Optimal Voltage Level for DC Microgrids

Sandeep Anand, Student Member, IEEE, and B. G. Fernandes, Member, IEEE

Electrical Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India
Email: sa@ee.iitb.ac.in, bgf@ee.iitb.ac.in
AbstractDepleting fossil fuels, increasing energy demand and
concern over climate change due to
2
emission motivate the
use of renewable sources. However, supplying electronics, variable
speed drives and LED loads from renewable sources requires
multiple ac-dc and dc-ac conversions. This causes substantial
energy wastage before end use. To address this limitation, dc
system is suggested, which offers high efciency and reliability
with low system cost. In this paper, suitable power electronic
interfaces for sources/loads/storage elements are discussed along
with their performance requirements. Further, efciency, cost
and safety issues of the dc system with various voltage levels are
compared. With suitable case studies, optimal dc voltage level
is determined for residential and commercial application. The
proposed dc system with this optimum voltage level offers 10-
22% improvement in energy efciency over the conventional ac
system.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, depleting fossil fuels, ever-increasing
energy demand and concern over climate change, necessitate
a substantial percentage of the power to be generated by
renewable sources. Solar, wind and fuel cell technologies are
expected to play a key role. All these sources are either
inherently dc sources or converted to dc. Therefore, another
stage of conversion before interconnection with the ac system
is required. These multiple conversions reduce overall system
efciency. The nal stage of conversion can be avoided if
these sources are used to supply dc power. Currently, variable
speed drives (VSD), lighting and electronics constitute major
part of the load. All these loads convert ac power to dc before
utilizing it. Hence, dc power can be supplied to these loads.
Intermittent unavailability of the grid and the use of renewable
sources necessitate electricity storage. Commonly used storage
devices such as battery and ywheel use dc voltage for their
operation and have an additional conversion stage to interact
with the ac system. This conversion stage can be eliminated
if these storage devices are used with a dc system.
For the above mentioned reasons, highly efcient dc voltage
based data-centers [1][4] are now being established. DC data-
centers are expected to operate with 10-20% less losses than ac
data-centers [5]. Another upcoming application of dc system
is in commercial [6][8] and residential sectors [9]. Various
system topologies [8][10], control strategies [4], [11][13],
protection techniques [14][16] and reliability analysis [17]
for dc microgrids are discussed in literature.
Voltage level in the dc system is an important parameter
affecting performance and safety of the system. Studies on
possible voltage levels of dc system are reported in [7],
[18]. However, only medium power distribution losses are
considered in [18]. The converter losses are neglected therein.
Moreover, there is lack of emphasis on system level perfor-
mance of small dc systems such as commercial and residential.
Reference [7] shows the feasibility of various voltage levels of
dc system for an existing infrastructure designed for ac system.
The cable size, decided for operation in ac system, limits
the performance of low voltage dc system. Additionally, only
the cabling losses are considered and the effect of converter
topologies on efciency of the dc system is not studied.
Also, the effect of renewables and storage elements are not
considered.
In this paper, performance of dc system is compared with
that of the conventional ac system. Suitable converter topolo-
gies are identied. Optimum voltage levels for residential and
commercial sectors based on system performance and safety
are determined.
In Section II, dc system topology is discussed and converter
topologies are categorized in four groups based on their
functionality. For different voltage levels, circuit topologies
are investigated and their efciencies are evaluated in Sec-
tion III. Section IV describes case study of residential and
commercial facilities. System performance of dc system with
different voltage levels and existing ac system are compared
and quantied. Optimal voltage levels for these dc systems are
determined.
II. DC SYSTEM TOPOLOGY
The dc microgrid topology discussed in this paper is shown
in Fig. 1. Loads, renewables, storage elements and the ac
grid are connected to the dc bus via power electronic in-
terfaces. Though the gure shows only one dc line, several
dc lines (depending on the system size) are interlinked with
different sources and loads to form the microgrid. Diverse
sources/loads/storage elements are interconnected to achieve
high reliability of the system. The system offers easy inter-
connection of the sources distributed in the premises. In case
of system expansion, new sources/loads can be added without
major modications.
A. Nomenclature
Various elements like loads, sources and storage devices are
connected to the dc system via power electronic interfaces.
Characteristics of the interface depend on the type of element
to be connected. Following groups are dened based on the
different interfacing requirements:
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AC
Grid
Battery
AC
DC
S
olar PV HB-LED
Ceiling/
Exhaust Fan
Air
Condition
Elevator Other
Electronics
Computer
W
ind
Tu
r bine
Washing
Machine
AC-DC
(GSC)
DC-AC
(LSC)
DC-DC
(LSC)
DC-AC
(LSC)
DC-AC
(LSC)
Diesel
Generator
DC-DC
(SSC)
DC-DC
(RSC)
DC-DC
(LSC)
DC-AC
(LSC)
DC-AC
(RSC)
DC-AC
(LSC)
Fig. 1. DC microgrid topology
Battery
Offline UPS
AC-
DC
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DC-
DC
Inverter
AC Grid
Fig. 2. AC residential system
Grid Side converter (GSC): links the ac grid and dc
microgrid system. It converts ac power to dc power at
suitable voltage level. If allowed by the ac grid guidelines,
reverse power ow from dc microgrid to ac grid can
be integrated in GSC. Depending on microgrid power
rating, GSC could be either a single or three phase ac-
dc converter. Modular design is preferred for high reli-
ability, good partial load efciency, easy manufacturing
and standardization. Another important feature of GSC
is unity power factor (UPF) operation. This ensures high
utilization factor of the line transformers and transmission
cables of ac grid.
Load Side Converter (LSC): is the family of convert-
ers connected between the dc line and end loads. For
instance, LSC connected between the dc line and high
brightness (HB) LED is a dc-dc converter. Currently, most
of the power electronic interfaces for loads are designed
to operate on ac voltage. Therefore, it is a major challenge
to shift from ac system to dc system. However, simple,
efcient and economical design of LSC will facilitate this
shift.
Renewable Side Converter (RSC): comprises of the power
electronics interface between the dc bus and renewable
sources such as solar photovoltaic (PV), wind turbine,
fuel cell etc. Considering the high cost of renewable
sources, high efciency of conversion is a stringent
requirement. High reliability and good partial load ef-
ciency are achieved by modular design of RSC.
Storage Side Converter (SSC): includes interface devices
between dc bus and storage elements. Different SSCs
are required for different technologies such as battery,
ywheel, super capacitor etc. SSC design must ensure
long operation life of the storage elements.
B. Leakage Ground Current
An important feature of GSC is UPF operation. High
frequency switching topologies are the most viable solutions
available for this purpose. Depending on the circuit topol-
ogy, potential of dc bus terminals with respect to ground
varies at high frequency (switching frequency). This high
frequency voltage variation causes high frequency leakage
current through capacitance between the dc bus and ground
(between cables and ground, PV cells and ground etc). It
causes damage to equipments and safety problems to humans.
Hence, the value of the leakage current is restricted by
standards. This leakage current is of common mode nature
and is avoided by either of the following ways: (i) use GSC
topology which xes the dc bus potential with respect to the
neutral potential to a nite dc value (ii) providing galvanic
isolation in GSC and grounding either -ve or +ve terminal of
the dc bus. For power level upto 10s of kW, many techniques
are available to achieve (i) or (ii) [19]. For higher power levels,
line frequency transformers are used to provide isolation.
Though this solution is expensive, it is used for high efciency,
reliability and for high degree of isolation.
C. System Voltage Level
DC microgrid voltage level is an important factor deciding
the following system parameters:
Efciency: System efciency depends on the power con-
version stages between the sources and loads. As the
power conversion stage and its efciency depends on
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voltage levels, system efciency also depends on dc bus
voltage level.
Cost: The cost of GSC, LSC, SSC and RSC topologies
depends on the voltage levels. Cabling size is decided
by the current to be carried, which in turn depends
on the system power and voltage level. Converters and
cabling constitute the second largest share in the system
cost, after the renewable sources. Typically, converter and
cabling costs increase with the reduction in voltage level.
This limits the use of low dc voltage for high power
application.
Safety: Very low voltage (less than 50V) is considered
safe for humans upto 3 seconds of direct contact [20].
However, even for this voltage range, grounding practice
is necessary for the protection of devices/equipments.
Existing ac system is 400

and 230

. Based on
the above considerations, following are the different voltage
levels considered for the dc system.
400V: This voltage level has been used in dc data-
centers [1]. This is relatively high voltage and hence
highly effective grounding and protection techniques are
required.
325V: It is equal to the peak of the ac phase voltage.
Standard single phase power supplies with diode bridge
input stage have dc link voltage of 325 V. Hence, existing
supplies are compatible with this dc voltage level.
230V: It has the same root mean square value as that of
the existing ac system. Hence, the resistive loads (mostly
heating) rated to operate with the existing ac system need
not be modied, if this voltage level is used.
120V: It is an intermediate level between very low voltage
and the existing ac system voltage.
48V: It is used in the telecom sector, hence supporting
devices for this voltage level are available.
III. CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES
TABLE I
APPROXIMATE EFFICIENCIES OF CONVERSIONS
Conversion step Efciency
AC-DC {Fully controlled} 96.5%
AC-DC {Diode rectier} 99%
DC-DC {(voltage ratio of 2} 96.5%
DC-DC {trans} 87.5%
AC Trans 98%
Circuit topologies of converters depend on dc system volt-
age, load/source voltages and power requirements. This section
discusses circuit topologies for GSC, LSC, RSC and SSC for
different power and voltage ratings. Efciencies of operation
are derived based on the approximate efciency of different
conversion steps given in Table-I.
A. GSC
Three or single phase grid connection is available for con-
sumers depending on their power requirements. For UPF oper-
ation with single phase connection, H-bridge or split capacitor
half bridge topologies are suitable. H-bridge topology requires
transformer connection on the ac side to avoid the ow of
leakage ground current and have proper grounding [19]. Since
isolation transformer is used, its turns ratio is adjusted for
the required nominal dc voltage. Hence any dc voltage listed
in Section-IIC can be achieved with suitable transformer and
H-bridge topology. Half bridge topology does not require
isolation transformer to avoid leakage current, but the nominal
dc voltage developed is greater than or equal to twice the
peak ac voltage. Hence this topology is used in combination
with transformer or dc-dc converter. For UPF operation with
three phase connection, Voltage Source Converter (VSC) or
Pulse Width Modulated Current Source Converter (PWM-
CSC) are preferred. VSC with split capacitor can be used
without transformer, but it develops high dc voltage similar to
the single phase half bridge converter. PWM-CSC is generally
used with isolation transformer to avoid leakage current. Table-
II lists the various combination of topologies for different
voltage levels and the corresponding efciencies.
B. LSC
Different circuit topologies are required for different type
of loads. Loads are categorized in the following groups:
HB-LEDs: LEDs constitute a major share in the lighting
solutions. LSC for HB-LED is required to supply dc
current at very low voltage (1-10V).
Electronics: Voltage regulator module of computers,
servers, and other electronic loads require low dc voltage
(12-19V) for operation.
BLDC Fans: Low voltage BLDC motors offer high ef-
ciency substitute for low power ceiling and exhaust fans
[21].
Medium power drives: It constitutes the motor drive
systems in air conditioners, elevators, washing machines
etc. DC link voltage in these drives is typically 325-400V.
Table-III provides the estimated efciencies of various LSC
topologies for different dc system voltages.
C. RSC
Wind turbine and solar PV are the two types of renewable
sources considered in this paper. The number of solar modules
in series and number of strings can be adjusted to provide
the same power output at different nominal voltages. Hence,
dc-dc converter between dc system and PV module operates
with the same efciency for different dc system voltages.
A VSC is necessary for wind turbine to convert variable
frequency ac voltage to xed dc voltage. DC voltage level of
converter depends on the ac voltage output of generator, which
depends on its design. Different type of wind generators with
nominal dc voltage ranging from 12V to 800V are available.
For this paper, following two categories of wind generators
are considered: (i) medium power (VSC output of 700Vdc),
and (ii) low power (VSC output of 48Vdc). Table-IV shows
various methods of connecting renewables to the dc system
and corresponding conversion efciencies.
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TABLE II
GSC TOPOLOGIES (EFFICIENCY)
400V 325V 230V 120V 48V
1phase topologies H-bridge, trans H-bridge, trans H-bridge, trans H-bridge, trans H-bridge, trans
(94.6%) (94.6%) (94.6%) (94.6%) (94.6%)
Half bridge, dc-dc Half bridge, dc-dc Half bridge, dc-dc H-bridge, dc-dc{trans} H-bridge, dc-dc{trans}
(93.1%) (93.1%) (91.4%) (84.4%) (84.4%)
3phase topologies VSC/CSC, trans VSC/CSC, trans VSC/CSC, trans VSC/CSC, trans VSC/CSC, trans
(94.6%) (94.6%) (94.6%) (94.6%) (94.6%)
VSC, dc-dc VSC, dc-dc VSC, dc-dc VSC, dc-dc{trans} VSC, dc-dc{trans}
(93.1%) (93.1%) (91.4%) (84.4%) (84.4%)
TABLE III
LSC TOPOLOGIES (EFFICIENCY)
400V 325V 230V 120V 48V
HB-LEDs & Electronics dc-dc{trans} dc-dc{trans} dc-dc{trans} dc-dc{trans} dc-dc
(87.5%) (87.5%) (87.5%) (87.5%) (93%)
BLDC fans dc-dc{trans}, VSC dc-dc{trans}, VSC dc-dc{trans}, VSC dc-dc, VSC VSC
(84.4%) (84.4%) (84.4%) (93.1%) (96.5%)
Medium power drive VSC dc-dc, VSC dc-dc, VSC dc-dc, VSC dc-dc{trans}, VSC
(96.5%) (93.1%) (93.1%) (91.4%) (84.4%)
TABLE IV
RSC TOPOLOGIES (EFFICIENCY)
400V 325V 230V 120V 48V
Solar PV dc-dc dc-dc dc-dc dc-dc dc-dc
(96.5%) (96.5%) (96.5%) (96.5%) (96.5%)
Medium power wind VSC, dc-dc VSC, dc-dc VSC, dc-dc VSC, dc-dc{trans} VSC, dc-dc{trans}
(93.1%) (93.1%) (91.4%) (84.4%) (84.4%)
Low power wind VSC, dc-dc{trans} VSC, dc-dc{trans} VSC, dc-dc{trans} VSC, dc-dc VSC
(84.4%) (84.4%) (84.4%) (91.4%) (96.5%)
TABLE V
SSC TOPOLOGIES (EFFICIENCY)
400V 325V 230V 120V 48V
Battery dc-dc (96.5%) dc-dc (96.5%) dc-dc (96.5%) dc-dc (96.5%) dc-dc (96.5%)
Flywheel VSC (96.5%) VSC (96.5%) VSC (96.5%) VSC (96.5%) VSC (96.5%)
D. SSC
Battery and ywheel are the two most popular storage tech-
nologies. A single battery cell operates at low dc voltage. For
a given watt-hour (Wh) requirement, many cells are connected
in series and parallel. Hence, for the same Wh rating, battery
bank can be designed to have any nominal voltage suitable to
the system. Therefore, dc-dc converter between dc system and
battery bank operates with the same efciency for all dc system
voltages. Flywheel is a high inertia, high speed drive in a low
drag environment. The ywheel drive can be designed for the
required dc link voltage. Table-V provides the efciency of
operations for SSCs.
IV. SYSTEM EFFICIENCY: CASE STUDY
Efciency of the converter topologies, duration of their use
and load/source compositions collectively decide the system
efciency. Hence, optimal dc bus voltage and incremental
efciency of dc system over the existing ac system depend on
the application for which it is used. Two important applications
of dc system are in residential and commercial facilities. The
system efciency and the optimal voltage level for these two
applications are determined.
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400Vdc 325Vdc 230Vdc 120Vdc 48Vdc AC
system
Battery Solar PV Wind Grid Energy
Fig. 3. Comparison of dc and ac systems for residential application.
A. Residential
Existing ac system in residential premises is shown in Fig. 2.
Typically, ofine uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system
with 12/24/48V battery bank is used. Renewables are used to
charge the battery system. Loads in the system are fans, air
conditioner, refrigerator, lighting, computer, washing machine
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Battery
Online UPS
AC-
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AC-
DC
AC Grid
Fig. 4. AC commercial system
and television. Typical energy consumed by end loads per day
and efciency of their power electronics interface are shown in
Table-VI. Total energy consumed from the ac line is 7892Wh
per day. A suitable source/storage prole with the losses in
their power electronic interface for the existing ac system is
shown in Table-VII.
TABLE VI
RESIDENTIAL LOAD PROFILE
Energy (Wh/day) AC interface efciency
Ceiling fan 1280 83.6%
Air conditioner 2800 93.1%
Refrigerator 1200 83.6%
HB-LED 660 86.6%
Computer 600 86.6%
Washing machine 73 95%
Television 400 86.6%
TABLE VII
RESIDENTIAL SOURCE/STORAGE PROFILE
Energy (Wh/day) AC interface efciency
Solar PV 3911 81.5%
Wind (low power) 1955 81.5%
1phase grid 3644 100%
Battery 2051 71.2%
Total resources (capacity or energy) required by the ac
system is assumed as the base value. For the same load
requirements, capacity or energy requirements (in per unit) of
source/storage for dc and ac systems are shown in Fig. 3. For
renewable source and storage elements capacity requirement
approximately represents the initial cost of the elements.
For grid, the energy requirement represents the monthly bill
amount.
As shown in Fig. 3, to meet the same load demand, dc
systems with 48V and 120V require 15% less resources as
compared to the existing ac system. This reduction is mainly
due to the avoidance of dc-ac in renewables and ac-dc in
various loads. 48V dc system requires only 82% of the solar
pv and wind capacity and 80% of the battery capacity used
in ac system. This reduces the initial cost of the system by
almost the same factors. Additionally, small power rating of
the system facilitates the low voltage approach because of less
current. Resource requirements in 48V and 120V system are
comparable for the load prole shown in Table-VI. If no air
conditioning system is used (winters), 48V system requires
22% less resources than ac system. Whereas, 120V system
offers only 18% reduction. Additionally, 48V system is safe
and causes no harm to life even in case of direct contact with
conductors.
To sum up, 48V system offers the best efciency throughout
the year. Also 48V system is safe for humans. Therefore, 48V
dc system is considered optimal for residential applications.
B. Commercial
Typical ac system in commercial facility is shown in Fig.
4. To maintain UPF operation on the grid side and nominal
voltage magnitude with low distortion for loads, online UPS
is used. In general, battery bank of voltage higher than 200V
is used. Renewables are used to charge the battery system.
Loads in the system are lighting, centralized air conditioner,
fans and computers. For a setup with 100 employees, energy
consumed by end loads per day and efciency of their power
electronics interface are shown in Table-VIII. Considering the
losses in various conversion steps, a suitable source/storage
prole for the existing ac system is shown in Table-IX.
TABLE VIII
COMMERCIAL LOAD PROFILE
Energy (kWh/day) AC interface efciency
Ceiling fan 25.6 83.6%
Air conditioner 700 93.1%
Computer 120 86.6%
HB-LED 110 86.6%
TABLE IX
COMMERCIAL SOURCE/STORAGE PROFILE
Energy (kWh/day) AC interface efciency
Solar PV 484 86.6%
Wind (med power) 242 86.6%
1phase grid 494 93.1%%
Battery 250 80.5%
Similar to the residential case study, total resources required
for the ac system is assumed as the base value. For the same
load requirements, capacity or energy requirements (in per
unit) of source/storage for dc and ac systems are shown in
Fig. 5.
As shown in Fig 5, to meet the same load demand, 400V
dc system requires 11% less installed capacity of renewable
sources as compared to the existing ac system. Expenditure
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400Vdc 325Vdc 230Vdc 120Vdc 48Vdc AC
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Battery Solar PV Wind Grid Energy
Fig. 5. Comparison of dc and ac systems for commercial application.
on grid power use also reduces by the same percentage. This
reduction is mainly due to the elimination of ac-dc and dc-
ac stages in online UPS system. In winter, the centralized air
conditioner energy consumption reduces to 10% of the value
shown in Table-VIII. Resources required by 400Vdc, 325Vdc,
230Vdc, 120Vdc and 48Vdc are 90%, 90%, 91%, 92% and
89% of the ac system requirements respectively. Hence for
this case all the dc systems offer comparable performance.
Additionally, peak power requirement of the facility is high,
hence, high voltage level is preferred to reduce the cable
conductor requirements.
To summarize, 400V dc system offers highest efciency
during summer. During winter, all the dc systems offer similar
advantages over the ac system. High power requirement of
the system motivates high voltage level to reduce the current
requirements. Hence, 400V dc system is considered optimal
for commercial applications.
V. CONCLUSION
Increasing electrical power demand and excessive depen-
dence on depleting fossil fuels motivate the power generation
shift from large fossil fuel based generators to small distributed
renewables. The main renewable sources are solar and wind.
Solar PV inherently generates dc power and wind power is
normally converted to dc before being fed to the grid through
inverter. Further, loads like electronics, variable speed drives
and LED lighting require dc voltage for their operation. This
causes substantial energy loss in ac-dc and dc-ac conversion
steps. It is concluded that a dc system in place of conven-
tional ac system would improve the operating efciency and
reliability. Performance of different voltage levels and suitable
power electronic interface for dc system based on efciency,
cost and safety issues is evaluated. Considering low power re-
quirement, higher safety and efciency, it is concluded that low
voltage system (48V) gives optimal performance in residential
dc system. For commercial facilities, medium voltage level,
400V, offers the highest operating efciency. The proposed
dc systems offer 15-22% and 10-11% improvement over
conventional ac system in operating efciency for residential
and commercial systems respectively.
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