e Mechanical structures resulting from sediment deposition e Under unidirectional flow, ripples begin under critical entrainment velocity

is reached e Other bedforms require increasing velocity and/or grain size properties e Increasing velocities in sand produce predictable sedimentary structures

Primary Sedimentary Structures

McBrideRipples.mov

McBrideLamination.mov

Stratification & Bedforms

CHAPMANS PEAK, SOUTH AFRICA

e Beds are tabular or lenticular layers of sedimentary rock with lithologic, textural, or structural unity e Distinguishable from subjacent and suprajacent layers e Upper/lower surfaces are bedding planes or bounding planes e Marked discontinuities within beds are amalgamation surfaces

Terminology of Bedsets

Plane Bedding Structures

e Simple, horizontal beds > 1 cm
e Results from

suspension sedimentation, e Horizontal accretion, e Encroachment into lee side of obstacle

e Lamination < 1 cm thick

e Absence of

lamination may be due to flocculation

Low Flow Regime Sedimentary Structures

e Ripple Index ratio of ripple length : ripple height e Out-of-phase wave propagation with bedforms e Ripples smallest bedform with RI ~8 (coarse) to 20 (fine sand), forming in sand and silt

Low Flow Regime Sedimentary Structures

e Dune larger bedform with RI ~5 (fine sand) to 50 (gravel) e 2D Dune straight/sinuous and long crested; 10 cm - 100s m e 3D Dune curved faces, irregular and short crested; 10 cm -10s m

DEATH VALLEY

Arabian Peninsula Dune Field

Upper Flow Regime Sedimentary Structures

e In-phase wave propagation with bedforms e Plane-bed flow stage with transport over a relatively flat bed

AntiDunes.mov

e Internal planar lamination (mm - cm laminae) e Highest flow velocities may create antidunes e Antidunes low, undulating with RI ~7 to 100 e Low angle cross beds directed upstream

Multidirectional FlowGenerated Bedforms

e Oscillation (wave) ripples generally symmetrical to slightly asymmetrical due to eddies e Orbital velocity difference < 1 cm/s = symmetrical bedforms e Orbital velocity difference > 5 cm/s = asymmetrical bedforms e Crests are straight to sinuous, bifurcate e Herringbone cross-beds; interference ripples; lenticular beds; flaser beds
CURRENT RIPPLES CURRENT-DOMINATED WAVE-DOMINATED OSCILLATION RIPPLES

Geometries of Beds
e Planar stratification internal layers and laminae that are parallel to bedding planes e Cross strata internal layers or laminae that are at an angle to bedding planes e Beds composed of cross-laminated or cross-stratified units are cross beds e Bedsets comprised of similar beds or cross beds

Cross-Beds

e Result of ripple and/or dune migration; filling of scour pits & channels e Foreset laminae develop as avalanche or suspension settling phenomena; lee side of ripple with steep and straight laminae e Bottomset laminae from suspension load nearly at the angle of repose e Topset laminae rarely preserved (sigmoidal cross beds) e Occur in cross-bed sets small scale bedsets < 5 cm; large scale bedsets > 5 cm

Cross-Bed Geometries
e McKee & Weir (1953) Tabular & Trough Cross bedding e Tabular Cross beds units broad in lateral dimensions with respect to set thickness with planar bounding surfaces.
e Migration

of large-scale ripples and dunes; lower flow regime

e Trough Cross beds units whose bounding surfaces are curved, consist of elongate scour filled with curved laminae
e Migration of small-scale or large-scale ripples e Paleocurrent measured in dip direction of foreset

laminae

Hummocky Cross Stratification

e Undulating sets of cross laminae both concave-up (swales) and convex-up (hummocks) e Common in 15 - 50 cm thick sets; wavy erosional bases and rippled, bioturbated tops e Fine sandstone to coarse siltstone, micaceous with dispersed plant debris

Turbidites
ROLLERS

WAKE MIXING

BODY
SubAqueousDebrisFlow.mov

HEAD

UnconfinedTurbidite.mov

e Density current in ocean and/or lake flowing downslope e Initiated by short-lived catastrophic events (earthquake trigger; storm) e Flow divided into: Head 2x thick as remainder of flow with turbulent flow; Body uniform thickness with uniform flow; Tail flow thins and becomes dilute e Thick-bedded (high density flow) and thin-bedded (dilute density flow) turbidites

Bouma Sequences
e Idealized turbidite sequence recording decay of flow strength e Subdivided into Units A through E e A Massive graded bed (coarsest settled); B plane laminated bed (high flow); C lower flow ripples and wavy lamination; D laminated silt; E laminated mud e Hs believes can be divided into only 2 units e Lower, horizontally laminated unit; Upper, cross-laminated unit

Graded Bedding
GRADED-STRATIFIED INVERSE TO NORMAL

GRADED

DISORGANIZED

e Vertical gradations in grain size within a bed e Basal coarse particles that grade upwards to finer particles at top is Normal (common) e Basal fine particles that grade upwards to coarser particles at top is Reverse (rare) e Basal contacts are sharp; Attributed to turbidites

Massive Bedding
e Bed appears homogenous and lacking internal structure e Turbidite and/or bioturbation generated e Liquefaction of sediment by shock-wave

Soft-Sediment Deformation Structures

e Convolute bedding & lamination due to liquefaction processes e Complex folding or crumpling of semiconsolidated beds e Flame structures wavy or flame-shaped tongues injected into overlying layers e Ball and Pillow hemispherical or kidney-shaped masses into underlying mudstone e Synsedimentary Folds & Faults slump units

Bedding-Plane Markings
e Underside of beds as positive-relief casts and irregular markings Sole Markings e Current-formed structures include: flute casts (elongate ridges, bulbous at one end and flare in direction); current crescents (obstacle scours) e Tool-formed structures include: groove casts (object dragged across surface); bounce, brush, prod, roll, and skip marks (intermittent object contact with bottom) e Load Casts irregularly shaped without current indicators