Sei sulla pagina 1di 7

III

the floating world

The Commercialisation of Sex in Edo Culture

Entertaining the Troops: the role of the brothel quarters in military Japan
In the world of the pink samurai, procreative sex and licentious passion are equally acceptable, but strict Confucian codes of conduct keep them vigorously apart. Nicholas Bornoff, Pink Samurai, 1992

D
Rival samurai clash on the city roof tops. School of Utagawa KUNIYOSHI, c1850. Private collection.

JAPAN experienced dramatic political change. Before the 1600s, Japan was governed by regional princes (daimyo) and had suffered the ravages of over a century of civil war. In 1603 it became unified under the control of a single family, the Tokugawa. Having brought peace and unity to the country, the Tokugawa acceded to the

URING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY,

65

title of shogun, making them the military leaders of Japan. The Japanese capital was transferred from the Imperial city of Kyoto to their family seat in Edo. Edo was an undeveloped and unremarkable provincial town when the Tokugawa came to power, but over the course of their rule it became the largest urban settlement in the world. Edo, now known as Tokyo, remains one of the worlds largest and most culturally important cities. As well as being home to the shoguns, Edo was home to Japans oldest licensed brothel district, the Yoshiwara. The Tokugawa shoguns had come to power by encouraging or forcing daimyo to live peacefully alongside each other, under the shoguns ultimate leadership. In order to secure the loyalty of these rival lords, the shoguns kept daimyo wives and children hostage at their castle in Edo, forcing the ruling classes to live sexually segregated lives. Daimyo also had to bring their samurai retainers with them to Edo, creating a concentration of young men in the city. Ihara Saikaku, a seventeenth century doyen of the pleasure quarters who was famous for his humorous and erotically charged novels, nicknamed Edo the city of bachelors, as there were nearly

twice as many men in the city as women. This was a highly undesirable situation, since having large numbers of sexually frustrated samurai roaming the city was not entirely conducive to promoting civic order. The first Tokugawa shogun, Ieyasu, had allowed the construction of licensed brothels for this very reason. He complained that, without proper outlets for their energy, sexually deprived men would become like ravelled thread. The Yoshiwara was founded by an enterprising pimp, Sh-ji Jinemon, who approached Ieyasu requesting special permission to run a legalised vice district in 1617, and demand for its services grew through the 1630s with the institution of the hostage and homage system. From their inception, the Yoshiwara brothels were firmly rooted in the new social order of Tokugawa Japan, and enjoyed the highest approval and sanction.

Ihara SAIKAKU Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693) was born into a merchant family, and began his literary career as a haikai poet. Following the deaths of his wife and daughter Ihara travelled through Japan observing the life of the townsmen. This inspired him to become a novelist, and his most popular works deal with the sexual lives of the urban masses. He was and is one of the most celebrated Japanese authors of the seventeenth century. His literary stories are now revered as important documents of Edo period culture, but although he achieved much popularity during his lifetime, his fiction was mostly enjoyed by the merchant class and therefore received limited critical acclaim. Yoshiwara Guidebooks There were many rules and codes of conduct to be observed in the Yoshiwara. As the district became increasingly patronised by wealthy merchants rather than by the cultured bushi there was a need for guidebooks that would not only advertise the best establishments, but also tell uninitiated patrons how to behave within them. This represents a new type of educational shunga: not one focussed on sex as a way of promoting social harmony, but one orientated towards the consumption of sex as a leisure activity. Though Yoshiwara imagery and the brothels are part of the same culture of commercialised sex, there is little to suggest that Yoshiwara magnates were directly involved in the production of prints or shunga.

Prostitution in Popular Culture: noble ladies and kabuki stars


Within a few decades, the Yoshiwara had gained enormous cultural significance. The proliferation of guide books, humorous illustrated novels and graphic prints set within its confines made it a highly recognisable media phenomenon. Popular prints served to advertise the pleasures available in the brothels, raising their profile and increasing their appeal. Bijin-ga, meaning beauty portraits, were printed portraits of famous courtesans that publicised their physical beauty. Pictures of courtesans were also included in guide books to the Yoshiwara, which recommended tea houses and restaurants to prospective patrons. As the Yoshiwara grew and became increasingly patronised by nouveau riche merchants, rather than socially established samurai, there was a greater demand for literature that would initiate novice patrons and prevent misconduct or embarrassment. As well as providing advice on etiquette and images of famous courtesans, these consumer

Utagawa KUNISADA, A Courtesan Washing Clothes, c1830. Image courtesy of Gallery East.

66

guides also discussed courtesans characters and accomplishments. The supposed refinement of Yoshiwara courtesans gave them a competitive advantage over

unlicensed street walkers, who offered a cheaper, but far less glamorous, alternative. This veneer of cultivation was integral to the appeal of the Yoshiwara, and is key

to understanding its place in the cultural history of Japan. While men in sexually segregated Edo could discharge their passions in the brothel quarters, women had fewer opportunities for interaction with young men. In the unlikely event that any man would find himself within the confines of a female quarter he would undoubtedly be overwhelmed with attention. Often, within the confines of their castles or nunneries, women turned to lesbianism or masturbation for solace. In Western Europe, female masturbation was a dangerous phenomenon that threatened the patriarchal foundations of society. In shunga prints, by contrast, both the act itself, and the role of shunga in facilitating masturbatory activity, were celebrated. Male prostitutes were available, but not within the Yoshiwara, which was dominated by female courtesans, waitresses and entertainers. Male prostitutes were more likely to be found in the lively theatre quarters that formed a counterpart to the vice districts. The history of Kabuki theatre is inextricably bound with the history of prostitution. The origins of Kabuki are obscure, but according to legend this form

of drama evolved from the performances of Izumo no Okuni, an exiled shrine prostitute who performed sexually suggestive dances in a clearing on the banks of the Kamo river. Her performances evolved into a populist review, featuring narrative plays punctuated by burlesque shows. Though the content of Kabuki became increasingly theatrical over the years, its ribald nature and the sexual availability of its performers remained important features. In fact, the word kabuki was often written with three Chinese characters which translate roughly as singing, dancing, prostitute. In contrast to the highly structured and metaphysical performances of courtly Noh theatre, Kabuki retained a commitment to anti-realistic informality. Audiences were not expected to engage with a play with rapt attention, but were free to eat, drink, and socialise amongst themselves during performances. It was not unheard of for actors to come out of character to fraternise with audience members, creating a bawdy, high spirited atmosphere. It was quite possible for theatre goers to develop a rapport with actors both on and off stage, giving performers ample opportunity to solicit their sexual services. Seeking to prevent this, the shogunate banned

A reluctant man is overwhelmed by female attention. Attributed to Ikeda EISEN, from an untitled series of egoyomi calendar prints, c1820. Image courtesy of Japan Print Gallery, www. japaneseprints.net

Utagawa KUNISADA, from the series Yokan, c1825. Image courtesy of Japan Print Gallery, www.japaneseprints.net

68

69

The Kabuki-za theatre, Tokyo.

Page opposite: An actor print. Morikawa CHIKASHIGE, from the Chushingura series, 1878. Private collection.

70

women from appearing in Kabuki plays in 1629. Their roles were filled instead by young boys, or experienced professionals who specialised in female roles, known as onnagata. Inevitably, these substitute women came to fill the professional roles their female predecessors had performed off-stage too. Since this moonlighting on the part of Kabuki actors was unlicensed prostitution it was not well received by the authorities. When Ejima (a lady in waiting to the mother of shogun Ietsugu) was rumoured to be having an affair with the popular kabuki star Ikushima Shingor, scandal ensued and both were exiled. Despite some official disapproval, celebrity actors and their images maintained a very important position in the Edo culture of sex. The most popular Kabuki stars had enormous fan clubs, encouraged by the circulation of their images in popular prints. As Timon Screech has argued, even the least suggestive of portraits could acquire erotic potential in the hands of fervent admirers, making it important that these works are considered alongside the more obviously pornographic images generated by the Yoshiwara.

Left: Audience at a Kabuki theatre. Utagawa School, from a book celebrating contemporary Kabuki stars, c1850. Image courtesy of Gallery East.

Shunga and Society


Prosperity was the inevitable outcome of the harmony secured by the Tokugawa and the Confucian emphasis on productivity. The growth of leisure activities in the Yoshiwara and the theatre districts reflects increases in disposable income achieved under the Tokugawa government. Tokugawa society was divided into four classes based on Confucian classifications, with bushi (a collective term including both samurai and daimyo) at the top, followed by farmers, craftspeople, and finally merchants. Though merchants were the least important people in society, they were also the richest. As the economic power of merchants grew, that of the samurai declined. At the same time, by securing lasting peace and harmony in Japan, the samurai had inadvertently made themselves and their armies redundant. In order to maintain a status quo that placed the samurai at the pinnacle of society, it was necessary to restrict the economic power of merchants by placing statutory limits on their consumption and spending, and strict punishments could be imposed on anyone who dared to flout these rules. In the Yoshiwara, however, consumption

regulations were effectively suspended. In their earliest days, the brothel districts received some bad press when it was discovered that outlaws and criminals were using the walled quarters as a refuge. To maintain order amnesties were enforced, and all weapons had to be left at the districts gates. Samurai billeted in Edo could only be distinguished from the ordinary population by the fact that they were permitted to carry two swords in public. Without their weapons, samurai could not be distinguished from ordinary commoners. This gave the samurai class an anonymity within the Yoshiwara which was crucial in allowing them to fully enjoy the delights on offer. The amnesty also meant that merchants could be lavish in their spending without fear of reproach, since no one could be entirely sure of their social status. For all classes of society, the egalitarianism of the brothels allowed freedoms and enjoyments that were inconceivable in the outside world. The Yoshiwara came to be known in popular parlance as the floating world (in Japanese, the ukiyo) in recognition of this suspension of normal social values. Over its history, it gradually became a haven for unrestricted spending, a place

73

Class and Consumption Japan is made up of a long chain of mountainous islands, and as a result has very little agricultural space and an extremely varied climate. By the seventeenth century Japan had already exhausted most of its natural resources, and with few opportunities for foreign trade, the shoguns achieved economic growth by making sure the population worked very hard and consumed very little. The shoguns issued strict laws on what various classes in society were allowed to do, eat and wear. Farmers, for instance, were prohibited from reading novels, in case they were distracted from agricultural duties that were economically vital.

The Floating World The Yoshiwara became known as the ukiyo, a word that can be written so that it means either sad world or floating world. The sad world refers to the Buddhist concept of the absence of awareness, positing indulgence in earthly pleasures as the antithesis of enlightenment. The term floating world was apt to describe the Yoshiwara, which was built on water logged marsh land and could only be reached by boat. The best Yoshiwara establishments played on this by renting out boats for floating parties on the Sumida. The term floating also alluded to the flotation of normal social values in the Yoshiwara. Together, the two alternative readings sad and floating, give a good impression of the decadence and transience that characterised the Yoshiwara. Asoi Ryi (c1612-91), a former Buddhist monk who became a popular novelist, was one of the first to recognise the ambiguity of the word ukiyo, and to exploit this for literary effect.

Right: A samurai lays aside his two swords before a night in the pleasure quarters. Anonymous, c1815. Image courtesy of Japan Print Gallery, www. japaneseprints.net

of escapism where economically powerful but socially denigrated merchants could indulge in a largesse that was prohibited to them in the world outside. This equality and licentiousness is reflected in the manufacture of ukiyo-e and shunga prints. Before the Edo period, art patronage in Japan was monopolised by the aristocracy, who commissioned lavish and expensive

paintings on gold backgrounds from dynastic families of artists whose services were available exclusively to their clan. Since prints were far less expensive to buy than paintings, the development of woodcut technology allowed a new demographic to enjoy art and illustrated literature. The impact on Japanese culture was enormous.Though prints were sometimes

cheap, the costs of entertainment in the Yoshiwara were always expensive, and the process of engaging a prostitute was timely and complex. The lengthy process gave a unique dynamic to the relationship between courtesans and patrons; they entered into a pseudo-courtship that was essential to transforming a simplistic exchange of services into an elegant delight. The patron was expected to undertake the characteristic obligations and behaviours of a suitor desperately in love, offering the courtesan gifts and promises, and even having himself tattooed with her name. The suspension of disbelief that accompanied rituals of etiquette in the Yoshiwara was widely recognised, but the lines of fantasy in this ritualised love affair were not always clearly drawn. The seductive game was difficult to resist, and a patron who genuinely became smitten with a courtesan and wanted to make her his wife would have to buy her from

her keeper at considerable expense. Less solvent patrons concluded their affairs in a suicide pact. Today, the myth of the devoted, suicidal courtesan has been commercialised by the Japanese sex industry. Linguist and translator Peter Constantine has described how customers pay to watch prostitutes in Edo-period costume apparently commit suicide in specialist clubs. Double suicides excited just as much popular curiosity in Edo times as they do now, with tragic love affairs, such as that of Osome and Hisamatsu, being retold in stories and kabuki plays. A minority of very real tragedies helped lend credibility to the numerous sham courtships that proliferated in the Yoshiwara, while the sham courtships themselves helped distinguish licensed prostitutes from common street walkers, legitimising the Yoshiwara and justifying its expense.

...Living only for the moment...singing songs, loving sake, women and poetry, diverting ourselves in just floating, floating; caring not a whit for the pauperism staring us in the face, refusing to be disheartened . . . this is what we call the floating world... Asoi Ryi, Ukiyo Monogatari, 1661

74

75

Hiring a Courtesan Courtesans were colloquially called castlewreckers, because patrons could bankrupt themselves in the pursuit of their company. Hiring a courtesan was expensive, and involved strict adherence to etiquette. Firstly, a potential client had to pay an intermediary, most likely a well-connected proprietor of a Yoshiwara tea house, for an introduction to the keeper of his desired courtesan. This allowed clients to be vetted and refused before they had even entered the brothel. Once an introduction was secured, the client had to spend three evenings entertaining a courtesan with food, performances and gifts before she could be made sexually available to him. The client undertook this expenditure without any satisfaction guarantee, since high ranking courtesans reserved the right to refuse a client at any point in the transaction.

This page: School of Utagawa KUNISADA, from the series Hana no Toraku, c1820. Image courtesy of Japan Print Gallery, www.japaneseprints.net

Page opposite: This print by Utamaro shows a scene from the popular Kabuki story of Osome and Hisamatsu, doomed lovers who plan a double suicide together. Here, Osome witnesses her lover Hisamatsu in a homoerotic encounter with the villain of the piece, Zenroku. Kitagawa UTAMARO, Michiyuki Koi no Futozao, (On the Road: Love Songs for the Thick Necked Shamisen), 1802. Image courtesy of matsugallery.com

76

Potrebbero piacerti anche