BIOFUEL

Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%, California.

Biofuels liquid fuels derived from plant materials are entering the market, driven by factors such as oil price spikes and the need for increased energy security. ioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. !ith advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. "thanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. ioethanol is #idely used in ra$il %"thanol fuel in ra$il, #here 100% of the gas stations sell it and all gas contains &'% of bioethanol( and in the )*+. iodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. iodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon mono,ide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-po#ered vehicles. iodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in "urope. iofuels provided 1..% of the #orld/s transport fuel in &00.. Investment into biofuels production capacity e,ceeded 01 billion #orld#ide in &002 and is gro#ing.314

Liquid fuels for transportation

5ost transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density, as occurs in liquids and solids. 6igh po#er density can be provided most ine,pensively by an internal combustion engine7 these engines require clean burning fuels, in order to keep the engine clean and minimi$e air pollution.

8he fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. 8hus liquids %and gases that can be stored in liquid form( meet the requirements of being both portable and clean burning. +lso, liquids and gases can be pumped, #hich means handling is easily mechani$ed, and thus less laborious.

First generation biofuels

9:irst-generation biofuels9 are biofuels made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using conventional technology.3&4 8he basic feedstocks for the production of first generation biofuels are often seeds or grains such as #heat, #hich yields starch that is fermented into bioethanol, or sunflo#er seeds, #hich are pressed to yield vegetable oil that can be used in biodiesel. 8hese feedstocks could instead enter the animal or human food chain, and as the global population has risen their use in producing biofuels has been criticised for diverting food a#ay from the human food chain, leading to food shortages and price rises. 8he most common first generation biofuels are listed belo#. Bioalcohols +lcohol fuel

;eat ethanol on the left %+(, gasoline on the right %<( at a filling station in ra$il. iologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and en$ymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches %easiest(, or cellulose %#hich is more difficult(. iobutanol %also called biogasoline( is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine %in a similar #ay to biodiesel in diesel engines(. "thanol fuel is the most common biofuel #orld#ide, particularly in ra$il. +lcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from #heat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch that alcoholic beverages can be made from %like potato and fruit #aste, etc.(. 8he ethanol production methods used are en$yme digestion %to release sugars from stored starches(, fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. 8he distillation process requires significant energy input for heat %often unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the #aste left after sugar cane is pressed to e,tract its =uice, can also be used more sustainably(.

8he >oenigsegg CC?@ "dition at the &00. <eneva 5otor *ho#. 8his is an Aenvironmentally-friendlyA version of the CC?, #hich can use ".' and "100. "thanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline7 it can be mi,ed #ith gasoline to any percentage. 5ost e,isting car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 1'% bioethanol #ith petroleumBgasoline. "thanol has a smaller energy density than gasoline, #hich means it takes more fuel %volume and mass( to produce the same amount of #ork. +n advantage of ethanol %C6CC6&D6( is that is has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations #hich allo#s an increase of an engine9s compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high altitude %thin air( locations, some states mandate a mi, of gasoline and ethanol as a #inter o,idi$er to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions. "thanol is also used to fuel bio ethanol fireplaces. +s they do not require a chimney and are AfluelessA, bio ethanol fires are e,tremely useful for ne# build homes and apartments #ithout a flue. 8he do#nside to these fireplaces, is that the heat output is slightly less than electric and gas fires. In the current alcohol-from-corn production model in the )nited *tates, considering the total energy consumed by farm equipment, cultivation, planting, fertili$ers, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides made from petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of feedstock to processing plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps, and lo#er ethanol fuel energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to consumers is very small. +nd, the net benefit %all things considered( does little to reduce un-sustainable imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol. +lthough ethanol-from-corn and other food stocks has implications both in terms of #orld food prices and limited, yet positive energy yield %in terms of energy delivered to customerBfossil fuels used(, the technology has led to the development of cellulosic ethanol. +ccording to a =oint research agenda conducted through the ).*. Eepartment of "nergy the fossil energy ratios %:"@( for cellulosic ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.C, 1.CF, and 0..1, respectively. 5any car manufacturers are no# producing fle,ible-fuel vehicles %::G9s(, #hich can safely run on any combination of bioethanol and petrol, up to 100% bioethanol. 8hey dynamically sense e,haust o,ygen content, and ad=ust the engine9s computer systems, spark, and fuel in=ection accordingly. 8his adds initial cost and ongoing increased vehicle maintenance. +s #ith all vehicles, efficiency falls and pollution emissions increase #hen ::G system maintenance is needed %regardless of the fuel mi, being used(, but is not performed. ::G internal combustion engines are becoming increasingly comple,, as are

multiple-propulsion-system ::G hybrid vehicles, #hich impacts cost, maintenance, reliability, and useful lifetime longevity.3citation needed4 "ven dry ethanol has roughly one-third lo#er energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline, so larger B heavier fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are required. !ith large current un-sustainable, non-scalable subsidies, ethanol fuel still costs much more per distance traveled than current high gasoline prices in the )nited *tates. 5ethanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-rene#able fossil fuel. It can also be produced from biomass as biomethanol. 8he methanol economy is an interesting alternative to the hydrogen economy, compared to today9s hydrogen produced from natural gas, but not hydrogen production directly from #ater and state-of-the-art clean solar thermal energy processes. utanol is formed by + " fermentation %acetone, butanol, ethanol( and e,perimental modifications of the process sho# potentially high net energy gains #ith butanol as the only liquid product. utanol #ill produce more energy and allegedly can be burned AstraightA in e,isting gasoline engines %#ithout modification to the engine or car(, and is less corrosive and less #ater soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via e,isting infrastructures. EuHont and H are #orking together to help develop utanol. ". coli have also been successfully engineered to produce utanol by hi=acking their amino acid metabolism Biodiesel iodiesel and iodiesel around the #orld

In some countries biodiesel is less e,pensive than conventional diesel. iodiesel is the most common biofuel in "urope. It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossilBmineral diesel. Its chemical name is fatty acid methyl %or ethyl( ester %:+5"(. Dils are mi,ed #ith sodium hydro,ide and methanol %or ethanol( and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel

%:+5"( and glycerol. Dne part glycerol is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel. :eedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, =atropha, mahua, mustard, fla,, sunflo#er, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, pongamia pinnata and algae. Hure biodiesel % 100( is by far the lo#est emission diesel fuel. +lthough liquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner combustion, they are used to fuel much less efficient petrol engines and are not as #idely available. iodiesel can be used in any diesel engine #hen mi,ed #ith mineral diesel. 8he ma=ority of vehicle manufacturers limit their recommendations to 1'% biodiesel blended #ith mineral diesel. In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel engines under #arranty for 100 use, although Golks#agen of <ermany, for e,ample, asks drivers to check by telephone #ith the G! environmental services department before s#itching to 100. 100 may become more viscous at lo#er temperatures, depending on the feedstock used, requiring vehicles to have fuel line heaters. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible #ith diesel engines from 1II1 on#ards, #hich use 9Giton9 %by EuHont( synthetic rubber in their mechanical in=ection systems. "lectronically controlled 9common rail9 and 9pump duse9 type systems from the late 1II0s on#ards may only use biodiesel blended #ith conventional diesel fuel. 8hese engines have finely metered and atomi$ed multi-stage in=ection systems are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. 5any current generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on 100 #ithout altering the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. ;", 8J is suitable for all diesel engines in the #orld since it overperforms EI; "; 'I0 standards. *ince biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many "uropean countries, a '% biodiesel blend is #idely used and is available at thousands of gas stations. iodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning that it contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and o,ygen content than fossil diesel. 8his improves the combustion of fossil diesel and reduces the particulate emissions from un-burnt carbon. iodiesel is safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable as sugar, 10 times less to,ic than table salt, and has a high flashpoint of about C00 : %11. C( compared to petroleum diesel fuel, #hich has a flash point of 1&' : %'& C(. In the )*+, more than .0% of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. 8he emerging )* biodiesel market is estimated to have gro#n &00% from &001 to &00'. A y the end of &00F biodiesel production #as estimated to increase fourfold 3from &0014 to more than 1 billion gallonsA. Vegetable oil

:iltered #aste vegetable oil. Gegetable oil used as fuel "dible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lo#er quality oil can be used for this purpose. )sed vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or %more rarely( cleaned of #ater and particulates and used as a fuel. 8o ensure that the fuel in=ectors atomi$e the fuel in the correct pattern for efficient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or heat e,changers. 8his is easier in #arm or temperate climates. ig corporations like 5+; K! Eiesel, !artsila and Eeut$ +< as #ell as a number of smaller companies such as "lsbett offer engines that are compatible #ith straight vegetable oil, #ithout the need for after-market modifications. Gegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that do not use common rail or unit in=ection electronic diesel in=ection systems. Eue to the design of the combustion chambers in indirect in=ection engines, these are the best engines for use #ith vegetable oil. 8his system allo#s the relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. *ome older engines, especially 5ercedes, Heugeot and Citroen are driven e,perimentally by enthusiasts #ithout any conversion, a handful of drivers have e,perienced limited success #ith earlier pre-Apumped useA G! 8EI engines and other similar engines #ith direct in=ection. *everal companies like "lsbett or !olf have developed professional conversion kits and successfully installed hundreds of them over the last decades. Dils and fats can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. 8he resulting product is a straight chain hydrocarbon, high in cetane, lo# in aromatics and sulphur and does not contain o,ygen. 6ydrogenated oils can be blended #ith diesel in all proportions

6ydrogenated oils have several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at lo# temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial attack. Bioethers io ethers %also referred to as fuel ethers or fuel o,ygenates( are cost-effective compounds that act as octane rating enhancers. 8hey also enhance engine performance, #hilst significantly reducing engine #ear and to,ic e,haust emissions. <reatly reducing the amount of ground-level o$one, they contribute to the quality of the air #e breathe. Biogas

Hipes carrying biogas iogas is produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes.3&14 It can be produced either from biodegradable #aste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. 8he solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertili$er. In the )>, the ;ational Coal oard e,perimented #ith microorganisms that digested coal in situ converting it directly to gases such as methane. iogas contains methane and can be recovered from industrial anaerobic digesters and mechanical biological treatment systems. Jandfill gas is a less clean form of biogas #hich is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere it is a potent greenhouse gas. Dils and gases can be produced from various biological #astesL

8hermal depolymeri$ation of #aste can e,tract methane and other oils similar to petroleum. <reen:uel 8echnologies Corporation developed a patented bioreactor system that uses nonto,ic photosynthetic algae to take in smokestacks flue gases and produce biofuels such as biodiesel, biogas and a dry fuel comparable to coal.

:armer can produce biogas from manure from their co#s by getting a anaerobic digester %+E(

Syngas <asification *yngas, a mi,ture of carbon mono,ide and hydrogen, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion #ith an amount of o,ygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dio,ide and #ater. efore partial combustion the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. 8he resulting gas mi,ture, syngas, is itself a fuel. )sing the syngas is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel7 more of the energy contained in the fuel is e,tracted. *yngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines or turbines. 8he #ood gas generator is a #ood-fueled gasification reactor mounted on an internal combustion engine. *yngas can be used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the :ischer-8ropsch process to produce a synthetic diesel substitute, or a mi,ture of alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. <asification normally relies on temperatures M200NC. Jo#er temperature gasification is desirable #hen co-producing biochar but results in a *yngas polluted #ith tar. Solid biofuels ",amples include #ood, sa#dust, grass cuttings, domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural #aste, non-food energy crops %see picture(, and dried manure. !hen ra# biomass is already in a suitable form %such as fire#ood(, it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to provide heat or raise steam. !hen ra# biomass is in an inconvenient form %such as sa#dust, #ood chips, grass, urban #aste #ood, agricultural residues(, the typical process is to densify the biomass. 8his process includes grinding the ra# biomass to an appropriate particulate si$e, #hich depending on the densification type can be from 1 to C cm, #hich is then concentrated into a fuel product. 8he current types of processes are pellet, cube, or puck. 8he pellet process is most common in "urope and is typically a pure #ood product. 8he other types of densification are larger in si$e compared to a pellet and are compatible #ith a broadrange of input feedstocks. 8he resulting densified fuel is easier transport and feed into thermal generation systems such as boilers. + problem #ith the combustion of ra# biomass is that it emits considerable amounts of pollutants such as particulates and H+6s %polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(. "ven modern pellet boilers generate much more pollutants than oil or natural gas boilers. Hellets made from agricultural residues are usually #orse than #ood pellets, producing much larger emissions of dio,ins and chlorophenols. ;ot#ithstanding the above noted study, numerous studies have sho#n that biomass fuels have significantly less impact on the environment than fossil based fuels. Df note is the ).*. Eepartment of "nergy Jaboratory,Dperated by 5id#est @esearch Institute iomass Ho#er and Conventional :ossil *ystems #ith and #ithout CD& *equestration Comparing the "nergy alance, <reenhouse <as "missions and "conomics *tudy. Ho#er generation emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases %<6<s(, mainly carbon

dio,ide %CD&(. *equestering CD& from the po#er plant flue gas can significantly reduce the <6<s from the po#er plant itself, but this is not the total picture. CD& capture and sequestration consumes additional energy, thus lo#ering the plant/s fuel-to-electricity efficiency. 8o compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be procured and consumed to make up for lost capacity. 8aking this into consideration, the global #arming potential %<!H(, #hich is a combination of CD&, methane %C61(, and nitrous o,ide %;&D( emissions, and energy balance of the system need to be e,amined using a life cycle approach. 8his takes into account the upstream processes #hich remain constant after CD& sequestration as #ell as the steps required for additional po#er generation. firing biomass instead of coal led to a 11.% reduction in <!H. + derivative of solid biofuel is biochar, #hich is produced by biomass pyrolysis. iochar made from agricultural #aste can substitute for #ood charcoal. +s #ood stock becomes scarce this alternative is gaining ground.

Second generation biofuels

*econd generation biofuels *upporters of biofuels claim that a more viable solution is to increase political and industrial support for, and rapidity of, second-generation biofuel implementation from non food crops. *econd-generation biofuel production processes can use a variety of non food crops. 8hese include #aste biomass, the stalks of #heat, corn, #ood, and specialenergy-or-biomass crops %e.g. 5iscanthus(. *econd generation %&<( biofuels use biomass to liquid technology, including cellulosic biofuels from non food crops. 5any second generation biofuels are under development such as biohydrogen, biomethanol, E5:, io-E5", :ischer-8ropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, mi,ed alcohols and #ood diesel. Cellulosic ethanol production uses non food crops or inedible #aste products and does not divert food a#ay from the animal or human food chain. Jignocellulose is the A#oodyA structural material of plants. 8his feedstock is abundant and diverse, and in some cases %like citrus peels or sa#dust( it is in itself a significant disposal problem. Hroducing ethanol from cellulose is a difficult technical problem to solve. In nature, ruminant livestock %like cattle( eat grass and then use slo# en$ymatic digestive processes to break it into glucose %sugar(. In cellulosic ethanol laboratories, various e,perimental processes are being developed to do the same thing, and then the sugars released can be fermented to make ethanol fuel. In &00I scientists reported developing, using Asynthetic biologyA, A1' ne# highly stable fungal en$yme catalysts that efficiently break do#n cellulose into sugars at high temperaturesA, adding to the 10 previously kno#n. In addition, research conducted at 8) Eelft by Oack Hronk has sho#n that elephant yeast, #hen slightly modified can also create ethanol from non-edible ground sources %eg stra#(. 8he recent discovery of the fungus <liocladium roseum points to#ard the production of so-called myco-diesel from cellulose. 8his organism #as recently discovered in the rainforests of northern Hatagonia and has the unique capability of converting cellulose into medium length hydrocarbons typically found in diesel fuel.

*cientists also #ork on e,perimental recombinant E;+ genetic engineering organisms that could increase biofuel potential. *cientists #orking in ;e# Pealand have developed a technology to use industrial #aste gases from steel mills as a feedstock for a microbial fermentation process to produce ethanol.

Third generation biofuels

+lgae fuel +lgae fuel, also called oilgae or third generation biofuel, is a biofuel from algae. +lgae are lo#-input, high-yield feedstocks to produce biofuels. ased on laboratory e,periments, it claimed that +lgae can produces up to C0 times more energy per acre than land crops such as soybeans, but these yields have yet to be produced commercially. !ith the higher prices of fossil fuels %petroleum(, there is much interest in algaculture %farming algae(. Dne advantage of many biofuels over most other fuel types is that they are biodegradable, and so relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.3C143C'43CF4 +lgae fuel still has its difficulties though, for instance to produce algae fuels it must be mi,ed uniformly, #hich, if done by agitation, could affect biomass gro#th. 8he )nited *tates Eepartment of "nergy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the )nited *tates, it #ould require 1',000 square miles %C.,.1I square kilometers(, #hich is roughly the si$e of 5aryland. *econd and third generation biofuels are also called advanced biofuels. +lgae, such as Botryococcus braunii and Chlorella vulgaris, are relatively easy to gro#, but the algal oil is hard to e,tract. 8here are several approaches, some of #hich #ork better than others. 5acroalgae %sea#eed( also have a great potential for bioethanol and biogas production.

Ethanol from li ing algae

5ost biofuel production comes from harvesting organic matter and then converting it to fuel but an alternative approach relies on the fact that some algae naturally produce ethanol and this can be collected #ithout killing the algae. 8he ethanol evaporates and then can be condensed and collected. 8he company +lgenol is trying to commerciali$e this process.

!elioculture
6elioculture is a ne#ly developed 8echnology #hich is claimed to be able to produce &0,000 gallons of fuel per acre per year, and #hich removes carbon dio,ide from the air as a feedstock for the fuel. 6elioculture involves direct conversion of carbon dio,ide into fuel using solar po#er. the process of 6elioculture can develop many different fuels and petroleum-derived chemicals all #hile not using any fresh #ater or agriculture.

Biofuels by region
iofuels by region @ecogni$ing the importance of implementing bioenergy, there are international organi$ations such as I"+ ioenergy, established in 1I2. by the D"CE International "nergy +gency %I"+(, #ith the aim of improving cooperation and information e,change bet#een countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment. 8he ).;. International iofuels :orum is formed by ra$il, China, India, *outh +frica, the )nited *tates and the "uropean Commission. 8he #orld leaders in biofuel development and use are ra$il, )nited *tates, :rance, *#eden and <ermany.

Issues "ith biofuel production and use

Issues relating to biofuels 8here are various current issues #ith biofuel production and use, #hich are presently being discussed in the popular media and scientific =ournals. 8hese includeL the effect of moderating oil prices, the Afood vs fuelA debate, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, impact on #ater resources, human rights issues, poverty reduction potential, biofuel prices, energy balance and efficiency, and centralised versus decentralised production models. + biofuel is difficult to define. 5ost of the fossil fuels #e use are biological in nature. Herhaps #e have to say that a biofuel is one that does not add to the stock of total carbon dio,ide in the atmosphere. 8hese are plant forms that, typically, remove carbon dio,ide from the atmosphere, and give up the same amount #hen burnt. ;aturally, all the other fossil fuels have done the same, but #e are talking about a time scale of one or t#o years for the biofuels, #hereas the fossil fuels can only be considered on a time scale measured in millions of years. 8he biofuels are therefore considered to be ACD& neutralA, not adding to the carbon dio,ide level in the atmosphere. 8he type of biofuel used #ill depend on a number of factors, chief amongst them being the available feedstock and the energy that can be used locally. iodiesel iodiesel #as probably the first of the alternative fuels to really become kno#n to the public. 8he great advantage of biodiesel is that it can be used in e,isting vehicles #ith little or no adaptation necessary. iodiesel is, naturally, a compromise for this reason, but still balances positively on the energy scales. 8here are energy plants available that #ill produce a higher yield in k!h per area, but the simplicity of having a fuel that is fully compatible #ith present fuel and engine technology makes it very attractive. Cars running on io"thanol, #hich is produced from agricultural crops, sugar cane or bio-mass, are governed by the same la# of physics as those using gasoline. 8hat means both emit CD&, as an inevitable consequence of the combustion process. ut there is a

crucial differenceL burning ethanol, in effect, recycles the CD& because it has already been removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis during the natural gro#th process. In contrast, the use of gasoline or diesel in=ects into the atmosphere additional ne# quantities of CD& #hich have lain fi,ed underground in oil deposits for millions of years. iogas iogas is becoming increasingly interesting as an alternative to natural gas. It is especially useful that the composition is practically identical, so the same burners can be used for both fuels. iogas can be produced from plant or animal #aste, or a combination of both. 8here are many different methods used dependent on the starting material and quantity involved. + mi,true of both has proven to be the best method. 8he animal #aste produces the nitrogen needed for gro#th of the bacteria and the vegetable #aste supplies most ofthe carbon and hydrogen necessary. iomass iomass can be a practicable alternative for small district heating schemes in rural areas. 8raditional biomass is #ood residue and e,cess stra# from agriculture being burned to provide heat or po#er. 8here are also gasification plants that produce a gas composed mainly of carbon mono,ide and hydrogen from plant material. 8his has the advantage of being capable of transportation by pipeline or being filled into cylinders for distribution. Hyrolyis, as it is kno#n, is being investigated in many countries presently. Hyrolysis of iomass Hyrolysis of biomass is used to produce a mi,ture of three combustible products from biomassL tar, gas and coke are formed in varying proportions. +fter cleaning the gas can be used to drive turbines or gas motors. 8he tar is also suitable for the plastics industry and the coke can also be burned in the conventional #ay. Jandfill gas analy$er 8he landfill gas analy$er is similar to a standard flue gas analyser, but capable of measuring methane and carbon dio,ide directly. 8here are many landfill sites in use still, #hich all produce gas naturally. 5ore advanced models of landfill gas analy$er #ill also be capable of measuring the products of combustion. Jandfill sites Jandfill sites are no# being used for the commercial production of methane in many areas instead of simply flaring the gas for safety reasons. 5ethane is produced in commercially viable quantities for many years after a landfill site has been closed. ;evertheless, there are still many landfill sites #here the gas is being #asted. 8his source #ill dry up in time to come, since many countires are no# finally emphasising the separation of #aste and recycling, but there is gas for the ne,t t#enty years in the landfill sites presently e,isting. 5easurements in biogas

5easurement of the concentrations of carbon dio,ide and methane in biogas has produced interesting errors, probably due to the difference in si$e of the molecules. 8hese factors require consideration #hen biogas is measured before combustion. Commercial use of biogas makes kno#ledge of the composition and heating value essential. 5ethane digester +lthough not a detailed description of ho# to build a methane digester, this is a good e,planation of the #orking principle. 8he methane digester is a plant to produce methane in the form of biogas from plant and animal #aste. *uch systems are common in certain countries, such as India, but sorely neglected in others, although the ra# material is available every#here. 8here is plenty of garbage on this planet7 in fact there is so much garbage that many developed countries are trying to dump their garbage on the lands of lesser developed countries, at a fee of course. ut does dumping garbage on other places solve the problemQ Dn the contrary it spreads pollutions and diseases. In fact it is more dangerous to dump garbage in the less developed countries %because there are neither technologies available to process it nor enough a#areness(. "ven creating landfills #astes precious resources.

#irt$%o"ered Bacteria Batteries

acteria are one of the most abundant organisms on the planet and also one of the most studied. 8oday, scientists use bacteria for genetics research, antibiotics, and yesR "ven biofuels. @ecent technological advances have made a battery running on bacteria a reality. >no#n as microbial fuels cells or 5:Cs, batteries running on bacteria and other microbes have been keenly researched by scientist for decades.

&ommercial Flights 'ppro ed for Biofuels by ()*)

8he International +ir 8ransport +ssociation %I+8+( #ants to reduce its carbon footprints. 8hat/s #hy they announced their quest to find a biofuel by &010 for its commercial

flights. Haul *teele #as in ;e# Eelhi, India. 6e said to the reporters that I+8+ is serious about biofuels for commercial flights and it #ould be certified Aby the end of ne,t yearA. Haul *teele is the head of the environmental initiatives of I+8+. +s #e are all familiar that certification is broadly regarded as a primary technical step that could do a#ay #ith some of the investment uncertainties plugging the use of high quality biofuels in aviation. I+8+ chief e,ecutive <iovanni isignani reaffirms #hat Haul *teele #as saying. <iovanni isignani claims, A:or the first time, air transport has the possibility of an alternative to traditional =et fuel.A

+hat is biofuel,
roadly speaking, biofuel refers to any solid, liquid or gas fuel that has been derived from biomass. It can be produced from any carbon source that is easy to replenish - such as plants. Dne of the main challenges #hen producing biofuel is to develop energy that can be used specifically in liquid fuels for transportation. 8he most common strategies used to achieve this areL

<ro# plants Hlants that naturally produce oils include oil palm, =atropha, soybean and algae. !hen heated resistance %viscosity( is reduced they can be burned #ithin a diesel engine or they can be processed to form biodiesel. <ro# sugar crops or starch 8hese include sugar cane, sugar beet, corn and mai$e #hich are then turned into ethanol through the process of yeast fermentation. !oods y-products from #oods can be converted into biofuels including methanol, ethanol and #oodgas.

+hat are the different types of biofuel,

8here are many different biofuels available in the )>. Dne of the most common #orld#ide is "10 fuel, #hich is actually a mi,ture of 10% ethanol and I0% petroleum. 8his formula has been improved in recent years #ith the introduction of "1' fuel %1'% ethanol, .'% petroleum(7 "&0 fuel %&0% ethanol, .0% petroleum(7 ".' fuel %.'% ethanol, 1'% petroleum(7 "I' fuel %I'% ethanol, 1'% petroleum( and "100 fuel #hich is ethanol #ith up to 1% #ater.

In "urope, biodiesel is the most popular form of biofuel - it can be used in any diesel engine #hen mi,ed #ith mineral diesel. 8his is produced from oils and fats and is no# readily available at many petrol stations. 8here are many other types of biofuel available including vegetable oil, #hich is used in many older diesel engines7 butanol, #hich is seen as a replacement for petroleum7 and biogas #hich is produced from biodegradable #aste materials. 8his technology has been e,panded #ith the introduction of 9second generation9 biofuels #hich use biomass to liquid technology. ",amples include biohydrogen, biomethanol and mi,ed alcohols. 8hird generation biofuels are also kno#n as algae fuels. 8hey have many advantages including have a lo# input and a high yield level they produce C0 times more energy per acre than land and are also biodegradable. +s a result, they are relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.

+here are biofuels used,

iodiesel can, in theory, be used in all diesel engines. 6o#ever, due to the parts attached to the diesel engine, some manufacturers do not approve engines running on 100% biodiesel. Golks#agen, *"+8, +udi and *koda all approved their cars built from 1IIF-&001 running on 100% @5" biodiesel - that is biodiesel made from rapeseed - on the condition that it meets specification ";11&11. <enerally speaking, it is recommended that you use a combination of biodiesel blended #ith regular diesel. Indeed at the ma=ority of petrol stations, a '% biodiesel mi, is used. It is also #orth bearing in mind that biodiesel made from #aste cooking oil can free$e in the #inter - and so no more than a '0% blend is recommended. et#een &000 and &00' ethanol production doubled, and biodiesel production quadrupled, so biofuels are clearly on the rise. 8he ritish <overnment9s @ene#able 8ransport :uel Dbligation currently requires &.'% of fuels sold at the pump to be biofuels. 8his #ill increase to '% by &010, #hile the ") has a target of '.2'% of all transport fuels to be from biological sources, also by &010.

+hat are the ad antages of biofuels,

8he aim of all biofuels is to be carbon neutral. 8hey reduce greenhouse gas emissions #hen compared to conventional transport fuels. In reality, biofuels are not carbon neutral simply because it requires energy to gro# the crops and convert them into fuel. 8he amount of fuel used during this production %to po#er machinery, to transport crops, etc( does have a large impact on the overall savings achieved by biofuels. 6o#ever, biofuels still prove to be substantially more environmentally friendly than their alternatives.

In fact, according to a technique called Jife Cycle +nalysis %JC+( first generation biofuels can save up to F0% of carbon emissions compared to fossil fuels. *econd generation biofuels offer carbon emission savings up to .0%. 8his #as backed by a recent )> <overnment publication #hich stated biofuels can reduce emissions by '0F0%. +nother advantage of biofuels is that they save drivers money. 8he )> <overnment in particular has introduced many incentives to drivers of 9green cars9 based on emissions #ith reduced ta,ation dependent on ho# environmentally friendly your vehicle is. !ith petrol prices on the rise, replacing petroleum #ith a rene#able energy source should also offer significant savings at the pump in the long term, particularly #hen biofuels are more readily available. 8here are arguments too that biofuels are helping to tackle poverty around the #orld. :or e,ample, the Dverseas Eevelopment Institute has pointed to #ider economic gro#th and increased employment opportunities along #ith the positive effect on energy prices, as reasons to back biofuel production. 8his is debated due to the pressures it places on agricultural resources but biodiesel could be a long term solution as it uses simpler technology and lo#er transportation costs alongside increased labour.

+hat are the disad antages of biofuels,

8here are several concerns about biofuels - and particularly including.

iodiversity - + fear among environmentalists is that by adapting more land to produce crops for biofuels, more habitats #ill be lost for animals and #ild plants. It is feared for e,ample, that some +sian countries #ill sacrifice their rainforests to build more oil plantations. 8he food G fuel debate - +nother concern is that if biofuels become lucrative for farmers, they may gro# crops for biofuel production instead of food production. Jess food production #ill increase prices and cause a rise in inflation. It is hoped that this can be countered by second generation biofuels #hich use #aste biomass - though again, this #ill impact the habitat of many organisms. 8he impact is particularly high in developing countries and it is estimated that around 100million people are at risk due to the food price increases. Carbon emissions 5ost JC+ investigations sho# that the burning of biofuels substantially reduces greenhouse gas emissions #hen compared to petroleum and diesel. 6o#ever, in &002 a study #as published by scientists from ritain, the )*+, <ermany and +ustria #hich reported the burning of rapeseed or corn can contribute as much to nitrous o,ide emissions than cooling through fossil fuel savings. ;on-sustainable biofuel production 5any first generation biofuels are not sustainable. It is necessary to create sustainable biofuel production that does not effect food production, and that doesn/t cause environmental problems.

8he production of non-sustainable biofuels has been criticised in reports by the );, the IHCC and many other environmental and social groups. +s a result many governments have s#itched their support to#ards sustainable biofuels, and alternatives such as

hydrogen and compressed air. Euring &00., the @oundtable of *ustainable iofuels is developing principles for sustainable biofuel production.