Apostrophes

Definition: An apostrophe indicates possession. In addition, apostrophes are used to replace missing letters or numbers and to prevent misreading of confusing words.

Rule 1
To form the possessive case of most singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an -s, such as "the soldiers knapsack."

Rule 2
When singular nouns end in -s or -es, add an apostrophe and an -s to the end of the word, such as "the bosss anger."

Rule 3
Add an apostrophe and an -s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in -s or -es, such as the children's toys."

Rule 4
To show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in -s or -es, add only an apostrophe, such as "the boys clothes."

Uses of the Apostrophe

A possessive noun Gregs house = the house of Greg

A missing letter (contraction) or number cant = cannot class of 99 = class of 1999

A symbol for feet in measurement 3 x 11" 2 x 2

Words that would be confusing without the use of an apostrophe ins and outs crossing the is and dotting the ts

The plural form of letters and abbreviations if the context is unclear three Ds purple p.j.s

Amounts, time, and the word sake one weeks pay two dollars worth for Petes sake

Tips for Using an Apostrophe with Possessive Nouns

Add an apostrophe s to form the possessive case of most singular nouns. For plural nouns, add the apostrophe without the s to make it possessive. Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Bills house is small. (Singular possessive) Bills house is small. (Missing apostrophe) The babies blankets are dirty. (Plural possessive) The babies blankets are dirty. (Missing apostrophe)

Singular Possessive Nouns Add an apostrophe s to form the possessive case of most singular nouns. The bodyguards role The soldiers knapsack

Add an apostrophe s to form the possessive case of singular nouns ending in s or es. The bosss anger The witnesss testimony

If adding the additional -s after the apostrophe would make the word difficult to pronounce, add only an apostrophe. Correct Incorrect Charles Dickens books were sold at auction. Charles Dickenss books were sold at auction.

Plural Possessive Nouns After creating a plural noun, add an apostrophe s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in s or es. The childrens toys The peoples choice

Add only an apostrophe to show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in s or es. The boys clothes The girls hairstyles

Careful!
Do not use an apostrophe with a plural noun that is not possessive. Incorrect: He ate three hamburgers and four hot dogs for the contest. Correct: He ate three hamburgers and four hot dogs for the contest.

Do not use an apostrophe in the wrong place. Incorrect: dont' Correct: don't should'nt shouldnt wo'nt wont

Do not use an apostrophe with a plural abbreviation that is not possessive. Incorrect: four DVD's Correct: four DVDs two VIP's two VIPs some R.N.'s some R.N.s

Be vs. Have
Definition: Two of the most commonly used verbs in the English language are to be and to have. Because both are irregular verbs, they do not follow a typical pattern with tense or number. Like all irregular verbs, forms of these verbs must be memorized individually.

Uses of To Be
The tense conjugations of to be are as follows:

Present: I am, you are, he/she/it is, we are, they are Past: I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were Future: I will be, you will be, he/she/it will be, we will be, they will be Present Perfect: I have been, you have been, he/she/it has been, we have been, they have been Past Perfect: I had been, you had been, he/she/it had been, we had been, they had been Future Perfect: I will have been, you will have been, he/she/it will have been, we will have been, they will have been

Present Progressive: I am being, you are being, he/she/it is being, we are being, they are being Past Progressive: I was being, you were being, he/she/it was being, we were being, they were being Future Progressive: I will be being, you will be being, he/she/it will be being, we will be being, they will be being

Present Perfect Progressive: I have been being, you have been being, he/she/it has been being, we have been being, they have been being

Past Perfect Progressive: I had been being, you had been being, he/she/it had been being, we had been being, they had been being

Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been being, you will have been being, he/she/it will have been being, we will have been being, they will have been being

Uses of To Have
The tense conjugations of to have are as follows:

Present: I have, you have, he/she/it has, we have, they have Past: I had, you had, he/she/it had, we had, they had Future: I will have, you will have, he/she/it will have, we will have, they will have Present Perfect: I have had, you have had, he/she/it has had, we have had, they have had Past Perfect: I had had, you had had, he/she/it had had, we had had, they had had Future Perfect: I will have had, you will have had, he/she/it will have had, we will have had, they will have had

Present Progressive: I am having, you are having, he/she/it is having, we are having, they are having Past Progressive: I was having, you were having, he/she/it was having, we were having, they were having Future Progressive: I will be having, you will be having, he/she/it will be having, we will be having, they will be having

Present Perfect Progressive: I have been having, you have been having, he/she/ it has been having, we have been having, they have been having

Past Perfect Progressive: I had been having, you had been having, he/she/it had been having, we had been having, they had been having

Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been having, you will have been having, he/she/it will have been having, we will have been having, they will have been having

Careful!
Note that the verbs in the perfect tense use a form of to have as the helping verb, verbs in the progressive tense use a form of to be as the helping verb, and verbs in the perfect progressive use a form of to have as a helping verb plus the past participle of to be (been).

Brackets
Definition: Brackets are used in different instances to add information to a sentence that is not necessary to the meaning or to clarify content.

Rule 1
A bracket encloses a correction or insertion in a quotation (...and Queen Elizabeth returned to her residence castle [Buckingham Palace] after...).

Rule 2
A bracket is used when a parenthetical element appears in a larger parenthetical passageMy cousin laughed at me (little did he know I had my own plan [a snowball behind my back] to strike the first blow), and his smiled quickly disappeared.

Rule 3
In direct quotation, a grammatical error or incorrect spelling in the original sentence is indicated by the Latin term sic ("thus," meaning "we found it this way") enclosed in brackets (...and we saw Danl Boone weren't nowheres [sic] around!).

Bracket Usage
Within parentheses Pamela's court case (which was lost when her lawyer [Paul Jones] made a crucial error) was dismissed. [The name in brackets is not necessary but clarifies who the lawyer was].

Within direct quotes Henry said, "I never suspected it [winning the award]." (Adds additional information to clarify meaning)

Henry said, "I never suspected I would win" [emphasis added]. (Indicates special emphasis in a direct quotation)

Sally said, "It was fortunate [sic] that Bobby won the award." (Indicates an error within a direct quotation) On the reference page to clarify the type of reference so that the reader can easily locate the source Smith, Q. A. (2006, September 19). Student Drivers [Letter to the editor]. New York Times, A5.

Capitalization
Definition: Capitalization is used to begin a sentence and indicate proper nouns in a sentence to make reading easier.

Rule 1
Capitalize the first word to begin a sentence, direct quotation, each line in a list, or the first word after a colon when a complete sentence follows the colon.

Rule 2
Capitalize a proper noun. A proper noun is a name that specifies a specific person, place, or thing.

Rule 3
Capitalize the pronoun I.

Capitalization Usage
To begin a sentence, direct quotation, each line in a list, and the first word after a colon when a complete sentence follows the colon. He walked across the street.

The official will discuss Increasing troop strength Leaving the current number of troops Pulling out of the country This is my favorite saying: An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

To indicate a proper nounExamples of proper nouns are Someones nameChad Smith walked home from school.

Geographical namesI went to Greece for the summer.

Nouns followed by numbers or lettersMy cousin took Flight 1034 from Atlanta.

Titles before a person's nameChairman Peter Gates made the decision public.

Course titlesNext semester the professor will teach Communications 101.

A specific degreeHenry received a Bachelor of Science in Engineering.

Organizations and departments within organizationsThe Florida Department of Education announced more funding for special education resources.

Government groups and lawsCongress passed a bill to support the First Amendment.

Brand names and trade marksMy favorite drink is A&W root beer.

Days of the week, months, and holidaysThis year Valentine's Day is on a Friday. Historical events and time periodsAs the Middle Ages drew to a close, the Renaissance marked a rebirth of culture and learning.

Races, languages, and nationalities While many Brazilians are of African-American descent, others in the southern portion of the country are Caucasian and speak German and Italian due to their European ancestry.

Celestial bodiesThe Earth is the third plant from the Sun.

Religious referencesThe Torah is the primary scriptural source of Judaism.

Computer terminologyThe Internet is can be a useful source of information.

Careful!
Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (and, but, nor, or), and prepositions (in, for, or) in titles and headings. Incorrect: Fiddler On The Roof. Correct: Fiddler on the Roof.

Do not capitalize nonspecific geographical features. Incorrect: Sally went to the Mountains. Correct: Sally went to the mountains.

Do not capitalize the names of departments unless they are specific departments within an organization. Incorrect: Send a report to the Marketing Department. Correct: Send a report to the marketing department.

Do not capitalize state unless it is preceded by or followed by a specific state name. Incorrect: We drove on a State highway. Correct: We live in the State of Washington. Correct: We live in Washington State.

Do not capitalize city unless it is part of the official city name.

Incorrect: It is a City rule that dogs must be on a leash. Correct:We live in the City of San Francisco. Correct: We live in Oklahoma City.

Do not capitalize a person's title when it is followed by an appositive (which names the specific person). Incorrect: I went to see the Managing Director, Harold Stone. Correct: I went to see the managing director, Harold Stone.

Do not capitalize a person's title that is used instead of the name. Incorrect: The President of the association called the group to order. Correct: The president of the association called the group to order.

Do not capitalize names of general areas of study unless they are proper nouns. Incorrect: I am studying Geography at school. Correct: I am studying geography at school.

Do not capitalize general terms referring to governmental entities. Incorrect: The Government ruled in favor of individual rights. Correct: The government ruled in favor of individual rights.

Capitalize military organizations when referring to the armed forces of the United States. Correct: The Army and Navy mobilized for the war games in California. Incorrect: An Army mobilized for the assault. (The Army means the U.S. Army; an army could be from anywhere). Correct: The army of salespeople canvassed the neighborhood. Correct: A navy is difficult for landlocked countries. Incorrect: We were riding in an army Jeep.

Capitalize Marine when referring to the U.S. Marine Corps (without capitalization, marine refers to sea life), but do not capitalize duty titles of personnel unless associated with a name. Correct: Two Marines were walking down the street. Correct: Two marine plants were growing in the aquarium. Correct: The soldiers visit distant cities when on leave. Incorrect: Modern Airmen can take on-base college courses. Correct: I visited Sergeant Jones in the barracks. Incorrect: The men were marching to the cadence of a Sergeant.

Do not capitalize general words referring to acts, laws, and amendments. Incorrect: The Act was designed to provide more rights to victims. Correct: The act was designed to provide more rights to victims.

Do not capitalize the names of laws, theories, or models in scientific writing unless they contain the author's name. Incorrect: The Theory of Relativity is basic to physical science. Correct: The theory of relativity is basic to physical science. Correct: Mendels Law of Gravity is taught in physics classes.

Do not capitalize the names of general products that are preceded by brand names. Incorrect: Guess Watches are popular among teens. Correct: Guess watches are popular among teens.

Do not capitalize the names of centuries. Incorrect: The Industrial Revolution began in the late 19th Century. Correct: The Industrial Revolution began in the late 19th century.

Do not capitalize nouns indicating a belief rather than membership in a specific group. Incorrect: Many people categorize Republican principles as conservative. Correct: Many people categorize republican principles as conservative.

Do not capitalize intranet, which is a private network not connected to the global system of networks. Incorrect: The company Intranet provides information on company policy. Correct: The company intranet provides information on company policy.

Do not capitalize directions unless they refer to a specific section of the country. Incorrect: We will travel North to Canada. Correct: We will travel north to Canada.

Do not capitalize the first word after a dash or parenthesis unless it is a proper noun, the pronoun I, or the beginning of a direct quote. Incorrect: It snowed last nightThe chickens waddled to their coops. Correct: It snowed last nightthe chickens waddled to their coops.

Clauses
Definition: A clause contains a subject, verb, and modifiersbut is not necessarily a complete sentence. Below are some types of clauses that should help you ensure that you write clear, concise sentences.

Types of Clauses
Independent Clause: An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete sentence. While independent and dependent clauses can have a subject and a verb, only an independent clause can stand alone. Another name for an independent clause is main clause. The book [subject] that you want [that you want = modifier] is [verb] at the library.

Two independent clauses can be joined together to make a compound sentence by either adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon between the two clauses. The book that you want is at the library [independent clause 1], and I want to check it out [independent clause 2].

Dependent Clause: A dependent clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone. Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions and followed by a comma. The example below could

be added to the independent clause example to form a complex sentence; however, the phrase is not a complete sentence on its own. But [subordinating conjunction] it [subject] is [verb] checked out [modifier].

Relative Clause: A relative clause is the clause introduced by a relative pronoun. Relative pronouns are who, whom, which, and that. The book that you want [that you want = relative clause] is at the library.

Nonrestrictive Clause/Nonessential Clause: A nonrestrictive clause or nonessential clause adds information about the antecedent but does not limit the antecedent. Remember, an antecedent is the word being referred to. The human brain [antecedent], which weighs about three pounds, [which weighs about three pounds = nonrestrictive clause] contains nearly 100 billion neurons.

Restrictive Clause/Essential Clause: A restrictive clause or essential clause limits the antecedent and is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Everyone [antecedent] who has a motorcycle [who has a motorcycle = restrictive clause] is required to attend a safety course.

The clause, who has a motorcycle, restricts the antecedent, everyone, because it further defines who everyone is in the sentence.

Careful!
Do not mistake a verb phrase for one of the types of clauses. A verb phrase is a group of words containing a verb but no subject. A verb phrase contains additional words that function as a single verb and modify another word in the sentence (usually the subject). Verb phrase: Standing next to his brother, the boy did not look as short. Restrictive phrase: The boy, who was standing next to his brother, did not look as short. (This is a restrictive phrase because we do not know who the boy is, and physical location is critical to our recognition of him.) Nonrestrictive phrase: The boy, who was standing next to his brother, did not look as short. (This is nonrestrictive because in paragraphs above or by some universal knowledge, we already know who the boy is, so "standing next to his brother" is just extra information and is set off by commas).

Do not mistake a noun clause for one of the types of clauses. A noun phrase can be a noun or pronoun with additional words that function as a single noun. Noun phrase: A vision of perfection in an evening gown, Susan realized she had left her makeup case at home. Relative clause: Susan, while waiting for the train, realized she had left her makeup case at home. Nonrestrictive phrase: Susan, a vision of perfection in an evening gown, realized she had left her makeup case at home.

Restrictive phrase: Susan the vision of perfection in an evening gown realized she had left her makeup case at home. (The implication is that two Susans were at the ball, and the one not dressed so well had her makeup with her).

Colons
Definition: A colon [ : ] is primarily a mark of introduction pointing to something that follows in a sentence. Use a colon only after a complete sentence.

Rule 1
Use a colon to introduce a series after a complete sentence.

Rule 2
Use a colon to introduce an element that explains the previous sentence.

Rule 3
Use a colon to form an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun).

Rule 4
Use a colon in special situations.

Uses of the Colon

To identify a list of items after a complete sentence. The snacks for the hiker included a number of high-energy foods: raisins, nuts, and dried fruit.

To introduce an element that completes, summarizes, or explains the previous sentence. The speaker concluded with an important thought: pay yourself first.

To form an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun). We will learn to make quiche from a talented chef: Rachael Ray.

For special situations. A salutation in a business letterDear Mr. Smith:

Figures giving time11:30 p.m. or 6:00 a.m.

Subtitles of books or magazinesStyle: A Complete Guide to Fashion.

Biblical references to clarify between the chapter and verseLuke 17:21.

Careful!
Do not use a colon for a list if it is not preceded by a complete sentence. Incorrect: The recipe requires: fresh eggs, bananas, and butter. Correct: The recipe requires the following ingredients: fresh eggs, bananas, and butter.

Do not use a semicolon [;] in place of a colon [:]. Incorrect: Julie's goal was simple but costly; visit Mozambique. Correct: Julie's goal was simple but costly: visit Mozambique.

Place a colon outside quotation marks. Incorrect: Henry is sending us two packages marked "Fragile:" the large mirror and the Tiffany lamp. Correct: Henry is sending us two packages marked "Fragile": the large mirror and the Tiffany lamp.

Conjunctions
Definition: Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and sentences together. The following material will explain each of the different conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A coordinating conjunction connects similar elements in a sentence. Few in number, the coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember. They are theFANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

Rule 1
Coordinating conjunctions are preceded by a comma when they separate two main clauses. Example: Ms. Ortega rose quickly in the executive hierarchy, and the old-school males gladly made room for her because she made them all look a little better.

After a coordinating conjunction

Example: The purpose of the merger was clear to only a few of the stakeholders and [no comma here] was also misunderstood by the press.

Between only two words or phrases connected by a coordinating conjunction

Example: Sonja [no comma here] and Peter are in Madrid studying Spanish architecture.

Rule 2

Eliminate commas with coordinating conjunctions in the following instances: Between one main clause and a subordinate clause (a clause that needs something else to make it a complete sentence). Example: Ms. Ortega rose quickly in the executive hierarchy [no comma here] and became one of the favorites of the board of directors.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A subordinating conjunction connects two thoughts in a sentence, but one of the thoughts depends on the other. There are many common subordinating conjunctions; these are some of the most frequently used: although, when, after, before, since, so that, as, once, and though.

Rule 1
When the sentence begins with the subordinating conjunction, a comma is required between the clauses. Example: Although their critical-thinking skills were extraordinary, [comma required] the new grads needed to adjust their writing skills.

Rule 2
When the subordinate clause is second, the comma is optional. Do not use a comma if the information following the subordinating conjunction is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Example: The human resources manager spoke sternly to the new employees about harassment [no comma] so that they would not have to learn hard lessons through experience.

Correlative Conjunctions
Definition: The correlative conjunctions often occur together: [not only and but also] [neither and nor] [either and or] [both and and]. Example: Neither the director nor the supervisors were able to find the bug.

Example: Not only the carpets but also the computers were ruined by the ceiling sprinklers during the false alarm.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Definition: Other words that connect independent (or main) clauses are called conjunctive adverbs because they function both like conjunctions and like adverbs. (Sometimes they are called adverbial conjunctions). The table below lists some of the common conjunctive adverbs:

However

Moreover

Nonetheless

Hence

Otherwise

Consequently

Indeed

Therefore

Rule 1
Use a conjunctive adverb as a transition between ideas. These words function as conjunctive adverbs only when they connect two complete sentences. Example: Joe would have come to the movie with us; however, [this is a conjunctive adverb because it connects two complete sentences] he had to study for a test.

Example: Connie went sunbathing, however, [this is not a conjunctive adverb because the following is not a complete sentence] not swimming.

Rule 2
Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb and a comma after. Example: I took the job, [the comma is incorrect] however, I did it with grave reservations.

Commas
Definition: A comma is used to define the relationships of various elements of a sentence and to clarify meaning for the reader.

Rule 1
Use a comma to define relationships in a sentence.

Rule 2
Use a comma to clarify meaning for the reader.

Uses of the Comma

Before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, yet, for, nor) between two main clauses.

Interest rates are low, so more people are buying new homes.

To set off nonessential elements from the rest of the sentence. The company, which is located in Ohio, has a good reputation.

Between items in a series of three or more. We had potato salad, corn on the cob, and hot dogs at the picnic.

To set off introductory elements at the beginning of a sentence. When her husband died, Clarice inherited $60 million.

Between two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word (these are called coordinate adjectives each adjective describes the noun independently). The winding, scenic highway follows the coastline from Los Angeles to San Francisco.

To separate adjectives following a noun. Tommy, bruised and bloody, ran home crying after he fell.

In dates with at least three parts: day, month, year (place comma after the day and after the year if the sentence does not end there). He received the letter March 23, 2006. Utahns commemorate July 24, 1847, as the year the state was settled.

To separate the city from the state and the state from the rest of the sentence. Phoenix, Arizona, is the location of the corporate office.

In numbers larger than three digits. The crowd at the game was estimated to be more than 20,000.

To set off an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun). George Washington, the first President, lived at Mt. Vernon.

After the name of a person being addressed in the beginning of a sentence. Lucy, please put the soap in the dishwasher.

Before and after names of people being addressed in the middle of a sentence.

In about an hour, Lucy, please put the soap in the dishwasher.

Before such as, including, and especially when the information that follows is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Martha likes several kinds of ice cream, such as pistachio, chocolate fudge, and cherry cheesecake.

To separate transitional words from the rest of the sentence. The mayor, therefore, voted against building the arena downtown.

After a conjunctive adverb (however, consequently, furthermore, otherwise, therefore, otherwise) that separates two complete sentences. (A semicolon must also be used before the conjunctive adverb.) I like to go bowling; however, I do not bowl well.

Inside quotation marks. Knowledge is power, wrote Francis Bacon.

Careful!
Do not use a comma before a conjunction unless a complete sentence follows. Incorrect: I will bring the hot dogs, and the punch. Correct: I will bring the hot dogs, and Julie will bring the punch.

Do not use a comma after a coordinating conjunction. Incorrect: Interest rates are low so, more people are buying homes. Correct: Interest rates are low, so more people are buying homes.

Do not use a comma after short introductory elements indicating when. Incorrect: Tomorrow, we will take a short shuttle to the airport. Correct: Tomorrow we will take a short shuttle to the airport.

Do not use a comma after the final adjective with coordinate adjectives. Incorrect: Fragrant, stately, magnolia trees lined the street in Atlanta. Correct: Fragrant, stately magnolia trees lined the street in Atlanta.

Do not use a comma with only the month and year. Incorrect: He received the letter in March, 2006. Correct: He received the letter in March 2006.

Do not use a comma if the following information is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Incorrect: Gestures, such as rolling your eyes and clenching your teeth, are offensive to listeners. Correct: Gestures such as rolling your eyes and clenching your teeth are offensive to listeners.

Comma Splices
Definition: A comma splice occurs when two main clauses are separated by a comma without a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). The following rules are ways to correct a comma splice.

Rule 1
Place an end mark (period, question mark, exclamation mark) between the two clauses to form two sentences. Comma Splice: The ship was huge, its mast stood 80 feet high. Correction with end mark: The ship was huge. Its mast stood 80 feet high.

Rule 2
Leave the comma and add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) to link the sentences. Comma Splice: The ship was huge its, mast stood 80 feet high. Correction with coordinating conjunction: The ship was huge, and its mast stood 80 feet high.

Rule 3
Use a semicolon to separate and connect the two closely related ideas. Comma Splice: The ship was huge, its mast stood 80 feet high. Correction with semicolon: The ship was huge; its mast stood 80 feet high.

Careful!
Do not use a semicolon to correct a comma splice unless the two sentences are closely related. Incorrect: The score was lopsided; I am not a good loser Correct: The score was lopsided; it was a blowout.

Comparative vs. Superlative

Definition: The comparative form of a word is used when comparing or contrasting two items. The superlative form of a word is used when determining which one of three or more items is the most or least of the group.

Uses of Comparative vs. Superlative

With most one syllable modifiers, add an er to form the comparative. This skyscraper is taller than the one downtown.

Betty arrived sooner than Marvin because he had a flat tire.

The red dress is more attractive on Donna than the blue dress.

The movie we watched last week was less violent than the movie we watched yesterday.

With most one-syllable modifiers, add an est to form the superlative. The elephant at the circus was the biggest animal Joey had ever seen.

From the hotel window, the couple looked out over the loveliest view.

With most modifiers of two or more syllables, use most or least to form the superlative. Of Go Fish, Crazy Eights, and Old Maid, Go Fish was the least entertaining for the children at the sleepover.

The deep dish apple pie was the most appealing dessert on the menu.

Careful!
Avoid using a comparative when there are more than two items under discussion. Incorrect: The kindergartners were happiest today than yesterday. Correct: The kindergartners were happier today than yesterday.

Avoid using a superlative when there are only two items being compared. Incorrect: Between Mary and Sean, Mary is nicest. Correct: Between Mary and Sean, Mary is nicer.

Avoid using the incorrect comparative/superlative for words that change form. Incorrect: Chocolate ice cream is gooder than vanilla. Correct: Chocolate ice cream is better than vanilla. Incorrect: Who is the baddest movie villain of all time? Correct: Who is the worst movie villain of all time?

Avoid using more than one comparative or superlative form at a time. Incorrect: Jerry paints more faster than Tom. Correct: Jerry paints faster than Tom. Incorrect: The pretzels are the most saltiest I have ever tasted. Correct: The pretzels are the saltiest I have ever tasted.

Dashes

Definition: Dashes () are used to provide emphasis or clarity. Create a dash with two hyphens, and do not space before or after the dash.

Uses of Dashes
To create emphasis (The dash creates greater emphasis than commas or parentheses). The opera singerif you can call her thatused to sing with a rock band.

To create greater clarity when other punctuation is used in a sentence. Some of the things needed in the playprops, costumes, and trumpetstill need to be rented.

To set off a final statement that completes the main idea found at the beginning of the sentence. The opera singer began her training in a strange music genrerock.

To separate elements in the sentence that abruptly interrupt the meaning. Charlie needs to earn $8,000more or lessfor his upcoming trip to Europe.

To introduce items in a series (The dash creates greater emphasis than a colon). On our way to Washington, DC, we drove through every kind of bad weather sleet, rain, snow, hail, and fog.

Careful!
Do not use a closing dash if it comes at the end of a sentence. Use the appropriate end punctuation mark for the sentence. Incorrect: You will have the check by Fridayin two days. Correct: You will have the check by Fridayin two days.

Ellipsis Points
Definition: Ellipsis points consist of three dots with spaces in between each dot. [ . . . ] Ellipsis points are used to indicate missing words in a direct quotation. Ellipsis points can also be used at the end of a sentence when it seems to fade out before completing the thought.

Rule 1
To indicate missing words in a direct quotation.

Rule 2
To indicate the sentence fades out before completing the thought. Use only the ellipsis points (three dots) and eliminate the period in this kind of construction.

Uses of Ellipsis Points

To indicate missing words in a direct quotation. The professor stated, "Many Americans . . . wanted to join the fight in the first years of World War I."

To indicate the sentence fades out before completing the thought. Pam was known for raising African violets, but her husband . . . he was an expert at growing wild orchids.

Careful!
Use four dots instead of three to indicate missing words at the end of a sentence of a direct quotation. (The first dot is the period and next three dots are the ellipsis points). Incorrect: The professor stated, "In the first years of World War I, many Americans wanted to join the fight . . . America didn't enter the war until 1917." Correct: The professor stated, "In the first years of World War I, many Americans wanted to join the fight. . . . America didn't enter the war until 1917."

Do not use ellipsis points at the beginning or end of a direct quotation. Incorrect: Ingrid said, " . . . come to the park with us." Correct: Ingrid said, "Come to the park with us."

Fragments
Definition: A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought. Sentence fragments can be turned into complete sentences by adding words that will complete the thought. Remembera sentence must contain a subject (noun) and a verb and be able to stand alone. The reasons fragments occur are listed below.

Rule 1
Fragment contains no subject.

Rule 2
Fragment contains no verb.

Rule 3
Fragment results from a missing thought with an introductory word.

Avoiding Fragments
Adding a subject to the fragment can create a complete thought. Fragment: Splashing some olive oil in the pan and quickly adding onions. Sentence with subject: Splashing some olive oil in the pan and quickly adding onions, Sally burned herself.

Adding a verb to the fragment can create a complete thought. Fragment: Hot dogs, apple pie, ice cream, and soda.

Sentence with verb: Hot dogs, apple pie, ice cream, and soda are favorite American foods.

Adding an additional element to a dependent clause (a phrase that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence). Dependent clause: Although Steve said he would reboot the computer.

Complete sentence: Although Steve said he would reboot the computer, he forgot to do it before he went to bed.

Careful!
Do not be deceived by the length of a sentence fragment. Many times a fragment can be long and complicated, so it is assumed that the fragment is a complete sentence. Incorrect: Waiting in the airport with her dog Corky in a pet container on her lap. Correct: Waiting in the airport with her dog Corky in a pet container on her lap, Cindy was dismayed to hear the plane had been delayed.

Many times a sentence fragment occurs because it should have been attached to either the previous or the following sentence. Incorrect: When my mother came for dinner. We barbequed steak. Correct: When my mother came for dinner, we barbequed steak.

Any sentence that begins with the following words needs to have a complete thought: as, after, because, before, when, although, as soon as, and since. Incorrect: Since I went to bed late. I was grumpy in the morning. Correct: Since I went to bed late, I was grumpy in the morning.

Good vs. Well

Definition: Good is the adjective form of the word that describes something or someone positive or desirable. Well is the adverb form of the positive descriptor, which refers to an action or a condition.

Rule 1
The adjective good will always modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun.

Rule 2
The adverb well will always modify (describe) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Uses of Good vs. Well

Use good to modify a noun.

The members of the track team are good runners, so they always win first place.

Use good to modify a noun. Because they are good, they always win first place.

Use well to modify a verb. The members of the track team run well, so they always win first place.

Use well to modify an adjective or adverb. When it is cold outside, the members of the track team stay well-covered.

Careful!
Do not use the words good and well interchangeably. Well cannot function as an adjective, and good cannot function as an adverb. Incorrect: The cheese pizza tastes so well when it is hot and fresh. Correct: The cheese pizza tastes so good when it is hot and fresh. Incorrect: Home in bed with a severe cold, Ben did not feel good. Correct: Home in bed with a severe cold, Ben did not feel well.

Hyphens
Definition: A hyphen (sometimes referred to an en dash) is used to connect two or more words in a sentence. Hyphenated words can act as modifiers or as compound words that can stand alone.

Rule 1
Use a hypen to connect two or more words in a sentence in order to prevent misreading and misunderstanding.

Rule 2
Use a hypen in special situations with numbers that are written out and some computer terms.

Uses of the Hyphen

With a compound modifier (two words used together to modify another word) when it comes before a noun The girls wore old-fashioned dresses to the ball.

With some prefixes and suffixes (The prefixes pre, post, self, pro, and ex always require a hyphen, and the suffix elect always requires a hyphen.) The author is a self-proclaimed leader of women's rights.

With numbers between 21 and 99 that are written out There were fifty-four people in the waiting room at the doctor's office.

With short fractions One-half of the students are male.

Between numbers to indicate a sequence of numbers Rows 15-30 were empty.

With some computer terms that contain e The e-book contains information relevant to the course.

Careful!
Do not use a hyphen when a compound modifier comes after the noun. Incorrect: The secretary was well-organized. Correct: The secretary was well organized.

Do not use a hyphen with common compound modifiers that are recognized as a single unit. Incorrect: I ordered a chocolate ice-cream cone. Correct: I ordered a chocolate ice cream cone.

Do not use a hyphen with an adverb that describes another word. Incorrect: The owners of the badly-kept house have many domestic animals. Correct: The owners of the badly kept house have many domestic animals.

The prefix mid requires a hyphen when used with a number or a capitalized word. Incorrect: The world experienced a grain crisis in the mid 1970s. Correct: The world experienced a grain crisis in the mid-1970s.

Do not use a hyphen with words beginning with Web. Write them as two words. Incorrect: The Web-site contained information on the company's goals and objectives. Correct: The Web site contained information on the company's goals and objectives.

Irregular Verbs
Definition: Verbs that do not consistently form the past tense by the addition of ed or d to the base are known as irregular verbs. The forms of these verbs do not follow a pattern and must be memorized individually.

Types of Irregular Verbs

Some irregular verbs change vowels with the change of tense. Examples:

begin / began / had begun drink / drank / had drunk ring / rang / had rung swim / swam / had swum

Some irregular verbs do not change with the change of tense. Examples:

hit / hit / had hit let / let / had let put / put / had put shut / shut / had shut

Some irregular verbs change forms completely with the change of tense. Examples:

bring / brought / had brought buy / bought / had bought catch / caught / had caught teach / taught / had taught

Some irregular verbs are commonly used verbs. Examples:

be: I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were to have: I had, you had, he/she/it had, we had, they had to do: I did, you did, he/she/it did, we did, they did

For additional information about verbs, refer to Verbs.

Careful!
To determine whether to use simple past tense or the past participle, check to see if a helping verb also appears in the sentence. If it does not, use the simple past tense. If it does, use the past participle. Past Tense: Andrea spoke to the teacher about Jimmys classroom behavior problems. Past Participle: Andrea and the teacher had spoken before about Jimmys classroom behavior problems.

Modifiers
Definition: A modifier further explains or restricts another word in a sentence. A modifier can consist of one word or a series of words that function as the explanation.

Rule 1
A modifier is an adjective or adverb that further explains or restricts a noun, verb, or an adjective.

Rule 2
A modifier is a group of words that further explains or restricts another word in a sentence.

Uses of Modifiers
An adjective modifying a noun The belligerent student was placed in detention.

An adverb modifying an adjective Only highly skilled workers are hired in the IT department.

An adverb modifying a verb The swiftly running water in the stream posed a hazard to children.

Multiple-word modifiers
The secretary who won the award received a raise. While on the runway, the airplane had an electrical system malfunction.

I found a beautiful old diamond ring lying in the gutter.

Careful!
Place a modifier as close to the word it modifies to avoid confusion. A dangling modifier is placed at the beginning of a sentence and modifies the incorrect word. Incorrect: Crushed beyond repair, Jenny found her watch on the street [This says that Jenny was crushed beyond repair]. Correct: In the street, Jenny found her watch crushed beyond repair [This says that the watch was crushed beyond repair].

A misplaced modifier modifies the wrong word in a sentence and alters the meaning of the sentence. Incorrect: The UPS messenger spoke to the secretary who delivered the package [this says the secretary delivered the package]. Correct: The UPS messenger who delivered the package spoke to the secretary [this says the UPS messenger delivered the package].

Number Usage
Definition: Although the basic rule for number usage is to spell out numbers one through nine and use figures for numbers 10 and above, there are exceptions. The following rules will help you use numbers correctly.

Numbers as Words

Rule 1
Spell out numbers from one to nine, including street names. We will be gone for three days.

Rule 2
Spell out indefinite numbers that can be expressed in one or two words. We received hundreds of requests for our product.

Rule 3
Spell out numbers that introduce a sentence, title, or heading. Twenty-one children rode the bus.

Rule 4
Spell out fractions that are used alone. More than one-third of the students received an A on the test.

Numbers as Figures Rule 1

Use figures to express numbers 10 and above. I leave for New York in 30 days.

Rule 2 Use figures to express the following numbers:

A. Amounts of money

I paid $53.74 for groceries on Saturday.

B. Dates

Paula was born on September 7, 1995.

C. Time

Sunrise occurred at 6 a.m.

D. Ages

Charlie will be 8 on Wednesday.

E. Dimensions

The smallest box is 6" by 8" by 3".

F. Percentages and Decimals

The beginning law students were 9% female.

After the gas station, turn left in 1.4 miles to find the stadium.

G. Degrees of temperature

Friday it was 5 degrees above zero.

H. Street numbers and house numbers

Pick up the packages at 126 Broad Street.

I. Pages and divisions of a book

She found the information in Volume 8, page 24.

J. Numbers preceded by nouns

Julie and Marty stayed at the Waldorf in Suite 6.

K. A whole number and a fraction

Jake and Jan stayed at the ranch 3 1/2 days.

L. Mathematical functions

The tip had to be divided by 3.

Numbers Combined with Words and Figures

Rule 1
Use a figure for the number and spell out million and billion in round numbers for easier reading. The machine counted 1 million votes.

Rule 2
Use a figure for the large number and spell out the small number for greater clarity when two numbers are used together. I have to read 22 fifteen-page reports by Friday.

Careful!
Spell out one cent. Incorrect: Ken had .01 left after he paid the parking ticket. Correct: Ken had one cent left after he paid the parking ticket.

Use figures for all dates written in ordinal numbers. Incorrect: We will be in New York on the second of June. Correct: We will be in New York on the 2nd of June.

Use figures for ages expressed in years and months. Incorrect: Billy walked at one year and two months. Correct: Billy walked at 1 year and 2 months.

Write out large numbers at the beginning of a sentence or rewrite the sentence. Incorrect: 2,345,615 people voted in the recent state election. Correct: In the recent state election, 2,345,615 people voted.

If several numbers in a sentence perform the same function, express them uniformly. If one should be written as a figure, write them all as figures. Incorrect: We have 32 ranges, three dishwashers, eight refrigerators, 22 washers, and 12 dryers in stock. Correct:We have 32 ranges, 3 dishwashers, 8 refrigerators, 22 washers, and 12 dryers in stock.

Parentheses

Definition: Parentheses enclose information that is independent of the main idea of the sentence. Parentheses are used when dashes would be too emphatic and commas would create confusion. Here is an example for a citystate combination or when the nonessential element already contains commas: Recruiting is up in the New Orleans (Louisiana) military offices. Gulf Coast seafood (shrimp, oysters, mullet, etc.) are world famous.

Parentheses Usage
To add explanations that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence. The party cannot be outside in February (the coldest month of the year).

Use parentheses to add a citation or reference page entry to a paper or essay. . . .according to the research (Smith, 2002)

Smith, Q. A. (2002). . .

Use parentheses to enclose numbers or letters that designate elements in a series. Before her trip, Peggy must purchase the following items: (1) a guidebook to Spain, (2) a money belt, (3) a Eurail pass, (4) an international driver's license, and(5) a good pair of hiking boots.

Use parentheses to enclose an acronym after a complete name. John works for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

Use parentheses in an outline to indicate minor subdivisions.

Primary purpose of adult education Acquisition of knowledge Skills development Job training Technological development (a) Computer skills (b) Internet functions

Careful!
Place other punctuation required in a sentence outside the closing parenthesis. Incorrect: If Dan does not finish the paperwork by Monday, (July 15) he will lose his job. Correct: If Dan does not finish the paperwork by Monday (July 15), he will lose his job.

If a complete sentence is contained within a set of parentheses, place the closing punctuation mark inside the closing parenthesis and do not use any additional punctuation. Incorrect: William signed in at his dorm on campus. (He arrived on September 5.) Correct: William signed in at his dorm on campus. (He arrived on September 5.)

Pronouns
Definition: A pronoun is used in place of a noun and is used to refer to persons, places, or things.

Rule 1
Use a pronoun to eliminate awkward phrasing caused by unnecessary repetition. Types of Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns: An indefinite pronoun is one that does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Below are three charts identifying singular and plural indefinite pronouns.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Anyone

Each

Either

Every

Neither

None

No one

One

Someone

Something

Anybody

Anything

Everybody

Everyone

Everything

Much

Nobody

Nothing

Somebody

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Both

Few

Many

Several

Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns All Any More Most Some

Reflexive Pronoun: A reflexive pronoun ends in self or selves and reflects action from the verb back to the subject. John is going by himself.

Intensive Pronoun: An intensive pronoun ends in self or selves and adds emphasis to a noun or another pronoun.

The governor himself attended the party.

Pronoun Usage
Forms: Pronouns have different forms [Number, Person, Gender, Case], and each must be used correctly in a sentence. Number: Indicates whether the pronoun is singular or plural. Bill [singular noun] checked his [singular pronoun] grades on the computer.

Bill and Henry [two singular nouns combine to make a plural noun] checked their [plural pronoun] grades on the computer.

Person: Pronouns have three person forms: first person, second person, and third person. The following three charts indicate first-, second-, and third-person pronouns. First Person Pronouns I Me Mine We

Us

Our

Ours

Second Person Pronouns

You

Your

Yours

Third Person Pronouns

He

She

It

Him

Her

They

Them

Hers

His

Its

Theirs

Gender: Indicates whether the pronouns are masculine, feminine, or neuter. Case: This is the form of a pronoun that indicates how it is used in a sentence and its relationship to other words in the sentence. The following tables define the three pronoun cases and how they are used.

Case

Use in a Sentence

Subjective

Subject of a verb or a complement

Objective

Direct object, Indirect object, Object of a preposition

Possessive

Shows ownership

Subjective

Objective

Possessive

Singular

I You He, She, It

Me You Him, Her, It

My, Mine Your, Yours His, Her, Hers, Its

Plural

We You They

Us You Them

Our, Ours Your, yours Their, Theirs

A pronoun must agree in number, person, gender, and case with its antecedent [a word that the pronoun refers to]. Click here to read more about PronounAntecedent Agreement. Nancy wore her favorite black dress.

Cindy and Janie hailed a taxi so they would be on time for the play.

Every organization has its own mission statement.

The girl in the red coat was she.

Careful!
Shifting the number, person, or gender of a pronoun will cause agreement errors. Incorrect: A student must study to receive good grades on their test. Correct: Students must study to receive good grades on their tests. Incorrect: Jill is studying Spanish, a course you need to take before studying abroad. Correct: Jill is studying Spanish, a course she needs to take before studying abroad. Incorrect: Every hurricane is given its name in alphabetical order when she becomes more than a tropical storm. Correct: Every hurricane is given its name in alphabetical order when it becomes more than a tropical storm.

Use a singular pronoun with two singular nouns or pronouns joined by or or nor. Incorrect: Neither Tommy nor Sam walks to their work. Correct: Neither Tommy nor Sam walks to his work.

Eliminate gender-specific pronouns in sentences.

Incorrect: A nurse should take the patient's temperature; she should also write the blood pressure on the chart. Correct: A nurse should take the patient's temperature; he or she should also write the blood pressure on the chart. Better: Nurses should take the patient's temperature; they should also write the blood pressure on the chart.

Use the correct pronoun case with compound subjects. Incorrect: Nate and him want spaghetti for dinner. Correct: Nate and he want spaghetti for dinner.

Do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. Incorrect: The bag is your's. Correct: The bag is yours.

Do not confuse the possessive pronoun its with the contraction it's (meaning it is). Incorrect: The dog buried it's bone. Correct: The dog buried its bone.

Use a reflexive pronoun carefully. It must have a clear antecedent in the sentence. Incorrect: My mother bought Jennifer and myself a plane ticket. Correct: My mother bought Jennifer and me a plane ticket.

Use the second person personal pronoun you only when referring to the reader or listener. Eliminate you in academic writing unless your assignment specifies otherwise.

PronounAntecedent Agreement
Definition: The function of pronounsI, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, themis to replace nouns or other pronouns in a sentence. The antecedent is the word to which the pronoun replaces or refers. Be certain that a pronoun agrees with its antecedent.

Rules of Pronoun Antecedent Agreement

The basic idea behind pronounantecedent agreement is for the singular or plural construction to remain parallel: Singular: The girl sent a text message to her friend, Jack.

Plural: The girls sent a text message to their friend, Jack.

When using pronouns to refer to collective nouns, remember such nouns are always considered singular because they are taken as a single entity. Incorrect: Starbucks sent quarterly reports to their shareholders.

Correct: Starbucks sent quarterly reports to its shareholders.

Common collective nouns: audience, class, company, department, family, public, school, society, team

Pronouns should clearly reference a particular word. Avoid using vague pronouns alone. Vague: They are always telling us what to do! To whom does the word they refer?

Vague: They are always telling us what to do! To whom does the word they refer?

Vague: Claire goes to dance classes six days a week. That is why she is so good at it. To what does that refer? To what does it refer?

Common vague pronouns: it, that, these, they, this, those, which

Careful!
Be careful with pronounantecedent agreement when the pronoun is indefinite and does not replace a specific noun. Common singular indefinite pronouns: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something When an indefinite pronoun could be singular or plural (all, any, none, some), choose the number according to the referenced noun. Singular: None of the pizza was left. Plural: None of the children wanted to swing.

Quotation Marks
Definition: Double quotation marks are used to set off someone's words or thoughts, titles of minor literary works, words that need special emphasis, and formal definition of words.

Rule 1
To indicate a person's exact words or thoughts (direct quote).

Rule 2
To set off literary titles that can be found within larger works.

Rule 3
To create emphasis.

Rule 4
To indicate the formal definition of a word.

Uses of Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks only for the words that have been spoken directly Helen said, "My dog learned how to fetch."

Use quotation marks only for titles within larger works, such as magazine articles, chapters in books, essays, and titles of songs and short stories The chapter "Writing a Case Study" was helpful in completing my English assignment.

Use quotation marks to create emphasis If we "ever" get to Washington, we can visit the Smithsonian.

Use quotation marks to indicate the formal definition of a word A poker is "a metal rod used to stir a fire."

Careful!
Single quotation marks are used to indicate a direct quotation contained within another quotation. Incorrect: Donna told me, "Jean said, "I am not going to attend graduation," but I think she'll go any way." Correct: Donna told me, "Jean said, 'I am not going to attend graduation,' but I think she'll go any way."

Do not use quotation marks for phrasing that indicates what someone said but does not use the person's exact words (indirect quote). Incorrect: Helen said "that her dog sat down instead of fetching the stick." Correct: Helen said that her dog sat down instead of fetching the stick. [The word that indicates general meaning of what was said.]

Place commas and periods inside quotation marks. Incorrect: "Knowledge is power", wrote Francis Bacon. Correct: "Knowledge is power," wrote Francis Bacon.

Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks. Incorrect: Mrs. Harper said, "Use only your pencils on the test;" automatic grading systems will not read pen marks. Correct: Mrs. Harper said, "Use only your pencils on the test"; automatic grading systems will not read pen marks.

Place question marks inside quotation marks when the quoted material is a question. Incorrect: Cindy said, "Did Sharon win the award for best actress"? Correct: Cindy said, "Did Sharon win the award for best actress?"

Place question marks outside quotation marks when the entire sentence is a question.

Incorrect: Did you say, "Sharon won the award for best actress?" Correct: Did you say, "Sharon won the award for best actress"?

Place exclamation marks inside quotation marks when the quoted material is an exclamation. Incorrect: Cindy said, "Sharon won the award for best actress"! Correct: Cindy said, "Sharon won the award for best actress!"

Place exclamation marks outside quotation marks when the entire sentence is an exclamation. Incorrect: Cindy was shocked and shouted, "Sharon won the award for best actress!" Correct: Cindy was shocked and shouted, "Sharon won the award for best actress"!

Do not use quotation marks for quotes of 40 words or greater [block quote]. Use an indent to offset block quotes. The example below is a correct illustration of block quotes. We honor Rose Banks not just for what she did when she was here at work but for what she did when she was not at work. She was a PTA president and a constant advocate for children. She adopted several children herself.

Run-on Sentences
Definition: A run-on sentence is two complete sentences (main clauses) that are run together without correct punctuation. The rules below are for correcting a run-on sentence.

Rule 1
Place an end punctuation mark (period, question mark, exclamation mark) between the two sentences. Sparky was not hungry. He wanted a treat.

Rule 2
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) to link the two sentences. Sparky was not hungry, but he wanted a treat.

Rule 3
Use a semicolon to separate and connect the two closely related ideas. Sparky was not hungry; he wanted a treat.

Rule 4
Form a simple sentence by adding a word to subordinate one sentence to the other. Sparky was not hungry because he already had a treat.

Careful!
Do not use more than two main clauses in a sentence. This causes overly long and awkward sentences. Incorrect: Sparky was not hungry, and he wanted a treat, so Sue gave Sparky a bone. Correct: Sparky was not hungry, but he wanted a treat. Finally, Sue gave Sparky a bone.

Semicolons
Definition: A semicolon is stronger than a comma but weaker than a period because it does not indicate the end of a complete thought. Use a semicolon only when two sentences are closely related. Use a semicolon to separate the following elements:

Rule 1
Two complete sentences that are closely related when no conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so) is between them. Correct It snowed 12 inches last night; most major roads were closed today. Incorrect It snowed 12 inches last night most major roads were closed today. [missing semicolon between the two sentences] Incorrect It snowed 12 inches last night; and most major roads were closed today. [semicolon used with a conjunction]

Rule 2
Items in a series when one or more of the main elements already contains commas. Correct I have lived in Duluth, Minnesota; Denver, Colorado; and Dallas, Texas. Incorrect I have lived in Duluth, Minnesota, Denver, Colorado, and Dallas, Texas. [Commas instead of semicolons separate the main elements.]

Rule 3
Two complete sentences joined by a transitional expression that functions as a conjunctive adverb (however, moreoversee the list of conjunctive adverbs below). Correct Interest rates were at an all-time low; consequently, more people bought homes. Incorrect Interest rates were at an all-time low consequently more people bought homes. [No punctuation separates the conjunctive adverb consequently from the rest of the sentence.] Incorrect Interest rates were at an all-time low, consequently, more people bought homes. [Commas separate the conjunctive adverb consequently from the rest of the sentence.]

Tips for Using a Semicolon

Use a semicolon only between two closely related sentences. Correct Incorrect Jerrys favorite food was lasagna. His mother had a stroke. Jerrys favorite food was lasagna; his mother had a stroke.

Make sure that elements on each side of the semicolon are complete sentences. Correct Incorrect Henry vacationed in Switzerland; he returned home broke. Henry vacationed in Switzerland; returned home broke.

Sentences can be separated to form two sentences if you dont want to use a semicolon. Henry vacationed in Switzerland. He returned home broke.

If a semicolon is used with quotation marks, always place the semicolon outside the quotation marks. Correct Incorrect The professor said, Study hard; I might give a pop quiz tomorrow. The professor said, Study hard; I might give a pop quiz tomorrow.

A conjunctive adverb is a transitional word that can be used to connect two complete ideas that are closely related.

Some common transitional words that are used as conjunctive adverbs

However

Moreover

Therefore

Otherwise

Consequently

For example

Furthermore

Nevertheless

Indeed

Accordingly

Thus

Finally

Use a dash instead of a semicolon if an even stronger break is needed between two sentences. The ship stopped at three portsGrand Cayman wasnt one of them.

Careful!
Avoid using a semicolon between a complete sentence and a dependent clause (an incomplete sentence). Correct Incorrect It rained all night before the horse race. It rained all night; before the horse race.

Avoid using a space before a semicolon; use one space after a semicolon. Correct Incorrect Elizabeth won the lottery; she bought a new car. Elizabeth won the lottery ; she bought a new car.

Avoid using a colon in place of a semicolon.

Correct Incorrect

Tim received all As in his classes; Princeton gave him an academic scholarship. Tim received all As in his classes: Princeton gave him an academic scholarship.

Avoid using a comma before a conjunctive adverb that joins two sentences. Correct Incorrect The Tigers won the baseball game; nevertheless, they still had to practice. The Tigers won the baseball game, nevertheless, they still had to practice.

Avoid using a semicolon before an opening or closing parenthesis or an opening dash. Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Eleven inches of snow fell TuesdayJane missed Judys birthday party. Eleven inches of snow fell Tuesday; Jane missed Judys birthday party. There was a snowstorm Tuesday (11 inches); Jane missed Judys birthday party There was a snowstorm Tuesday (11 inches;) Jane missed Judys birthday party.

Spelling
Definition: English contains basic spelling rules that make reading easier. Although many people today send e-mail and text messages without worrying about spelling, standard rules for spelling apply in business and academic writing. One of the problems with using correct spelling is that even though spelling has specific rules, so many exceptions exist that it is frequently difficult to spell correctly. The rules below are a good start to help you on your journey to become a better speller.

Rule 1
Use the letter I before E except after C or when sounded like A. See the charts below for some common words that follow this rule and irregular words that do not follow this rule.

I before E

Believe

Brief

Grief

Siege

Thief

Except after C

Ceiling

Conceive

Deceive

Perceive

Receive

Or when Sounded Like A as in Neighbor and Weigh

Beige

Eight

Freight

Sleigh

Weight

EI Exceptions

Counterfeit

Either

Foreign

Forfeit

Heifer

Height

Heir

Leisure

Neither

Seismology

Seize

Seizure

Sheik

Sleight

Sovereign

Their

Weird

IE Exceptions

Ancient

Conscience

Efficient

Sufficient

Financier

Rule 2
Plural Words: Plural Words are another source of spelling errors. Regular plural words are formed by adding an s to the end of the word. However, words that end in s, ss, x, z, sh, ch form the plural by adding an es at the end of the word. The exception to this rule is when words end in ch with a k sound, only add an s to create the plural, such as monarchs. See the chart below for basic examples of this rule and the exception.

Circus

Circuses

ss

Business

Businesses

Box

Boxes

Waltz

Waltzes

sh

Dish

Dishes

ch

Church

Churches

ch exception

Monarch

Monarchs

Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i and add es. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s.

y Preceded by a Consonant

Singular

Plural

Copy

Copies

Query

Queries

Policy

Policies

Story

Stories

y Preceded by a Vowel

Singular

Plural

Attorney

Attorneys

Day

Days

Monkey

Monkeys

Donkey

Donkeys

Words ending in f or ff form the plural by adding an s, such as with chief to chiefs and cliff to cliffs. However, some words ending in f and ff form the plural by changing the f to a v and add es, such as leaf to leaves and loaf to loaves. Words ending in fe form the plural by changing the f to a v and add an s, such as with life to lives and knife to knives. Irregular Plural words: Irregular plural words are those that do not form the plural by adding an s or es. Below is a chart of common irregular plural words.

Singular

Plural

Child

Children

Crisis

Crises

Goose

Geese

Man

Men

Mouse

Mice

Ox

Oxen

Tooth

Teeth

Woman

Women

The following chart shows words that are the same in the singular and plural form.

Singular

Plural

Deer

Deer

Fish

Fish

Sheep

Sheep

The following nouns only use the plural form: pliers, slacks, scissors, and thanks. Words derived from foreign languages also have irregular plural forms. Below is a chart of some common words derived from foreign languages and their plural forms.

Singular

Plural

Alumna (female)

Alumnae

Alumnus (male)

Alumni

Appendix

Appendices

Criterion

Criteria

Curriculum

Curricula

Datum

Data

Medium

Media

Memorandum

Memorandums/memoranda

Phenomenon

Phenomena

Radius

Radii

Rule 3

Words with a Prefix: A prefix consists of letters attached to the beginning of a word that change the meaning of the word. Some words do not use a hyphen to establish the prefix at the beginning of the word. Some words use a hyphen. Below is a chart with common prefixes with and without a hyphen.

Prefix with a Hyphen

Prefix without a Hyphen

Self-centered

Selfish

Self-discipline

Selfless

Self-indulgent

Selfsame

De-escalate

Preexisting

De-emphasize

Preempt

Pre-owned

Reeducate

Co-op

Reelect

Co-organizer

Coauthor

Co-owner

Cofounder

Redress

Reform

Rule 4
Words with a suffix: A suffix consists of letters attached to the end of a word that change the meaning of the word. See the points below for adding a suffix to a word. Words Ending in a Silent e, drop the e before adding the suffix.

Words Ending in a Silent e

Issue

Issuing

Desire

Desirable

Consume

Consumable

Argue

Argument

Words ending with y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add the suffix.

Words Ending with y Preceded by a Consonant

Likely

Likelihood

Happy

Happiness

Ordinary

Ordinarily

Easy

Easier

Exceptions

Dry

Dryly

Shy

Shyly

Country

Countrywide

Copy

Copying

Forty

Fortyish

Generally retain the y when the suffix is preceded by a noun.

Retain the y when Suffix is Preceded by a Noun

Joy

Joyful

Obey

Obeying

The use of the suffixes ible and able cause many spelling errors. Most words use able rather than ible. If you do not need to change the base word use able. If you do not need to change the base word, use able. Most words use able rather than ible. The chart below contains some common words that end in ible.

Audible

Edible

Legible

Responsible

Compatible

Feasible

Negligible

Sensible

Credible

Flexible

Permissible

Terrible

Digestible

Horrible

Possible

Visible

For words that end in ede, ceed, and sede, only one word ends in sede [supersede], only three words end in ceed [exceed, proceed, succeed], and the rest end in ede. For words that end in ance, ant, ence, and ent, there are no rules that exist. Use a dictionary to determine the correct spelling of these words.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Definition: In grammatically correct sentences, the subject should agree with the verb. To determine if the subject and verb agree in a sentence, first locate the subject. Second, decide whether the subject is singular or plural. Finally, write the appropriate form of the verb. Using the rules below will help you to write sentences free from subject-verb agreement errors.

Rule 1
Use a singular verb with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject. Singular: Betsy [singular subject] walks [singular verb] to the bus stop on Wednesday. Plural: The boys [plural subject] are going [plural verb] to the circus.

Rule 2
Use a plural verb with two or more subjects joined by and. This is known as a compound subject. The Chihuahua [subject 1] and the poodle [subject 2] are [plural verb] in the top five winners of the dog show.

Rule 3
Use a singular verb with two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor. Sam [subject 1] or Charlie [subject 2] is receiving [singular verb] the prize.

Rule 4
Use a verb that agrees with the closer subject when a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor.

Ken [singular subject] or the Cub Scouts [plural subject] bring [plural verb] refreshments.

Rule 5
Use a singular verb with a collective noun that names a group of people acting as a single unit. The jury [collective noun] has been deliberating [singular verb indicates the collective noun was acting as a single unit] for several days.

Use a plural verb with a collective noun that names a group of people acting independently of one another. The faculty [collective noun] are beginning [plural verb indicates the collective noun was acting independently] their own projects to receive credit for continuing education in the field.

The list below contains common collective nouns. Common Collective Nouns Army Club Fleet Number Team

Assembly

Committee

Flock

Public

Troop

Audience

Crowd

Herd

Squadron

Board

Faculty

Jury

Staff

Class

Family

Majority

Swarm

Rule 6
Use a singular verb with a title even though the title might be plural. Little Women [plural movie title] is [singular verb] a touching movie.

Rule 7
Use a singular verb with the name of one company even though it might contain a compound noun. Smith and Brown [company] is [singular verb] the best law firm in town.

Rule 8
Use a singular verb with an amount (money, distance, time) when it is expressed as a single unit. Four hundred dollars [amount expressed as a single unit] is [singular verb] a fair price.

Rule 9
Use a verb that agrees with the antecedent of the pronoun with who, which, and that. Lilia wants the teachers [antecedent of who] who work [plural verb] tirelessly to win an award.

Rule 10
Use the appropriate singular or plural verb form with an indefinite pronoun, depending on whether the indefinite pronoun is singular or plural. For a list of indefinite pronouns visit the Pronoun section of the Grammar Mechanics section. Singular: Each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments works [singular verb] independently. Plural: Both [plural indefinite pronoun] of the departments work [plural verb] independently.

Careful!
Beware of subjects that are inverted in a sentence. Incorrect: High above the sea perched near the edge of the cliffs stand [plural verb] the dilapidated house [singular subject]. Correct: High above the sea perched near the edge of the cliffs stands [singular verb] the dilapidated house [singular subject].

Beware of subject-verb agreement errors in questions, where the subject usually comes after the verb. Incorrect: Are [plural verb] each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments fully staffed? Correct: Is [singular verb] each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments fully staffed?

Understood subjects that are not listed, such as when someone gives orders or directions, can cause subject-verb agreement errors. Incorrect: (you) [understood singular subject] Please returns [plural verb] the car keys to Peter. Correct: (you) [understood singular subject] Please return [singular verb] the car keys to Peter.

Beware of subject-verb agreement errors in sentences with there and here. These words are false subjects. Locate the true subject and make sure the verb agrees with the subject in number. Incorrect: There is [singular verb] only two tickets [plural tickets] to the basketball game. Correct: There are [plural verb] only two tickets [plural tickets] to the basketball game.

Vague Pronouns
Definition: When pronouns do not refer to a specific antecedent, they are termed vague pronouns, causing the meaning of the sentence to be unclear. The most common vague pronouns are this, that, which, it, and they. Pronouns must clearly refer to the word or word group being replaced or referenced.

Avoiding Vague Pronouns

Add an accompanying noun after the pronoun.

Vague: Ethan was grounded for 2 weeks after he talked back to his parents. This was a huge disappointment.

Clear: Ethan was grounded for 2 weeks after he talked back to his parents. This punishment was a huge disappointment.

Add an accompanying noun before the pronoun. Vague: David chewed with his mouth open, which disgusted the others at his table.

Clear: David chewed with his mouth open, a behavior which disgusted the others at his table.

Replace the pronoun with a noun. Vague: Erin was always getting into trouble because they singled her out for talking in class.

Clear: Erin was always getting into trouble because the teachers singled her out for talking in class.

Combine two sentences into one. Vague: The Smiths order from the pizza place on South Main. This is the best.

Clear: The Smiths order from the pizza place on South Main, the best place in town.

Rewrite the sentence for clarity. Vague: Joey looked the answer up on the companys Web site only to find it to be completely false.

Clear: Joey looked the timeline up on the companys Web site only to find the background information surrounding the lawsuit to be false.

Careful!
Avoid the use of expletive constructions (it is, here is, there is) in academic writing because these word groups are usually too vague or do not add anything of substance. Instead, use specific nouns or pronouns and active verbs when possible for clear and effective sentences. Vague: It is the best book I have ever read. Clear: To Kill a Mockingbird is the best book I have ever read.

Vague: There are several group exercise classes to try at the gym. Clear: Several group exercise classes are available at the gym.

Verbs
Definition: A verb is a part of speech that indicates time and expresses action, condition, or existence. Without a verb, a group of words can never be anything but a sentence fragment.

Types of Verbs
Action Verbs: These verbs indicate the action someone or something is performing. Action verbs can represent a visible action or mental action. Shout is a visible action, butlearn is an action that takes place in the mind, so it cannot be seen. Visible: Hank dropped the hammer when he tried to put it away. Mental: Sally appreciates the kindness of her friends.

Examples of Mental Action Verbs

Appreciate

Dream

Promise

Thought

Worry

Ask

Learn

Think

Wonder

Wish

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs: An action verb is either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb requires a direct object, and an intransitive verb cannot have a direct object. A direct object is placed after an action verb and describes who or what received the action. To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, use this simple test: Ask who or what after the verb. If you can find an answer, the verb is transitive. Transitive: Karl ate five hot dogs [Ate what? Hot dogs] Intransitive: The fans cheered loudly [Cheered what? No answer]

Linking Verbs: A linking verb links a noun or pronoun at the beginning of the sentence to something that follows the verb. In other words, a linking verb describes the subject. A linking verb does not show action. The house smelled bad because of the dead fish [smelled describes the smelly house].

The chart below contains a list of all the linking verbs.

Linking Verbs

Appear

Grow

Seem

Stay

Become

Look

Smell

Taste

Feel

Remain

Sound

Turn

Helping Verbs: Helping verbs are used with other verbs to create a more specific meaning in the sentence. The most common helping verb is any form of the verb to be. He can write clearly and concisely.

Helping Verbs

Can

Does

Has

Might

Should

Could

Did

Had

Must

Will

Do

Have

May

Shall

Would

Verb Tenses
Definition: The tense of a verb indicates when an action or state of being took place. The following is a chart of verb tenses and the time sequences they represent.

Tense

Verb Usage

Representation

Present tense

I drive

An action is occurring now

Past tense

I drove

An action that started and was completed in the past

Future tense

I will drive

An action that is expected to occur in the future

Present perfect tense

I have driven

An action that began in the past and has been completed

Past perfect tense

I had driven

An action that ended prior to some definite time in the past

Future perfect tense

I will have driven

An action that will be completed by a specific time

Present progressive tense

I am driving

An action that is occurring now and continuing

Past progressive tense

I was driving

An action in the past that continued over time

Future progressive tense

I will be driving

A continuing future action

Regular Verbs: A verb is called a regular verb if the tense of the verb can be formed using a regular and expected pattern, such as the example of the verb to drive in the chart above. Irregular Verbs: The tense of irregular verbs is formed on a varied pattern. Consult a dictionary to locate irregular forms of a verb. If the forms of the verb are not listed, the word is a regular verb.

Verb Usage
A verb must agree with its subject. Number refers to whether the subject and verb are singular or plural. To create the present singular form of a regular verb add an s or es. For more information on subject-verb agreement, visit the subject-verb agreement section of the Grammar Mechanics section. Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Mood indicates changes in the verb that specify the viewpoint of the writer. Indicative: makes a statement or asks a question Bob and Ben went to play soccer. Imperative: issues a command Put the clothes in the dryer. Subjunctive: states a desire or wish. Use the subjunctive mood for information that is contrary to what is true. Sally wishes she were able to dance.

Verbs can be written in the active or passive voice. Active voice sentences are much more effective than sentences written in the passive voice. Below are some examples of active and passive voice verbs. However, for more extensive information on active and passive voice, visit the active and passive voice in the writing style section of the Grammar Guide. Active voice: The subject performs the action Jesse found a Rolex watch. Passive voice: The action is performed on the subject A Rolex watch was found by Jesse.

Careful!
Most action verbs can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Transitive:Harvey rushes home after work. Intransitive: Harvey rushes after work.

Linking verbs can also be action verbs. Linking Verb:The baby appears sleepy. Action verb: The stray dog appears after dark.

Be sure to keep verb tenses the same throughout a sentence.

Incorrect: I joined [past tense verb] the sorority and sing [present tense verb] the pledge. Correct: I joined [past tense verb] the sorority and sang [past tense verb] the pledge.

The verbs lie versus lay, rise versus raise, and sit versus set can be difficult to use properly. Use lay, raise, and set only when the sentence contains a direct object(transitive). Use lie, rise, and sit only when no direct object is in the sentence (intransitive). Transitive: Lay the book [direct object] on the desk. Intransitive: I lie down with the baby [no direct object]. Transitive: Raise the shades [direct object] to let in more sun. Intransitive: Temperatures always rise by the afternoon [no direct object]. Transitive: Set the tea set [direct object] in the center of the table. Intransitive: Students sit in a semicircle around the teacher's desk [no direct object].

To practice using verbs, click on the link below to take a quiz. Skill-and-Drill: Verbs Quiz

Who vs. Whom

Problem Definition: Who and whom are pronouns. Many students have difficulty using who and whom correctly in a sentence. The chart below identifies the correct pronoun case for who and whom. The rules that follow will help you to use these pronouns correctly.

Case Identification:
Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Case

Singular

Who Whoever

Whom Whomever

Whose Whosever

Plural

Who Whoever

Whom Whomever

Whose Whosever

Usage of Who and Whom

Using Who and Whom

Case

Pronoun

Use in a sentence

Subjective

Who Whoever

Subject of a verb or a complement

Objective

Whom Whomever

Direct object, Indirect object, Object of a preposition

Possessive

Whose Whosever

Indicates ownership

Rule 1
Use who or whoever when the pronoun is The subject of a verb. Who wants to eat the drumstick? A subject complement. The man who offered the reward was who? The subject of a subordinate clause. I wonder who wrote the letter to the editor.

Rule 2
Use whom or whomever when the pronoun is The direct object of a verb. Whom did she finally ask to the party? The object of a preposition. With whom were you discussing the merger? The object of a verb in a subordinate clause. I wonder whom the CEO will select as the manager.

Rule 3
Generally, you can use the following hints to determine when to use who or whom. (Note that these hints might not work with questions.) When a pronoun is followed by a verb, use who. When a pronoun is followed by a noun, use whom.

Careful!
Do not use that in place of who when referring to people and animals with specific names.

Incorrect: He is a project manager that always develops a contingency plan. Correct: He is a project manager who always develops a contingency plan.

Spelling Demons
The following list contains words that might not follow the common rules of spelling. You might want to memorize the spelling of these words or keep the list of Spelling Demons handy to prevent spelling errors. Create your own list of spelling demons (words that you use and misspell regularly). This should be a perpetual list you will keep adding to it.

Accommodate

Embarrass

Millennium

Renaissance

Accumulate

Existence

Miniscule

Resistance

Asinine

Feasible

Mischievous

Resuscitate

Auxiliary

Freight

Moccasin

Sacrilegious

Baboon

Gauge

Moccasin

Seize

Battalion

Genealogy

Nickel

Separate

Bureaucracy

Glamour

Noticeable

Siege

Chauffeur

Grammar

Occurred

Silhouette

Chihuahua

Harass

Occurrence

Souvenir

Chrysanthemum

Inane

Pastime

Stupefy

Connoisseur

Independence

Pavilion

Subpoena

Coolly

Indispensable

Permanence

Supersede

Dalmatian

Inoculate

Perseverance

Tattoo

Defendant

Iridescent

Pharaoh

Toboggan

Definitely

Lackadaisical

Precede

Traveler

Desperate

Ladle

Privilege

Ukulele

Dilettante

Legend

Proceed

Unparalleled

Diphtheria

Liaison

Questionnaire

Vaccinate

Dysfunction

Liqueur

Rarefy

Weigh/Weight

Ecstasy

Mayonnaise

Reckless

Weird

Spelling
Definition: English contains basic spelling rules that make reading easier. Although many people today send e-mail and text messages without worrying about spelling, standard rules for spelling apply in business and academic writing. One of the problems with using correct spelling is that even though spelling has specific rules, so many exceptions exist that it is frequently difficult to spell correctly. The rules below are a good start to help you on your journey to become a better speller.

Rule 1
Use the letter I before E except after C or when sounded like A. See the charts below for some common words that follow this rule and irregular words that do not follow this rule.

I before E

Believe

Brief

Grief

Siege

Thief

Except after C

Ceiling

Conceive

Deceive

Perceive

Receive

Or when Sounded Like A as in Neighbor and Weigh

Beige

Eight

Freight

Sleigh

Weight

EI Exceptions

Counterfeit

Either

Foreign

Forfeit

Heifer

Height

Heir

Leisure

Neither

Seismology

Seize

Seizure

Sheik

Sleight

Sovereign

Their

Weird

IE Exceptions

Ancient

Conscience

Efficient

Sufficient

Financier

Rule 2
Plural Words: Plural Words are another source of spelling errors. Regular plural words are formed by adding an s to the end of the word. However, words that end in s, ss, x, z, sh, ch form the plural by adding an es at the end of the word. The exception to this rule is when words end in ch with a k sound, only add an s to create the plural, such as monarchs. See the chart below for basic examples of this rule and the exception.

Circus

Circuses

ss

Business

Businesses

Box

Boxes

Waltz

Waltzes

sh

Dish

Dishes

ch

Church

Churches

ch exception

Monarch

Monarchs

Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i and add es. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s.

y Preceded by a Consonant

Singular

Plural

Copy

Copies

Query

Queries

Policy

Policies

Story

Stories

y Preceded by a Vowel

Singular

Plural

Attorney

Attorneys

Day

Days

Monkey

Monkeys

Donkey

Donkeys

Words ending in f or ff form the plural by adding an s, such as with chief to chiefs and cliff to cliffs. However, some words ending in f and ff form the plural by changing the f to a v and add es, such as leaf to leaves and loaf to loaves. Words ending in fe form the plural by changing the f to a v and add an s, such as with life to lives and knife to knives. Irregular Plural words: Irregular plural words are those that do not form the plural by adding an s or es. Below is a chart of common irregular plural words.

Singular

Plural

Child

Children

Crisis

Crises

Goose

Geese

Man

Men

Mouse

Mice

Ox

Oxen

Tooth

Teeth

Woman

Women

The following chart shows words that are the same in the singular and plural form.

Singular

Plural

Deer

Deer

Fish

Fish

Sheep

Sheep

The following nouns only use the plural form: pliers, slacks, scissors, and thanks. Words derived from foreign languages also have irregular plural forms. Below is a chart of some common words derived from foreign languages and their plural forms.

Singular

Plural

Alumna (female)

Alumnae

Alumnus (male)

Alumni

Appendix

Appendices

Criterion

Criteria

Curriculum

Curricula

Datum

Data

Medium

Media

Memorandum

Memorandums/memoranda

Phenomenon

Phenomena

Radius

Radii

Rule 3

Words with a Prefix: A prefix consists of letters attached to the beginning of a word that change the meaning of the word. Some words do not use a hyphen to establish the prefix at the beginning of the word. Some words use a hyphen. Below is a chart with common prefixes with and without a hyphen.

Prefix with a Hyphen

Prefix without a Hyphen

Self-centered

Selfish

Self-discipline

Selfless

Self-indulgent

Selfsame

De-escalate

Preexisting

De-emphasize

Preempt

Pre-owned

Reeducate

Co-op

Reelect

Co-organizer

Coauthor

Co-owner

Cofounder

Redress

Reform

Rule 4
Words with a suffix: A suffix consists of letters attached to the end of a word that change the meaning of the word. See the points below for adding a suffix to a word. Words Ending in a Silent e, drop the e before adding the suffix.

Words Ending in a Silent e

Issue

Issuing

Desire

Desirable

Consume

Consumable

Argue

Argument

Words ending with y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add the suffix.

Words Ending with y Preceded by a Consonant

Likely

Likelihood

Happy

Happiness

Ordinary

Ordinarily

Easy

Easier

Exceptions

Dry

Dryly

Shy

Shyly

Country

Countrywide

Copy

Copying

Forty

Fortyish

Generally retain the y when the suffix is preceded by a noun.

Retain the y when Suffix is Preceded by a Noun

Joy

Joyful

Obey

Obeying

The use of the suffixes ible and able cause many spelling errors. Most words use able rather than ible. If you do not need to change the base word use able. If you do not need to change the base word, use able. Most words use able rather than ible. The chart below contains some common words that end in ible.

Audible

Edible

Legible

Responsible

Compatible

Feasible

Negligible

Sensible

Credible

Flexible

Permissible

Terrible

Digestible

Horrible

Possible

Visible

For words that end in ede, ceed, and sede, only one word ends in sede [supersede], only three words end in ceed [exceed, proceed, succeed], and the rest end in ede. For words that end in ance, ant, ence, and ent, there are no rules that exist. Use a dictionary to determine the correct spelling of these words.

Preparing to Write
Use the steps below to prepare to write an essay. Following these steps should reduce or prevent writing anxiety because they help you understand the assignment so you know what to write.

Identify the audience. Determine the purpose of the assignment. Evaluate the assignment.

More information about these topics can be found in the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of the CWE site. Developing Ideas After preparing to write, the next step is developing ideas for your essay. Instead of staring at a blank screen or piece of paper, trying to figure out what to write, you should first use some prewriting activities to generate ideas. See the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of CWE and click The Writing Process for detailed information about the following:

Freewriting Brainstorming Clustering Writing a thesis sentence Creating an outline

You can find more information about writing an outline in Developing the Topic in the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of CWE. Writing the Essay

Use all the information you created during the prewriting and outlining process, and the notes from your research, to write your essay. You can begin writing at any point in the outline; the outline is your essay's organizational pattern. Remember that essays do not need to be written from the introduction straight through to the end. You can begin writing from anywhere in the outline. Keep in mind that the first draft is considered to be a rough draft of your essay. You have words on paper, and that is more than half the battle of curing writing anxiety. Before revising your essay, let it rest for a short time. Then you can begin proofreading and revising the essay. See the Writing the Essay link located within the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of CWE for detailed information about revising the essay. Conclusion Now you have written a paper. Congratulations! The next time you receive a writing assignment, consider the steps mentioned above. Progressing from one step to the next should make writing easier.