates a detail in T!ucydides= descri"tion of t!e 3t!enian "lague D?.' .ME, a $iological catastro"!e t!at entailed t!e colla"se of

"ersonal and social identity in t!e city: 8*t!ers on first recovering suffered total loss of ,e,ory and did not recogni<e t!e,selves and t!eir relative8E. 4ote t!e furt!er ==turns8 0it!in Turnus at Aeneid 1': 1(: 8tu, "ectore sensus =uertuntur uarii.8 ?>. T!e !u,or lies "artly in t!e fact t!at mutata is used of a figurative c!ange 0it!in a story of literal transfor,ation. ?M. T!e Bo e"isode dis"lays furt!er traces of t!e last scenes of t!e Aeneid: Bnac!us re"eats t!e la,ent of Juturna for Turnus Dcf. /etamorphoses 1.))1:))% 0it! Aeneid 1?.M> :MM1EF Bo=s "ersecution $y Juno 0it! an 9rinys D1.>?(E is ended t!roug! t!e reconciliation of Ju"iter and Juno, a "lotline strongly re,iniscent of t!e last !alf of t!e Aeneid3 cf. "er!a"s also t!e $ulls si,ile of Turnus and 3eneas at Aeneid 1?.>1(:>??. 3not!er ec!o of Turnus=s "redica,ent is found in t!at of 3ctaeon at %.1 Mff.: 8fugit 3utonoeius H8of t!e sa,e ,ind8, a s"eaking ,atrony,icI !eros # et se ta, celere, cursu ,iratur in i"so # ut uero uultus et cornua uidit in unda, # =,e ,iseru,V= dicturus erat: uo. nulla secuta est.F # inge,uit: uo. illa fuit, lacri,aeAue "er ora # non sua flu.eruntF ,ens tantu, "ristina ,ansit.8 T!e *vidian i,itation sensiti<es t!e reader to t!e connection $et0een t!e !unted deer si,ile of Turnus at Aeneid 1?.>' :>((E and t!e stag of Silvia at >.'M%:(&?, a $east t!at !as undergone a kind of reverse ,eta,or"!osis into an al,ost !u,an creature Dand 0!ic! is alluded to at /etamorphoses %.?'&E. ? . See Cardie 1 %, %', '&. 4ote in general t!at t!e i,"erial ideology of t!e a"ot!eosis of t!e dead ruler, to 0!ic! @irgil su$scri$es as e"ic "oet, also destroys t!e a$solute $oundary in t!e Co,eric 0orld "icture $et0een !u,an !ero and godF on t!e *vidian !andling of t!is $oundary, see +eeney 1 1, ?&%: ?&(. %&. Solodo0 1 MM, 1 >:1 M. Cf. Barkan 1 M), )) DAuoted $y +eeney 1 1, 1 &E: 8+or all its e,"!asis u"on t!e $lurring of clear categories, ,eta,or"!osis is as ,uc! concerned 0it! reduction and fi.ity as 0it! varia$ility and co,"le.ity.8 Si,ilar "oints !ad already $een ,ade $y 3l$rec!t D1 )1, 1> E, follo0ing 5Urrie D1 ( E. %1. 4ugent 1 M(, %&. But 4ugent=s clai, D". ?E t!at 8t!e first allegorical 0ork can $e seen as a sur"risingly so"!isticated ,editation on so,e of t!e conce"tual "ro$le,s 0!ic! t!e allegorical genre itself entails8 is to overlook t!e a,ount of 0ork t!at !as already $een done $y *vid and Statius. %?. Cf. 4ugent 1 M(, (':((, on t!e dece"tion D fraus E of 3varitia: 8T!is transfor,ation !as $een acco,"lis!ed e."licitly on t!e linguistic level, $y a c!ange in naming H,y e,"!asisI.8 Cf. also +eeney 1 1, %M%, on t!e fraus "ractised $y Statius=s @irtus, 0!o also "uts on a disguise, in a kind of ,eta,or"!osis. %%. T!is trick 0it! refle.ive "ronouns is an *vidian favorite, one of t!e 0ord"lays t!at force our attention to t!e du"licities of "ersonification and ot!er kinds of allegory: see +rKcaut 1 >?, %?, %). %'. Burro0 1 MM, 1((. %(. Skulsky 1 M1, %(:%). %). +eeney 1 1, 1)%. %>. B illustrate t!e "oints fro, @irgil=s 3llecto and Turnus e"isode, *vid=s Cunger and 9risyc!t!on e"isode, and Statius=s @irtue and Menoeceus e"isode. +or disguise, see Aeneid >.'1(:'1 F The*ais BN . )% :)' F for refle.ive "ronouns, see /etamorphoses M.M 1 : 8seAue uiro ins"irat8F The*ais 1&.)>%: 8seseAue in corde reliAuit 8F for a$stract nouns, see Aeneid >.')1:')?: 8a,or ferri, scelerati insania $elli, ira8F /etamorphoses M.M?M: 8ardor edendi== Dse,i"ersonified 0it! furit EF M'(: 8dira fa,es8 D0!ere dira !ints at t!e @irgilian ,odel for t!e "ersonification of +a,es in t!e 5ira 3llectoEF The*ais 1&.)>>: 8leti . . . a,ore,.8 +or si,iles, see Aeneid >.')?:')) D$oiling cauldronEF /etamorphoses M.M%(:M% Dinsatia$le sea and fire, t!e latter undergoing "ersonification into a voracious 8eater8EF

The*ais 1&.)>':)>( DMenoeceus ins"ired $y @irtue like a cy"ress struck $y lig!tningF t!e tree is "ersonified, a "rocess reinforced $y allusion to t!e *vidian ,eta,or"!osis of t!e $oy Cy"arissus into t!e cy"ress tree: 0it! 1&.)>> H8letiAue inuasit a,ore,8I cf. /etamorphoses 1&.1%? H8uelle ,ori statuit8IE. Wofford 1 ?, 1%):1%>, "oints to t!e 8allegorical force8 of t!e @irgilian 3llecto, and to t!e 8figurative density8 of t!e narrative of !er action. %M. See Ou,0alt 1 >>. % . +eeney 1 1, 1M):1M>. Bn Calli,ac!ean ter,s t!e e"ic "oet is a Jovian t!underer Dsee note '&E. '&. +a,a is a kind of c!t!onic version of Ju"iter=s t!under$olt, $orne $y 9art! in ans0er to Ju"iter=s $lasting of !er ot!er gigantic c!ildren. Bn line 1'M, 8ira . . . deoru,8 can $e taken as eit!er an o$1ective genitive D!er anger against t!e godsE or a su$1ective genitive Dt!e anger of t!e gods, 0!ose ,anifestation aroused eart! to "roduce +a,aE: t!e gra,,atical a,$iguity ,irrors 9art!=s "arodic dou$ling ofJu"iter=s activity. +urt!er,ore Aeneid '.1>( alludes to a /ucretian descri"tion of t!e t!under$olt at ).%'&:%'?F and +a,a 8infla,es8 at '.1 >. Terrorist tactics are co,,on to Ju"iter D1?.M(1:?E and +a,a D'.1M>E. *vid co,,ents on t!e association of t!e t0o at /etamorphoses 1?.' : (? Dt!e descri"tion of +a,aE: 8t!e ,utterings of a lo0 voice, like t!e noise t!at co,es fro, t!e 0aves of t!e sea, if you listen at a distance, or like t!e sound "roduced $y t!e last rolls of t!under 0!en Ju"iter !as ,ade t!e $lack clouds rattle.8 T!is is t!e literary:!istorical $ackground to @alerius +laccus=s state,ent of t!e !ostility of Ju"iter to +a,a at Argonautica ?.11>:1??. '1. +a,a and +uries: 8illa, Terra "arens ira inritata deorum4 D Aeneid '.1>ME !ints at t!e ety,ology of 5 ira fro, dei ira, 8anger of god.8 3t @alerius +laccus Argonautica ?.11(ff. @enus=s use of +a,a is ,odeled on Juno=s use of 3llecto: at 1?M note @enus=s +ury:like "o0er to 8uerteredo,os,8 8DoverE turn !ouse!olds8 D3eneid >.%%): 8odiis uersare do,os8E, and !er ado"tion of a disguise Dlike Statius=s @irtusE to a""roac! t!e /e,nian 0o,en. '?. W!it,an 1 M>, (%. '%. W!it,an D1 M>E also "uts !is finger on t!e 0ay in 0!ic! +a,a co,,ents on a Auality of ,eta,or"!osis at t!e !eart of t!e Aeneid: 8Unlike Co,er=s $rief figure of social discord, t!e r!etorical flig!t of @irgil=s 8+a,a8 is a co,,ent on t!e stylistic and conce"tual, as 0ell as e,otional, dile,,as of t!e "oe,. Bn a 0orld turning inside out and outside in, it is necessary to find so,e conce"tual category to enco,"ass t!e action8 D". (%F ,y e,"!asisEF 8@irgil=s 0orld is a 0orld in radical transition, al0ays t!reatening to sli" into inco,"re!ensi$ility8D". ((E. ''. +eeney 1 1 1M>. '(. Cardie 1 M), ?>%:?> . '). Bs it accidental t!at D"urely gra,,aticallyE t!ere is an a,$iguity a$out t!e reference of haec in line '%', eit!er to -oma or famaK T!e e"ic, annalistic !istory of 7o,e is nota$ly one of $oundless e.tent arising out of t!e ,ost s,all:scale origins: +a,a is t!us a "eculiarly a"t figure for an e"ic a$out 7o,e. '>. See +eeney 1 1, ?'M, on *vidian +a,a: 8"lasticity of tradition and varia$le nature of "oetic trut!.8 T!e Theogony is t!e first allegorical "oe, of antiAuityF could 8false!oods like t!e trut!8 $e understood of t!e "rocedures of "ersonification allegory e,"loyed $y CesiodG 'M. Sven$ro, 1 >), 1%%:1%'. ' . @irgil=s o0n narrative, !o0ever, also licenses a reading of +a,a=s distortions as ,erely a selective retelling of t!e taleF for lu+us, cf. Aeneid 1.)%>: 8at do,us interior regali s"lendida lu.u8F 8tur"iAue cu"idine ca"tos8 at line 1 ' is "artly t!e story told at t!e end of 1.)>%:)>': 8Auocirca capere ante dolis et cingere fla,,a # regina, ,editor8 D@enus addressing !er son Cu"idoE.

(&. HCeraclitusI 0omeric Allegories > .?: 89"icurus, t!e P!aeacian "!iloso"!er.8 (1. Cis s"eec! is itself caug!t 0it!in t!e fama t!at is t!e narrative of t!e Aeneid D?&': dicitur E as +eeney notes D1 1, 1M>E. (?. *n t!e convergence of Ju"iter and +a,a see note '& a$ove. (%. 3nd $y t!is act of !earing Ju"iter inserts !i,self in t!e c!ain of fama3 as ,yt!ological actors t!ey o"erate on t!e sa,e stage of reality Dor unrealityE: 0it! lines ??&:??1 D8HJu"iterI turned !is eyes to t!e city of t!e Aueen,8 8oculosAue ad ,oenia torsit # regia8E cf. line 1 ) D8H+a,aI turned !er course to 6ing Bar$as,8 ==ad rege, cursus detorAuet Bar$an.8 ('. +or e.a,"les of 8;estaltgleic!!eit8 in *vidian ,eta,or"!osis, see Caege 1 >), 1&%:1&). 3t Meta,or"!oses '.)(>ff. 3tlas in fact undergoes a ,ore t!oroug!going ,eta,or"!osis, as !is $eard and !air c!ange into Da$euntE 0oods, etc. *vid also ,akes 3tlas undergo a c!ange in si<e Dsee Caege, "". 1>?:1>%: 8;ross:klein8F 3cis is t!e only ot!er e.a,"le of a c!ange fro, s,all to $ig in t!e Meta,or"!osesE analogous to t!at of +a,a: 8tu, "artes altus in o,nes # creuit in i,,ensu,8 D))&))1E. ((. T!is line alludes to a "assage in an earlier 0ork D Georgics ?.? ':? (, Auoted in note ?' a$oveE descri$ing an oak tree, 0!ic! cries out to $e taken as a figure for t!e "er,anence of t!e 7o,an state Dso 6raggerud 1 )%, '' n. 1&)E. Bn turn 8,ens i,,ota ,anet8 is t!e ,odel for *vid /etamorphoses ?.'M(: 8,ens antiAua ,anet8 D8t!e ,ind Hof t!e ,eta,or"!osed CallistoI re,ained as it 0as $efore8EF B readily confess t!at ,y ==,eta,or"!ic8 reading of t!e Aeneid is not Dand cannot no0 $eE innocent of t!e *vidian rece"tion of t!e earlier te.t. T!e *vidian i,itation "ro,"ts yet furt!er rereadings of $ot! @irgilian "assages: at Aeneid '.'' 8,ens i,,ota ,anet8 could $e understood of t!e survival of 3eneas=s ,ind des"ite !is figurative ,eta,or"!osis Dinto t!e tree, into Mount 3tlasE, and at Georgics ?.? ' 8i,,ota ,anet8 of t!e tree $eco,es Auestiona$le in t!e lig!t of t!e linguistic violence inflicted on it: of uoluens Dliterally 8rolling t!e, $y8E 7. +. T!o,as co,,ents: 8T!e t!oug!t is $old, as =t!e tree is said to do t!at 0!ic! it sees done$4 Da figure related to t!e !y"allage in uoluereat Aeneid B.83 see note ?' a$oveEF and on t!e lines ? ):? > T!o,as re,arks: 8T!e "ersonification is intense, as t!e tree al,ost takes on t!e a""earance of an 3tlas8: T!o,as is referring to Aeneid M.1%>, $ut t!ere is an o$vious connection to t!e 3tlas of Aeneid '. 3 "retty versatile treeV (). Cere B 0ould correct ;reene 1 >&, M% and M': 8T!e great s!aggy ice:$ound figure sustaining t!e sky is an e+emplum of !eroic self:denial, of austere e."osure to t!e ele,ents for t!e sake of t!e 0orld co,,unity. 3tlas e,$odies t!e Aualities 0!ic! 3eneas !as te,"orarily forgotten8F 8T!is cloak and t!e idle s0ord, studded ostentatiously 0it! 1as"er, "oint t!e contrast 0it! 3tlas= !uge $attered !ead.8 ;reene fails to note t!e ec!o of 3tlas in t!e 8stor,:tossed oak8 3eneas.

?0 Tasso:s Trees2 Epic and &ocal Culture

1. See 9liot 1 (>, 8W!at Bs a ClassicG8 "articularly "". )>:>&, 0!ere !e discusses universality and "rovincialis,. ?. 9liot 1 (>, 8@irgil and t!e C!ristian World,8 1?>. %. +or co,,ents on local culture, see 9liot 1 MM, 84otes to0ard t!e 5efinition of Culture,8 1?%:1'&. '. 4agy 1 > , >. See also c!a". ), 8/a,entation and t!e Cero,8 0!ic! closes 0it! t!e distinction $et0een t!e local s"ecificity of cult:8T!e !ero of cult ,ust $e local $ecause it is a funda,ental "rinci"le in ;reek religion t!at !is "o0er is local8 and t!e ti,eless universality of t!e Pan!ellenic tradition and t!e Co,eric "oetry t!at e,$races and articulates it.

(. 4agy 1 > ,, 11). ). B Auote fro, Ti,ot!y Ca,"ton=s translation of t!e "assage fro, t!e Apologia DCa,"ton 1 &, %E. Ca,"ton=s argu,ent t!at Tasso fears 8t!e a,$iguities of "articularity8 and t!erefore seeks t!e 8sta$ility and certainty of t!e universal8 !as $een an i,"ortant influence on t!is essayF see Ca,"ton, "". MM: '. >. 9liot 1 (>, 1?>. M. 3ll citations and translations fro, @irgil=s Aeneid and Eclogues are taken fro, +aircloug! 1 >'. . 6losso0ki 1 &, 1?M. 1&. T!at @irgil=s sy,"at!ies ,ay 0ell lie 0it! Meli$oeus in t!e dialogue is indicated $y a line relevant to t!e s!e"!erds= "artici"ation in local cult. 3t one "oint, Meli$oeus e."licitly calls attention to t!e fact t!at t!e local fountains Tityrus re1ected do, in fact, !old Tityrus dearF 0!en Tityrus 0as 8a$sent8 in 7o,e, Meli$oeus clai,s, t!e very trees and sacred fountains called for !i, D8Tityrus !inc a$erat. i"sae te, Tityre, "inus, # i"si te fontes, i"sa !aec ar$usta voca$ant,8 %M:% E. 11. 8et ia, su,,a "rocul villaru, cul,ina fu,ant# ,aioresAue cadunt altis de ,onti$us u,$rae8 D89ven no0 t!e !ouse:to"s yonder are s,oking and longer s!ado0s fall fro, t!e ,ountain:!eig!ts,8 M?:M%E. 1?. B o0e t!is insig!t to /aura McClure, of t!e Classics 5e"art,ent at t!e University of Wisconsin. 1%. 8ia, tu, religio "avidos terre$at agrestis# dira loci, ia, tu, silva, sa.u,Aue tre,e$ant8 DM.%' : %(&E. Mig!t 0e not note in t!e reference to t!e pa)idos agrestis and t!e dual e,"!asis on t!eir terror so,e condescension on @irgil=s "art 0!en s"eaking of t!ose rustics 0!o allo0 t!e,selves to $eco,e so frig!tened $y a ,ysterious landsca"eG 1'. Book M is ,ore ironic t!an B !ave indicatedF t!e su""osedly local religion of t!e Ca"itoline Cill turns out, t!roug! t!e ve!icle of t!e 3rcadians t!e,selves, to !ave $een a ;reek i,"ortation. 1(. Per!a"s one of t!e ,ost telling lines in Aeneid ', 0!en 3eneas is $uilding a city in Cart!age, is t!at 0!ic! for ,any critics ,akes 5ido a disse,$ling 0o,an des"erate for ,arriage 0it! 3eneas. 3fter t!e t0o !ave $egun t!eir affair, 5ido refers to t!eir relations!i" as a 8,arriage8 D8coniugiu, vocatF !oc "raete.it no,ine cul"a,,8 8S!e calls it ,arriageF 0it! t!at 0ord s!e covers !er fault,8 '.1>?E. But in a city suc! as Cart!age, 0!ic! 0ors!i"s Juno as its "ree,inent deity, t!e ritual t!at Juno effects around t!e cave in 0!ic! 3eneas and 5ido first ,ake love enacts for 5ido t!e e<ui)alent of a ,arriage rite. +or 3eneas, it does not. Bn t!is clas!, one culture is necessarily silenced D==Ur$s antiAua fuit. . . 6art!ago828T!ere 2as an ancient city called Cart!age,8 0e learn at t!e o"ening of t!e Aeneid H1.11: 1?IE, and t!e ot!er necessarily "rivileged. 1). +or suggestive inter"retations of t!e Btalian deification of !y$rid figures 0!o su""osedly led t!eir "eo"le fro, savagery to civili<ation, see Brelic! 1 >). 1>. See Willia,s 1 M , ?1(. 1M. More s"ecifically, +reud sa0 in Tasso=s version of @irgil=s te.t a ,anifestation of t!e universal co,"ulsion to re"eat. See +reud 1 )1, 1), 0!ere +reud suggests t!at Tancredi=s 0ounding of Clorinda for a second ti,e in t!e enc!anted forest is 8t!e ,ost ,oving "oetic "icture8 of 8t!e co,"ulsion to re"eat.8 +or t0o recent readings of t!e "oe, t!at dra0 on +reud=s insig!ts, see +erguson 1 M? and Bella,y 1 '. 1 . See ;alinsky 1 ) , 1'1:1 &, and Mo,igliano 1 M>, ?>?:?>'. ?&. See Susanne Wofford=s o$servation t!at @irgil uses 87o,an "lace na,es as tro"es to legiti,i<e 3eneas=s clai,s to t!e Btalian land retros"ectively8 D1 ?, 1M&E. Wofford also calls attention to t!e

actual distance of 3eneas and t!e Tro1ans fro, t!e landF and it is t!e sacrifice of Palinurus t!at 8indicates t!e cost not only of creating suc! an aetiology for t!e land . . . $ut also of a certain ty"e of "oetic figuration itself:t!e cost to "oet and !ero of "ossessing t!e land as a "oetic or a "olitical conAuest8 D". 1M1E. ?1. ;alinsky 1 ) , 1 &. ??. See Ca,"ton 1 &, M : Ca,"ton Auotes fro, t!e Apologia D8T!e "oet 0ill !ave $roug!t t!e trut! and "articularity of !istory to verisi,ilitude and universality, 0!ic! is "ro"er to !is art8E and co,,ents: 83s e"ic "oetry $eco,es "oetry, =considering= t!ings in t!eir universality, !istorical "articularity loses its significance. 3s events and c!aracters are "laced into t!e unity of a "lot t!ey lose t!eir essentially !istorical c!aracter and $eco,e "oetic2t!at is, in t!e "arlance of $ot! Tasso and 3ristotle, "!iloso"!ical.8 Puint 1 M% also discusses Tasso=s avoidance of !istorical "articularity in t!e Gerusalemme li*erata, alt!oug! in t!e conte.t of Tasso=s reliance on Platonis, rat!er t!an on 3ristotle. Puint 1 % is a ,ore "ersuasive reading of Tasso=s construction of a 8universal8 e"ic, as Puint ela$orates Tasso=s only "artially successful su""ression of t!e sectarian and nationalistic $oundaries t!at divided late si.teent!:century 9uro"e. ?%. Tasso 1 M? Dt!e edition of +redi C!ia""elliE. 9nglis! translations of t!e i*erata are taken fro, Tasso 1 M> D7al"! 4as!=s translationEF B !ave ,ade ,inor revisions t!roug!out. ?'. T!ere are ad,ittedly several ot!er ,o,ents in t!e i*erata 0!en it is C!ristian $lood t!at 8flo0s8 in a ,anner re,iniscent of C!rist=s. W!en t!e 0arrior Sveno is killed in t!e desert en route to Jerusale,, !is $lood $eco,es a river D8di sangue un rio,8 M. 1 E. So,e0!at ,ore "ro$le,atically, in a "assage B 0ill address $elo0, 0!en Clorinda is 0ounded $y Tancredi2a Clorinda 0!o is still, tec!nically, a Musli,, alt!oug! 0it!in several lines s!e 0ill $e $a"ti<ed $y Tancredi !i,self2!er $lood is also said to flo0 like a river. ?(. T!e Con<uistata 0ill ,ake t!is "arado. less likely:2t!e "oe, ends not 0it! $leeding $odies, $ut 0it! a lengt!y "rocession and "o," t!at rivals t!e 8orna,enti $ar$arici e "o,"e8 stained $y t!e "agans= flo0ing $lood. Bn fact, in t!e Con<uistata, nature itself cro0ns ;offredo=s victory as !e enters t!e !oly city: 89= gi_ tranAuillo il ,ar, sereno il vento,# l=aria "ia c!iara assai c!=ella non suoleF# tanto col vincitore il ciel s=allegra,# e la natura, dian<i afflitta ed egra8 D8T!e sea is cal,, t!e 0ind serene, t!e air ,ore "ure t!an it is 0ont to $eF t!us sky and nature alike, once so ill and afflicted, re1oice 0it! t!e conAueror,8 ?'.1%?E. T!e fugitives on 0!o, t!e "enulti,ate stan<a of t!e i*erata !ad d0elled are relegated to a verse tucked into t!e ,iddle of t!e last canto. Bn lines so altered as to $e unrecogni<a$le, t!ey are co,"ared to 8$elve in fSro ludo# cinte d=intorno, o =n sanguinosa caccia8 D==0ild ani,als surrounded in fierce struggle, or in $loody !unt,8 ?'.11ME. 3ny eAuation t!at ,ig!t !ave $een ,ade $et0een C!rist=s $leeding $ody and t!e fuggiti)i can no longer $e i,agined. Citations are fro, Tasso 1 %' DBonfigli=s edition of t!e Gerusalemme con<uistata E translations are ,y o0n. ?). T!e 83llegoria del Poe,a8 can $e found in Tasso 1M>(, 1: %&1 D;uasti=s edition of Tasso=s "rose 0orksEF t!e translation is fro, Tasso 1 M>, ') D4as!=s translationE. 3s Tasso sc!olars !ave noted, t!e 83llegoria8 !as a singularly co,"licated relations!i" to t!e "oe, itselfF Tasso=s letters fro, t!e "eriod suggest t!at it 0as largely a creation to a""ease t!e 7o,an inAuisitor, Silvio 3ntoniani, 0!o needed to a""rove t!e te.t $efore it could $e "u$lis!ed. See, a,ong ot!ers, Murrin 1 M&, 1?1:1?M, and 5erla 1 >M. 7!u 1 % "rovides a translation of t!e 83llegoria,8 as 0ell as a s"lendid introduction to t!e young Tasso=s t!eoretical 0orks. ?>. T!e "!rase is fro, t!e later Con<uistata, ?'.11M. ?M. Berger 1 MM offers a lively discussion of an ani,is, t!at Protestants suc! as S"enser associated 0it! Cat!olicis,F see ". >M in "articular: 8T!e Cat!olic a$uses suggested in t!e early cantos Hof Book B

of The 1aerie .ueene6 are traced $ack and reduced to an arc!aic "agan sensi$ility 0!ic! "ro1ects ant!ro"o,or"!ic idols as if it never received t!e Word. T!e !istorical failure re"resented as t!e C!urc! of t!e Middle 3ges is seen as a $etrayal of t!e original ;os"el e."erience and as a regression to t!e in!erent tendency of t!e sil)a )anus, t!e +les!, to resist enlig!ten,ent.8 Berger=s co,,ents are "articularly suggestive as regards t!e enc!anted forest in t!e i*erata. More generally, see 9ire 1 M). ? . *n t!e effects of Tridentine doctrine on "o"ular culture in Btaly, see 4iccoli 1 M>. %&. T!ere is an interesting "arallel 0it! t!e #nferno, in 0!ic! 5ante=s ,isera$le suicide, Piero della @igna, "arodies !is o0n 0ould:$e crucifi.ion: !e is tra""ed like Tasso=s Clorinda in a 8$ody or to,$, B kno0 not 0!ic! to say8 D1%.'%E. But Tasso=s e"isode of t!e $leeding trunk is co,"licated in 0ays t!at 5ante=s is not. 3s 0e kno0 fro, t!e for,ida$le announce,ent "osted at t!e gate of !ell, Bnferno is ;od=s !andi0ork, and t!e fact t!at !ell=s in!a$itants "arody t!e !oliest ,ysteries of C!ristianity does not su$vert t!ose ,ysteries $ut attests to t!eir universality: even in !ell, even a,ong "agans, one is forced to ackno0ledge t!e trut! of C!rist=s $irt!, deat!, and resurrection, and 5ante=s sinners do so 0it!out reali<ing to 0!at t!ey are attesting. T!e forest 0it!in 0!ic! Clorinda s"eaks is t!e result of !orri$le c!ar,s, 8too a0ful to say,8 of t!e Musli, sorcerer 0!o 0as $orn a C!ristian, and unlike t!e "ilgri, 5ante, Tancredi !as no @irgilian guide to assist !i,. %1. Bar$eri:SAuarotti 1 %, ?' , o$serves rig!tly t!at Tancredi can=t convince !i,self t!at Clorinda is si,"ly a dia$olical a""arition: 8S, an<b, una veritR c!e va oltre il fatto e la vicenda.8. T!e o$servation is an i,"ortant one, for it suggests t!at Tancredi insists on seeing t!e tree as a ,aterial real, in!a$ited $y a transcendent $eing and t!us as a ve!icle for incarnation. %?. See t!e t!ird selection fro, # /iracoli della 7ergine, entitled 85=uno c!e vendK cic c!e egli aveva e diSllo a= "overi8 D*f one t!at sold all !e !ad and gave it to t!e "oorE, in de /uca 1 >>, ': >%&:>%?. %%. Ugone tells ;offredo: 8Bf !ig! Providence elected you as t!e c!ief ca"tain of t!e venture, !e also destined t!at H7inaldoI ,ust $e t!e sovereign e.ecutor of your co,,ands8 D1'.1%E. %'. +ro, t!e very start of t!e "oe,, Tasso de"icts Clorinda as adverse to Bs,eno=s "atently un:Bsla,ic "ractices. Bn canto ?, t!e sorcerer is conde,ned not $y t!e narrator for !is confounding of 8due leggi,8 $ut $y Clorinda, 0!en s!e c!astises Jerusale,=s king, 3ladino, for letting Bs,eno "ersuade !i, to re,ove an i,age of Mary fro, t!e C!ristians= te,"le and "lace it in t!e ,osAue instead, 8so t!at it 0ill $e a fated "rotection for t!ese gates8 D?.)E. Clorinda angrily insists t!at t!e 0i<ard !as little reverence for Musli, la0 D8+u de le nostre leggi irriveren<a# Auell=o"ra far c!e "ersuase il ,ago8E, and s!e $la,es Bs,eno for trying to 8conta,inate== Bsla, 8con nova # religion8 D?.(&:(1E t!at $elieves in t!e "o0er and efficacy of i,ages. Suc! an e"isode s!o0s t!at Tasso 0as 0ell a0are of so,e of t!e central "ractices of Bsla,F it also suggests t!at t!e de,oni<ation of Bsla, in t!e te.t "roceeds not fro, ignorance $ut fro, ideology. %(. My t!anks to Paul Bucklin, 0!ose senior t!esis on Tasso suggestively discusses 0ays in 0!ic! t!e Gerusalemme li*erata ,akes Tasso=s "redecessors, 5ante included, sus"icious !eretics in lig!t of t!e 8true8 Counter:7efor,ation fait!.

@0 %ppropriating the Epic2 .ender, Caste, and !egional Identity in Middle India
1. 3 version of t!is essay a""ears in +lueckiger 1 ), 0!ere t!e Candaini e"ic is conte.tuali<ed 0it!in t!e $roader regional re"ertoire of C!!attisgar!F it is a su$stantially revised version of an essay t!at a""ears in Oral Epics in #ndia DBlack$urn et. al, 1 M E. ?. See C!a"ter 1, 89"ic as ;enre.8 %. See, for e.a,"le, *inas 1 >?F C!ad0ick and O!ir,unsky 1 ) F Jo!nson 1 M&.

'. Black$urn and +lueckiger 1 M , ). (. +lueckiger and Sears 1 1 )F Bau,an 1 >>, %. ). Black$urn and +lueckiger 1 M , 11. >. T!e 30ad!i variant 0as recorded in 3lla!a$ad 5istrict, U.P., and "u$lis!ed as The 0indi Oral Epic ori,i D1 > EF t!e B!o1"uri variant 0as recorded in Benaras, U.P., and "u$lis!ed as The 0indi Oral Epic Canaini D1 M?E. M. 9l0in 1 '), %%M:%>&F e"isodes of 9l0in=s version are sur"risingly si,ilar to t!e e"isodes B !eard in "erfor,ance, even t!oug! t!ey 0ere docu,ented forty years earlier. . Miller 1 M1, >1F +lueckiger 1 1&. Pandey 1 > , 1>. 11. Coccari 1 M'. 1?. Mandel$au, 1 >?, '''. 1%. *ne suc! volu,e is 6!edkar 1 ( . 1'. See +lueckiger 1 ) for an e."anded discussion of t!e e"ic e"isodes t!at illustrate t!e ,artial and caste e,"!ases of t!e U.P. variant. 1(. B add t!e c!aracteri<ation 8,ale,8 since 0o,en are not "art of its "ri,ary audiences and ,ay listen to its "erfor,ance only 0!en it is !eld in a setting t!at allo0s t!e, to 8over!ear8 fro, $e!ind a curtain or 0all. 3ccording to Pandey D"ersonal co,,unicationE, 3!ir 0o,en ,ay kno0 t!e general outline of t!e narrative $ut !ave not incor"orated its c!aracters and "lot into t!eir o0n fe,ale "erfor,ance genres. 1). Pandey, oral co,,unication, June 1 M?. B !eard a si,ilar saying in C!!attisgar! regarding t!e /aha*harata De.ce"t argu,ent 0as su$stituted for $attleE in an e."lanation for 0!y -amayana "erfor,ances 0ere ,ore co,,on:a 0onderful indigenous articulation of t!e creative "o0er of "erfor,ance. 1>. Many oral e"ics in Bndia are "u$lis!ed in t!ese $a<aar "a,"!let for,sF t!e C!!attisgar!i Candaini, !o0ever, !as not yet $een so "u$lis!ed. T!is "articular U.P. "u$lication and its cover illustration see, to $e "atterned after t!e "o"ular "a,"!lets of anot!er ,artial e"ic "erfor,ed in U.P., t!e 3l!a 6and, 0!ose e"isodes are also na,ed after its nu,erous $attles. 1M. See Ba$$ 1 >(, %):%>, for a descri"tion of mataras cele$rated in t!e C!!attisgar!i "lains. 1 . T!is i,age is c!anging, !o0ever. 5uring ,y last tri" to C!!attisgar! in t!e su,,er of 1 %, B !eard ,any co,"laints fro, village landlords t!at 7auts 0ere no longer 0illing to 8serve8 t!e village, t!at t!ey 0ere c!oosing to co,,ute to t!e city for 0ork instead. Bt !as left ,any lando0ners des"erate for 8servants8 D nau,ar E, and ,any are $eing i,"orted fro, t!e neig!$oring "rovince of *rissa, 0!ere t!ere is !ig! une,"loy,ent and !ence a 0illingness to relocate for 0ork. Bt is dou$tful t!at t!e 7auts 0ill rea""ro"riate t!e e"ic no0 to "ro,ote t!is ne0ly e,erging identity, since t!ey !ave already a$andoned t!e e"ic as "erfor,ers, alt!oug! t!ey still "artici"ate as audience ,e,$ers of t!e C!!attisgar!i regional folklore co,,unity. ?&. 7auts do !ave ot!er narrative "erfor,ance traditions 0!ose ,usical acco,"ani,ent2five:to si.: foot $a,$oo flutes2give t!e genre its na,e, *as git3 and *as git re,ains s"ecifically associated 0it! t!e caste, alt!oug! it is listed in t!e core C!!attisgar!i folk re"ertoire referred to earlier. ?1. *ne infor,ant told ,e t!at t!e "ri,ary difference $et0een t!e Candaini and Pandvani e"ic ), M: .

traditions 0as t!e c!aracteristic line ending of mor and tor of Candaini and *haiya or *haige Dliterally, 8$rot!er8E of Pandvani. ??. Many naca "erfor,ers are a$le, t!erefore, to "erfor, in t!e git style and ,ay do so for t!eir o0n entertain,ent. ?%. See +lueckiger 1 MM for a descri"tion of one "erfor,er 0!o e."eri,ented 0it! co,$ining ele,ents of git and naca in a "u$lic "erfor,ance for 0!ic! t!ere 0ere not sufficient funds to !ire an entire naca trou"e. ?'. See 4arayana 7ao Dfort!co,ingE for a discussion of t!e Sanskrit classification of lo0 castes and 0o,en 0it!in a single category. ?(. 9l0in 1 '), %' . ?). /oose !air in C!!attisgar! !as se.ual connotations unless fra,ed in ritual conte.ts of ,ourning or goddess "ossession. ?>. 9l0in 1 '), %'(. ?M. B$id. ? . Pandey, "ersonal co,,unication, June 1 M?. %&. T!ere are genres ot!er t!an e"ic t!at ha)e $een a""ro"riated $y folklore grou"s and co,,unities 0it!in t!e region, !o0ever, in a self:conscious 0ay. +or e.a,"le, in 1 M( one village !ead,an talked s"ecifically a$out t!e role !e t!oug!t folk festivals could "lay in esta$lis!ing a sense of village identity and i,"roving ,orale. Ce told ,e !e !ad introduced t!e festival of gaura to !is village several years ago, one of t!e "erfor,ance genres consistently ,entioned in t!e re"ertoire list of 80!at 0e in C!!attisgar! cele$rate.8 Ce !ad asked several daug!ters:in:la0 0!o ca,e fro, villages in 0!ic! gaura 0as traditionally cele$rated if t!ey 0ould $e 0illing to introduce t!e festival to t!eir village of ,arriage. Ce t!oug!t t!is "articular festival 0ould $e a""ro"riate $ecause of t!e nu,erous folklore grou"s it could involve and t!e large "u$lic "rocession to t!e village tank t!at ends t!e festival. 3fter several years of its "erfor,ance in !is village, t!e !ead,an see,ed satisfied 0it! its results. %1. Bose and B!attac!ar1ee 1 M'. %?. +lueckiger 1 MM.

B0 'ro9lematic 'erformances2 #+erlapping .enres and &e+els of 'articipation in %ra9ic #ral Epic;Singing
1. See, for e.a,"le, Briggs 1 MM, Bau,an 1 >>, and Cy,es 1 >1. +or an earlier and $roader state,ent, see ;off,an 1 >', "articularly c!a". 1&, 8Breaking +ra,e.8 ?. See Cy,es 1 M1, 8Breakt!roug! into Perfor,ance8 and 8Breakt!roug! into Perfor,ance 7evisited.8 %. +or an overvie0 of t!ese ,aterials, see 7eynolds 1 M . '. See Bird 1 >?F /ord 1 >'F 7eic!l 1 ?. (. T!e aut!oritative role of t!e first:"erson utterance !as $een an enduring feature of 3ra$ic literature fro, t!e earliest "eriods on0ard, "articularly in genres t!at are close to, or i,itate, oral traditions. See 7eynolds 1 1. ). 7eynolds 1 (, c!a". (, 8T!e Bnter"lay of ;enres.8 >. Ta!a is an e"it!et of t!e "ro"!et Mu!a,,ad for,ed fro, t!e t0o 3ra$ic letters Ta and 0a.

M. See Martin 1 M . . B$id., ?%>. 1&. 7eynolds 1 (, c!a". %, 8Poets Bnside and *utside t!e 9"ic.8 11. 3 re,arka$le incident fro, sout!ern 9gy"t in 0!ic! a "oet 0as not a$le to disclai, an offending verse is analy<ed in detail in Slyo,ovics 1 M>. 1?. See Burke 1 %1.

*0 Worshiping Epic illains2 % ,aura+a Cult in the Central 1imalayas)

1. S"ecial t!anks to 7a1,o!an Sing! 7angad and !is fa,ily for s!aring t!eir !o,e in ;aic!0an village 0it! ,e in 1 %:1 '. T!anks also to Terry 3ustrin, Jaco$ 4eusner, Jane Si,"son, and 3lf Cilte$eitel for t!eir co,,ents on a "revious draft. T!e researc! u"on 0!ic! t!is essay is $ased 0as ,ade "ossi$le $y a grant fro, t!e University of Canter$ury. ?. C!andola, 1 >>, 1M. %. T!e critical edition Dnineteen volu,esE 0as edited $y @. S. Sukt!ankar D1 %%1 ))E. T!e only co,"lete 9nglis! translation is t!at of 6. M. ;anguli, first "u$lis!ed $y P. C. 7oy in 1MM%:1M ) and recently reissued D1 M1:1 M?E.J. 3. B. van Buitenen translated t0o volu,es $efore !is deat!, and a tea, of sc!olars is carrying on 0it! 0!at 0ill certainly $eco,e t!e standard 9nglis! translation D1 >%:E. T!e ,ost useful condensed 9nglis! translation is still t!at of C. @. 4arasi,!an D1 )(E. '. Pollock 1 M), 1(. (. Cilte$eitel 1 >), 1 MM. ). Biardeau 1 >), 1 >M. >. 3n invalua$le study relating Cindu "ilgri,age "laces to t!e /aha*harata is B!ard0a1 1 >%. *t!er useful overvie0s of Cindu "ilgri,age include B!arati 1 >&, 9ck 1 M1, and Morinis 1 M'. 3,ong a "let!ora of recent studies of 3yod!ya and its continuing religio:"olitical i,"ortance are 9,$ree 1 & and van der @eer 1 M>. M. ;aley 1 M). . +or t!e conce"t of lila, see Ca$er,an 1 MMF Cein 1 >?, 1 M>F and es"ecially Sa. 1 1&. 9gnor 1 M&F +uller 1 ?F Sa. 1 1$F Wag!orne and Cutler 1 M(. '.

11. Black$urn and +lueckiger D1 M E !ave also argued t!at in Bndia, e"ics are defined in ter,s of 8t!e e.tent and intensity of a folklore co,,unity=s identification 0it! t!e,F t!ey !el" to s!a"e a co,,unity=s self:identity8 D". )EF and t!at 8,ost i,"ortant, oral e"ics in Bndia !ave t!at s"ecial a$ility to tell a co,,unity=s o0n story and t!us !el" create and ,aintain t!at co,,unity=s self:identity8 D". 11E. +lueckiger=s essay in t!is volu,e also s!o0s !o0 a folk e"ic c!anges along 0it! t!e c!aracteristics of its co,,unity. 1?. T!e arro0!eads are not al0ays used. Since t!ey ,ust receive $lood sacrifice, t!ey are not used in villages 0!ere suc! sacrifice is "ro!i$ited. Bn addition, t!ey are not co,,on in 0estern ;ar!0al. 1%. 3fter receiving t!e $o0 and arro0 fro, a dancer re"resenting t!e Pandavas= guru 5rona, one !olds $ot! of t!e, a$ove one=s !ead, looks u", and s"ins around 0!ile s!aking t!e,. Several s,all $ells are attac!ed to t!e $o0, so t!at t!e sound of t!eir 1ingling ,i.es 0it! t!e "ounding of t!e dru,s. T!ere in t!e firelit sAuare, under t!e $e,used ga<e of several !undred villagers, B !ad t!e distinct feeling t!at it 0as not B 0!o 0as s"inning t!e 0ea"ons around, $ut they 0ere t0irling me.

1'. See Sa. 1 1(. 5esai 1 >&.

>.

1). Sukt!ankar 1 %%, cii. 1>. 4autiyal 1 >1, 1%%:1%'F S!ar,a 1 >>, > F T!ukral 1 M>, '1. 1M. T!is c!aracter is not found in t!e Pune edition of t!e e"ic. T!ere is, !o0ever, a figure na,ed @ikarna, one of t!e ninety:nine younger $rot!ers of 5uryod!ana, 0!o s"eaks u" on 5rau"adi=s $e!alf during !er !u,iliation in t!e asse,$ly. Possi$ly @ik!asan !as so,e relation to !i,. 1 . Polyandry is found in t!e Jaunsar and Jaun"ur regions, a fe0 !ours= 1ourney a0ay. See Ma1u,dar 1 )%. ?&. +or discussions of $ride:"rice in general, see Ta,$ia! 1 >%F for $ride:"rice in t!e Central Ci,alayas, see +anger 1 M>F Sa. 1 1a. ?1. 3ccording to one of t!e god=s "riests in Jak!ol, t!ere are a total of fourteen te,"les dedicated to t!e god in t!e i,,ediate vicinity. B !ave $een una$le to confir, re"orts of a 5u!s!asana te,"le. ??. T!ere is a 5uryod!ana te,"le in 6erala 0it! a "riest 0!o, 0!en "ossessed $y 5uryod!ana, dances on one leg for several !ours DTara$out 1 M), ??%, 'M%F cited in Cilte$eitel 1 1, 1>ME. B t!ank 3lf Cilte$eitel for t!is reference. ?%. T!is 4mini&/aha*harata4 is t!e su$1ect of a long folk song t!at B !ave transcri$ed and translated into standard Cindi 0it! t!e !el" of B!uli 5as of 5yora village and !o"e to "u$lis! soon. ?'. 4autiyal D1 >1, 1%%:1%'E cites t!e /aha*harata to t!is effect, $ut B a, una$le to verify !is clai,. ?(. Saklani 1 M>, '', 1>'ff. ?). B$$etson and Mac/agan 1 1 F 7a!a 1 > F 7osser 1 ((F Sa. 1 aF Sut!erland 1 MM. ?>. 5uryod!ana is said to $e a "artial incarnation of t!e de,on 6ali or 8discord.8 ?M. 'ai ho, duri'odhan mahara', dasi duri'odhan falane das 'a,hol, de)ata ,a, somes)ar de)ata ,a dasi, 'ai ho de)ata somesor, teri maya. ? Bn 1 1 B !ad to 0alk over ten kilo,eters and cross a ,a1or river to reac! Jak!ol fro, Sankari. Bn 1 ', B took t!e t0ice:daily ta.i service.

)E0 The Natural Tears of Epic

1. Puotations fro, Plato are fro, 9dit! Ca,ilton and Cuntington Cairns, eds., The Collected "ialogues of Plato D4e0 Lork: Pant!eon, 1 )1E. Bn t!is edition, t!e #on is translated $y /ane Coo"er, t!e -epu*lic $y Paul S!orey, and t!e Theaetetus $y +. M. Cornford. ?. Cerington D1 M(E su""orts t!is argu,ent $y t!e o$servation t!at ==one !as only to recite Co,er aloud, $efore a real or i,agined t!rong of "eo"le, to ree."erience t!e e,otions descri$ed $y Bon8 D". 1%E. Bt is true t!at 0e !ave relatively little infor,ation concerning t!e res"onse of ;reek t!eater audiences to t!e "erfor,ances of tragedies, $ut one early indication is suggestive. Cerodotus records an instance in 0!ic! t!e tragedy "erfor,ed "roduced so ,any tears t!at its aut!or 0as "unis!ed: 8T!e 3t!enians. . . s!o0ed t!e,selves $eyond ,easure afflicted at t!e fall of Miletus, in ,any 0ays e."ressing t!eir sy,"at!y, and es"ecially $y t!eir treat,ent of P!rynic!us, for 0!en t!is "oet $roug!t out u"on t!e stage !is dra,a, The Capture of /iletus, t!e 0!ole t!eatre $urst into tears, and t!e "eo"le sentenced !i, to "ay a fine of a t!ousand drac!,as, for recalling to t!e, t!eir o0n ,isfortunes. T!ey like0ise ,ade a la0, t!at no one s!ould ever again e.!i$it t!at "iece8 DCerodotus ).?1F trans. ;.

7a0linson H4e0 Lork: Modern /i$rary, 1 '?IE. %. Odyssey 1.%(%F trans. 7. +it<gerald D4e0 Lork: @intage, 1 '. Murnag!an 1 M>, 1M&. (. Trans. 7. /atti,ore DC!icago: University of C!icago Press, 1 )1E. ). 4agy 1 > , >>:>M. >. My translation. M. Trans. M. 3r,our D4e0 Lork: 5utton, 9very,an=s /i$rary, 1 %'E. . Trans. @. 4a$okov D4e0 Lork: 7ando, Couse, 1 )&E. 1&. See %hYhnYma of 1irdausi, "t. %, secs. ?%:?(F B refer to t!e translation of 3. ;. Warner and 9. Warner D/ondon: 6egan Paul, Trenc!, Tri$ner and Co., 1 &)E. 11. Plato and 3ristotle ,ake analogous re,arks else0!ere. Plato states at Theaetetus BJHe t!at all agree on 8t!e su"re,e ,asters in eac! of t!e t0o kinds of "oetry: 9"ic!ar,us in co,edy, Co,er in tragedy.8 3ristotle 0rites in -hetoric 1'&%$: 8Bt 0as long $efore Ht!e "ro"er ,et!od of deliveryI found a 0ay into t!e arts of tragic dra,a and e"ic recitations: at first "oets acted t!eir tragedies t!e,selves.8 +or t!ese Auotations fro, Plato and 3ristotle, B a, inde$ted to Cerington 1 M(, ?1%:?1'. 1?. Trans. M. ;. 6ovacs DStanford: Stanford University Press, 1 M E, "". 1&):1&>. +or t!e ,eaning of t!e na,e ;ilga,es!, see "age ..vii in t!e introduction to 6ovacs=s translation. 1%. B refer to t!e translation of +. P. Magoun, Jr. DCa,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press, 1 )%E, "". ?>M:?> . 1'. Bt is true t!at Cesiod "laced stress on t!e "o0er of "oetry to $ring 8forgetfulness of evils and a rest fro, cares8 D Theogony ((F see also lines M:1&%E. But t!is descri"tion !as to $e inter"reted in t!e lig!t of t!e "ain and discord contained in Cesiod=s o0n "oetry. 1(. 7usso and Si,on 1 )M, ' ?. 1). My attention 0as first dra0n to t!e suggestive a,$iguity of t!is line $y Marion Wells. 1>. Trans. C. Singleton DPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 1 >%E. 1M. Puint 1 M%, 11(. &E.

))0 The 'oetics of &oss in .ree/ Epic

1. +or t!is a""roac!, see Martin 1 M , ''. ?. Bo0ra 1 (?, 1&. %. *n t!is legislation, see 3le.iou 1 >', 1':?%F Colst:War!aft 1 ? 11':11 . '. *n t!e epitaphios logos as re"resenting a deli$erate re1ection of t!e la,ent, see /orau. 1 M), '?:(&. (. Colst:War!aft D1 ?, 1?>:1>&E inter"rets tragedy as an a""ro"riation and denigration of 0o,en=s la,ents. +oley D1 ?E "aints a ,ore a,$iguous "icture, arguing t!at tragedy registers $ot! t!e danger of la,ent and t!e aut!enticity of t!e issues it raises. ). 3le.iou 1 >', 11:1'. >. *n grief D penthos E as antit!etical to ,leos and on t!e audience=s noninvolve,ent in t!e story as an essential ele,ent in t!e reali<ation of ,leos, see 4agy 1 > , (:1&&.

M. +or t!is as"ect of Co,eric "oetics, see +ord 1

?.

. *n t!e la,ents of t!e #liad as occasions 0!en 0o,en e,erge as co,,entators on t!e events of t!e "oe,, see 9asterling 1 1. 1&. *n t!is s"eec!, see furt!er Murnag!an 1 ?, ?)?:?)%. *n t!e 0ides"read association of $irdsong 0it! ,ourning, see 3le.iou 1 >', >F and +eld 1 M?. 11. +or ,ourning as t!e occasion of si,ilar co,"etition a,ong 0o,en in ,odern Bnner Mani, see Sere,etakis 1 1, M : ?, and "". 1%&:1'' for a case in 0!ic! a 0o,an ,akes use of la,ent to disclai, rat!er t!an to clai, a relations!i" 0it! a dead ,an Ds!e !as $een engaged to !i, $ut 0ants to re,ain free for anot!er ,arriageE. +or non:;reek de"ictions of 0o,en co,"eting as ,ourners, see *vid Amores %. .(%:()F Colst:War!aft )**4, >. 1?. 3s 4agy D1 > , 111E "oints out. 1%. Martin 1 M , M>:MM. 1'. See Martin 1 M , es". ???:??%, for t!is c!aracteri<ation of 3c!illes. Martin "laces 3c!illes= affinity for la,ent 0it!in t!e conte.t of !is de"loy,ent of t!e larger !eroic s"eec! genre of recollection, classifying la,ent as a version of recollection D"". 1%1, 1'':1'(E. 3lt!oug! Martin is surely rig!t t!at la,ent=s connection to future fa,e also allies it 0it! ot!er co,,e,orative genres Dsee ". M)E, t!e classification of la,ent as si,"ly a for, of recollection overlooks t!e range of its t!e,es, 0!ic! include fantasy and s"eculation a$out t!e future as 0ell as ,e,ories of t!e "ast, and o$scures t!e degree to 0!ic! a ,an 0!o la,ents is using a ,ode of s"eec! t!at is "ri,arily fe,inine and anti!eroic. 1(. +or a detailed reading of t!e relations!i" $et0een 3c!illes= and Briseis=s la,ents t!at stresses 3c!illes= ,arginali<ation, see Pucci 1 %. 1). 3le.iou 1 >', 1>1:1>(. 1>. /orau. 1 &, es". >>:1&&. *n t!e relations!i" $et0een t!at figure and t!e la,enting ,ot!ers of Co,eric "oetry, suc! as Cecu$a, T!etis, and Penelo"e, see Murnag!an 1 ?. 1M. +or t!e e."ression, see 6akridis 1 ' , 1M:?>, and, for its a""lication to t!is e"isode, "". ' :(%. 6akridis identifies t!e ,otif as a link $et0een t!is e"isode and t!e story of Meleager, t!e narrative in 0!ic! a 0ife successfully uses t!e language of la,ent to "ersuade !er !us$and to fig!t to defend !er Dalt!oug! t!ere as an alternative to not fig!ting at all rat!er t!an, as in Cector=s case, fig!ting too aggressivelyE. 1 . See also #liad ?'.>'M, >)?. ?&. Martin 1 M , 1%):1%>. ?1. 3ndro,ac!e see,s no ,ore concerned 0it! Cector=s ,leos as a source of reflected glory for !erself t!an as a co,"ensation to !i, for !is loss of life. S!e !erself e."resses no interest t!at 0ould $e ,et $y t!e consideration raised $y ;. S. 6irk D1 &, ???E in !is atte,"t to soften t!e ele,ent of e."loitation in Cector=s 0ords at ).')&:')1: 8Cis reaction to 3ndro,ak!e=s i,agined fate ,ig!t see, strangely self:centeredF t!at 0ould $e ty"ically !eroic, $ut Cektor kno0s s!e 0ill $e re,e,$ered ,ainly t!roug! !i,self.8 Bn general, Co,eric 0o,en in t!eir la,ents re"resent t!e,selves as losing t!e kind of status conferred $y fa,e, stressing t!e anni!ilating dis"lace,ent suffered $y 0o,en 0!ose ,ale defenders are gone. Cf. Penelo"e in t!e Odyssey, 0!o t0ice e."licitly declares t!at !er ,leos !as $een co,"ro,ised $y *dysseus=s a$sence D Odyssey 1M.?(1:?((, 1 .1?':1?ME. Cf. also #liad ??.'%1: '%), discussed $elo0. ??. 3s Colst:War!aft D1 ?, 11?:11%E "oints out, none of t!e t!ree 0o,en 0!o la,ent at Cector=s

funeral "raises !i, as a !ero in $attle. ?%. *n t!e distinction $et0een ,leos as t!e ter, for fa,e t!at transcends ,ortality and its near dou$lets, ,udos and euchos, 0!ic! is eAuivalent to euchole, see Muellner 1 >), M?, Bo. ?'. 3le.iou 1 >', 1)(:1>1. ?(. Sultan D1 1E gives a suggestive account of ,odern ;reek 3kritic song as a genre in 0!ic!, si,ilarly, 0o,en=s interests are o""osed to ,ale !eroic action and yet 0o,en=s voices are essential to t!e "rocess of ,aking !eroic glory i,,ortal.

)40 The !ole of &ament in the .ro6th and Eclipse of !oman Epic
1. 3le.iou 1 >1. See t!e discussion of t!e ,ommos Danti"!onal la,entE in +ant!a, 1 M?, ?1 :?%1. ?. Sc!olars !ave noted t!e "ossi$le influence of t!e ;reek tragic c!orus on t!e unattri$uted s"eec!es of co,,unal la,ent or "rotest in 7o,an e"ic fro, 9nnius to /ucan and Statius. %. Bot! ter,s denote t!e advocate=s final e,otional address, $ut 0!ile miseratio "ro"erly denotes t!e a""eal to "ity for !is client, and con<uestio t!e "rovocation of anger against t!e adversary, or a t!ird "arty, t!ese t0o functions often overla". '. +rag. l.i, ed. Skutsc!: 8* 7o,ule 7o,ule 5ie# Auale, te "atriae custode, di genueruntV# & "ater, * genitor, * sanguen dis oriundu,V# Tu "rodu.isti nos intra lu,inis oras.8 (. /ivy ?.>.( records t!at t!e ,arried 0o,en ,ourned Brutus for a 0!ole year $ecause !e !ad $een so keen an avenger of 0o,an=s violated !onor Dt!e ra"e of /ucretiaE. ). /ucan "e Bello Ci)ili >.%>:% . T!e la,ents are descri$ed as un$idden Dvirtually for$iddenE $ecause Caesar 0ill $e in a$solute "o0er over 7o,e. >. #ustitium: /ucan "e Bello Ci)ili ?.1M. *n "recedents for t!is decree, see +ant!a, )**4, M%. M. See /ucan "e Bello Ci)ili ?.?1:?M Dco,"arisonE, ? :%) D$e!avior of la,enting 0o,enE. . /ivy ??.((.%:M: t!e 0o,en=s la,ents for t!eir 0ar dead 0ere so distur$ing t!at $y "u$lic decree t!ey 0ere confined to t!eir !o,es and for$idden to ,ake furt!er "u$lic outcry. 1&. 8T!e vaulted 0alls ec!o 0it! t!e 0ail and 0oe of 0o,en: t!e ,atrons 0ander, clutc!ing at t!e doors# e,$racing t!e,, i,"rinting kisses8 D8"enitusAue cavae "langori$us aedes # fe,ineis ululantF ferit aurea sidera cla,or. # tu, "avidae tectis ,atres ingenti$us errant# a,"le.aeAue tenent "ostis atAue oscula figunt,8 Aeneid ?.'M>f., trans. Mandel$au,E. 11. 8T!e la,entations, keening, s!rieks of 0o,en# sound t!roug! t!e !ouse, !eavens ec!o ,ig!ty 0ailings8 D8la,entis ge,ituAue et fe,ineo ululatu# tecta fre,unt, resonat ,agnis "langori$us aet!er,8 Aeneid :.DDD&DD9, trans. Mandel$au,E. 1?. Wilts!ire 1 M , es". (?:(% Din c!a". ?, 8;rieving Mot!ers and t!e Cost of 3ttac!,ent8E. 1%. 8Wretc!ed s!e runs out, and 0it! a 0o,an=s 0ailing, tearing !er !air,. . . s!e fills !eaven 0it! !er cries8 D8fe,ineo ululatu# scissa co,a, . . . caelu, de!inc Auesti$us i,"let,8 Aeneid .'>>:'M&, trans. Mandel$au,E. T!is is follo0ed $y fifteen lines of !er la,ent in direct s"eec!. 1'. Cardie D1 %, ' E co,,ents: 89uryalus= ,ot!er is in fact entirely selfis! in !er desire for deat!8F $ut !e ackno0ledges t!e influence of $ot! 9uryalus=s o0n de,and to die instead of !is friend and !is ,ot!er=s de,and for deat! on t!e @irgin=s /a,ent in 7enaissance C!ristian e"ics. 1(. *n Juturna=s la,ent, see Barc!iesi 1 >M.

1). 8Puis deus, * Musae, "ari$us tot funera ver$is# evolvatG tantisAue u,$ris in car,ine digna# Auis la,enta feratG8 Punica (.'?&:'??. 1>. Until recently t!ere 0as little secondary literature on t!e The*aid in 9nglis! Dor indeed ot!er languagesE. 7eaders s!ould consult @essey 1 >%, 0!ic! !as a full $i$liogra"!y of "revious 0orkF see also 3!l et al. 1 M) and ,ost recently Cardie 1 %. 1M. Besides t!e consolationes for t!e $ereave,ents of Statius=s friends, %il)ae ?.) and %.%, see Statius=s Epi,edeia D/a,entsE for t!e 0ife of 3$ascantus, for !is o0n fat!er, and for !is ado"ted c!ild, %il)ae (. , %, and (. 1 . B Auote fro, Cenderson 1 1, !is first and ,ore co,"le. "a"er. ?&. *,itted in !is 9nglis! diagra,: see Cenderson 1 1, %1. T!e /atin eAuivalence of la,ent is re"resented $y eig!t for,s: ei mihi, heu, gem&, plang&, <uer&, lament&, fle&, dol&= O. T!ree D ei mihi, heu, NW E are cries of griefF t!e ot!ers are roots of descri"tive nouns and ver$s. ?1. Cenderson 1 ??. B$id. )&. ?%. The*aid %. M: , 1&?:1&%, trans. Melville. 3. 5. Melville=s translation of t!e The*aid, t!e first since J. C. Mo<ley=s rat!er inaccurate /oe$ version, ,ay strike t!e 3,erican reader as too arc!aic, and so convey a ,ore artificial i,"ression of Statius=s diction t!an !is ad,ittedly !eig!tened e"ic language. ?'. /a,arismos, t!e $lessing invoked on t!e !onored dead Dsuc! as @irgil=s $lessing on 4isus and 9uryalus in Aeneid 8 E, is only a s"eciali<ed for, of t!e ;reek collective epitaphios logos, for t!ose 0!o died in $attle or t!e 7o,an laudatio, enu,erating a ,an=s virtues and ac!ieve,ents at !is funeral. ?(. @irgil is ,ore s"aring of "ersonification $ut includes ;rief 0it! 3venging Cares D uctus et Lltrices . . . Curae E a,ong t!e "!antas,s t!at cro0d t!e entrance to t!e under0orld in Aeneid ).?>'. 3s 0e s!all see $elo0, grief and vengeance are clearly and re"eatedly associated in Statius. ?). /ike t!e !eroine of Sergei 9isenstein=s Ale+ander (e)s,y, $ut in t!at o"ti,istic e"ic t!e !eroine finds $ot! !er $rot!er and fiancK alive. ?>. T!e "rogressive articulation of res"onse to sorro0 #deat! $et0een 0o,en=s ,ourning Dfor t!e "astE and ,en=s call to revenge Dfor t!e futureE ec!oes t!e contrast noted a$ove $et0een 9uryalus=s ,ot!er and 9vander, or even $et0een /ucan=s ,atrons and 0arriors in $ook ?. *n t!e Maeon e"isode and t!e role of 3letes, see also 3!l et al. 1 M), ?M%&:?M%1 n. 1 . ?M. *n t!e "rovocation of resent,ent against t!e 3t!enian generals, see Qeno"!on 0ellenica 1.>.MF against t!e defeated Servilius Cae"io, see Cicero "e Oratore ?.?&1. ? . See furt!er note %1 $elo0. %&. Menoeceus is in fact singled out for t!is sacrificial deat! $ecause !e is t!e youngest descendant of t!e ser"ent:$orn, eart!:$egotten 0arriors 0!o "eo"led Cad,us=s city of T!e$es. See furt!er @essey 1 >1. %1. ;rief and 0ee"ing are stressed !ere tooF cf. The*aid 1?.?), %?, and t!e misera*ile certamen of %%: %', dis"uting clai,s over t!e dead. %?. Contrast Cardie 1 %, 'M: 8T!e e"ic ends not 0it! triu,"! $ut 0it! la,ent, or rat!er 0it! t!e praeteritio of la,ent, a "rogra,,e to ins"ire anot!er e"ic DM&M no)us furor E to $alance t!e "rogra,,e at 1.%%:'( for t!e e"ic 0e !ave already read.8 Bt 0ill $e clear t!at B see la,ent itself as a triu,"!:of a ne0 kind. 1, >M n. 1 1.

%%. Just $efore Part!eno"aeus=s deat! t!e goddess 5iana, una$le to "revent it, !ad addressed t!e $oy: 8Lou delig!t in t!e $attles so $e0ailed8 D8ululataAue "roelia gaudes, 8 The*aid .>?'E. Statius=s a""lication of ululare, t!e voca$ulary of la,ent, to $attle is ne0 and al,ost "rogra,,atic. 5iana=s ne.t 0ords D8!a""y, and dying only for your ,ot!er,8 8feli. et ,iserae tantu, ,oriture "arenti,8 The*aid .>?(E t!e,atically "olari<e ,ale delig!t in $attle and "arental la,ent. But at t!e end t!at 8only== is corrected $y Statius=s o0n cele$ration of t!e ,ot!er=s grief for 8!er son,# Cer son 0!o ke"t !is grace t!oug! $lood 0as gone,# Cer son for 0!o, t0o ar,ies grieved as one8D The*aid 1?.M&):M&>, trans. MelvilleE. %'. See 3!l 1 M), ? &(. %(. B 0ould like to e."ress ,y 0ar, t!anks to 7andall ;ani$an for !is valua$le insig!ts and suggestions, 0!ic! !ave enric!ed and i,"roved t!e 0ritten revision of t!is essay.

)80 Epics and the 'olitics of the #rigin Tale2 irgil, #+id, Spenser, and Nati+e %merican %etiology
1. S0ann 1 ' "rovides an i,"ortant recent translation of 4ative 3,erican literatureF see also 9lder and Wong 1 '. +or ,ore infor,ation on t!e storytelling traditions of t!e /a$rador Bndians, see Mill,an 1 ?, 1 &, and 1 M>. ?. T!roug!out t!is essay, B 0ill $e referring to 7. 5. Willia,s=s edition of @irgil=s Aeneid and to 7o$ert +it<gerald=s translation D4e0 Lork: 7ando, Couse, @intage Books, 1 M%E. T!is essay $enefited fro, a careful reading $y 5enis +eeney, 0!o is of course not to $e $la,ed for its li,itations. %. T!is and future references to t!e Odyssey in 9nglis! 0ill $e to 7o$ert +it<gerald=s translation D;arden City, 4.L: 5ou$leday, 3nc!or Books, 1 )1E. '. See Wofford 1 ?a, 1%):1'). %, es". ?%:'(. (. *n t!e regress of narratives c!aracteristic of efforts to define origin, see ;uillory 1

). See Puint 1 %, and "assi,, including es"ecially "". ?'M:?)> Din c!a". ), 8Tasso, Milton and t!e Boat of 7o,ance8EF and t!e o"ening c!a"ter of Bella,y 1 ?. >. See Cardie 1 %, 1:1M, on t!e 0ay t!at e"ics strive for co,"letion and totality $ut are never successful in reac!ing eit!er. M. See Willia,s 1 >?, 1: % (, '%%. . B !ave relied on 3. 5. Melville=s translation of *vid=s /etamorphoses D*.ford: *.ford University Press, 1 M)E. +or t!e /atin, B !ave used t!e /oe$ edition, e.ce"t for "assages fro, $ooks ):1&, for 0!ic! B !ave used 3nderson=s edition and co,,entary D1 >?E. 1&. See +or$es Brving 1 & for a ty"ology of early ;reek ,yt!s t!at tell of ,eta,or"!oses. T!is account divides t!e transfor,ation stories into t!ose a$out DaE ,a,,alsF D$E $irdsF DcE "lantsF DdE stonesF DeE s"rings and riversF DfE islandsF and DgE insects, re"tiles and sea:creatures. +or$es Brving finds distinct story "atterns to $e ty"ical of eac! kind of ,eta,or"!osis. Most i,"ortant for ,y "ur"oses !ere, +or$es Brving distinguis!es $et0een t!ose ,eta,or"!oses t!at serve as aetiologies for a s"ecies and t!ose t!at create one uniAue, often ,onstrous re"resentative. 11. See Stinton 1 >), )&:M , an account of t!is "ro$le, and t!e use of si,ilar "!rases D8t!ey say8E in classical literature. *n t!e Auestion of t!is kind of fictive trut! clai,s in t!e ancient 0orld, see +eeney 1 %, ?%&:?''. 1?. See +or$es Brving 1 & for a catalogue of $ird transfor,ations involving various kinds of "ollution,

al,ost all se.ual in so,e 0ay or anot!er. +or$es Brving sees $ird transfor,ation stories in ;reek ,yt! as $eing "rinci"ally structured around an o""osition $et0een t!e !ouse and t!e 0ilds, and t!e stories of "ollution tend, t!erefore, to $e stories t!at $egin 0it! a 8fa,ily cri,e8 D". 1&>E:incest of various sorts, 0it! related fa,ily ,urderF a fe0 e.a,"les of se. 0it! ani,als. 8But t!ese "olluting cri,es can generally $e seen as out$reaks of 0ildness,8 +or$es Brving 0rites, 8and it is t!e ,ore general o""osition of t!e 0ilds and !u,an order t!at is t!e $asic structure of t!ese stories8 D". 1& E. See +or$es Brving, "". 1&>:1& . 1%. T!e Auestion of t!e e.tent to 0!ic! ,eta,or"!osis tends to "roduce an unc!anging nature:t!e s"ecies e.isting in t!e 0orld as 0e kno0 it, no longer su$1ect to a ,eta,or"!ic "rinci"le:is discussed 0it! co,"le.ity in Barkan 1 M). Barkan argues t!at *vid=s ,eta,or"!oses, at least, function to initiate t!e reader into an understanding of 8t!e ,eta"!oric flo0 a,ong se"arate categories of e.istence8 D". %1E, and yet !e also notes t!at so,e ,eta,or"!oses are 8c!anges to end all c!ange,8 and co,,ents t!at 8t!e natural 0orld is one end"oint of transfor,ation8 D". > E. Bn treating t!e c!anges t!at end all c!ange, t!oug!, Barkan focuses ,ostly on t!e 7o,an aetiologies in *vid=s "oe,, s!o0ing !o0 t!e "oe, tends to under,ine covertly its "roclai,ed story t!at transfor,ations all lead to t!e creation of 7o,e and 7o,an institutions. T!roug!out !is influential account of *vid, Barkan is interested in t!e tension $et0een t!e ,eta,or"!ic "rinci"le20!ic! can at ti,es 0reak !avoc in a !u,an conte.t, as 0!en categories t!at define social order dissolve and t!e "rinci"le of fi.ity, $y 0!ic! t!e individual is fi.ed in an essentiali<ed and often 8savagely reduced== version of !is or !er identity D". ))E. Barkan=s account of t!e $asic structure of an *vidian ,eta,or"!osis is as follo0s: HT!e storyI takes "lace in a conte.t 0!ere individuals are assigned clear roles, so clear t!at t!ey ,ay $e o""ressive. T!e central figure in t!e story re$els, s"ecifically attacking t!e clarity and discreteness of t!e surrounding categories. T!e essential ,eta,or"!osis co,es as a direct result of t!is re$ellion: it is not t!e !ero=s or !eroine=s c!ange of "!ysical s!a"e . . . $ut rat!er t!e discovery t!at 0!at see,ed like rigid categories of fa,ily and society can dissolve, 1ust as "!ysical categories dissolve in ,eta,or"!osis. *nce t!e categories are attacked, si,ilar t!ings are diversified into o""osites and o""osites are ,ade identical. T!e central figure reac!es a condition t!at transcends and contradicts all t!ese categories. +ro, t!at "oint it is a s!ort ste" to literal ,eta,or"!osis, a condition t!at ,erely serves as a final "unctuation ,ark for a narrative e."erience 0!ose crucial ,eta,or"!osis !as a,ounted to t!e dissolution of assu,"tions 0e live $y D". ( E. Barkan=s e,"!asis on t!e dissolution of ordinary assu,"tions a$out differences $et0een, say, t!e !u,an and t!e 0ild, or $et0een t!e se.es, is salutary, and an essential feature of stories of origin is "recisely t!at t!e narrative events t!at "recede t!e creation of t!e 0orld as 0e kno0 it tend to involve transgressions of t!at 0orld. Bt is still useful to note, t!oug!, !o0 t!at 8final "unctuation ,ark8 serves even in Barkan=s ,eta,or"!ic t!eory as a sta$ili<ing and fi.ing closure to t!e story. 1'. See Myers 1 ' for a discussion of *vid=s "oetry in relation to t!e genre of t!e aetion, and es"ecially Myers=s useful account of t!e 0ay t!e first and last of *vid=s a,atory tales serve as a fra,ing device for t!e narrative. 1(. *n t!e freAuency 0it! 0!ic! trees are used as co,"arisons for !u,an gro0t! and $eauty in t!e ,eta,or"!oses associated 0it! ;reek ,yt!, see +or$es Brving 1 &, 1%'. 1). My understanding of t!e account of 5a"!ne and 3"ollo !as $een i,,easura$ly increased $y !aving studied t!e story 0it! 5enis +eeney. See +eeney 1 1, ?&(:??'F see also ". ?1) on t!e associations of 3"ollo and 3ugustus, and ". ?1 : 8T!e e,"!asis on t!e constitutional facts of 7o,an cult !as its corollary in t!e "olitically coloured ant!ro"o,or"!is, 0!ic! infuses t!e e"ic descri"tions of deities in action. . . . T!e "reoccu"ation 0it! suc! syste,s of analogy is so,et!ing 0e !ave $een fa,iliar 0it! since t!e actions centering on t!e "oe,=s first si,ile, in 0!ic! Ju"iter 0as co,"ared to

3ugustus.8 +eeney is discussing t!e ,ore e.tended analogy in t!e "oe, $et0een 3ugustus and Ju"iter, $ut "art of !is "oint is t!at t!e a$solute, irrational, and tyrannical $e!avior of t!e gods ,ay often co,,ent on 0!at i,"erial "o0er felt like to t!ose on 0!o, it 0as e.ercised. 1>. See Barkan 1 M), )), for an account of !o0 a ,eta,or"!osis is 8an esca"e fro, entra",ent into a !ig!er condition 0!ere t!e $lurred categories are no longer ,eaningful.8 1M. +or t!e tension $et0een elegy and e"ic in *vid=s t0o accounts of t!e ra"e of Perse"!one, 0!ere t!e origins of t!e 0orld as 0e kno0 it are located s"ecifically in ra"e, see Cinds 1 M>, 11(:1%'. *n t!e freAuency of ra"e in accounts of origins, see Wofford 1 ?$ and Jed 1 M . 1 . +ro, t!e note in t!e Melville translation, ". %M%. ?&. *n t!e ;reek sources of t!e P!ilo,ela story, see +or$es Brving 1 &, ?'M:?' . +or$es Brving co,,ents on t!e e.tent to 0!ic! in ,any of t!ese accounts t!e transfor,ation tends to $e a for, of esca"e, even 0!en t!e e.isting s"ecies is ,arked or signed 0it! t!e events of t!e narrative: 8Since t!ey are descri$ing every day facts of nature and since t!e "resent $irds are no longer really t!e original transfor,ed "eo"le t!ese $irds 0ill tend to $e less alar,ing t!an t!e uniAue freaks created $y transfor,ation into an ani,alF also t!e "ositions of t!ese transfor,ations at t!e end of t!eir story, and t!e fact t!at t!ey 0ill last forever, re,oves any sense of urgency a$out t!e !eroes= $e!aviour or state of ,ind as $irds, and "roduces a "er!a"s artificial sense of serenity a$out t!eir ne0 state. T!ey are no0 free fro, any furt!er !u,an tragedy, in co,"arison 0it! 0!ic! neit!er t!e suffering of $irds nor any furt!er evil t!at t!ey do a,ong eac! ot!er needs to $e taken too seriously8 D". 11?E. See also Barkan 1 M), )(, on t!e 0ay in 0!ic! for cri,inals against t!e natural order Dsuc! as TereusE ,eta,or"!osis is 8not a "unis!,ent $ut rat!er a definition of t!e e.tre,e state into 0!ic! t!ey !ave $roug!t t!e,selves and a relief fro, t!e agony of t!ose e.tre,es.8 ?1. 3nderson 1 >?, ?%). ??. +or all references to 8T!e +irst /oon,8 see t!e a""endi., 0!ere t!e story is re"roduced in full, and see Mill,an 1 ?. ?%. Many indigenous origin tales do include "recisely t!e kinds of detailed "artto:"art analogy t!at i,"ress readers of *vid D!er ar,s $eca,e $ranc!es, etc.E. See, for one e.a,"le t!at involves e.tensive analogy, t!e Ta!itian tale 8Tangaroa, Maker of 3ll T!ings8: 8But !is anger 0as not finis!ed, and so !e took !is $ack$one for a ,ountain range and !is ri$s for t!e ridges t!at ascend. . . . Ce took !is fingernails and toenails for t!e scales and s!ells of fis!es in t!e sea. *f !is feat!ers !e ,ade trees and s!ru$s to clot!e t!e land.8 D9lder and Wong 1 ', '&E ?'. 3s Mill,an D1 ?E re,inds us in !is note to t!e story, Mic!iki,au, t!e setting of t!e ending of t!e story, 0as a lake sacred to t!e Bnnu, 0!ic! vanis!ed in 1 )% 0!en t!e C!urc!ill +alls Cydro Pro1ect 0as constructed. T!e tale is a tale of loss in ,ore t!an one sense. ?(. +or all references to 8T!e *rigin of 7o$ins,8 see t!e a""endi., 0!ere t!e story is re"roduced in full, and see Milli,an 1 ?. T!is tale 0as told to Mill,an $y T!o,as Pastits!i, Uts!i,assits. ?). See Putten!a, 1 >&, $k. %, c!a". 1 , "". ?%):?%M. ?>. See Murnag!an 1 M> for a discussion of !o0 t!e ro,ance ,otifs suc! as t!is re1uvenation reverse e"ic te,"orality. ?M. See Wofford 1 ?a, 11?:11%, for a ,ore e.tended discussion of e.actly !o0 ,uc! 3eneas sees !ere and 0!at !e kno0s. ? . See +eeney 1 1, 'M:' , on t!e ant!ro"o,or"!is, of t!e gods in Co,eric co,,entaries, and "". 1%':1%> on t!e 0ay t!at t!is ant!ro"o,or"!is, in t!e Aeneid signals t!at t!e gods are fictive. +eeney

o$serves t!at 8t!e gods of t!e Aeneid ,ay $e =figures=, =tro"es, =sy,$ols=, $ut only as 3eneas is a figure or a tro"e. 4e"tune and Juno need t!e sa,e fictive energy to $e creators and c!annellers of ,eaning as does 3eneas. Bf 0e acce"t t!at t!e gods are figural, sy,$olic, in t!at t!ey refer to areas of ,eaning $eyond t!e,selves, 0e need not t!en feel $affled at t!eir =unnecessary= colour and force8 D"". 1%):1%>E. Bn a "rivate co,,unciation, +eeney also noted t!at 8t!e ant!ro"o,or"!ic re"resentation of angry deities !ad $een critici<ed and scrutini<ed for centuries2it is not an ulti,ate e."lanation or cause $ut a ,eta"!or al0ays.8 %&. *n t!e centrality of t!e re"etition co,"ulsion in @irgil and 7enaissance e"ic, see also Bella,y 1 ?, a "syc!oanalytic study of t!e "ro$le, of origins in t!e e"ic tradition. %1. 3ll Auotations fro, S"enser=s 1aerie .ueene are fro, 3. C. Ca,ilton=s edition D/ondon and 4e0 Lork: /ong,an, 1 >>E. See ;uillory 1 M% for S"enser=s use of fountains as ,arkers of an origin t!at !as al0ays $een literaryF and Puint 1 M% for t!e to"os of t!e fountain or s"ring as i,age for literary source. *n t!e connections of S"enser=s fountain to *vid=s aetiologies in t!e ,yt! of Cer,a"!roditus and else0!ere in t!e /etamorphoses, see also Sil$er,an 1 M>. %?. Contrast t!e o"ening of $ook ' of /ucretius=s "e -erum (atura: 83 "at!less country of t!e Pierides B traverse, 0!ere no ot!er foot !as ever trod. B love to a""roac! virgin s"rings 5intregros . . . fontis6, and t!ere to drink.8 T!anks to 5enis +eeney for t!is reference. %%. +or an account of t!is "ro$le, see Wofford 1 T!is8E. ?a, ?)?:?M1 Dt!e section entitled 8T!e Cause Was

%'. B necessarily D$ecause of li,itations of sco"e in one essayE ski" over !ere t!e C!ristian tradition of allegori<ing ,eta,or"!osis, and ,ost nota$ly 5ante, $ut 0e ,ig!t $riefly note t!at t!e ,eta,or"!oses in t!e #nferno Dfor instance, in t!e Wood of t!e SuicideE are also irreversi$le, a critical "ro$le, in t!e "oe, D0!ere t!e fact t!at t!e da,ned cannot $e saved is understood as a 0ay of e."laining !o0 t!e sinners in t!e #nferno re"eatedly and eternally ,ake again t!e sinful c!oice t!at caused t!e, to lose !u,an for, in t!e first "laceE.

)=0 Walcott:s #meros 2 The Classical Epic in a 'ostmodern World

1. +or a $rief $i$liogra"!y and survey of t!e critical tradition, see Maro0ski and Matu< 1 M>, '1':'?%. ?. Bn t!is "a"er B cite fro, Walcott 1 M) D Collected Poems, B8:I&B8I: E unless ot!er0ise noted. T!e "assage in Auestion ,ay $e found on ". 1(. T!e "oe, originally a""eared in 1 (), according to Br,a 9. ;oldstra0=s indis"ensi$le $i$liogra"!y D1 M', (E, and 0as su$seAuently included in Walcott 1 )?, 1M. %. Walcott 1 M), ''%. T!e "oe, originally a""eared in The (e2 Mor,er in 1 M1 D;oldstra0 1 M', % E and, later t!at year, in t!e collection The 1ortunate Tra)eller D (e2 Lork, 1 M1E, )%:>&. '. /efko0it< 1& &, 1,%':%(F 6no. 1 (. Burris 1 ). Ca,ner 1 >. +igueroa 1 M. Bs,ond 1 1, (( D,y e,"!asisE. %$, 1 F cf. t!e introductory re,arks in Ca,ner 1 1, ?11. 1, 1&:11. %a, 1&:1?. 1,%:'F Ta"lin 1 1,?1%:??)F Steiner 1 %, 1%:1).

. Puoted $y Bruckner 1 &, re"rinted. in Ca,ner 1 %a, % ):% . Walcott=s re,arks stress t!e i,"ortance to !i, of t!e novelists 7udyard 6i"ling, Jose"! Conrad, and 9rnest Ce,ing0ay as ,odels for Omeros. See also Bro0n and Jo!nson 1 &, ?& :?%%F W!ite 1 &, 1':%>. 1&. 4Omeros is "rofoundly Co,eric and undou$tedly e"ic8F see Ta"lin 1 1, ?1%:??).

11. Burris 1

1, ()&.

1?. *n dra,atic ele,ents in Omeros, see Burris 1 1, ()1:()'. Burris calls Llysses 8t!e 0ork t!at 0ill in all likeli!ood e,erge as t!e ,ost generous s"onsor of Omeros 8 D". ()1E. 1%. +igueroa 1 1, ?&%:?&(. *n ". ?&( !e o$serves t!at St. /ucy, t!e "atron saint of t!e island, 0as !erself a $lind seer. Blindness and co,"ensatory insig!t is a recurring t!e,e in Walcott=s 0ork, one 0it! s"ecial relevance to t!e figure of t!e "oet. Bn 8Cul de Sac @alley8 t!e "oet i,ages !i,self as an *edi"us Auestioned $y a ro0 of S"!in.es DWalcott 1 M), 1%E. Bn t!is essay B 0ill use t!e ca"itali<ed for, 84arrator8 to indicate t!e c!aracter in Omeros 0!o narrates t!e "oe, and re"resents t!e figure of t!e "oet !i,selfF t!e lo0ercase for, indicates t!e i,"lied singer of 0!atever "oe, !a""ens to $e under discussion. 1'. +igueroa 1 1, ?&). 1 >: 8T!e "oe, HisI ,uc! ,ore a novel t!an an e"ic, 0!ile 1(. /eit!auser 1 1 Cf. +igueroa 1 never losing its lyrical fire.8

1). T!e argu,ent is s"elled out ,ost clearly in Bak!tin=s essay 89"ic and 4ovel8 DBak!tin 1 M1, %:'&E. 1>. T!e Auestion of Walcott=s influences, 0!ic! !as $een "ro,inent in criticis, of !is 0ork since t!e $eginning, ca,e to $e vie0ed in ter,s of cultural allegiance as Walcott=s 9uro"ean influences 0ere found $y so,e less relevant to t!e 3fricanist West Bndian "olitical consciousness of t!e 1 )&s and 1 >&s t!an t!e 0ork of ot!er 0riters, "articularly 9d0ard Brat!0aite. T!e literature co,"aring t!e t0o 0riters is Auite large: re"resentative 0orks include /ucie:S,it! 1 )MF 5rayton 1 >&F Ja,es 1 >&F H3nony,ousI 8Co0 +ar are 5erek Walcott and 9d0ard Brat!0aite Si,ilarG8 1 >'F Collier 1 > F 6ing 1 M&. 3s Walcott=s interest in 3frican t!e,es, "articularly in "lays suc! as "ream on /on,ey /ountain and * Ba*ylonW, ca,e to $e a""reciated, t!e Auestion of !is cultural allegiances $eca,e less urgent. +urt!er, 0it! Walcott=s rise to international stature !e !as co,e to $e co,"ared 0it! "oets suc! as Jose"! Brodsky and Sea,us Ceaney, and one result of a""earing in suc! co,"any $efore an international audience is t!at !is Cari$$ean identity see,s !ardly in dou$t. Significantly, t!e West Bndian 0riter 0it! 0!o, !e is ,ost often contrasted no0adays is not Brat!0aite, $ut @. S. 4ai"aul, 0it! 0!ose dis,al 1udg,ent u"on "ostcolonial culture, "articularly in t!e West Bndies, Walcott D1 >'E took e.ce"tion. 1M. Bo0ra 1 (?, 1:11. 1 . B$id. ?&. +innegan 1 >&, 1&Mff. +innegan, !o0ever, is not concerned, as Bo0ra is, 0it! t!e ca"acity of 3fricans to "roduce !eroic literature so ,uc! as 0it! t!e tec!nical Auestion of 0!et!er t!eir !eroic literature is in verse. ?1. *f crucial i,"ortance 0as t!e "u$lication of t!e Sundiata e"ic D4iane 1 )&F Pickett 1 )( D9nglis! translationE. *n t!e "oe,, see Miller 1 &, M>:1&1. *t!er i,"ortant sc!olarly investigations of 3frican e"ic include *k"e0!o 1 > F 6na""ert 1 M%F Willia, Jo!nson 1 M&. ??. *n t!e 0ork of Parry and /ord on t!is tradition, see /ord 1 )&. ?%. Gam*ili, vol. 1 of The %ongs of %eydou Camara, trans. C!arles S. Bird, Ma,adou 6oita, and Boura,a Sou,aoro Dlines (&(:(&>EF cited $y *k"e0!o 1 > , ?&(:?&). ?'. 3 ,ore a"t co,"arison ,ig!t !ave $een $et0een ot!er instances of interaction $et0een "oet and audience in conte,"orary "erfor,ative e"ic and "assages in our #liad and Odyssey t!at are $est e."lained as 8local variants,8 t!at is, as versions of t!e story suited to "erfor,ance in so,e s"ecific setting t!at so,e!o0 found t!eir 0ay into 0!at eventually $eca,e t!e 8canonical8 te.t. Suc! an

e."lanation !as $een advanced in t!e case of t!e e"isode involving 3eneas in #liad ?&, 0!ic! ,ay ulti,ately o0e its e.istence to a ruling dynasty t!at clai,ed descent fro, t!e !ero: see 6irk 1 1, ? M: %&1, 0it! furt!er references. 3n even stronger case can $e ,ade for t!e "ro,inence of t!e 3t!enian contingent in t!e Catalogue of S!i"s in t!at 3t!ens 0as not a great "o0er eit!er at t!e ti,e 0!en t!e events of t!e #liad "utatively occurred or at t!e ti,e 0!en a recogni<a$le version of t!e "oe, 0as first co,ing into e.istenceF yet t!e 3t!enian tyrant Peisistratus "layed so,e role, one t!at ,ay !ave $een $ot! e.tensive and decisive, in t!e canoni<ation of t!e te.t of Co,er t!at !as co,e do0n to us. *n t!is "articular "ro$le, see 6irk 1 M(, 1>M:1M&, 0it! furt!er references. *n t!e "!eno,enon in general, see Sven$ro 1 >), (:>%. ?(. T!is "assage !as a long !istory of inter"retation, ,uc! of 0!ic! finds t!e !u,orous ele,ent ,is"laced. See 6irk 1 &, 1 &:1 1, 0it! furt!er references. ?). Wit! t!is ,otif 0e ,ay co,"are conte,"orary "erfor,ances of 4ort! 3frican e"ic: see t!e 50ig!t 7eynolds=s essay in t!is volu,e: 8Pro$le,atic Perfor,ances: *verla""ing ;enres and /evels of Partici"ation in 3ra$ic *ral 9"ic:Singing.8 ?>. Walcott 1 M>, 1&. ?M. Walcott 1 >M, 1((:1(). T!is "assage is Auoted at greater lengt! and discussed in Terada 1 '. ?, %:

? . Seven Seas "erfor,s, for instance, at a "arty !eld at t!e cafK in !onor of a "olitical candidate D?.?&.1E. Ma 6il,an=s eventual role as P!iloctete=s !ealer underlines t!e assonance $et0een !er na,e and t!at of Mac!aon, surgeon to t!e ;reek forces in t!e #liad, as Burris "oints out D1 1, ()1E, citing t!e eAuivalence as an e.a,"le of Walcott=s 8sla"stick disregard8 for !is Co,eric "arallels. Burris=s rat!er facile reaction ignores t!e fact t!at t!e c!aracter of Ma 6il,an, a 8gardeuse, sy$il, o$ea!: 0o,an8 D 1.1&.?E, antedates Omeros and indeed is first "resented not as Walcott=s creation, $ut as 8found o$1ect8 of St. /ucian folk culture, a""earing first in a Creole song included and translated in 8Sainte /ucie,8 secs. ':( DWalcott 1 M), %1':%1 , first "u$lis!ed in t!e collection %ea Grapes as long ago as 1 >)E. T!e connection 0it! Mac!aon 0ould a""ear to !ave $een forged or ==discovered8 so,e ti,e after t!e "oet=s initial acAuaintance 0it! t!e figure. B 0ould add t!at t!e !and of t!e "oet is ,ore clearly visi$le in t!e c!aracter=s connection 0it! t!e 4o Pain Cafe, 0!ic! takes its na,e fro, t!at of, 8Hallo0ingI no "ain,8 a drug ad,inistered $y Celen to !er !us$and, Menelaus, and to t!eir guests, Tele,ac!us and Peisistratus, so t!at t!ey ,ig!t discuss t!e 0ar at Troy and t!e difficult !o,eco,ings of t!e ;reeks 0!o foug!t t!ere 0it!out succu,$ing to grief. T!us Ma 6il,an !erself is a ty"e of Celen in !er odyssean, as o""osed to !er iliadic, ,anifestation. %&. Omeros >.().%. %1. T!e t!e,e of alleged ga"s in t!e aut!or=s reading recurs, again 0it! res"ect to t!e sources of Omeros, $ut t!is ti,e involving t!e Aeneid as 0ell as t!e Odyssey, in W!ite 1 &, 1):%(. T!e "ro$le, is addressed 0it! great insig!t $y +uller D1 ? (1>:(%ME. *ne t!inks of Leats=s striking 0ay of na,ing t!e ins"iration of !is life=s 0ork: 8t!e !alf:read 0isdo, of dae,onic i,ages8 D8Meditations in Ti,e of Civil War8 >.'&, in Leats 1 M%, ?&)E. %?. Omeros >.().%. %%. T!e t!e,e of a natural language !eard or even read in landsca"e is "ro,inent t!roug!out Walcott=s 0ork. See for instance t!e e.cellent o$servations of Terada 1 ?, 1(?, 1)':1)(, 1)>, 1>1:1>'. %'. T!e locus classicus for t!is line of discourse is +riedric! Sc!iller=s essay Z*er nai)e und sentimentalische "ichtung D B98J&B98D E. Bt continues in ;. W. +. Cegel=s Astheti, of 1M%( Don 0!ic!

see Bo0ie 1 &, 1'&:1'?E, ;eorg /uk_cs=s Theorie des -omans D1 ?&E, 9ric! 3uer$ac!=s /imesis D B8JC E and Bak!tin=s 89"ic and 4ovel8 D1 '1F not 0idely kno0n in t!is country $efore t!e 9,erson and ColAuist translation of 1 M1E. Bt is fair to say t!at t!e influence of t!ese t!inkers on t!e study of t!e novel and its relations!i" not only to e"ic $ut to "re,odern literature in general !as $een decisive, $ut in ,any 0ays far fro, constructive. %(. +igueroa 1 1, ?1 1F cf. Omeros >.().%: H4arratorI 8T!e gods and t!e de,igods aren=t ,uc! use to us.8#8+orget t!e gods,8 *,eros gro0led, 8and read t!e rest.8 %). *n ancient allegoresis of Co,er, see /a,$erton 1 M), 0it! furt!er references. *n Paradise ost, see 4e0lyn 1 %. +or a convenient survey of t0entiet!:century trends in @irgilian criticis,, see Carrison 1 &, 1:?&. %>. T!is "articular ty"e of interte.tuality goes $y t!e convenient na,e oppositio in imitando. T!ere is a considera$le literature on t!is "!eno,enon, ,ost of it kno0n, unfortunately, only to s"ecialists. +or a $rief survey 0it! references, see t!e introduction to +arrell 1 1, %:?(. 3s a convenient illustration of t!e effect "roduced $y t!is ty"e of 0riting, consider t!e 4arrator=s o$servation t!at 3c!ille=s 8end, 0!en it co,es, 0ill $e a deat! $y 0ater#D0!ic! is not for t!is $ookE8 D Omeros >.)'.1E. T!e "oint $eing i,itated is Tiresias=s "ro"!ecy in t!e Co,eric Odyssey t!at t!e !ero=s deat! 0ill occur far fro, t!e sea D Odyssey 11.1%':1%)E. T!e i,itation e contrario not only redefines t!e ,eaning of deat! at sea according to t!e values of a ne0 "oetic universe $ut actively enlists t!e contri$ution of a 0!ole range of "revious inde"endent i,itators of t!e *dyssey, fro, 5ante, 0!ose Ulisse does in fact contradict Co,er $y dying a 0atery deat! D #nferno ?).M(:1'?E, to 6a<ant<akis, 0!ose i,"ortance to Walcott as a ,ediator of Co,eric and ,eta:Co,eric traditions a0aits furt!er e."loration, and 9liot, "articularly of course in The Waste and, to ,ention only t!ese. T!e "!eno,enon of oppositio in imitando "arallels 0!at Carold Bloo, !as fa,ously figured as t!e $elated "oet=s struggle for originality in t!e face of an o""ressive 0eig!t of tradition in The An+iety of #nfluence D1 >%E and su$seAuent studies, $ut differs $y focusing largely on t!e i,"ersonal forces of generic develo",ent rat!er t!an on t!e "syc!ological tro"e of t!e *edi"us co,"le.. 3 furt!er "arallel ,ay $e found in t!e 0ork of t!ose sc!olars 0!o !ave atte,"ted to define t!e role of t!e individual "oet:singer 0orking 0it!in a tradition of oral co,"osition and "erfor,ance: e.g., 4agler 1 >'F 3ustin 1 >(. %M. *n t!is as"ect of t!e Aeneid, see Putna, 1 MM, 1(1:?&1. *n Milton=s C!ristian revision of "agan !erois,, see +is! 1 )>. % . See Puint 1 %F Wofford 1 ?. See t!e revie0 of $ot! Puint and Wofford in +arrell 1 %. '&. T!e "oe, t!us "rivileges orality over literacy: t!e ,odern s"elling is identical to t!e ancient, $ut t!e roug! $reat!ing ,ark is vestigial since t!e initial Csound !as disa""eared DWalcott uses t!e 0 only at %.%&.?E. T!us Walcott=s transliteration of Co,er=s ;reek na,e into 7o,an c!aracters as 8*,eros8 ironically re"resents ,ore accurately t!an standard ,odern ;reek ort!ogra"!y not only t!e a$sence of t!e 0 sound, $ut also t!e fact t!at t!e first and second & sounds Dre"resented in ;reek $y o,icron and o,ega, res"ectivelyE no longer differ in Auantity, as t!ey did in t!e ancient language, $ut actually sound identical. Bn fact, to say even t!is is too si,"le in vie0 of t!e ,ulti"licity of ancient conventions of s"elling and "ronunciation and t!e ,odern distinction $et0een 6at!arevousa and 5e,otike. But ,y ,ain "oint is, B t!ink, clear. '1. 4ote t!at it is clearly an in!a$ited or "ersonified environ,ent: a conc! s!ell sounds only 0!en $lo0n like a !ornF leaves ,ay crunc! under !u,an footste"s or fro, ot!er causesF and t!e ,out! of t!e cave Auickly $eco,es t!e 4arrator=s ,out!. '?. Terada 1 ?, )&. 87uins of a ;reat Couse8 originally a""eared in 1 (), t!en in Walcott 1 )? Dt!e

collection #n a Green (ight: Poems, B8:J&B8DN E and ,ost recently in Walcott 1 M) D Collected Poems E 1 :?1. '%. Omeros (.'1.1. ''. Omeros (.'1.?:%. '(. Omeros %.?>.1. '). 8Buffalo Soldiers8 0as t!e na,e given $y t!e Sout!0est and Plains Bndians to t!e troo"s 0!o served $et0een 1M)) and 1M 1 as t!e 4int! and Tent! 7egi,ents of t!e United States Cavalry, all of t!e, 3frican:3,ericans. T!e troo"s evidently acce"ted t!e na,e as a $adge of !onor, and t!e Tent! incor"orated a $ison into its regi,ental e,$le, D/eckie 1 )>, ?(:?)E. T!e 4int!=s involve,ent in t!e U. S. govern,ent=s res"onse to t!e ;!ost 5ance ,ove,ent a,ong t!e Siou. in 1M &:1M 1 0as t!e last significant ca,"aign of t!e Buffalo Soldiers D/eckie, "". ?(:?)E. T!e narrative of t!is e"isode in Omeros occurs in 0!at ,ay $e t!e ,ost elli"tical "art of t!e "oe,. Bt $egins 0!en 3c!ille, fres! fro, !is !allucinatory voyage to 3frica, re,e,$ers !earing t!e Bo$ Marley song 8Buffalo Soldier8 at a "arty t!e "revious nig!t and i,agines !i,self a ,e,$er of t!at troo" D Omeros %.%1.1E. T!e tale is related s"oradically in t!e t!irteen c!a"ters t!at flo0 t!roug! t!e 4arrator=s e."eriences living in Boston and, es"ecially, traveling to t!e ;reat Plains Da tri" e."licitly likened to 3c!ille=s drea, of 3frica at '.%'.?E and in "assages related fro, t!e "ers"ective of Cat!erine Weldon, a Boston 0o,an 0!o lived 0it! Sitting Bull at t!e ti,e of t!e ;!ost 5ance. T!is t!read of narrative ends 0it! $ook (. 3c!ille !i,self, in t!e reverie induced in !i, $y Marley=s ,usic, is i,agistically associated 0it! t!e destruction of t!e Siou. nation and of t!e 3ruacs D%.%1.1E. Bn a si,ilar 0ay, 3c!ille=s ancestor, t!e 3fola$e 0!o first acAuired t!e na,e 3c!illes fro, 3d,iral 7odney !i,self, !el"ed t!e Britis! forces "osition a cannon for t!e defense of St. /ucia against a +renc! assault D?.1'.%E. By t!is act t!is 3c!illes un0ittingly takes t!e "art of t!e Britis! 9,"ire, 0!ic! 0ould ulti,ately gain "olitical control over t!e island, against t!e nation t!at 0ould leave so great a sta," on t!e island=s culture, "articularly its language and religion, in t!e ti,e of !is descendants. Bt is "ossi$le, alt!oug! Omeros does not do so, to docu,ent t!e converse "!eno,enon, t!e co,"licity of 3,erican Bndians in t!e enslave,ent of $lacks: see 3$el 1 ?. 3nd, to co,"lete t!is $rief ty"ological survey of racial o""ression, see 6oger 1 M(. '>. Omeros (.'1.?. 'M. 84o0 t!at you are t0ice ,y age, 0!ic! is t!e $oy=s#0!ic! t!e fat!er=sG8 8Sir,82B s0allo0ed 2==t!ey are one voice8 D1.1?.1E. ' . Bloo, 1 >%. -? >-

C#NT!IBUT#!S
/argaret 0ie*ert Beissingeris /ecturer in t!e 5e"art,ent of Slavic /anguages and /iteratures at t!e University of Wisconsin:Madison. S!e is aut!or of The Art of the autar: The Epic Tradition of -omania D4e0 Lork: ;arland Press, 1 1E as 0ell as articles on 7o,anian and Sout! Slavic oral traditions and literature. Cer current researc! interests include gender issues in Balkan oral "oetry. Elaine 1antham is ;iger Professor of /atin at Princeton University. S!e is aut!or of co,,entaries on Seneca=s tragedy The Tro'an Women and $ook ? of /ucan=s Ci)il War, Comparati)e %tudies in

-epu*lican atin #magery DToronto: University of Toronto Press, 1 >?EF and, ,ost recently, -oman iterary Culture from Cicero to Apuleius DBalti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press, 1 )E. S!e is coaut!or 0it! C. +oley, 4. 6a,"en, S. Po,eroy, and 3. S!a"iro of Women in the Classical World: #mage and Te+t D*.ford and 4e0 Lork: *.ford University Press, 1 ' and 1 (E. Foseph 1arrell is Professor of Classical Studies at t!e University of Pennsylvania. Ce is t!e aut!or of 7ergil$s 4Georgics 4and the Traditions of Ancient Epic D4e0 Lork: *.ford University Press, 1 1E and atin anguage and atin Culture DCa,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press, fort!co,ingE. Cis current researc! includes a study of t!e idea of t!e classic as it develo"ed in antiAuity and as it functions 0it!in ,odern t!eoretical discourse. Ce is also director of T!e @ergil Pro1ect, a colla$orative, WWW:$ased resource for learning, teac!ing, and researc! a$out @irgil. Foyce Bur,halter 1luec,iger is 3ssociate Professor of 7eligion at 9,ory Univer: -? Msity. S!e is t!e aut!or of Gender and Genre in the 1ol,lore of /iddle #ndia DBt!aca, 4.L: Cornell University Press, 1 )E and coeditor of Oral Epics in #ndia DBerkeley: University of California Press, 1 M E and Boundaries of the Te+t: Performing the Epics in %outh and %outheast Asia D3nn 3r$or: University of Mic!igan, 1 1E. Currently, s!e is 0riting an et!nogra"!ic study on a fe,ale Musli, folk !ealer in Sout! Bndia. Andre2 1ord is 3ssociate Professor of Classics at Princeton University. Ce is aut!or of 0omer: The Poetry of the Past DBt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press, 1 ?E and nu,erous articles on ;reek "oetics and literary !istory in suc! 1ournals as Arion and Common Gno2ledge and in The (e2 Companion to 0omer D/eiden: 9.J. Brill, 1 >E. Ce is currently 0riting a $ook:lengt! study of t!e origins of literary criticis, in classical ;reece. Thomas /. Greene is +rederick Clifford +ord Professor 9,eritus of 9nglis! and Co,"arative /iterature at Lale University. Cis "u$lications include The "escent from 0ea)en: A %tudy in Epic Continuity D4e0 Caven: Lale University Press, 1 )%EF The ight #n Troy: #mitation and "isco)ery in -enaissance Poetry D4e0 Caven: Lale University Press, 1 M?E, 0!ic! received t!e Carry /evin Pri<e fro, t!e 3,erican Co,"arative /iterature 3ssociation and t!e Ja,es 7ussell /o0ell Pri<e fro, t!e Modern /anguage 3ssociationF and The 7ulnera*le Te+t: Essays on -enaissance iterature D4e0 Lork: Colu,$ia University Press, 1 M)E. Ce is also t!e aut!or of nu,erous articles, c!iefly on early ,odern literature, and is t!e coeditor of a volu,e on literary t!eory. ;reene is a +ello0 of t!e 3,erican 3cade,y of 3rts and Sciences and received t!e Medal of t!e CollSge de +rance in 1 M . Ce is currently t!e organi<er and ,anager of a t!eater co,"any t!at "roduces "lays in Connecticut !ig! sc!ools a$out et!ical dile,,as. Philip 0ardie is a University /ecturer in Classics at t!e University of Ca,$ridge and a +ello0 of 4e0 Call. Ce is t!e aut!or of 7irgil$s 4Aeneid4: Cosmos and #mperium D*.ford: Clarendon Press, 1 M)EF The Epic %uccessors of 7irgil: A %tudy in the "ynamics of a Tradition DCa,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press, 1 %EF and 7irgil, Aeneid #@, Ca,$ridge ;reek and /atin Classics DCa,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press, 1 'E. Ce is currently co,"leting a co,,entary on *vid=s /etamorphoses, $ooks 1%:1(, and is "re"aring a $ook on fa,e and ru,or fro, Co,er to Po"e. %heila /urnaghan is 3ssociate Professor of Classical Studies at t!e University of Pennsylvania. S!e is aut!or of "isguise and -ecognition in the 4Odyssey4 DPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 1 M>E and coeditor of Women and %la)es in Greco&-oman Culture: "ifferential E<uations D/ondon: 7outledge, 1 ME. S!e 0orks on ;reek e"ic and tragedy, gender in classical ;reece, and t!e classical tradition.

Gregory (agy is t!e +rancis Jones Professor of Classical ;reek /iterature and -? -

Professor of Co,"arative /iterature at Carvard University. Ce is t!e aut!or of The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the 0ero in Archaic Gree, Poetry DBalti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press, 1 > E, 0!ic! 0on t!e 3,erican P!ilological 3ssociation=s ;ood0in 30ard of Merit in 1 M?. Cis ot!er "u$lications include Comparati)e %tudies in Gree, and #ndic /eter DCa,$ridge, Mass.: Carvard University Press, 1 >'E, Gree, /ythology and Poetics DBt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press, 1 &E, Pindar$s 0omer: The yric Possession of an Epic Past DBalti,ore: Jo!ns Co"kins University Press, 1 &E, Poetry as Performance: 0omer and Beyond DCa,$ridge: Ca,$ridge University Press, 1 )E, and 0omeric .uestions D3ustin: University of Te.as Press, 1 )E. Cis s"ecial researc! interests are arc!aic ;reek literature and oral "oetics, and !e finds it re0arding to integrate t!ese interests 0it! teac!ing, es"ecially in !is course for Carvard=s Core Curriculu,, 8T!e Conce"t of t!e Cero in ;reek Civili<ation.8 Ce is currently c!air of Carvard=s Classics 5e"art,ent. "2ight 1. -eynolds is 3ssociate Professor of 3ra$ic /anguage and /iterature in t!e 5e"art,ent of 7eligious Studies at t!e University of California, Santa Bar$ara. Ce is t!e aut!or of 0eroic Poets, Poetic 0eroes: The Ethnography of Performance in an Ara*ic Oral Epic Tradition DBt!aca, 4.L.: Cornell University Press, 1 (E, coeditor of /usical (arrati)e Traditions of Asia Ds"ecial issue of Asian /usic, 1 (E, editor of Ara*ic Auto*iography Ds"ecial issue of Ede*iyat: Fournal of /iddle Eastern iteratures, 1 >E, and editor of #nterpreting the %elf: Auto*iography in the Ara*ic iterary Tradition Dfort!co,ingE. Ce is currently co,"leting a co,"arative study of "re,odern 3ra$ic and 9uro"ean auto$iogra"!ies. William %a+ is Senior /ecturer in 7eligious Studies at t!e University of Canter$ury in C!ristc!urc!, 4e0 Oealand. Ce is t!e aut!or of /ountain Goddess: Gender and Politics in a 0imalayan Pilgrimage D4e0 Lork: *.ford University Press, 1 1E and editor of The Gods at Play: /ila in %outh Asia D4e0 Lork: *.ford University Press, 1 (E. Ce is currently 0riting a $ook on Ci,alayan ritual "erfor,ances of /aha*harata. %usan %lyomo)ics is t!e ;eneviSve McMillan:7e$a Ste0art Professor of t!e Study of Wo,en in t!e 5evelo"ing World and Professor of 3nt!ro"ology at t!e Massac!usetts Bnstitute of Tec!nology. S!e is t!e aut!or of The /erchant of Art: An Egyptian 0ilali Oral Epic Poet in Performance DBerkeley: University of California Press, 1 M>E and /emory and Architecture: Ara* and Fe2 (arrate the Palestinian 7illage DP!iladel"!ia: University of Pennsylvania Press, fort!co,ingE as 0ell as nu,erous articles on t!eater and "erfor,ance in t!e Middle 9ast and 4ort! 3frica. Fane Tylus is 3ssociate Professor of Co,"arative /iterature at t!e University of Wisconsin:Madison. S!e is aut!or of Writing and 7ulnera*ility in the ate -enaissance DStanford: Stanford University Press, 1 %E and of nu,erous arti: - %&& cles on 7enaissance culture, literature, and t!eater. S!e is currently co,"leting a $ook entitled Pastoral Gossip: %ha,espeare, ope, Guarini and $eginning anot!er on t!e relations!i" $et0een religious and !u,anist nor,s of i,itation in early ,odern 9uro"e and t!e 3,ericas. %usanne indgren Wofford is Professor of 9nglis! at t!e University of Wisconsin:Madison. S!e is aut!or of The Choice of Achilles: The #deology of 1igure in the Epic DStanford: Stanford University Press, 1 ?E. S!e is editor of 0amlet: A Case %tudy in Contemporary Criticism DBoston: Bedford

Books, 1 'E and of t!e 4e0 Century @ie0s volu,e %ha,espeare: The ate Tragedies D9ngle0ood Cliffs, 4. J.: Prentice:Call, 1 'E. S!e !as "u$lis!ed articles on S!akes"eare, S"enser, Boccaccio, and Botticelli and is currently at 0ork on t0o $ook "ro1ects, one entitled Epic and Origin and t!e ot!er Theatrical Po2er: /imesis and Contagion on the %ha,espearean %tage. - %&1 -

IN-E3
%
3$ra!a,s, 7oger, (' , >1 a$straction, "!iloso"!ical, % , 1&& 3$u Oayd. %ee under 3ra$ic e"ic acade,ic interest in Bndian e"ic, 1'' , 1'( :'> ac!ieve,ent, affective cost of, 1 ? : %, ?1) :1> 3c!illes: funeral, ?&( :)F la,ents for Patroclus, ?&) , ?&> , ?1& :1?, ?1% F s!ares grief 0it! Pria,, 1 1 : ?, 1 % , ?1? 3cis, 1&' n. (' 3ctaeon, 1&1 n. ?& 3dler, Morti,er, ?% 3eneas: desta$ili<ation, ( F and 5ido, > :1&&, 11' , 1 > : M, ??' F dis"lace,ent, 1& , 11% , 11) F drea,:vision of Cector, ' F in Cades, 1 1 , 1 ( , 1 > : MF and lineage and "aternity, ?M> F and universal#local tendencies, 1& , 11) :1> 3eso", fa$les of, '1 aetiology. %ee origin talesF origins 3frica, ?% , ?' , ?>' :> , ?M n. ?1 3!ir caste, 1%) 3!l, +rederick M., & , ?%1

ainos Driddling discourseE, %' :%(, % :'&, '& :'? 3kas!vani D3ll Bndia 7adioE, 1'' :'( a,hos D8grief8E, Co,eric use, ?% 3lcaeus, ' n. ') 3lc,aeon of Croton, '> n. 1) 3lecsandri, @asileF "um*ra)a rosie DT!e red oak groveE, >1 , M& , M1 3letes, ??M aletheia=muthos o""osition, ?) 3le.andrian sc!olars!i", '( 3le.iou, Margaret, ?&' , ??1 3l!a 6and DBndian e"icE, 1%? , 1' n. 1> alienation. %ee dis"lace,ent 3llecto D+uryE, ' : (, > , M , 1?' allegory and allegoresis, 1& , 1' , %% :(%, M :1&>F ainos, %' :%(, % :'&, '& :'?F allegoria, %M , '& F 5erveni "a"yrus, %% , % :'&F and elitis,, '1 , '? , '% :'', '' :'(, 11 :?&F and ety,ology, %( , %) , %> , %M F and fa$les, '1 F and fi.ation, M , Cesiod, %) F Co,eric allegoresis, %' , %( :%M, '? , '% , '( , ? , ?M% F huponoia, %M :% , '& , '( F early Btalian, %% :(%F /atin e"ic, '( , & , ( : >F le.ical evidence, %M :'?F and ,eta,or"!osis, ?, M , ?)> n. %'F origins, %( :%MF "ersonification allegory, M , ( : >F "re:Socratics, %% , % :'&F as social "erfor,ance, ') F S"enser, '( , ?(> :(MF su$versive function, 1' F :1&&F

T!eagenes, %' , %( :%M, '? , '( F uses, '? :') 3ll Bndia 7adio D3kas!vaniE, 1'' :'( allusion, & 3,ata, 1 > , ??' a,$iguity, ver$al, 1& , 1? , () , 1&% n. '&. %ee also "unningF 0ord"lay 3,erican Bndians. %ee 4ative 3,erican oral tradition - %&? 3,iternu,, relief of funeral, ??( analogy, 1& , ?M% 3na.i,ander t!e Lounger, % ancestors, 1>% , 1>> , ?M) :M> 3nc!ises, 11( 3nderson, Benedict, >& 3nderson, Walter S., 1 ?' 3ndro,ac!e la,ents for Cector: in antici"ation of deat!, ?&M , ?& , ?1? :1', ??% , ??) F after deat!, ?&) , ?&> , ?&M , ?& , ?1( :1> anger as res"onse to grief, ??M , ?%& , ?%1 ani,is,, 1?& anony,ity of e"ic aut!ors!i", > ant!ro"ologies of /atin e"ic, and ,eta,or"!osis, 1 : ( ant!ro"o,or"!is, of gods, ?)> n. ? 3ntigone, ?%& 3ntikleia, 1 1 , 1 ( 3ntiloc!os, 1 1 3ntonius, Marcus, ??M a"!oristic songs, 1)& 3"ollo, ?'( :'M 3"ollonius 7!odius, a"ot!eosis, 1&? n. ? , 11% , 11' 3ra$ic e"ic D%irat Ban 0ilal E 11 , (' :)M, 1(( :)MF

addressing of audience, 1() , 1)% :)', 1)( , 1)) F audience "artici"ation, 1() , 1)' :))F au.iliary ele,ents of "erfor,ance, 1? , 1() , 1(M :)%, 1)) F au.iliary genres, 1)) F c!a"$ook "u$lications, 1(> F descri$ed, 1() :(MF disguise, (> :(M, )& , )% , )' , )( F fra,ing devices, 1)& :)%, 1)) F !ero, 3$u Oayd, (( :()F hitat *aladi genre, 1)( F on !onor, ( , )& , )1 F ,usical interludes, 1(M :( , 1)1 , 1)? F narrative structures, 1() , 1)% :)', 1)) F 4ile 5elta tradition, %% :%', 1(( :)MF outcast status of "oets, M , 1% , (( , )& , 1(> F "an:3ra$ a""ro"riation, 1(> F "erfor,ance ty"es, 1(> :(MF "erfor,ative conte.t, 11 , %% :%'F "lot, (( :(), ( :)(, 1() :(MF "unning, 1% , (( , () :(>, (M :( , )& :)1, )% :)', )( , )> F recordings, audio and video, 1(> F trickery, (> :( , )( , )> F U""er 9gy"tian tradition, (' :)M 3rausio, $attle of, ??M 3rc!iloc!us, fa$les of, '1 3rginusae, $attle of, ??M 3riosto, /udovico, ' , 111 , 11M , 1 M F and Tasso, 1?? , 1?' aristocracy and allegoresis, '1 :'?, '% :'' 3ristotle: on ainos, '1 , 'M :' n. '%F conce"t of e"ic, ?) :?>, ?M F on e"ic as tragedy, 1 % , ?&1 :? n. 11F and genre t!eory, ?1 F

rKsu,K of defenses of Co,er, %> F on tears of e"ic, 1( F t!eory of "oetry, '( 3r1una, 1>& , 1>1 , 1>% , 1>' , 1M& 3r,ida, 11 , 1?& , 1 3sia, central, ?% , 1)& asides, 1)% , 1)' , ?>) 3styana., ?1( , ?1) 3talanta, ?? 3t!ene, ) 3t!ens: e"ic recitals, ?> , '' , '( , ?M n. ?'F Peisistratids, '% , ?M n. ?'F "u$lic funeral orations, ?&( , ?%% n. ?'F Solon=s la0s on 0o,en=s la,ents, ?&( 3tlas, M , :1&& audience, ) , > F analogy ,akes e"ic ,ore i,,ediate to, 1& F asides addressed to, 1)% , 1)' , ?>) F "artici"ation in "erfor,ance, 1' :1(, 1() , 1( , 1)' :))F "oet addresses $y ,ani"ulating content of e"ic, 1)' , 1)( , ?>) F s!are in e"ic grief, 1 % 3uer$ac!, 9ric!, ?> 3ugustine, St., 1 > 3ugustus D*ctavianE, 11? , 11% , 11' , ?'> 3ustin ,J. /., ?? aut!ority, 1' , M> :1(1F c!aracteristic of classical e"ic, > , ?> F e"ic as aut!oritative s"eec!:act, ?( :?), 1)& F la,ent and issues of, 1( F of oral tradition, ?'' F and origin tales, ?'' , ?(? :(%F Walcott and, ?>% , ?M? :M%, ?M> F 0riting do0n of e"ic "rivileges "articular version, ?'& . :?&&

au.iliary ele,ents in 9gy"tian "erfor,ance, 1() , 1(M :)%, 1)) =30adalla! =3$d al:Jalil =3li D9gy"tian "oetE, (( 30ad!i dialect, 1%( , 1%) , 1'% 3yod!ya, Bndia, 1>1

B
Ba$ylonian, *ldF Gilgamesh,1 % : ' Badarinat!, Bndia, 1>? al:Bakatus!, 9gy"t, 1(> :(M Bak!tin, Mik!ail, ' :(, ) , ?1, ?M , ?>% , ?> Balkan C!ristian e"ic, 1? , ) :M)F definition, >& F and gender, 1? , 1% , ) , >& , > , M& :M?F literary e"ic, >1 , >% :M?F and nationalis,, 1? , 1% , >& :>1, >' :>(, > , M& , M1 oral e"ic - %&% ) , >1 :>%, > , M1 :M?F 0o,en=s roles, >? :>%, >( :>M, M1 Balkan Musli, e"ic, M? n. ?. %ee also Slavs, Sout! Ballia, Uttar Prades!, Bndia, 1'% Barkan, /eonard, 1 , ?)' :)( n. 1% Bart!es, 7oland, (> *as git DBndian narrative "erfor,ance traditionE, 1' n. ?& *asmalah as introduction to "erfor,ance, 1(M Bate, Jonat!an, 1 Bat!ua, 1%' , 1%M :% , 1'& , 1'? Ba0an Bir, 1'% :'' $a<aar "a,"!lets, Bndian, 1%> Beissinger, Margaret, 1% , ) :M), 1)' Bella,y, 9li<a$et!, ?'? , ?(> Ben1a,in, Walter, ' , ( :>

Beo2ulf, 1& , 1 ? Bhaga)adgita,1>1 B!arata lineage, 1>& B!i,a, 1>& , 1>% B!o1"uri dialect, 1%( $ird transfor,ations, ' , ?'? :'%, ?'M :(%, ?)' n. 1? Bisar 6at!a D$lacks,it!, of Ci,ac!al Prades!E, 1M& $leeding: in Tasso, 11M :1 , 1?& , 1?1 :?%, 1?' F in @irgil, 1( :1> $lindness, ?MM n. 1% Bloo,, Carold, , ?M> , ? 1 n. %> Bosnia:Cercegovina, M? n. ? $oundaries, 11 :1?F audience#"erfor,er, 1() , 1)% :)', 1)' :))F au.iliary "erfor,ance ele,ents#e"ic, 1() , 1(M :)%F of genre, 11 :1?, 1' :1(, 11( F geogra"!ical and social, of Bndian e"ic, 1%? :%%F god:,an:$east, 1 : (, 1&? n. ? , 1>? F la,ents and tears cross, ?% , 1 ( , ?&( F of language, 11 :1?, ?>1 :>?F ,eta,or"!osis and transgression of, 1 : ?, ?)( n. 1%F "erfor,ance, 1' :1(, 1(( F "uns cross, () Bo0ra, C. Maurice, ?>' :>( Brat!0aite, 9d0ard, ?MM :M n. 1> 8Brer 7a$$it8 stories, ?'& , ?'% :'' $ride:"rice, Bndian, 1>( , 1>) Briseis, ?&) , ?&> , ?&M , ?1) $roadcasting, "erfor,ance conte.t, 1'( , 1'> , 1'M . %ee also cine,aF radioF television Brutus, /ucius, ??? :?% Buffalo Soldiers, United States 4int! Cavalry, ?M) Bulgaria, >1, > :M&, M? n. ?

Burris, Sidney, ?>? :>%, ?M% , ?M : & n. ? By$lis, ?'? , ?(&

C
Cae"io, Servilius, ??M Caieta, ?'? Calli,ac!us, , ?'? Callisto, 1&1 n. ?& Ca,illa, ??( :?) Ca,Jes, /uis de, ' , ?M' Candaini e"ic, 1%1 :(1F acade,ic interest, 1'' , 1'( :'>F $a<aar "a,"!lets, 1%> F and caste concerns, 1%( :%>, 1% , 1'' , 1'> F C!!attisgar! versions, 1%> :''F and cine,a, 1% , 1') , 1'> F e"isodic "erfor,ances, 1%% :%'F and gender issues, 1' , 1%> :%M, 1% :'&, 1'& :'%, 1'' F ,edia "erfor,ances, 1'' :'(, 1'> , 1'M F ,usical acco,"ani,ent, 1%M F 8ne08 "erfor,ance conte.ts, 1'' :'MF "erfor,ance styles, git and naca,1%M :'&, 1'% , 1'> F and regional identity, 1%1 :%?, 1%? :%%, 1%' :%(, 1%> :'', 1'> F story, 1%% :%(F Uttar Prades! versions, 1%? , 1%' :%(, 1% :'&, 1'? :'%, 1'' , 1'> F and 0arrior et!os, 1%( :%>F 0o,en "erfor,ers, 1% :'&, 1'( Cannae, $attle of, ??% canon, ) , 1' , ?> F local variants fi.ed in, ?M n. ?' Ca"itoline Cill, 11% Caraveli:C!aves, 3nna, ?&' Cari$$ean, 1) . %ee also Walcott, 5erek

Cart!age. %ee 5ido and 3eneas cassettes, recording, 1'' caste, 1%( :%>, 1% , 1'' , 1'> Cat!olic c!urc!, 11& , 11> , 1?& Cato, M. Porcius t!e Lounger, ??% cause. %ee origins c!a"$ooks, %irat Bani 0ilal , 1(> C!arle,agne, 1 ? C!aucer, ;eoffrey, ?(> :(M C!!attisgar!, Bndia. %ee Candaini e"ic C!icago, University of, ?% C!ios, '( C!itrakut, Bndia, 1>1 C!ristianity, ' F and ,eta,or"!osis, 1?% , ?( , ?)> n. %'F and tears, 1 > , 1 M , 1 C!rist=s $leeding $ody, Tasso on, 11M :1 , 1?? , 1?' - %&' C!urc!ill +alls Cydro Pro1ect, ?)) n. ?' Cicero, M. Tullius, 'M n. ??, & cine,a, Cindi, 1% , 1') , 1'> Circe, & , ? , ' civil 0ars, 7o,an, 111 :1? Cleo"atra, 0ife of Meleager, ?& Clorinda, 1?1 :?% closure, > , 1 1 : ?, ??? , ??) , ?'' , ?(? Cole, T!o,as, '1 collections of oral "oetry, Balkan, ) , >& , >1 :>?, > collective aut!ors!i", > collective voice, colonialis,, 1 , ?'' :'(, ?( :)&, ?>% :>', ?M& , ?M( :M) Colu,$ia University, ?% co,edy, ?> , 1)(

co,,unity: as denied "artici"ation in e"ic, ' F e"ic as "roduct of, ( :), > F e"ic focus on deeds significant to, ? , 1& , 1%1 F self:identity, 1M% n. 11 co,"arative studies, ( , ?% :?', ?>' . %ee also specific nationalities co,"laint, in 0o,en=s la,ent, ??( co,"le,entarity "rinci"le, and genre, ?' :?(, ?> , ?M , 1%1 co,"osition: oral and literary "rocesses, > : , >' F and "erfor,ance, ?1 :? confession, 1 con<uestio Dforensic genreE, ??? consolationes, Statius=, ?%% n. 1M conte,"oraneity and e"ic, ' :> content of e"ic, traditional nature of, > conte.t: !istorical, ?' F "erfor,ance, % , 1'' , 1'( , 1'> :'M, 1(M cos,o"olitan#local tensions. %ee local culture cost of ac!ieve,ent, affective, 1 ? : %, ?1) :1> Counter:7efor,ation, 11& , 11> , 1?% Crates of Mallos, '( Crenaeus, ?? Creole languages of St. /ucia, ?>? , ?>% :' Creon, ?%& :%1 Crete, 11' Croatia, >1 , >? , > Culler, Jonat!an, () cult: of e"ic villains, in Ci,alayas, 1) , 1>( :M?F local, reflected in e"ic, 1&M :%&F in return stories, 1& :1&F

in Tasso, 11 , 1' , 11> :?(F in @irgil, 11 , 1' , 111 :1> cultural studies, ) curse, ,ot!er=s, >? , >> :>M Cy"arissus, *vid=s story of, ?'?

5a$ar Sing!, 1>% dance: e."erience of "artici"ation in ritual, 1>% F in Bndian naca, dance:dra,a, 1%M , 1% :'& 5anfort!, /oring, ?&' , ??1 5ante 3lig!ieri: co,,unal Btalian "oetic legacy, 11M F and deat! $y 0ater, ? 1 n. %>F e.ile and estrange,ent in, F on ,eta,or"!osis, ?( , ?)> n. %'F "arody of C!ristian ,ysteries, 1?> :?M n. %&F and Tasso, 1?? , 1?' F tears in, 1 5a"!ne, ?'? , ?'( :'M, ?(M , ?( 5a"!nis, @irgil=s la,ent for, 111 :1? 5arius B, 6ing of Persia, '% deat!: in origin tales, ?'' F social, after deat! of ,ale !ead of !ouse!old, ?1( F $y 0ater, ? & : 1 n. %>F 0o,en=s role in rites, >( :>). %ee also la,ent definition of e"ic, ? , ?% , ?' , 1& , ?> :M& de Man, Paul, & : 1 5e,etrius, On %tyle,'M n. ?? 5e,odocus, de,ons in /atin e"ic, M

5erveni "a"yrus, % :'&, '( , ' n. '> 5evlal DBndian e"ic singerE, 1') 5!a,tari, Bndia, 1'( 5!ola:Maru e"ic tradition, 1%1 :%? 5!ritaras!tra, 1>& dialectal variants, intercultural, ?M' :M( dialogue: audience, in 3ra$ic e"ic "erfor,ances, 1)( :))F e"ic as dialogic genre, ?> :M> dianoia D"oet=s a""arent intentionE, % dic!oto,y and indeter,inacy, ?>& :>1 dicing ga,es, 1'? 5ido and 3eneas, > :1&&, 11' , 1 > : M, ??' , ??) 5ionysia, City D3t!enian festivalE, ?> 5ionysius t!e Lounger of Syracuse, '? disguise: *dysseus=, % F in %irat Bani 0ilal,(> :(M, )% , )' , )( , )& F @enus=, in Aeneid,1&' n. '1 dis"lace,ent, F of 3eneas, ( , 1& , 11& , 11% :1', 11) F of local gods, 11? :1%, 11% :1', 11( F in Tasso, 11> F in @irgil=s 1irst Eclogue,11? :1%F 0o,en=s ?&M , ?1M n. ?1 distance, e"ic as $ased on, ' 5rau"adi, 1>& , 1>% , 1>( 5u$io, +ra, ?( , ?)& - %&( 5u!s!asana, 1>& , 1>) du"licity. %ee disguiseF trickery 5uryod!ana, 1>& F cult 1>) :>>, 1>M :M? 5yora village, ;ar!0al, Bndia, 1>)

E
9gy"t. See 3ra$ic e"ic eidos D8for,,8 8genre8E, ? n. ?? elementa D8ele,ents,8 8letters8E, & 9liot, T. S., 1&M , 11& , ? 1 n. %> elitis,: and allegory, '1 , '? , '' :'F Bak!tin=s, ' :(F of literary e"ic, ' , 11& , 111 F and "erfor,ative conte.t, 1% F secret language and, )1 :)?F Tasso=s, ' , 11& , 111 , 11> , 1?' :?(F @irgil=s 11& , 111 9li<a$et!an era, ?( :)& e,$edded "assages: e"ic "erfor,ances 0it!in e"ic, 1' , ?? , ?% , ?( , 1)( , 1 & , ?&) :>, ?>) F oral literary genres in Balkan literary e"ic, >' 9nloe, Cynt!ia, >M , M1 9nnius, ??? entertain,ent, e"ic sung for, 1%( 9nvy, *vid=s "ersonification allegory, ) , > epe D3ristotle=s ter, for 8e"ic8E, ?) epea pteroenta DCo,eric 80inged 0ords8E, ?) e"ic. %ee specific aspects throughout inde+ 9"ic Cycle, ?> e"isodes, e"ics "erfor,ed in, 1%% :%', 1>' epitaphios logos D3t!enian "u$lic funeral orationE, ?&( , ?%% n. ?' epos=muthos distinction Dun,arked# ,arked, ordinary#s"ecial s"eec! actsE, ?( :?) 9risyc!t!on, *vid on, ) : >, 1&% n. %> estrange,ent. %ee dis"lace,ent 9t!io"ia, ?>' et!nic culture, fas!ion for, 1'' ety,ology and allegoresis, %( , %) , %> , %M 9u,aeus, '1 , 1 ) , ?('

9urocentricis,, 1) , ?>% :>' 9uro"e, 9astern, ?% . %ee also Balkan C!ristian e"ic 9uryalus, ,ot!er=s la,ent for, ??' :?( 9vander, 11% , ??( , ?%& :%1 e.ile. %ee dis"lace,ent

$
fa$les, '1 false!ood and trut!, ?) , +a,e, fama, ) , > :1&& 1ames. %ee Cunger fa,ily: e"ic "erfor,ances at cele$rations, 1% , 1(M F e"ic "oets= art "assed do0n t!roug!, M , >% , 1(> F glory, ,leos, trans,itted t!roug! ?1' , ?1( +ant!a,, 9laine, 11 , 1? , 1( , ?&' , ??1 :%( +arrell, Jose"!, 1? , 1( , ?>& : ) fat!ers, ?M> . %ee also Pria, +aunus, cult of, 11' , 11( +eeney, 5enis, %) , 1 , > , ?)( n. 1), ?)> n. ? +eld, Ste"!en, ?&M fe,inist "ers"ectives, ) , 11 , ?&' . %ee also genderF 0o,en festivals, e"ic "erfor,ed at: 9gy"t, 1(M F ;reece, ancient, ?> , '' , '( F Bndia 1%( , 1'& , 1'' , 1'( , 1' n. %& fiction: in la,ent, ?&> F in origin tales, ?'' F trut! and, ?) , +igueroa, Jo!n, ?>? , ?>% , ?M% figurative language, 1& , & : 1.

%ee also allegoryF ,eta"!orF si,ile +inland, Gale)ala,1 ' +innegan, 7ut!, ?>( first:"erson utterance, 1)& fi.ity and fi.ation: allegory and, M , :1&&F denial of e"ic fi.ity, ?M( F of oral tradition $y 0riting, ?>( , ?M n. ?'F and ,eta,or"!osis, 1 , +lau$ert, ;ustave, 1 ) flo0ers, aetiology of ?'? +lueckiger, Joyce Burk!alter, 11 , 1? , 1' , 1%1 :(1 +oley, Celene, ??1 folklore, ( , >& :>1F Bndian, 1%) , 1'' :'( +ord, 3ndre0, 1? , 1% , %% :(% forensic r!etoric, ??? for,ulas, ( fra,ing devices, 1)& :)%, 1)) +ranciscan friars, 1?& +ra<er, Ja,es ;eorge: The Golden Bough,% +reud, Sig,und, 11( , ?() full:version "erfor,ances, 1%% , 1') , 1(M funerals, ?&( :), ??( , ?%% n. ?' +ury. %ee 3llecto :1&&, ?)' :)( n. 1%

.
;alinsky, 6arl, 11) ;ar! 7ivan, Bndia, 1%> ;ar!0al, Bndia, 1>? F cult of 6auravas, 1>( :M?F /aha*harata in, 1>1 :>(F panda) lila ritual "erfor,ance, 1>? :>' gaura DBndian festivalE, 1' n. %&

gender: desta$ili<ation of categories, 11 :1?, 1' and nationalis, 1% , M& , M1 . %ee also 0o,en - %&) genre, 1? , ?1 :? F 3ristotle and t!eory of, ?1 F $oundaries, 11 :1?, 1' :1(, 1(( F co,"le,entarity "rinci"le, ?' :?(, ?> , ?M , 1%1 F definition, ?? , 1%1 F e"ic as, 1? , ?1 :? , 1%1 F occasion eAuated 0it!, ?% F of Walcott=s Omeros,?>? :M> Gha'ar D8;y"sies8, 9gy"tianE, 1(> ;iants, % Gilgamesh, 1 % : ' git DBndian "erfor,ance style, 1%M :% , 1'& glory, ?%? . %ee also ,leos gods: allegoresis of $attles, %' , %( :%M, '% , ?M% F ant!ro"o,or"!is,, ?)> n. ? F and causation, ?'& :'1, ?(% :(>F god:,an category $oundaries, 1 : (, 1&? n. ? , 1>? F *ly,"ian, and universality, 1& . %ee also cult and specific gods ;offredo DTasso=s !eroE, 11& , 11 :?&, 1?% , 1?' good and evil, in /aha*harata,1>1 goos Dla,entE, ?&( :) ;reece: idea of e"ic, ?' , ?> F la,ent in ,odern rural, ?&' , ??1 . %ee also specific authors

;reene, T!o,as M., 1( , 1M :?&? grief: a,$ivalence to, @irgil=s, 1 > , 1 M F anger as res"onse to, ??M , ?%& , ?%1 F ,agic re1ected as solace, 1 ' : (F out0eig!s glory in Statius, ?%? F out0eig!s "raise in la,ent, ?&' F "arents=, for c!ild, ?1? F s!aring, 1 % , 1 ( . %ee also la,ent ;rill Dc!aracter in S"enserE, ?( guilds, ;reek r!a"sodes=, '( guilt, 1 > , 1 M , 1 ;y"sies, M , (( , 1(>

1
Cades, 1 1 , 1 ( , 1 > : M !agiogra"!y, Btalian "o"ular, 11M !ala$a De"ic:singers of 4ile 5eltaE, 1(> Ca,ner, 7o$ert, ?>? Ca,"ton, Ti,ot!y, 11> !andal, () , ( :)( Cardie, P!ili", 1? , 1' , M :1&> Car"ies, island of t!e, 11' Carris, Joel C!andler: Lncle -emus stories, ?'& , ?'% :'' !a0k and nig!tingale, Cesiod=s tale of, '1 Cector, ' , ?&( , ?&) , ?&> , ?1? :1' Cecu$a, ?&M , ?& , ?1& , ?1? , ?1' :1( Cegel, ;eorg Wil!el, +riedric!, ?> Celen: in #liad, ?&> , ?&M : , ?1& F in Odyssey,1 1 !el"ers, fe,ale, Balkan C!ristian e"ic, >? , M1

Cenderson, Jo!n, ??) :?> Cera: allegorical eAuation 0it! 8air,8 %( , %) , %> , %M Ceraclitus, %) , '' , ' nn. (?:(% Ceraclitus t!e 7!etor, ' n. (M Cerder, Jo!ann ;ottfried von, ( , >& !ereditary status of e"ic singers, M , >% , 1(> Cerington, Jo!n, 1 & Cer,a"!rodite, ?'? Cerodotus, '% , ?&1 n. ? !eroes: e"ic "erfor,ers in o0n rig!t, 1)( F "oet=s identification 0it!, 1)% !eroic et!os: la,ent su$verts, 11 , 1? , 1( , ?&% , ?&' , ?1? , ?1' :1>, ?%? . %ee also ,leos Cesiod, %) , '1 , '' , !ig! and lo0 literature, 1&M : , 11& :11 Cilal tri$e, %irat Bani 0ilal. %ee 3ra$ic e"ic Cinduis,: Bra!,inic, 1%( Dsee also casteEF cult of e"ic villains, 1) , 1>( :M?F divine incarnation in, 1>? !istoric $asis of e"ics, 1 ) hitat *aladi D3ra$ic co,ic routineE, 1)( Colst:War!aft, ;ail, ?&' , ??1 Co,er: 3frica e"ic co,"ared, ?>( :>)F allegoresis, %' , %( :%M, '? , '% , '( , ? , ?M% F asides, ?>) F $readt! of a""eal, '' , 111 F conce"t and rece"tion in ancient ;reece, ?) :?>, ?M F festival recitals, ?> , '' , '( F

for,ulas, ( F incor"oration of "erfor,ances 0it!in e"ic, 1' , ?? , ?% , ?( , 1 & , ?&) :>, ?>) F ini,ita$ility, ( , la,ent, ?&( :1>F ,arginali<ation of "oet, na,e "lay, %) , %M F orality, ( , ?>) F "erfor,ance, ?? , ?% , 1M : &F as "rototy"ical e"ic "oet, ( , ?1 F sc!oliasts, %( , %) :%>F si,iles, 1& te.tual canon, ?> , ?>( , ?M n. ?'F transfor,ations, 1 : ?F Walcott and, ?>? , ?>) , ?M& :M1, ?M1 :M?F 0ee"ing at "erfor,ances, 1M : &F 0ee"ing in e"ics, & : 1. #liad: on ancestry, ?M> $attles of gods, %' , %( :%M, '% , ?M% F e,$edded e"ic "erfor,ances, ?&) :>F ending, ?'? F fra,ing, 1)? :)%F funerals, ?&( :)F la,ent, 1( , ?&( :), ??? Dsee also 3c!illesF 3ndro,ac!eF BriseisF CectorF Cecu$aF CelenF PatroclusEF la,entlike language, ?& :1&F local variants, ?M n. ?'F as "rototy"ical e"ic, ( F tears, 1 1 : ?. ?&) :>. Odyssey: aetiological story, ?)% :((F $reak $et0een F ,onologis,, closure, aut!ority: Bak!tin=s ter,s, > F

- %&> ,yt!ic adventures and account of return, ?(' F e"ic "erfor,ances e,$edded in, 9u,aeus e"isode, '1 , 1 ) , ?(' F and local culture, 1& F and ,agic, ?(' :((F ,ani"ulation of content of "oe, to address audience, ?>) F novellike nature, ?M F *dysseus= and Tele,ac!us= relations!i", ?M> F P!aeacian e"isode, 1' , Sirens, 1 ' F Tiresias "ro"!esies of *dysseus= deat!, ? & : 1 n. %>F transfor,ations, ? , % , 1&& F 0ee"ing in, 1 & , 1 1 , ?&) :>. %ee also specific characters !onor: Bndian conce"ts, ' , 1%' , 1%) , 1'1 , 1'? :'', 1>' F ra"e and "olitics, of >M , > F 0o,en=s, attitudes to: 3ra$ic, ( , )& , )1 F Balkan, >M , > F Bndian, 1%) , 1'1 , 1'? :'% !u,or in e"ic, 1)% , 1)' , ?>( :>) Cunger, *vid=s "ersonification of, ( , ) , > , 1&% n. %> huponoia D8allegory8E, %M :% , '& , '( Cyacint!us, *vid on, 1 , ?'? !y"er$ole, M Cy"si"yle, ??M , ?? , ?&> , ?(% :((, ?>) F , 1' , ?? , ?% , 1 & , ?>) F

I
Bar$as, M , Bcelos, ) Bde, ??M ideali<ation:

of c!aracters, 1%( F of culture and for,, % identity, e"ic and, 1%1 , 1%? , 1M% n. 11. %ee also casteF regional identity #gor$s -aid,1 ? i,age, concern of e"ic 0it!, 1? immutatio DCiceronian ter,E, & i,"erialis,: 7o,an, 11? , 11% , 11' , ?') , ?'> , ?(> F Walcott and 9uro"ean, ?>% , ?M& , ?M( :M) %ee also colonialis, incarnation: in Cinduis,, 1>? F language of, in Tasso, 1?? , 1?% incest in origin tales, ?'' , ?(1 inclusiveness of e"ic, ? :%, ?M :? incor"oration of "erfor,ances 0it!in e"ic, 1' , ?? , ?% , ?( , 1)( , 1 & , ?&) :>, ?>) indeter,inacy, racial and cultural, ?>& :>1, ?>1 :>?, ?M> Bndia, ?% , 1%1 :(1, 1) :M)F acade,ic interest in e"ic, 1'' , 1'( :'>F 3l!a 6and, 1%? , 1' n. 1>F cine,a, 1% , 1') , 1'> F cult of e"ic villains Dsee 6auravasEF 5!ola:Maru e"ic tradition, 1%1 :%?F et!nic fas!ion, 1'' F festivals, 1%( , 1'& , 1'( , 1' n. %&F folklore, 1%) , 1'' :'(F gender issues, 1' , 1%> :%M, 1% :'&, 1'& :'%, 1'' F !onor, 1%' , 1%) , 1'1 , 1'? :'', 1>' F ,arriage custo,s, 1'' , 1>( , 1>) F ,artial et!os, 1%( :%>, 1>& :>1, 1>% , 1>' , 1>( , 1>> F ,edia "erfor,ances, 1'& , 1'' :'MF nationalis,, 1' F Pandvani e"ic tradition, 1%% , 1'& F

"laces of "ilgri,age, 1>1 , 1>? F regional identity, 1? , 1%1 :%?, 1%' :%(, 1%> :'', 1'> F t!eatre, 1'( :'>F 0arrior et!os, 1%( :%>, 1>& :>1, 1>? :>%, 1>' , 1>( , 1>> . Wo,en : e"ic "erfor,ers, 1% :'&, 1'( F status, 1' , 1%( :%), 1%) :%>, 1%> :%M, 1'& :'%. %ee also caste individualis,, Bndra"rast!a, Bndia, 1>1 ini,ita$ility, ( , innovation, ) , ?M% :M' intention, "oet=s a""arent Ddianoia E, % inversion of nor,s, ?M1 :M?, ?M% :M' in)idia D8resent,ent,8 89nvy8E, ) , ??? , ??% invocationF "ersonal#i,"ersonal, Walcott su$verts, ?M? :M% Bo, story of, ' : (, 1&1 n. ?& Bo"as, 1&& Bran: %hahnama 1 ? Breland, S"enser on, ?( :)& irony, ?M% :M' Brving, +or$es, 1&& :1&1 n. M Bsla,, Tasso on, 11> , 11M , 1?& , 1?1 , 1?' Bs,eno, 1?1 Bs,ond, Patricia, ?>? Btaly: allegoresis in early, 1% , %% :(%F "o"ular !agiogra"!y, 11M . %ee also specific authors Btys, ?' Bulus, 11( F

J
Jak! village, Bndia, 1>% Jak!ol village, Bndia, 1>) , 1>M :M1 Ja,,asa tri$e of U""er 9gy"t, ( :)& Jerusale,, 11> , 11M :1 Jo!ar, )% , )' , )( Jo!nson, Jo!n Willia,, ?>( Joyce, Ja,es: Llysses, ?>? :>% Julius Caesar, 11' , 11( Ju"iter, % , , 1&% n. '& Juturna, 1 > , ??) , ?')

,
Gale)ala, 1 ' Gam*ili, ?>( :>) 6a"!alori village, Bndia, 1>% 6arad<ic, @uk Stefanovic D8@uk8E, >1 :>?, >% , >' :>(, > - %&M 6aran, 7a1a D86ing 6arna8E, 1>( :>), 1>> , 1>M , 1> , 1M? 6arna, 1) :>&F cult of, 1>( :>), 1>> , 1>M , 1> , 1M? 6aurava $rot!ers, 1) , 1>& , 1>> F cults of, 1) , 1>( :M? 6a<ant<akis, 4ikos, ? 1 n. %> 6enney, 9.J., ?'> 6!adra S!arifa D86!adra t!e 4o$le8E, (( :(), (M :( , )( , 1)1 :)? 6!atfa, () al:6!idr, )% :)' kings, allegory used to address, '1 , '? :'% 6i"ling, 7udyard: 8Co0 t!e 9le"!ant ;ot Cis Trunk,8 ?'& , ?'% , ?'' :'( ,leos D8"raise,8 8glory8E:

la,ent su$verts, 11 , 1? , 1( , ?&% , ?&' , ?1? , ?1' :1>, ?%? F ,ale concern 0it! in la,ents, ?&' , ?11 , ?1% :1'F trans,ission $et0een fat!er and son, ?1' , ?1( 6losso0ski, Pierre, 111 6no., Bernard, ?>? 6ol1evic, Sveto<ar, >1 :>? 6ris!na, 1%) , 1>& , 1>1 6s!atriyas DBndian 0arrior classE, 1>& , 1>% , 1>' 6ula Sing!, of Jak!ol, Bndia, 1>M 6uruks!etra, Bndia, 1>1

&
/a$rador Bndian oral tradition 1? , ?'? :'%, ?(1 :(%, ?)1 :)%F "edagogic value, 1) , ?% :'& /ak!a Mandal, Bndia, 1>? la,ent, % , ( , 1( , 1M> :?%(F and action, ?% , ?&( , ??M F agonistic, ?& F a,hos and penthos indicate ritual songs of, ?% F antici"atory, ?&) , ?&M , ?& , ?1& , ?1? :1', ??% , ??) F 9nnius, ??? F and e"ic, ?>' :>(F and fama, M F fe,inist studies 11 , ?&' F fictitious, !o"ed:for events in, ?&> F and genre $oundaries, 1? F ;reek ,odern rural, ?&' , ??1 F !eroic et!os, ,leos: e,"!asi<ed in ,en=s la,ent, ?&' , ?11 , ?1% :1'F su$verted $y 0o,en=s, 11 , 1? , 1( , ?&% , ?&' , ?1? , ?1' :1>, ?%? F in Co,er, 1( , ?&( :1>, ??? Dsee also under 3c!illesF 3ndro,ac!eF BriseisF CectorF PatroclusEF in /atin e"ic, 1? , ?&' , ??1 :%(F /ucan ??? :?%F

,en=s, ?1& :1?, ?%& :%1F ,en=s use of conventions of, ?1? :1'F ,ourner as res"onsi$le for deat! !e ,ourns, ?1& :11F oral, incor"orated in Balkan literary e"ic, >' F as oral tradition, 1( , ?&' F "arents=, for c!ildren, ?1? , ??' :?(, ?? :%&F Dsee also Cecu$aF Pria,EF "raise in, ?&' F "u$lic co,,unal, ??? :?%F in 7enaissance e"ic, ?%% n. 1'F resolution t!roug!, ??? , ??) F and revenge ?11 , ??? , ??( , ??M , ?? F and sta$ility of co,,unity, > F Statius, ?%? F transfer of suffering to ot!ers, ?11 F @irgil, ??% :?), ?M' F @irgin Mary=s, ?%% n. 1'F 0o,en=s, % , 1? , ??1 : agonistic ?& F in Balkan e"ic, >( :>), >> , M1 F concern for o0n sufferings, ?&) , ?&M : , ?1' :1>, ?%& F ;reek legal and literary res"onses to, ?&' :(F in Co,er, 1 1 , ?&% :??F "rofessional ,ourners, ??( F su$versive of !eroic et!os, 11 , 1? , 1( , ?&% , ?&' , ?1? , ?1' :1>, ?%? F 0o,en=s voices !eard t!roug!, ?&' , ?&> : , ?%1 landsca"e, aetiology of, ?'? , ?'( :'M, ?(( language: a,$iguity, 1? , () , 1&% n. '& Dsee also "unningEF crossing $oundaries of, 11 :1?, ?>1 :>?F of incarnation, 1?? , 1?% F secret, )1 :)?F of transfor,ation, &, ' : (, ) , M

/atinus, 6ing, 11' , ??' , ??) /atiu,, local cults of, 11% , 11' :1> laudatio Dfuneral eulogyE, ?%% n. ?' laug!ter, (M , ( laurel. %ee 5a"!ne /avinia, 11' , 1 > , ??' /aviniu,, 11) la0 on 0o,en=s la,ents, ;reek, ?&' :( /efko0it<, Mary, ?>? lila D9gy"tian social gat!eringE, 1(M /Kvi:Strauss, Claude, (' lineage, ?M) :M> linearity of e"ic, su""osed, ?'? linguistic turn in *vid, & : 1 literacy, 1? , 1% , 1( F e"ic tradition as ,ore t!an 0ritten 0ork, 1>' :>( fi.ing of oral tradition in 0riting, 1% , 1(> , ?'& , ?>( F Walcott and scri$al culture, ?>) :>>, ?>M , ?> , ? 1 n. '&. %ee also literary e"icF orality literary e"ic, a,$iguity, 1? F Balkan C!ristian, ) , >& , >1 , >% :M?F co,"osition "rocesses, > : F and nationalis,, 1? , 1% , >& :>1, >' :>(, > , M& , M1 F oral e"ic as ins"iration for, > F oral genres e,$edded in, >' F transition fro, oral e"ic, 1( , 1 ) : >F 0o,en in, 1? , 1% , ) , >& , >( :>M, > , M& :M?. %ee also specific authors - %& literature, !ig! and lo0, 1&M : , 11& :111 /ivy, ??% local culture, 11 :1?, 1' , 1&M :%&F :11F

and universal, > , 11 , 1' , 1&M :%&F and variants in e"ic, 1>1 , ?M n. ?' Dsee also Candaini e"ic: C!!attisgar! and Uttar Prades! versionsEF in @irgil, 11 , 1& , 11% , 11' :1>, ?') . %ee also cult, local 8/oon, T!e +irst8 D/a$rador Bndian taleE, ?'? :'%, ?'' , ?(1 :(? /orau., 4icole, ??1 /ord, 3l$ert, ( , ?1 , ?? , ?% , ?' , >? /orik, 1%' , 1%) :%>, 1% , 1'& :'1, 1'? , 1'% /ucan, 1?? , ??? :?% /ucretius, 1 , 1&? n. ?), 1&% n. '&, ?'1 , ?(> /ukacs, ;yorgy, ) , ?> lusus Troiae,?'? /ycaon, 1 , % , ( /ycurgus, ?> lyric "oetry: ma22al genre,1( :)&, 1)1 , 1)? F threnos genre, ?&)

M
Ma<uranic, Bvan: %mrt %mail&Age Cuengica DT!e 5eat! of S,ail:3ga Cuengic E >1 , > , M1 Mac!aon, ?M : & n. ? madih Dsong of "raise to Pro"!etE, 1( , 1)1 , 1)? Maeon Din StatiusE, ??> ,agic, & , 1 ' : (, ?(' :(( ,agical ety,ology, %> :%M /aha*harata,1) :M)F cult of villains, 6auravas, 1>( :M?F as e"ic tradition, 1) , 1>' :>(F in ;ar!0al, 1>1 :>(F good and evil as t!e,e, 1>1 F as 8!istory,8 1>% F and ,artial et!os, 1>& :>1, 1>% , 1>' , 1>( , 1> F

origin stories, 1>? F Pandvani tradition, 1%% , 1'& F "laces associated 0it!, 1>1 :>?F su,,ary, 1) :>1 ma,arismos, ?%% n. ?' Mal$ecco, ) : >, ?( Mande !unter songs, 1)& Man1ari, 1%' ,arginali<ation of e"ic "oet, M , , 1% , (( , ( :)& ,arkedness#un,arkedness of s"eec! acts, ?( :?) ,arriage custo,s, Bndian, 1'' , 1>( , 1>) ,artial et!os in Bndian e"ic, 1%( :%>, 1>& :>1, 1>' , 1>( Martin, 7ic!ard, 1% , ?? , 1)? , ?& Mar.is,, ) Mary, @irgin, 1?% , ?%% n. 1' ma22al D3ra$ic lyric genreE, ( :)&, 1)1 , 1)? ,edia. %ee $roadcastingF cine,aF radioF television Meleager, ?& ,e,ory, ' Menoeceus, 1&% n. %>, ?? :%& ,eno"ause, >) :>> Mercury, M , ,eta,or"!osis, M :1&>F and allegory, ? , M , ?)> n. %'F and ant!ro"ologies, 1 : (F and C!ristianity, 1?% , ?( , ?)> n. %'F and fama, > :1&&F and fi.ity, 1 , language of, & F in /atin e"ic, & , 1 : (F $y ,agic, & F *dysseus=, % , 1&& F in origin tales, ?'% :'', ?'' :'(F "art:to:"art analogy, ?'( , ?)) n. ?%F :1&&, ?)' :)( n. 1%F

and "ersonification, ( : >F Protean, s!ifting, reversi$le, M : &, > :1&&, ?( F ter,inal, irreversi$le M , 1 , ,eta"!or, 1& , & Mic!iki,au, /ake, ?)) n. ?' Mill,an, /a0rence, ?'? Milton, Jo!n: Paradise ost,' , , '( , 1& , ?&& :1F Satan ?M% , ?M' , ?M> /iracoli della 7ergine, i*ro dei Cin<uanti,1?% Miseno, Punta di, ?'? miseratio Dforensic genreE, ??? Moldavia, M& ,onologic nature of e"ic, > , ?>% , ?M' Montenegro, >1 , >? ,onu,entalis, of e"ic, ?&% Mor"!eus, ) ,ot!ers: curses, >? , >> :>MF figure in Balkan e"ic, >? , >> , M1 F la,ents, ??' :?(, ?? :%& Dsee also Cecu$aEF ,urderous, ?11 ,ourners, "rofessional, ??( Mu!a,,ad, song of "raise to Dmadih E 1( , 1)1 , 1)? ,ulticulturalis,, 1( :1), ?%> : ) Murnag!an, S!eila, 11 , 1? , 1( , ?&% :?& ,usic, 1%M , 1(M :( , 1)1 , 1)? muthos Daut!oritative s"eec! actE, ?( :?), ?& :1&, ?1? Myrr!a, ?'? , ?(& , ?(1 , ?( :1&&, ?'% :'', ?'' :'(, ?(

N
naca DBndian "erfor,ance styleE, 1%M , 1% :'&, 1'% , 1') , 1'> 4agar1una, 1>% , 1>'

4agy, ;regory, 1? , 1% , ?1 :%?, '1 , '? , 1& , 1%1 , 1 1 4ai"aul, @. S., 1) , ?M n. 1> - %1& na,es, "lay on, %) , %M , )1 4arcissus, ?'? 4a=sa, ( national#local tensions, 11 , ?') nationalis,, 1? F in Balkan C!ristian e"ic, 1? , 1% , >& :>1, >' :>(, > , M& , M1 F and folklore, >& :>1F and gender, 1% , M& , M1 F and Bndian e"ic, 1' F ro,antic, >& F Walcott, ?M& 4ative 3,erican oral tradition, 1? , ?'? :'%, ?(1 :(%, ?)1 :)%F "edagogic value, 1) , ?% :'& 4aya T!eatre, 4e0 5el!i, Bndia, 1'( 4e0 Criticis,, % , ?M% 4e0 5el!i, Bndia: 4aya T!eatre, 1'( (i*elungenlied,1 ? nig!tingale, '1 , ?'? . %ee also P!ilo,ela 4ile 5elta, 1(( :)M 4io$e, ' , ??M , ?(& , ?(M 41egos, Petar Petrovic, BB >% :>'F Gors,i )i'enac DT!e Mountain Wreat!E, ) , >1 , >' :>M, M1 nor,s: inversion of e"ic, ?M1 :M?, ?M% :M'F violence in enforcing social ?(1 :(? nostoi. %ee return, stories of novel, ' , ?M , ?>% , ?M> novelty, e"ic=s "ost:Co,eric searc! for, ?M% :M' 4ugent, ;eorgia, )

#
oak tree, @irgil on, 1&' :( n. (( o$1ectivity of e"ic, ?M% occasion, ?? , ?% *ctavian. %ee 3ugustus *dysseus: and 9u,aeus, '1 , 1 ) , ?(' F in Cades, 1 ( F and Penelo"e, 1 & : 1, ?&M F poluainos, '? F polutropos, % , ) F and Sirens, 1 ' F tears, 1 & , 1 1 , ?&) :>F and Tele,ac!us, ?M> F transfor,ation into figure of 0ise ,an, % , 1&& *k"e0!o, Bsidore, ?>( :>) *ng, Walter, 1& *no,acritus, '% *"!eltes, ??M , ?? *"is, ny,"!, ??( :?) oppositio in imitando,? & : 1 n. %> oracle, Bndian, 1M& :M1 orality, oral tradition, 3frican e"ic, ?>( F aut!ority of tradition, ?'' F Balkan C!ristian e"ic, ) , >1 :>%, > , M1 :M?F Cari$$ean culture ?>) :>>F co,"osition "rocesses, ( , > : F Co,er, ( , ?>) , ?>M :> F la,ent as oral tradition, ?&' F and nationalis,, >1 , >' :>(F oral e"ic as ins"iration for literary, > F "erfor,ance traditions distinguis!ed fro,, ?> , ?M , 1%% :%'F :11, 1% , 1 :M) oral literary genres e,$edded in literary e"ic, >' F

and "olitics, >1 , >' :>(, M1 :M?F transition to literacy, 1? , 1% , 1( , 1 ) : >F Walcott on, ?>) :>>, ?>M :> , ? 1 n. '&F 0o,en=s roles, ) , >? :>%, M1 :M?, ?&' origin tales, ?% :) F aut!ority, ?'' , ?(? :(%F on $irds, ?'M :(&, ?(1 :(%, ?)1 :)%F c!aracteristics of genre, ?'% :'(F closure, ?'' , ?(? F and colonialis,, ?'' :'(F deat! in, ?'' F fictive trut! clai,s, ?'' F ,eta,or"!oses irreversi$le in, ?'% :'', ?'' :'(F 4ative 3,erican oral tradition, ?( :(%F nostalgia for origins, ?(1 :(?F in *vid 1) , ?'? , ?'( :(&, ?(M F se.ual transgression in, ?'? , ?'' , ?') , ?'> , ?'M , ?' , ?(1 , ?)' n. 1?, ?)) n. 1MF s"rings, ?(& F on ta$oos, ?(1 :(?. %ee also violence originality as c!aracteristic of e"ic, ?M& origins, ?% :) F in e"ic, 1>? , 1 ) , ?'? , ?(% :(>F evades direct re"resentation, ?'1 :'?, ?' :(&, ?(% , ?(( :(>, ?(M F gods= involve,ent, ?'& :'1, ?(% :(>F /ucretius on, ?'1 F of natural 0orld, ?'? :'%, ?'( :'M "ollution, ?(> :(MF in S"enser, 1) , ?(> :)&F in @irgil, 1) , ?'& :'1, ?'? , ?(( :(> *r"!is,, %M , % :'&, '' *sla village, ;ar!0al, Bndia, 1>) outcast, outsider: "oet as, M , , 1% , (( , ( :)&F

"ro"!etess:0itc! in Balkan e"ic, >) :>> *vid, 1? , M :1&>F ant!ro"ology, ? : 'F on +a,e, > :1&&F grotesAue, ?'M F linguistic turn, & : 1F /etamorphoses,M :1&>, 1?% F ,eta,or"!ic "rinci"le and fi.ity in, ?( , ?)' :)( n. 1%F origin tales, 1) , ?'? , ?'( :(&, ?(M F on Perse"!one, ?)) n. 1MF "ersonification allegory, ( :1&&F Pyt!agoras, s"eec! of, ? , M : si,iles, 1 F and S"enser, ?(> :(MF violence in origin tales, ?') , ?'> , ?'M F @irgil=s influence on, ' : (, > F 0ord"lay, ?' F

'
Palinurus, ?'? , ?(( Pallas, son of 9vander, ( , ??( Panat!enaia, ?> , '' panda) lila DBndian ritual "erfor,anceE, 1>? :>' Pandavas, 1) , 1>? , 1>( - %11 Pandu, 1) , 1>& Pandukes!vara, Bndia, 1>? Pandvani e"ic tradition, 1%% , 1'& "arallelis,, >' "arata.is, >' "arents, ?M) :M>F la,ents for c!ildren, ?1? , ??' :?(, ?? :%& Dsee also Cecu$aF Pria,E.

%ee also ancestorsF fat!ersF ,ot!ers Parry, Mil,an, ( , ?1 Part!eno"aeus, ?? , ?%1 "artici"atory nature of e"ic, 1' :1(. %ee also audience Parvati DCindu goddessE, 1'% Pastits!i, T!o,as, ?)) n. ?( "aternity, ?M) :M>. %ee also Pria, "atriarc!y, >& Patroclus, la,ents for, ?&) , ?&> , ?&M , ?1% , ?1) "edagogy, ) , 1( :1), ?% : ) Peisistratus, '% , ' n. '%, ?M n. ?' "enance, 1 Penelo"e, 1 & : 1, ?&M penthos D8grief,8 Co,eric useE, ?% "erfor,ance, 1& :11, 1' :1(F $oundaries, 1(( F classical ;reek tradition, ?> F and co,"osition, ?1 :??F conte.t, %% , 1'' , 1'( , 1'> :'M, 1(M F and generic $oundaries, 1' :1(F Co,eric evidence on, ?? , ?% , 1 & F levels, 1(( F locating $eginning of e"ic in, 1)? :)%F oral and "erfor,ance traditions distinguis!ed, ?> , ?M , 1%% :%'F ot!er genres as "art of e"ic, 1(M :)%F outcast "oet $eco,es $earer of tradition, (( F panda) lila, ritual, 1>? :>'F "erfor,er ,oves fully into role of !ero, 1' F ty"es and styles, 1%M :'&, 1'% , 1'> , 1(> :(MF 0it!in a "erfor,ance, ?? , ?% , 1)( , 1 & , ?>) Perse"!one, ?)) n. 1M "ersonification, M , ( :1&&, ??M , ?%% n. ?(

Petrarca, +rancesco, ' , ?'> P!aeacia, 1' , P!alaris, '? P!antasos, ) P!e,ius, ,1 & P!erecydes, %> P!iladel"!ia, Pa., sc!ool syste,, ?>& :>1 P!ilode,us, 'M n. ?? P!ilolaus, '> n. 1> P!ilo,ela, ?'? , ?'M :(&, ?(1 P!rynic!us: Capture of /iletus,?&1 n. ? Picus, 11' :1( "ilgri,age, Cindu "laces of, 1>1 , 1>? Pindar, ?) , '? , ' n. (%, ?&) Plato: on allegory, %M , '( , '> n. 1M, 'M n. %%, ' nn. (':((F and 5ionysius BB of Syracuse, ' on grief, 1 ( , ?&1 F on Co,er and tragedy, 1 & , 1 % , ?&1 n. 11F on "erfor,ance, %' , %> , 1M : &F on 0ee"ing at "u$lic "erfor,ances, 1M : &. #on, 8, %' , %> , 1M : &, 1 ( F Phaedrus, '> n. 1MF -epu*lic, %M , ' n. (', 1 & , 1 % F %e)enth etter,'? F Theaetetus,?&1 n. 11 "leonas,, >' Plunkett, 5enis, ?M& , ?M) "luralis,, ?M% Plutarc!, %M "oetry, tale of origins of, ?') :'> "olitics: of Balkan e"ic, 1? , >& , >1 , >' , >M , > , M1 :M?F co,,entary t!roug! e"ic, 1)( F , ?&> , ?(% :((, ?>)

of !onor, >M F of Bndian e"ic "erfor,ance, % , 11 , 1' :1(F "otency of e"ic in, ? :%. %ee also nationalis, "ollution, ?(> :(M, ?)' n. 1? "olyandry, fraternal, 1>& , 1>( Polydorus, 11( :1> Polynices, ??> , ?? , ?%1 "olyvocal di,ensions of e"ic, ?&% Po,"ey t!e ;reat, ??% 8"o"ular8 s"irit, ( Por"!yry, %( :%), %> , 'M n. %' "ostcolonial de$ates, 1 . %ee also Walcott, 5erek "oststructuralis,, ) "o0er: of 6auravas, 1>> F ra"e as c!allenge to ,en=s, >M , > F 0o,en=s lack of, >) :>>, M& :M1 praeficae D"rofessional ,ournersE, ??( "re:Socratic "!iloso"!ers, %% , %) , %> , % :'& Pria, Din #liad E 1 1 : ?, 1 % , ?1& , ?1? , ?1% Procne, *vid on, ?11 , ?'? , ?'M , ?' "rose in e"ic "erfor,ance, 1)& , 1)1 Proteus, ? "rover$s, 1%) , 1)& "syc!oanalysis, ) "u$lication of e"ics, 1%> , 1(> "unning, 1? , ?(> :(M, ?M& F 3ra$ic, 1% , (( , () :(>, (M :( , )& :)1, )% :)', )( , )> Putten!a,, ;eorge, ?(% Pyt!agoras, %) F S"eec! of Din *vidE, ? , M : Pyt!agoreanis,, %> , ''

I
Auestioning, self:, ?>' Puint, 5avid, ?'? , ?M' - %1? Puintilian, &

!
ra*a* D9gy"tian ,usical instru,entE, 1(M race, ?>& :>1, ?>% :>' radio, 1'& , 1'' :'( ragi DBndian e"ic "oet=s res"ondentE, 1%M , 1'& 7a1"uts DBndian 0arriorsE, 1>? :>%, 1>' , 1>( , 1>> 7akovski, ;eorgi: Gors,i putni, DWoodland travelerE, >1 , > :M&, M1 -amayana e"ic tradition, 1%? , 1>& , 1>1 , 1>% 7a,es!vara,, Bndia, 1>1 ra"e: and !onor, >M , > , M1 F in origin tales, ?'' , ?') , ?'> , ?'M , ?' , ?)) n. 1M 7astafari, ?>> 7aut caste, 1%' , 1%) , 1%> , 1%M , 1% , 1'% , 1' n. ?& 7ayya, ( , )& :)1 recordings, audio and video, 1%% , 1(> , 1(M rede,"tion, C!ristian, ?( regional identity, Candaini e"ic and, 1? , 1%1 :%?, 1%? :%%, 1%' :%(, 1%> :'', 1'> reinvention, ?>' , ?M% :M' re,orse, 1 > , 1 M , 1 re,uneration of e"ic singer, M 7enaissance, ' , ?%% n. 1' re"etition in co,"osition, >' re"etition co,"ulsion, ?() :(> resolution, > , 1 1 : ?, ??? , ??) , ?'' , ?(? return, stories of, >? , 1& :1&, 1 & revenge, ?11 , ??? , ??( , ??M , ??

reversi$ility, fantasy of, ?( :)& 7eynolds, 50ig!t, 11 , 1' , ') , 1(( :)M r!etoric, 1& , ??? riddling discourse. %ee ainos 7inaldo, 1?% :?', 1 7itu @ar,a, 1'& 87o$ins, T!e *rigin of8 D/a$rador Bndian taleE, ?'? :'%, ?(? :(%, ?)? :)% -oland, Chanson de, , 1& , 1?& , 1 ? , 1 ) 7o,a. %ee ;y"sies. 7o,ania, M , >1 , M& , M? n. ? ro,anticis,, ( , >& 7o,e: civil 0ars, 111 :1?F funerals, ??( F i,"erialis,, 11? , 11% , 11' , ?') , ?'> , ?(> . %ee also specific authors 7o,ulus, ??? 7usta,, 1 ? :?&&

S
sacrifice, !u,an, ?(( al:Safadi )) n. 11 sahra D9gy"tian social gat!eringE, 1(M :)% St. /ucia, Cari$$ean, ?>? , ?M& :M1 sa'$ D3ra$ic r!y,ing "roseE, 1)& , 1)1 Sal,acis, ?'? Sa,os, '( sanskriti<ation, 1%) Sa"iro, @irginia, >M , M& Sa""!o, ?M Satna,i caste, 1%M , 1% , 1'% , 1') Saturn, cult of, 11% , 11( Sa., Willia, S., 11 , 1' :1(, 1) :M) Sc!iller, Jo!ann C!risto"! +riedric! von, ?>

Sc!,idt, 9rnst, % sc!ool syste,, United States, ?>& :>1 Scyt!ians, 5arius and, '% seers, 0o,en, )? :)%, )' , )( , >) :>> Seneca t!e Lounger, ??1 , ??? Ser$ia, >1 :>? Sere,etakis, 4adia, ?&' Servius, 1&? n. ?' se.uality: a,$iguity of "oet=s, (> F transgressive, and origin tales, ?'? , ?'' , ?(1 , ?)' n. 1? %hYhnYma,1 ? S!akes"eare, Willia,, 1 S!iva DCindu godE, 1'% Sicily, '? silence and acts of silencing, ) Silvius, 11' :1( si,ile, & , 1 , ' , ( , 1& Singtur, Bndia, 1>( :>) %irat Bani 0ilal. %ee 3ra$ic e"ic Sirens, *dysseus and, 1 ' Skulsky, Carold, > Slatkin, /aura, ?' :?(, ?> 8slava8 DBalkan fa,ily feastsE, >' Slavs, Sout!, ( , ?% :?', M? n. ?, 1)& , ?>( Slee", *vid=s "ersonification of, ) Slyo,ovics, Susan, 11 , 1% , (' :)M social c!ange, res"onse of e"ic tradition to, 1) social co,,entary t!roug! e"ic, 1)( Sodolo0, Jose"!, ( : ) Solon of 3t!ens, ' n. '%, ?&( So,es!vara DCindu godE, 1>M :M? so"!ists, % , '( 8source8, S"enser=s "uns on, ?(> :(M

s"eec! and s"eec! acts, ?? :?%F e"ic as aut!oritative, ?( :?), 1)& F la,ent transcends s"eec!#action $oundary, ?% , ?&( S"enser, 9d,und, ' , 1? , ?(> :)&F and allegory, '( , ?(> :(MF 3rlo Cill digression, - %1% ?( :)&F ending, ?'? F Mal$ecco, ) : >, ?( F ,eta,or"!osis, ) : >, ?( F and origins, 1) , ?(> :)&F and *vid, ?(> :(MF on s"rings and sources, ?(> :(MF on suffering and tears, 1 M : s"rings, ?'? , ?(& , ?(> :(M Statius, P. Pa"inius, 1( , ??) :%?, ?%' F consolationes,?%% n. 1MF Epi,edeia D/a,entsE, ?%% n. 1MF The*aid, 1&% n. %>, ??) :%?F on transfor,ations, > Steiner, ;eorge, ?>? Ste"!en t!e ;reat, king of Moldavia, M& stereoty"ing, > Stesic!orus, '? Stesi,$rotus, % Stoics, '( su$1ect, delayed announce,ent of, ?M1 :M?, ?M% :M' Su!r_$, 1 ? Sundar Sing!, of Jak!ol, 1> Sundiata e"ic, ?M n. ?1 Sura1 Bai, 1'& Sven$ro, Jes"er,

sy,$olis,: of laurel in "oetry, ?'> F S"enser=s, ?(M

T
ta$oos, ?(1 :(? Ta!iti, ?)) n. ?% Tancredi, 1?1 :?% 8Tangaroa, Maker of 3ll T!ings8 DTa!itian taleE, ?)) n. ?% Tanvir, Ca$i$, 1'( :'> Ta"lin, *liver, ?>? Tasso, TorAuato, ' , 11> :?(, 1?> n. ?(F allegory, '( , 11 :?&F $leeding t!e,e, 11M :1 , 1?& , 1?1 :?%, 1?' F and Cat!olic c!urc!, 11& , 11> F elitis,, ' , 1& , 111 , 11> , 1?' :?(F on Bsla,, 11> , 11M , 1?& , 1?1 , 1?' F local and universal in, 11 , 1' , 11& , 11> :?(F on tears of e"ic, 1 :?&& Tatian, '> n. (, 'M n. ?% tears in e"ic, 1M :?&?F in Aeneid, 1 > : MF $reak do0n $oundaries, 1 ( F C!ristian attitudes to, 1 > , 1 as resolution, 1 1 :?F stig,a, 1 > Tele,ac!us, 1 & , ?&M , ?'1 , ?M> F tears, 1 1 , ?&) television, Bndian, 1'& , 1'' Tereus, ?'M :' , ?(& terme songs of central 3sia, 1)& T!eagenes of 7!egiu,, %' , %( :%M, '? , '( , t!eatre, Bndian e"ic in, 1'( :'> :?&&F at "erfor,ances 0it!in Co,eric e"ics, ?&) :>F

T!eognis, '& , ' n. ') T!etis, ?&) , ?1& T!o,as, 7. S., 1&( n. (( T!race, 11' threnos Dlyric genreE, ?&( :) Ti1an Bai, 1'& ti,e taken for "erfor,ance, 1(M Tiresias, ? & : 1 n. %> Todorov, T<vetan, ?? Tons 7iver $asin, Ci,alayas, Bndia, 1>' , 1>( :M? tradition: as i,"ersonal force, 1&M F /aha*harata as, 1) , 1>' :>(F "erfor,ance, ?> , ?M , 1%% :%'F "oet as $earer of, (( . %ee also orality, oral tradition tragedy, ?> , ?&( , ?& , ??1 , ??? transcendence, ?> :M& transfor,ation. %ee ,eta,or"!osis translatio imperii,?M( :M) translation, & , ?>> :>M trees: $leeding, 11( :1>, 1?1 :?%F origin tales, ?'? , ?'( :'M, ?(& Trent, Council, of 11> , 1?& trickery: in 3ra$ic e"ic, (> :( , )% :)', )( F in Bndian e"ic, 1% , 1>1 Tridentine Council, 11> , 1?& tro"e, 1? , & trut! and fiction, ?) , turn, linguistic, & : 1 Turnus, ' : (, > , 1&% n. %>, 11) :1>, ??( , ??) Tydeus, ??

Tylus, Jane, 11 , 1' , 1&M :%& tyrants, '1 , '? :'%, ''

U
Uganda, ?>' ululare, ?%' n. %% Lncle -emus stories, ?'& , ?'% :'' United States 4int! Cavalry, ?M) universality, 11 , 1' , 1&M :%&F in Tasso, 11& , 11> , 11 :?&, 1?% F in @irgil, 11& , 11( :1> Uttar Prades!, Candaini e"ic in, 1%? , 1%' :%(, 1% :'&F caste a""ro"riation, 1'' , 1'> F ,ale:centered variants, 1'& , 1'? :'%F and 0arrior et!os, 1%( :%>

@alerius +laccus, ' , 1&% n. '& @erdery, 6at!erine, M& @ernant, Jean:Pierre, 1 ( victi,s, 0o,en, >% , >M 8vilas,8 >% , >> , M1 villains, cult of e"ic %ee 6aurava $rot!ers - %1' violence in origin tales, ?'? , ?'' , ?') , ?'> , ?'M :(&, ?(1 , ?(( F in enforce,ent of social nor,s, ?(1 :(?F risk in e."osing, ?'? , ?' :(&, ?(% @irgil: Aeneid: aetiology, 1) , ?'& :'1, ?'? , ?(( :(>F 3llecto, ' : (, > , 1&% n. %>F and allegory, '( F analogy and i,age, 1 F ant!ro"ology, ' : (F and 3"ollonius 7!odius, F

and 3ugustus, 11% F cultic resonances, 11 , 1' , 111 :1>F 5ido e"isode, > :1&&, 11' , 1 > : M, ??' F disguise, 1&' n. '1F dis"lace,ent t!e,e, ( , 1& , 11& , 11% :1', 11)F Eclogue #, 11? :1%, 11> F Eclogue 7, 111 :1?, &11' , 11( , 11M F elitis,, 11& , 111 F +a,e, > :1&&F Georgics ##,1&' :( n. ((, ?'1 , ?(> F gods and causality, ?'& :'1, ?(( :(>F individuality, F innovation, ?M' F la,ent, 1 > , ??% :?), ?%& :%1, ?M' F language, 1 , ' : (, M F local and universal ele,ents, 11 , 1' , 1& , 11& , 111 :1>, ?') F /ucretian ec!oes, 1&% n. '&, ?(> F ,eta,or"!osis, ' : (, ?( F 4e0 Criticis,, ?M% F "ersonification, ?%% n. ?(F re"etition, ?() :(>, ?(M F Tasso and, 1?' F tears in, 1 > : MF Turnus, ' : (, > , 1&% n. %>, 11) :1>, ??( , ??) . %ee also 3eneas. )irha DBndian folk:song genreE, 1%) @irtue, Statius on, 1&% n. %> 8@olk,8 Cerder=s notion of, ( , >& @uk. %ee 6arad<ic, @uk Stefanovic

W
Walac!ia, M& Walcott, 5erek: Omeros, 1( :1), ?>& : )F

analogy, deflation of, ?M% F and aut!ority, ?>% , ?M? :M%, ?M> F $lindness t!e,e, ?MM n. 1%F and classical e"ic style, ?M& :M1F on colonial succession, ?M( :M)F dual cultures and genres, ?M> F genre Auestions, 1? , ?>? :M>F and Co,er, ?>? , ?>) , ?>M :> , ?M& :M1, ?M1 :M?, ?M' :M(F and i,"erialis,, ?M& , ?M( :M)F indeter,inacy of status, ?>1 :>?, ?M> F inversion of nor,s, ?M1 :M?, ?M% :M'F on lineage, ?M) :M>F nationalis,, ?M& F and orality#literacy distinction, ?>) :>>, ? 1 n. '&F "unning, ?M& F and race, ?>1 , ?>% :>'F and scri$al culture, ?>) , ?>> , ?>M , ?> F and traditional definitions of e"ic, ?M& F translation, ?>> :>M, ? 1 n. '&. *t!er 0orks: 8Cul de Sac @alley,8 ?>) :>>, ?MM n. 1%F "ream on /on,ey /ountain,?M n. 1>F 83 +ar Cry fro, 3frica,8 ?>1 F 8T!e Cotel 4or,andie Pool,8 ?>1 F O Ba*ylonW,?>> , ?M n. 1>F 87uins of a ;reat Couse,8 ?M( F 8Sainte /ucie,8 ? & n. ? 0arrior et!os in Bndian e"ic, 1%( :%>, 1>& :>1, 1>? :>%, 1>' , 1>( , 1>> 0ea"ons, ritual, 1>% :>' 0edding songs in Balkan e"ic, >' 0ee"ing. %ee tears in e"ic 0isdo,, 3t!ene as "ersonification of, ) 0itc!es, >) :>>, >> :>M, M1 Wofford, Susanne, 1? , 1) , ?% :) , ?M'

0o,en: in Balkan C!ristian e"ic, 1? , 1% , > , M& :M?F and deat! rites, >( :>)F dicing over fate of ,en, 1'? F dis"lace,ent, ?&M , ?1M n. ?1F ;reek ,odern rural la,ent, ?&' F !eroines of %irat Bani 0ilal,( :)&F and oral trans,ission, ?M F ot!er0orldly, >% , >) :>>, M1 F "o0erlessness, >) :>>, M& :M1F "rofessional ,ourners, ??( F roles, >? :>%, >( :>M, M1 F s"irited, >? :>%, M1 F stereoty"es, >? :>%, > F sy,$olic ,ale, "ost:,eno"ausal, >) :>>F in tragedy, ?& F 0ee"ing stig,ati<ed, 1 > . %ee also ,ot!ersF ra"eF see under !onorF BndiaF la,ent 0ord"lay, 1? , ?' . %ee also na,esF "unning

3
Qeno"!anes, %> , '? , '% :''
Preferred Citation: Beissinger, Margaret, Jane Tylus, and Susanne Wofford, editors. Epic Traditions in the Contemporary World: The Poetics of Community. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1 1 . !tt":##ark.cdli$.org#ark:#1%&%&#ft'&&&&()(#