Theory Gas Flow

Gas Critical Flow Prover

Critical flow provers are used to measure gas flow rates.
In some respects, a critical flow prover is similar to an orifice meter. It uses a circular orifice plate with its own orifice coefficient and flowrate equation, and a static pressure measurement. Critical flow provers require the gas rate to be in "critical flow." If the upstream pressure drops too low, then critical conditions may cease to exist, and the standard critical flow prover equation will no longer apply. However, FieldNotes has incorporated some adjustment correlations to accommodate those situations when non-critical flow occurs. Critical flow assumes that the pressure upstream of a plate or choke is at least twice as large as the downstream pressure. If this condition exists, then the velocity of the gas in the orifice or choke is at the speed of sound. Since a pressure wave travels at the speed of sound, this means that any change in the downstream pressure has no effect on the upstream pressure. As a consequence, critical flow provers do not require differential pressure to calculate a flow rate; only the upstream static pressure measurement is required. When flowing at critical conditions, gas flow rates are directly proportional to upstream pressure. This relationship is shown in the critical flow equation. Non-critical flow occurs when the upstream pressure is less than twice the downstream pressure. If the gas is vented to atmosphere after leaving the critical flow prover, non-critical flow would occur when the upstream (gauge) pressure falls below 15 psi(g) or 100 kPa(g). It is recommended that operators try to avoid non-critical flow conditions. However, FieldNotes has incorporated some modifications to obtain reasonably accurate flow rates when non-critical conditions occur. Critical flow provers are excellent gas measurement tools when gas is released into the atmosphere. With the atmospheric pressure acting as the downstream side of the prover, it is relatively easy to maintain enough upstream pressure to maintain critical flow conditions. The lack of a differential pressure measurement simplifies the operations and flow rate calculations. Critical flow provers lose usefulness when the measured gas is not being immediately released into the atmosphere. With significant pressure on the downstream side, operators must be vigilant to maintain that 2:1 ratio of upstream to downstream pressure. As well, that kind of pressure drop may be too large in many operations, in which case the orifice meter is better suited for the job. Like the orifice meter, the flow prover plates, pressure taps, and piping for the critical flow prover must meet certain specifications. Critical flow provers come in two sizes: two-inch and four-inch. The size corresponds to the internal diameter of the prover. Each flow prover size has a set of orifice plates, each of which has its own coefficient. The critical flow prover plate is actually a highly machined component, and its dimensions must adhere to certain specifications. If the plates orifice is damaged in any way, it can no longer measure gas rates with any accuracy, and it must be replaced. Radovan Joviin, Novi Sad Page 1

Critical Flow Prover Equation and Table of Coefficients

When calculating flow rates by hand, the commonly used critical flow prover equation is given below. Field Notes actually takes advantage of the computer to calculate more accurate rates, by using a more rigorous form of the equation. The right hand side of the critical flow equation below is multiplied by Fpv, Fpb, and Ftb which were defined for the Orifice Meter in the "Orifice Coefficient" section,

Qg = (C *P) / (G * T)
where:

Qg = gas flow rate (mscf/day) C = orifice coefficient P = absolute pressure G = gas gravity T = absolute temperature (R)

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Critical Flow Prover Table of Coefficients

Prover Orifice Size (inches) 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 2 1/2 Coefficients for the two-inch Prover 6.30 25.86 56.68 101.8 154.0 224.9 309.3 406.7 520.8 657.5 807.8 1002.0 Coefficients for the four-inch Prover 24.92 56.01 156.1 223.7 304.2 396.3 499.2 616.4 742.1 884.3 1208.0 1596.0 2566.0 3904.0

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Gas Measurement Theory

Gas flow rate measurement is a crucial part of the petroleum industry. Without reliable gas measurements, companies buying and selling gas could not agree on how much was sold. Neither could reservoir engineers predict the reserves or reservoir behavior. Measuring gas is not easy. Unlike oil or water measurement, it is difficult to capture gas in some kind of vessel, measure the volume, and calculate a flow rate. This is just the nature of natural gas being a "gas." Instead of direct methods of measurements, we must measure gas rates by indirect means. The science of thermodynamics is used to estimate gas rates. Basic thermodynamics was introduced in your high school chemistry with the following formulas: P1V1 = P2V2 Where:

P1/T1 = P2/T2

P is pressure V is volume T is temperature 1 is the condition of the system at state 1 2 is the condition of the system at state 2

To see how these equations work, take this example: assume a cylinder has a volume of 100 cm3 and a pressure of 200 kPa. If a piston is pushed into the cylinder so that the volume for gas has decreased to 50 cm3, what would be the new pressure? You could devise an experiment to find out the actual answer or you could use the equation. In either case, the answer would be 400 kPa (P2 = P1 V1 / V2 = 200 100 / 50). However, the equation was much easier to use than setting up the experiment. In essence, we can actually predict the result of the experiment without doing the experiment. The level of thermodynamics used in measuring gas rates is at a much higher level than high school chemistryand much beyond the scope of the FieldNotes manual. However the scientists and engineers have developed some fairly straightforward equations to calculate flow rates. But like the P1V1 = P2V2 equation, the user of this equation must know the values of all the variables except one in any gas rate equation. This last variable is the flow rate, which is calculated by inserting all the known values into the equation and working out the math. In most gas flow rate equations, you must know the value of these parameters to obtain a gas flow rate: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. flowing static pressure differential pressure (not required for provers or chokes) location of these pressure measurements flowing temperature gas gravity size of the orifice plate or choke size of the pipe where the gas measurement is being conducted. Page 4

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If you are missing any one of these variables, you cannot calculate a proper flowrate. As well, the gas must not have any liquids. In theory, any piping system can measure gas rates if enough mathematics and experimentation is applied. This could have meant that every engineer and scientist could develop their own set of thermodynamic equations for measuring gas rates. Instead of having many different systems, the American Petroleum Institute, Texas Railroad Commission, and other associations started developing standard conditions and standard equations for measuring gas in the 1920s. The oil industry around the world has adopted these standards. This standardization has produced equations for: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. orifice meters (merna blenda) critical flow provers bean chokes (fiksna dizna) adjustable chokes (regulaciona dizna) pitot tubes (pitijeva-cev)

In addition, FieldNotes has features for a specialized meter called the 1/2" integral orifice meter.

Proracun na osnovu diferencijalnog pritiska

= Gde je: Q Kolicina gasa C Koeficijent blende hw diferencijalni pritisak (inH2O) Pf Tekuci pritisak (Ps * 14.223)+14.5 psiA Ps Pritisak separatora (atm) C = Fu * Fb * Y * Ftf * Fpv Fu jedinicni konverzioni faktor Fb Bazni faktor blende Fg faktor specificne tezine Y expanzacioni faktor Ftf trenutni faktor temperature Fpv faktor superkompresovanosti

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Proracun kolicina gasa na osnovu diferencijalnog pritiska ( + 14.7) = : 32.28 24 ( ) Gde je: Pkv Predkorena velicina na osnovu otvora blende h Raspon diferencijalnog meraca (inH2O) Pf Maximalni pritisak transdjusera (psi) Specificna tezina gasa u odnosu na vazduh Tf Apsolutna temperatura (sa termo-sondom 520 R, bez termo sonde 560 R) 32.28 Konstanta

Proracun kolicina gasa Prover = Gde je: C Konstanta blende

( ( 14.223) + 14.7) ( + )

28.3 ( )

t Temperatura gasa na izlazu (F) T Apsolutna temperatura (459.67 R) Specificna tezina gasa u odnosu na vazduh Pt Ocitan pritisak (atm fizicka atmosfera) 28.3 Konstanta

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Gas Flow rates (From choke sizes)

Directions: Add 14.7 to the flowing tubing pressure, and then multiply by the appropriate multiplier. The result is the gas flow rate in MCF/D. Assumptions: 1. The choke is on the end of the flow line - i.e. atmospheric pressure is just downstream of the choke, or in other words, no backpressure is being held downstream of the choke. 2. Little or no fluid is in the flow stream. 3. Gas is 0.65 specific gravity.

Choke Size 2/64" 3/64" 4/64" 5/64" 6/64" 7/64" 8/64" 9/64" 10/64"

Multiplier 0.018 0.051 0.091 0.145 0.203 0.287 0.347 0.444 0.553

Choke Size 11/64" 12/64" 13/64" 14/64" 15/64" 16/64" 17/64" 18/64" 19/64"

Multiplier 0.674 0.802 0.956 1.116 1.288 1.470 1.667 1.885 2.340

Choke Size 22/64" 24/64" 26/64" 28/64" 30/64" 32/64" 40/64" 48/64" 64/64"

Multiplier 2.866 3.400 4.063 4.730 5.474 6.260 9.178 14.490 23.150

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Choke Size /64

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Theory Gas Chokes

Gas Bean Choke (gas kroz fiksnu diznu)
The bean choke is used for measurements when conditions require more robust equipment. For example, if sand is being produced, orifice plates will be eroded very quickly and a bean choke, which is much more robust, is preferable. A bean choke is basically a 6" tube with a known internal diameter. Bean chokes require critical flow to be valid. This means the upstream pressure must be at least twice the downstream pressure. If this condition fails, then flow rates from the bean choke equations are no longer valid. The operator should be vigilant and ready to change to a smaller choke when this condition occurs. However, if operations do fall below critical flow, FieldNotes has some provisions to calculate reasonably accurate flow rates. Bean chokes (sometimes just called chokes) are found in several places. A bean choke can be placed near the wellhead to limit production from one particular well. It can limit production into a separator. It can be found in a manifold between two pieces of production equipment. Bean chokes can be easily changed out. This is very useful when encountering sand problems.

Bean Choke Equation

The equation is identical to that for a Critical Flow Prover. However, the "C" coefficients are different.

Qg = (C * P) / (G * T)
Where:

Qg = gas rate (mscf/day) C = choke coefficient P = upstream pressure (psia) G = specific Gravity of Gas T = Temperature (R)

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Values for C (Bean Choke)

Choke Size (inches) 0 0.0625 0.09375 0.125 0.188 0.250 0.313 0.375 0.438 0.500 0.625 0.750 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 C 0 0.88 2.74 6.25 14.44 26.51 43.64 61.21 85.13 112.72 179.74 260.99 468.99 737.86 1067.39 1457.56 1908.38 2419.85 2991.98 3624.75 4318.17

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Gas Adjustable Choke (Gas kroz regulacionu diznu)

The adjustable choke is an adjustable valve which is calibrated (in 1/64 of an inch) to show the size of the valve opening. Simply turning the valve handle can increase the opening from 0 (shut-in) to the maximum. The calculation of flow rates from the choke settings is approximate and can be obtained from the following equations and coefficients.

Adjustable Choke Equation

The equation for the adjustable choke is a simplified version of that used for the bean choke or the critical flow prover. Because flow rate measurements when using adjustable chokes are only approximate, a complex equation is not justified. The equation used in FieldNotes, and the corresponding coefficients are shown below:

Q=CxP

Q = Flow rate in MMscf/d C = Choke coefficient, assuming critical flow conditions. P = Upstream pressure (psia)

Values of C for the Adjustable Choke

Nominal Size (Inches) 1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64 3/16 13/64 7/32 15/64 1/4 Bore Diameter (inches) 0.1250 0.1406 0.1563 0.1719 0.1875 0.2031 0.2188 0.2344 0.250 Coefficient Nominal Size (Inches) 9/32 19/64 5/16 21/64 11/32 23/64 3/8 25/64 13/32 Bore Diameter (inches) 0.2813 0.2969 0.3125 0.3281 0.3438 0.3594 0.3750 0.3906 0.4063 Coefficient

0.347 0.444 0.553 0.674 0.802 0.956 1.116 1.288 1.470

1.885 2.110 2.340 2.601 2.866 3.144 3.400 3.740 4.063

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17/64 7/16 29/64 15/32 31/64 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 64/64

0.2656 0.4375 0.4531 0.4688 0.4844 0.5000 0.5525 0.6250 0.6875 0.7500 1.0000

1.667 4.730 5.101 5.474 5.862 6.260 8.010 9.980 12.176 14.49 25.76

27/64 72/64 5/4 11/8 3/2 7/4 128/64 9/4 5/2 11/4 192.64

0.4219 1.125 1.250 1.375 1.500 1.750 2.000 2.250 2.500 2.750 3.000

4.394 32.6025 40.459 49.048 58.463 79.770 104.382 132.298 163.518 198.042 235.869

This table comes from a commonly used adjustable choke meter. The coefficients are essentially equivalent to those of the bean choke. Because the machining standards may be different among the manufacturers, users should consult the manufacturer for the exact coefficient of their adjustable choke.

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Tezina prirodnog gasa

To find the specific gravity of a gas, you must know its density in kilograms per meter cubed (kg/m3). Then, divide this density by the density of dry air at standard temperature and pressure. This value is approximately 1.29 kg/m3. Tezina gasa (kg/m3) = SGU * tezina vazduha (1.29 kg/m3) SGU = teina gasa (kg/m3) / teina vazduha (1.29 kg/m3)

n ng a = 16 barela = 50.000 kubnih stopa = (1400 m3) prirodnog gasa, u zavisnosti od sadraja metana. 1000 kg CH4 = 1400 m3 CH4 = 1.4 m3/kg = 0.714 kg/m3 1400 m3 / 1000 kg = 1.4 m3/kg 1000 kg / 1400 m3 = 0.714 kg/m3 Kg = m3 * kg/m3 = 1400 m3 * 0.714 kg/m3 = 1000 kg Kg = m3 / m3/kg = 1400 m3 / 1.4 m3/kg = 1000 kg

M3 = Kg / kg/m3 = 1000 kg / 0.714 = 1400 m3 M3 = Kg * m3/kg = 1000 kg * 1.4 m3/kg = 1400 m3 SGU = tezina gasa (kg/m3) / tezina vazduha (1.29 kg/m3)

SGU = 0.714 kg/m3 / 1.29 kg/m3 = 0.553 u odnosu na vazduh

Tezina prirodnog gasa (kg/m3) = SGU * 1.29 kg/m3 = 0.714 kg/m3

GOR

GOR = 20 450 900 naftna busotina, 900 18000 gasno-kondenzna

( /24 ) = ( / 24 )

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SGERG 88
Ulazni podaci: Pritisak (bar) Temperatura (C) CO2 (% mole) H2 (% mole) SGU Kalorijska vrednost 0.000001 120 bar 23 C 65 C 0.55 0.97 % mole 0 0.45 % mole 0.550 0.900 20 (MJ / m3) 48 (MJ / m3)

Faktor kompresibilnosti
Z = 1 + B (T) + C (T) Z Faktor kompresibilnosti B Drugi varijalni koeficijent C Treci varijalni koeficijent Gustina T Apsolutna temperatura

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Gas Properties - Air

Molecular Weight

Molecular weight : 28.95 g/mol

Solid phase

Melting point (incipient freezing point) : -213.4 C

Liquid phase

Liquid density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 875 kg/m3 Boiling point (incipient boiling point) : -194.5 C Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 198.7 kJ/kg

Critical point

Critical temperature : -140.5 C Critical pressure : 37.71 bar

Gaseous phase

Gas density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 3.2 kg/m3 Gas density (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 1.202 k g/m3 Compressibility Factor (Z) (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 0.9992 Specific gravity (air = 1) (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 1 Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 0.8 33 m3/kg Heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 0.029 kJ/(mol.K) Heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 0.02 kJ/(mol.K) Ratio of specific heats (Gamma:Cp/Cv) (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 1.4028 Viscosity (1 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 0.0001695 Pois e Thermal conductivity (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 23.94 mW/(m.K)

Miscellaneous

Solubility in water (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 0.0292 vol/vol

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Gas Properties - Methane

Molecular Weight

Molecular weight : 16.043 g/mol

Solid phase

Melting point : -182.5 C Latent heat of fusion (1,013 bar, at triple point) : 58.68 kJ/kg

Liquid phase

Liquid density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 422.62 kg/m3 Liquid/gas equivalent (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 630 vol/vol Boiling point (1.013 bar) : -161.6 C Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 510 kJ/kg

Critical point

Critical temperature : -82.7 C Critical pressure : 45.96 bar

Gaseous phase

Gas density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 1.819 kg/m3 Gas density (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 0.68 kg /m3 Compressibility Factor (Z) (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 0.998 Specific gravity (air = 1) (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 0.55 Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 1.4 8 m3/kg Heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) (1 bar and 25 C (77 F)) : 0.035 kJ/(mol.K) Heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) (1 bar and 25 C (77 F)) : 0.027 kJ/(mol.K) Ratio of specific heats (Gamma:Cp/Cv) (1 bar and 25 C (77 F)) : 1.305454 Viscosity (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 0.0001027 Poise Thermal conductivity (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 32.81 mW/(m.K)

Miscellaneous

Solubility in water (1.013 bar and 2 C (35.6 F)) : 0.054 vol/vol Autoignition temperature : 595 C

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Gas Properties CO2

Molecular Weight

Molecular weight : 44.01 g/mol

Solid phase

Latent heat of fusion (1,013 bar, at triple point) : 196.104 kJ/kg Solid density : 1562 kg/m3

Liquid phase

Liquid density (at -20 C (or -4 F) and 19.7 bar) : 1032 kg/m3 Liquid/gas equivalent (1.013 bar and 15 C (per kg of solid)) : 845 vol/vol Boiling point (Sublimation) : -78.5 C Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 571.08 kJ/kg Vapor pressure (at 20 C or 68 F) : 58.5 bar

Critical point

Critical temperature : 31 C Critical pressure : 73.825 bar Critical density : 464 kg/m3

Triple point

Triple point temperature : -56.6 C Triple point pressure : 5.185 bar

Gaseous phase

Gas density (1.013 bar at sublimation point) : 2.814 kg/m3 Gas density (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 1.87 kg /m3 Compressibility Factor (Z) (1.013 bar and 15 C (59 F)) : 0.9942 Specific gravity (air = 1) (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 1.521 Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21 C (70 F)) : 0.5 47 m3/kg Heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) (1.013 bar and 25 C (77 F)) : 0.037 kJ/(mol.K) Heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) (1.013 bar and 25 C (77 F)) : 0.028 kJ/(mol.K) Ratio of specific heats (Gamma:Cp/Cv) (1.013 bar and 25 C (77 F)) : 1.293759 Viscosity (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 0.0001372 Poise Thermal conductivity (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 14.65 mW/(m.K)

Miscellaneous

Solubility in water (1.013 bar and 0 C (32 F)) : 1.7163 vol/vol Concentration in air : 0.03 vol %

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