CHAPTER

37
37.1 INTRODUCTION
37.1.1 What is a Tansportation Pipeline?
Transportation pipelines are built for the purpose of transport-
ing a liquid or gaseous commodity from points of production to
process facilities, or from points of renement to storage or end-
use customers. They exist as alternatives to other modes of trans-
port, e.g. railroad, trucks, barge, or ship and thus are regarded as
transportation systems. Transportation pipelines include gathering
lines from production wells to processing or renement facilities,
transmission lines from processors to storage or from storage to
distribution systems or industrial customers, and distribution sys-
tems e.g, truck terminals for rened fuels, or mains and services
for natural gas. Gathering and transmission pipelines may also
exist offshore.
Transportation facilities include underground storage and above
ground tankage, pumping, compression, metering, and distribu-
tion or terminals. The processing of transported commodities,
which may include removal of contaminants, separation of con-
densates, blending, or other renement steps, is outside the scope
of transportation. Filtration, liquid separation, dehydration, odor-
ization, metering, pressure regulation, pumping and compression
can occur in conjunction with handling the main product stream
and thus are typically within the scope of transportation.
Pipelines comprise a ubiquitous, yet largely hidden, infrastruc-
ture. In the United States, there exist approximately 300,000 miles
of gas transmission pipelines [1], 190,000 miles of hazardous liq-
uid pipelines [2], and 2.1 million miles of gas distribution mains
and service lines [3]. Commodities transported by pipeline
include: crude oil, motor fuels and other rened petroleum prod-
ucts, liquid fertilizers, carbon dioxide, chemical feedstock, and
natural gas. Pipelines performing similar functions to those
described above are in use worldwide, so ASME pipeline stan-
dards have worldwide utility.
Several individual ASME codes and standards are directly
important to transportation pipelines, namely:
B31.4, Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and
Other Liquids (2009 Edition);
B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
(2010 Edition);
B31.8S, Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines,
Supplement to B31.8 (2010 Edition);
B31.11, Slurry Transportation Piping Systems (2002 Edition);
B31G, Manual for Determining the Remaining Strength of
Corroded Pipelines (2009 Edition); and
B31Q, Pipeline Personnel Qualication (2010 Edition).
Each of the above documents will be briey reviewed in this
Chapter of the Guide. B31.4, B31.8, and B31.11 discuss trans-
portation pipeline systems and therefore contain many similar
provisions of a general nature. Many technical details are com-
mon to each standard, for example the selection of pipe materials,
the details of fabricating a branch connection, and the overall con-
struction process. However, they differ in important ways due to
the differing nature of the uids transported. Examples include
design factors, fracture toughness requirements for steel pipe,
response to leaks, integrity threats, and consequences of failure, to
name a few. Also, B31.4 and B31.8 are organized differently, and
users of one standard typically do not also use the other standard.
Therefore, each Code is discussed separately herein.
37.1.2 How do Transportation Pipelines Differ from
Facility Piping?
Transportation pipelines differ in several important ways from
piping designed and installed in power and process facilities
including location, operating conditions, operating stress levels,
pipe materials, construction techniques, in-service maintenance,
risk factors, and regulations. These attributes are reected in the
technical content of standards used to design, construct, operate,
and maintain pipelines. Necessary auxiliary facilities associated
with pipelines also contain piping systems that resemble process
TRANSPORTATION PIPELINES,
INCLUDING ASME B31.4, B31.8,
B31.8S, B31.11, B31G, AND
B31Q CODES
Michael J. Rosenfeld
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Dear Mr. James Ellenberger:
The pages of Chapters 37 and 38 of "4th Edition of Companion
Guide" in the following pages are for use in the preparation of
Chapter 23: "B-16 Standard" and should not be used for any other
purpose.
- K. R. Rao (Editor: 3-26-13)
piping and that are designed using similar principles to conven-
tional process piping. Examples of such facilities include pump
stations, compressor stations, and storage facilities.
Transportation pipelines may embody substantial complexity to
their design, material requirements, construction, and operation.
These complexities arise due to the broad range of locations and
conditions they must operate in, from offshore to urbanized areas,
and are addressed in the applicable B31 standard or standards
supplement. Space limitations preclude discussion of all details of
each standards document. The more signicant concepts and fea-
tures are highlighted in order to give the reader a sense of the
intent and content of each code.
Responsibility
Pipeline standards place primary responsibility for decisions
and actions that affect the safety of the pipeline on the pipeline
operator. The operator is the company, owner, or agent currently
responsible for the design, construction, inspection, testing, oper-
ation, and maintenance of the piping system.
Location
Transportation pipelines, by denition, are not conned to the
grounds of a single facility. They extend from a few thousand feet
to hundreds of miles across lands generally not owned by or under
the control of the pipeline operator, within corridors established by
applicable laws, regulatory requirements, and negotiated agree-
ments with individual land owners (in what is known as a right of
way or ROW agreement). Sometimes the corridor is shared
with other pipelines owned by the same operator or owned by
another operator, or with non-pipeline infrastructure such as over-
head power lines, buried municipal services, or telecom services.
Regions traversed by pipelines include open seas, coastal and
inland bodies of water, deserts, mountain ranges, rivers, farmland,
industrial and commercial sites, public highways, railroads, parks
and recreation sites, residential neighborhoods, and urban areas.
Design and operating parameters
Transportation pipelines vary considerably in pipe size and
operating pressure. The diameter and operating pressure are deter-
mined in consideration of the distance to be transported, quantity
to be delivered, tolerable head losses due to hydraulic friction,
and overall costs of construction. Crude oil gathering lines tend to
be small, NPS 2 to NPS 8, and feed into larger trunk lines, typi-
cally NPS 8 to NPS 24, but may be as large as 48-inch OD.
Rened petroleum product lines typically range in size from
NPS 8 to 42-inch OD. Natural gas transmission lines typically are
in the NPS 12 to 42-inch OD, but may be as large as 56-inch OD.
Distribution mains tend to be NPS 6 through 24-inch OD, while
service lines are NPS to NPS 2. Operating pressures at the dis-
charge points of transmission pump and compressor facilities are
generally compatible with ANSI Class 400, 600, or 900. Natural
gas distribution systems operate at lower pressure (Class 150 or
less, e.g. 60 to 120 psig). Gas pressure at the point of residential
use is reduced to around 0.5 psig.
Pipelines installed underground tend to operate at the tempera-
ture of the soil a few feet deep, typically in the range of 50 F to
60 F depending on latitude. However, the process of compressing
gas or pumping liquid will raise the uid temperature, so the rst
few miles outside of a compressor or pump station may experi-
ence elevated temperatures (e.g. up to 150 F in the case of natural
gas compression with no aftercooling). Some grades of crude oil
must be heated to maintain viscosity in an acceptable range for
pumping long distances. Such pipelines may be insulated and
1
2
operate at around 180 F. The temperature of product entering a
liquids pipeline may also be affected by the temperature of stored
uid contained in above ground storage tanks, which can vary
seasonally. Natural gas is typically reduced in pressure in going
from transmission systems to distribution systems. The Joule-
Thompson effect associated with the throttling process results in a
signicant decrease in gas temperature which may lower the pipe
operating temperature for some distance downstream of the pres-
sure regulator. Natural gas removed from underground storage
must be dehydrated. Desiccant type dehydrator units must period-
ically regenerated by recirculating natural gas heated to as much
as 650 F.
Design for internal pressure
Hoop stresses due to internal pressure in pipelines are calcu-
lated using the Barlow equation, , and the outside di-
ameter. The calculated hoop stress is an approximation to the
exact hoop stress. Most pipelines have a ratio of diameter to wall
thickness, D/t, in the range of 40 to 100 so the error in the approx-
imation is small (1% to 3%) and is slightly conservative. Offshore
pipelines, which use heavier-wall pipe, may be designed using the
Lame equation.
The pipeline standards design for nominal wall thickness, not
minimum wall thickness as is the case with power and process
piping. Moreover, corrosion allowances are not often used for a
number of reasons including: added cost to construct a long-
distance pipeline; pipe in most installations is required to be ex-
ternally coated and cathodically protected; internal corrosion can
be controlled, if necessary, by running cleaning pigs and/or in-
troducing corrosion inhibitors; many pipelines can be internally
inspected in-line for internal and external corrosion using instru-
mented tools propelled by the owing product; methods exist for
evaluating the remaining strength of pipe affected by corrosion;
and methods exist for installing repairs while the pipeline remains
in service.
Pipe can be installed having a thinner wall than the specied
nominal dimension, in accordance with the manufacturing toler-
ances allowed by the pipe product specication. The underthick-
ness tolerance allows the pipe manufacturer to repair imperfections.
The net underthickness tolerance of pipe rolled from plate is gov-
erned by pipe underweight tolerances that are tighter than the
underthickness tolerance, so the entire pipe cannot have a wall as
thin as what is implied by the underthickness tolerance.
Operating stresses
Pipelines have traditionally operated at higher hoop stresses
than piping systems found in power and process facilities. The
default operating stress level for many decades has been a hoop
stress equal to 72% of SMYS. The design factor of 0.72 was
derived as 80% of the typical pipe mill pressure test stress level of
90% of SMYS, providing a minimum factor of safety of 1.25 with
respect to a manufacturers proof test. (This practice reportedly
originated with the construction in 1930 of the rst long-distance
all-welded gas pipeline constructed from high-strength pipe man-
ufactured by A.O. Smith [4] using their electric-ash welded
seam process, a signicant advancement in pipe making technol-
ogy at the time [5].) API 5L [6], the primary pipe product speci-
cation for line pipe, has required the manufacturer to perform a
hydrostatic test of each length of high-strength line pipe to a pres-
sure corresponding to a hoop stress of 85% SMYS in the nominal
wall since 1949, and 90% in large sizes (NPS 20 and larger) since
1956. [7] (The minimum required test level was less for smaller
S
H
=
PD
2t
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sizes of pipe depending on the year and size range, and currently
is 85% SMYS for pipe 8-inch NPS through 18-inch OD, and 75%
SMYS for pipe smaller than NPS 8.) Some natural gas pipelines
located in relatively unpopulated areas operate at stress levels in
excess of 72% of SMYS, based on having established the
integrity of the pipe through proof testing. Such pipelines have
proven to be at least as reliable as pipelines operating at lower
stresses [8]. However, where gas pipelines are located near popu-
lated areas, public roads, and other locations, the operating stress
is reduced by use of thicker-wall or higher-strength pipe. Piping
in compressor and pump stations, and in some other facilities, is
limited to hoop stress levels of 50% of SMYS, which is not sig-
nicantly different from piping in power and process facilities.
A pipeline that transports a liquid will experience a steady decay
in pressure from the pump discharge to the next pump suction due
to friction of uid ow in the pipe, called head loss. This head loss
is superimposed on the change in pressure associated with changes
in elevation, which may be positive or negative. The summation of
these effects produces the continuously varying pressure prole
along the length of the pipeline known as the hydraulic gradient.
Thus a pipeline having uniform dimensions and material grade will
experience generally decreasing hoop stress along its length in
accordance with the hydraulic gradient. Natural gas pipelines also
experience a hydraulic gradient owing to head loss due to internal
friction. The effect can be signicantly reduced by internally coat-
ing the pipe to provide a smoother surface.
Longitudinal stresses
Pipelines that are buried in consolidated soil experience
restraint against the effects of thermal expansion and contraction
due to friction at the pipe-to-soil interface, and changes of pipe
direction within the soil locks the pipe in place. A typical unre-
strained pipeline is one installed above ground with expansion
loops or supports that allow movement, or potentially a pipeline
buried in soft soil that is incapable of reacting thrust forces. Axial
stresses due to internal pressure arise due to restraint of the fore-
shortening of the pipe due to the Poisson effect in response to
elastic expansion of the pipe diameter under pressure and are thus
calculated as the hoop stress multiplied by Poissons ratio.
Virtually all axial stresses in a buried pipeline are displacement
controlled. Above ground facilities associated with pipelines are
generally installed on supports and congured to ex or strain in
response to thermal conditions, and are thus unrestrained. The
pipeline codes recognize the signicance of the condition of
restraint and provide differing allowable stresses accordingly.
Materials
The primary pipe product standard for pipe used in pipeline
facilities is API 5L Specication for Line Pipe, although vari-
ous ASTM pipe product standards are also used. API 5L recog-
nizes and provides specications for grades of high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) line pipe having higher yield strength than is
generally specied in most ASTM standards for carbon steel pipe.
API 5L has historically also required a high standard for testing of
pipe at the mill by the pipe manufacturer.
Designers of cross-country pipelines prefer HSLA line pipe
over lower-strength carbon steel pipe for cost reasons. The higher
strength material allows the use of thinner-wall pipe which takes
less time to weld, increasing the number of miles of pipe that can
be constructed per day. The use of higher-strength line pipe thus
directly lowers the overall cost of construction even if the pipe
itself costs more than a lower strength grade. Yield strength levels
up to 52 ksi are achievable with C-Mn steel chemistry and cold
working of plate, but contemporary higher-strength grades (e.g.
SMYS of 52 ksi through 80 ksi) are achieved by reducing carbon
content, adding small amounts of microalloys for strengthening
through microstructure grain renement and precipitation mecha-
nisms, and controlling thermal conditions to specied ranges dur-
ing the plate rolling and quenching processes. Such technology
has resulted in the routine use of highly engineered grades of line
pipe having both high yield strength, high fracture toughness with
a low toughness transition temperature, and good weldability,
since the 1970s.
Construction
Most pipelines traverse many miles cross country. The main
phases of a pipeline construction project include route planning,
obtaining ROWs and permits, clearing the corridor, transporting
pipe to the eld, trenching, laying, welding, inspection, and test-
ing. Each phase presents its own set of physical, logistical, or reg-
ulatory challenges, all of which impact project cost. The Code
provisions for construction focus on those aspects that impact
public safety, e.g., assuring that the pipe is installed free of dam-
age and is well-constructed. Pipelines are subjected to an in-situ
strength test, typically to a pressure level of 1.25 to 1.5 times the
maximum operating pressure. This can cause a pipeline to be
pressure tested to hoop stress levels greater than 100% of SMYS,
in some cases. The strength test is more than a leak test of joints
as is used following installation of visible piping systems in
power and process facilities. It is an in-situ proof of the integrity
of the pipe, as installed.
Operation and maintenance
A gas or liquid transportation pipeline may be designed and
constructed using the best available practices and material, how-
ever, preserving safety and reliability in service require ongoing
and periodic actions by the operator. The pipeline standards have
provided requirements for in-service operation and maintenance
(O&M) of pipelines since 1955 in B31.8 service and 1966 in
B31.4. The requirements have included provisions for surveil-
lance and patrolling, accounting for changes in land use around
the pipeline, verication of corrosion control, evaluation of
degraded conditions, and in-service repair. All O&M require-
ments are retroactive, irrespective of the age of a pipeline.
37.2 ASME B31.4 TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEMS FOR LIQUID
HYDROCARBONS AND OTHER
LIQUIDS
37.2.1 History, Scope, and Organization of B31.4
37.2.1.1 History ASME B31.4 Oil Transportation Piping Sys-
tems was rst published as a separate volume of the B31 Code in
1959. Subsequent editions were issued in 1966, 1971, 1974, 1979,
1986, 1989, 1992, 1998, 2002, 2006 and 2009. Addenda were
issued in several intermediate years between 1979 and 2002. The
next edition of this code is scheduled for publication in 2013.
37.2.1.2 Scope Per Article 400, B31.4 covers piping transport-
ing liquids such as crude oil, rened petroleum products, anhy-
drous ammonia, and carbon dioxide between production sites
(e.g. wells), tank farms, reneries, pump stations, terminals for
marine, rail, and truck transport, and offshore pipelines. Piping
consists of pipe, anges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices,
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ttings, supports, and hangers. Auxiliary piping within listed
facilities that carry the primary product are within scope, but aux-
iliary piping for water, steam, air, lube oil, gas, and fuel are not.
Other exclusions from scope include vessels, heat exchangers,
pumps, and meters; piping operating below a pressure of 15 psig;
piping operating at temperatures below 20 F or above 450 F;
production facilities or equipment such as well casing or tubing,
wellhead assemblies, oil-gas separators, and production tanks;
process plant piping, natural gas transmission and distribution
piping; ammonia refrigeration piping; carbon dioxide gathering
and eld distribution piping; and proprietary equipment.
37.2.1.3 Organization B31.4 is organized as follows. Chapter I
Scope and Denitions describes basic principles of the Code,
which are generally common to all B31 standards, scope and
exclusions, and an extensive glossary. Chapter II Design lists
design conditions; design criteria and allowable stresses; pres-
sure design requirements for pipe and fabricated branch connec-
tions; design requirements for anged joints and other joint
types; exibility analysis; supports; and other specic piping con-
siderations. Chapter III Materials covers material selection.
Chapter IV Dimensional Requirements gives dimensional
requirements for standard and nonstandard components. Chapter V
Construction, Welding, and Assembly covers welding, construc-
tion, and installation of the pipeline. Chapter VI Inspection and
Testing addresses inspection of the installed pipeline, and pres-
sure testing. Chapter VII Operation and Maintenance provides
requirements for operation and maintenance (O&M) procedures;
pressure control; patrolling; assessment of injurious defects dis-
covered in service; pipeline repairs; facility maintenance; emer-
gency plans; uprating; and abandonment. Chapter VIII Corrosion
Control discusses external coatings; cathodic protection; external
and internal corrosion control; atmospheric corrosion; corrosion of
pipelines in arctic environments and high temperature service; cor-
rosion control for thermally insulated pipeline; and corrective mea-
sures. Chapter IX Offshore Liquid Pipeline Systems addresses
all aspects of offshore pipelines where they differ from any parts
of Chapters I through VIII. Mandatory Appendix I lists referenced
external standards. There are two nonmandatory Appendices:
Appendix A provides instruction for submitting technical inquiries;
and Appendix B lists unreferenced external standards or industry
guidelines of an informational nature.
37.2.2 Pipeline Design
37.2.2.1 Load Classications Paragraph 401.1 classies load-
ings according to their circumstances of occurrence as: sustained
loads, occasional loads, construction loads, and transient loads.
These are dened as follows:
Sustained loads are those arising from the intended use of the
system and other sources, including weight of the pipe and
contents, internal pressure, external pressure, weight of the
soil cover, and reaction forces from imposed displacements.
Occasional loads are dened by example as temporary load-
ings which may include wind, snow, seismic, live loads
caused by surface vehicles operating over the buried pipe,
vibration, water currents, thermal expansion, settlement, and
frost heave, among others.
Construction loads are those associated with the installation
and testing of the pipeline, including handling, storage, instal-
lation, and pressure testing. The pipe is not in service when
these loads occur.
Transient loads are those that may occur during operation
including impact, surge, and accidental conditions.
Additional details about treatment of specic loads are dis-
cussed under 401.2. It is noted that the above denitions are unre-
lated to the orthodox classications for stresses historically
observed in establishing allowable stress levels for other B31 pip-
ing standards.
Starting with the 2009 edition, B31.4 recognizes that condi-
tions of restraint affect the structural behavior of the pipeline,
and consequently the stresses in the pipe, the signicance of
those stresses to the integrity of the pipe, and the appropriate
stress limits. Paragraph 401.2.1 denes unrestrained pipe as
that which is free to displace laterally or strain axially, including:
piping installed above ground and congured to accommodate
thermal expansion or support movement; eld bends and adja-
cent pipe buried in soft or unconsolidated soil, an unbacklled
section of buried pipe that is free to displace laterally or that con-
tains a bend, or unanchored sections of pipe. Restrained pipe
includes sections of (straight) buried pipeline, above ground pip-
ing on closely-spaced rigid supports that effectively anchors the
piping; and eld bends and adjacent pipe in stiff or consolidated
soil.
37.2.2.2 Calculation of Stresses The calculation of stresses per
Article 402 is as follows:
Internal pressure, 402.3
The hoop stress due to internal pressure is calculated as
where P
i
is the internal design pressure, D is the speci-
ed outside diameter, and t is the nominal wall thickness.
Thermal Expansion, 402.5
In restrained piping, a difference in temperature between the
conditions of installation and the conditions of operation result in
a longitudinal stress, because the pipeline cannot strain (change
length) in response to the temperature change. The longitudinal
stress due to constrained thermal expansion is calculated per
402.5.1 as S
E
E (T
1
T
2
) where E is the modulus of elastic-
ity, is the coefcient of thermal expansion, T
1
is the temperature
at the time of pipe installation, and T
2
is the maximum or mini-
mum operating temperature.
Although most pipelines are buried and therefore re-
strained, piping in certain facilities within the scope of B31.4,
such as pump stations and terminals, is installed above ground
on supports, and is subject to flexure in response to thermal
expansion. The range of stress due to thermal expansion is
calculated as where S
b
and S
t
are resultant
bending and torsional stresses. The calculation of S
E
is typi-
cally accomplished by a flexibility analysis. Bending stresses
tend to concentrate at elbows, branch connections, and other
fittings. The resultant bending stress is a vector quantity of in-
plane and out-of-plane bending moment at the fitting intensi-
fied by stress intensification factors (i-factors) associated with
the geometry of the fittings. In-plane and out-of-plane stress
intensification factors, i
i
and i
o
respectively, are found in
Table 402.1-1 for fittings of various patterns. These factors
are empirically derived based on the methods of Markl and
others, and are essentially similar to those found in other B31
piping standards discussed elsewhere in this publication and
so are not reproduced herein.
2 2 1/ 2
( 4 )
E b t
S S S = +
S
H
=
PiD
2t
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For an unrestrained pipe, the net longitudinal stress is calcu-
lated as , with terms as dened above.
Combined stresses, 402.7
In restrained pipe, the effective biaxial stress is computed using the
4
i a
L
PD iM F
S
t Z A
= + +
various grades and types of pipe, the SMYS, the weld joint factor
E, and the resulting allowable stress value S. The joint factor has
a value of 1.00 for seamless pipe, ERW pipe, and DSAW pipe;
0.60 for furnace butt-welded and continuous butt-welded pipe,
and 0.80 for ASTM A134 and A139 pipe which have lower manu-
facturing standards pertaining to seam quality. Table 403.2.1-1
runs most of two pages and is not reproduced herein.
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Net longitudinal stresses, 402.6
For a restrained pipe, the net longitudinal stress is calculated as
the sum of longitudinal stresses due to constrained thermal expan-
sion, the Poission effect from internal pressure, and externally
applied bending and axial loads, , where
M is a bending moment, Z is the pipe section modulus, F
a
is an
applied axial force, and A is the pipe metal area. The Poisson
effect from internal pressure arises due to the constraint of the
buried pipeline.
a
L E H
M F
S S vS
Z A
= + + +
TABLE 37.1 B31.4 ALLOWABLE LONGITUDINAL STRESSES (Source: ASME B31.4, Table 403.3.1-1)
Tresca (maximum shear stress) theory as S
eq
1/ 2
2
2
2
2
L H
t
S S
S

-
+




which reduces to when S
t
= 0. Alternatively, the
effective biaxial stress may be computed using the von Mises
(distortion energy) theory as The combined stress calculation is
not performed for unrestrained piping.
37.2.2.3 Allowable Stresses
Hoop stress due to internal pressure, 403.2.1
The allowable stress to be used for design is given as: S F
E specied minimum yield strength, where E is the weld joint
factor, and F is the design factor. The specied minimum yield
strength is abbreviated herein and in common usage as SMYS
although B31.4 does not use that acronym. Table 403.2.1-1 lists
S
L
= S
L
- S
H

Paragraph 403.2.1 establishes the design wall thickness of steel

pipe as in accordance with the Barlow equation where
2
i
PD
t
S
=
the terms are as dened previously. The nominal wall thickness is
then t
n
= t + A, where A = sum of allowances for threading or
grooving, corrosion, and increased thickness for mechanical pro-
tection against hazards. The pressure design equation applies to
both straight pipe and curved pipe segments made by cold bend-
ing in the eld or induction bending.
The value of F used in B31.4 is 0.72 for all locations and uids.
A pipeline having uniform dimensions and material grade will
experience generally decreasing hoop stress along its length in
accordance with the hydraulic gradient. Some liquid pipelines
have taken advantage of the head loss to save costs of material
and construction by installing pipe with decreasing wall thickness
along the length. This practice is not prohibited by B31.4 but it
should be recognized that such a practice may limit future expan-
sion of capacity through adding intermediate pump stations, trans-
porting a liquid product having differing uid characteristics, or
reversing the direction of ow.
Longitudinal stresses, 403.3.1
Allowable longitudinal stresses are given in Table 403.3.1-1,
reproduced herein as Table 37.1. Additive longitudinal stress, S
L
,
in buried pipe is currently limited to 54% of SMYS, which is
quite conservative. The limit was derived from 75% of the basic
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allowable stress, which was interpreted in prior editions to be 72%
of SMYS. A current ballot measure seeks to increase the allowable
value for S
L
to 90% of SMYS for restrained piping and 75% of
SMYS for unrestrained piping, consistent with other standards.
A line item is shown in Table 403.3.1-1 for slurry pipelines. As
will be discussed in Section 37.5 of this Chapter, efforts are
underway to combine B31.11 with B31.4. This line item repre-
sents a placeholder until that effort is complete. In the meantime,
the user should continue to refer to B31.11 to determine allowable
pipe stresses for slurry systems.
The allowable stress for S
eq
in restrained pipe is 90% SMYS.
(This was omitted from Table 403.3.3-1 but is consistent with the
2006 Edition. A current ballot measure seeks to correct the omis-
sion.) This high stress level is permitted because in a restrained
pipeline, longitudinal stress induced by thermal expansion and
internal pressure are both secondary in nature. Note however, that
moderate increases in the operating temperature may produce net
compressive stresses that add directly to the hoop stress to increase
the equivalent stress according to the Tresca yield criterion.
Unrestrained piping systems must be designed with sufcient
exibility to avoid fatigue due to cycles of stress caused by varia-
tion in thermal condition associated with operational cycles. The
thermal expansion stress range allowed in unrestrained piping is
Plastic strain
Where a pipeline is subjected to soil movement phenomena,
stresses are unlikely to remain elastic, causing violation of the
allowable stress values contained in Table 403.3.1-1. Because such
stresses are secondary or displacement-controlled in nature, this
does not necessarily cause a reduction in the pressure carrying
capacity of the pipe, [11] provided the pipe body material is duc-
tile, it has adequate resistance to buckling, and the effects of plas-
tic strains on girth welds and coatings are accounted for. Starting
with the 2009 edition, Paragraph 403.3.3 limits maximum strains
associated with one-time non-cyclical displacements of the pipe to
2%. This limit also applies to existing pipelines under 451.12.
Other design situations
Other unique design scenarios are discussed throughout Article
403, e.g.:
Resistance to deformation or damage from soil loadings
decreases inversely with the ratio of diameter to wall thick-
ness, or D/t. The user is cautioned in 403.2.5 against using
pipe having D/t greater than 100.
Pipelines may be subjected to natural hazards. Paragraph
403.6.2 discusses situations requiring special design consider-
ations including submerged crossings exposed to water cur-
rents, shore approaches, zones susceptible to slope failure or
liquefaction, and seismic fault crossings.
Paragraph 403.8 discusses loadings and installation consider-
ations for crossings of bodies of water that are trenched, direc-
tionally drilled, suspended overhead, or on bridges.
Clauses 403.9.2 and 403.9.3 discuss stability and anchorage
of the buried pipeline in soil.
37.2.2.5 Piping Fittings and Components Pipeline systems
use various styles and types of ttings, including eld bends,
induction bends, forged elbows and tees, fabricated branch con-
nections, and anges. Such ttings may be specied in accordance
with the same product standards used in the design and construc-
tion of facilities designed to ASME B31.1 or B31.3, e.g. ASME
B16.5 anges or B16.9 forged butt-welding ttings [12,13]. How-
ever, the large-diameter, high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) pipe used
in some pipelines require matching ttings that are outside the
scope of those standards. Other standards for tting products
found in pipelines include ASME B16.34, B16.47, B16.49, MSS
SP-44, and SP-75, to name a few [1418]. Specifications for
ttings and components recognized by B31.4 are listed in Table
423.1-1. Some particular requirements are also given throughout
Chapter II, some of which are discussed below.
Requirements for factory-made wrought bends and elbows are
given in Paragraphs 404.2.5. Fittings must meet the requirements
of listed ttings standards and are required to have approximately
the same mechanical properties and chemistry (which is impor-
tant for weldability) as the pipe they are used with. Bends are
allowed to be cut into smaller subtended angles to suit installation
requirements in the eld. Such segmenting is allowed provided
the arc length of the crotch or intrados is at least 2 inches (50mm)
in order to maintain a reasonable separation of girth welds. Bends
are required to be capable of allowing the passage of internal
inspection tools. While a dimensional specication on this re-
quirement is not given, excessively thick-walled bends is discour-
aged. If the internal diameter of the bend is smaller than the
adjoining pipes by more than 3/16 inch (5 mm), then special tran-
sition weld details found in Figure 434.8.6-2, or a transition pup
37-6 Chapter 37
, which can be recognized as the Markl
[ ] 1.25( )
A c h L
S f S S S + -
fatigue design criterion [9] used in other B31 piping standards.
37.2.2.4 Special Situations Paragraph 403.1 states that the
design requirements are adequate for conditions that are usually
encountered which can be reasonably interpreted to mean lo-
cated on shore and buried about 3 ft deep in stable soil. Further,
it states that the design engineer shall provide protection to pre-
vent damage from unusual external conditions, citing river cross-
ings, heavy trafc, long spans, and unstable soil, among others.
Some of these unusual situations are described below.
Stresses from live loading at road and railroad crossings
Buried pipelines may experience added stresses due to the
weight of surface vehicles such as highway trucks, railroad
trains, agricultural equipment, and construction equipment,
operating over the buried pipeline on pavement, unpaved sur-
faces, or rails, as the case may be. Paragraph 403.8.6 and Table
403.3.1-1 limit the effective stress due to pipeline operation and
the external live and dead loads to 90% SMYS. While this stress
appears to be high, a limit state analysis would indicated that the
sum of hoop stress and through-wall bending stress associated
with ovalization of the pipe cross section under external loading
would have to be well above the yield strength to be a concern.
Moreover, the internal pressure in most pipelines is usually suf-
ficient to support the weight of the soil and distributed surface
stress of even very heavy vehicles. API RP 1102 is a method
cited in 403.8.6 for evaluating the effects of live loadings at
crossings [10].
Flexibility
Flexibility is generally established by performing some type of
structural analysis of the piping system that considers the varia-
tion in thermal conditions associated with operations. Paragraph
403.9 provides a screening criterion that waives the need for a
exibility analysis as: . This same criterion is used
2
( )
Dy
K
L U

-
in other B31 standards.
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having a length of at least half the nominal diameter, is required.
A transition pup is a short piece of pipe used to join low-strength,
heavy-walled pipe or ttings to high-strength, thin-walled line
pipe. The pup typically has thickness equal to the thicker compo-
nent or thickness intermediate to the thicker and thinner materials,
and strength equal to the high-strength pipe or intermediate to the
low- and high-strength materials being tied together.
Induction bends are commonly used in pipeline construction.
Induction bends must meet the requirements of ASME B16.49, as
specied in Paragraph 404.2.3. An induction bend is made by
heating a portion of a straight tube using inductive heating meth-
ods, and bending the heated portion to a specied radius. B16.49
requires qualication of the bend procedure considering the heat-
ing, bending process, post-bend cooling or quench rates or heat
treatment, travel speed through the bending process, and material
properties of the tubular or pipe product used as raw feedstock as
essential variables that may not varied outside a certain range
without requiring requalication of the bending process to incor-
porate and validate the variables. (This is similar to the concept of
essential variables in qualication of welding procedures.) Proof
that the bending process is valid is established by destructive test-
ing of bend specimens.
Miter bends refers to a method of achieving a change in di-
rection in the piping system by joining pipe having ends cut at
an angle. The installation of miter bends is limited in Paragraph
404.2.4 to pipe operating with a hoop stress due to internal pres-
sure of 20% of SMYS or less, and with angle changes not to
exceed 12.5 degrees per miter. The use of miter bends in new
B31.4 construction is probably rare today. Angle changes of
3 degrees or less are considered t-up, not mitered bends [19]. The
term wrinkle bend refers to an obsolete method of bending pipe
where the pipe is heated to the point of softening, and then bent so
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-7
FIG. 37.1 DETAILS FOR FULL ENCIRCLEMENT REINFORCEMENT OF FABRICATED BRANCHES (Source: ASME B31.4
Figure 404.3.4-1)
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as to deliberately create a buckle as a means of foreshortening the
inside arc (the intrados) of the bend. Wrinkle bends are prohibited
in B31.4 new construction.
Detailed ange requirements are discussed under section 404.4.
Flanges are pressure-temperature rated. Taper boring of a thick,
low-strength ange in order to mate to a high-strength thin-walled
pipe may adversely affect the anges pressure rating. The code
clearly states a preference for anges intended to be used with
thin-walled, high-strength line pipe be specied in accordance
with ASME B16.47, or MSS SP-44 which recognizes materials
compatible with high-strength line pipe. Paragraph 404.1.2 allows
the pressure ratings corresponding to a service temperature of 100
F (40 C) to be extended to a service temperature of 250 F (120 C).
It is noted that MSS SP-44 anges maintain the pressure rating
for 100 F up to 250 F.
Four styles of branch connections are commonly used in
B31.4 construction: forged butt-welding tees, extruded outlets,
weld-on outlets, and fabricated branch connections. Branch
connection requirements are given in section 404.3, some
highlights of which are described herein. Steel butt-welding
tees are specified in 404.3.2 in accordance with B16.9 or MSS
SP-75. Detailed requirements for the design of extruded out-
lets are given in Paragraph 404.3.3 with reference to Figure
404.3.3.1-1.
Requirements for fabricated branch connections are given in
Paragraph 404.3.4. Except for small outlets in low-stress applica-
tions fabricated branches generally must be externally reinforced.
Reinforcement may be full-encirclement as shown in Figure
404.3.4-1 or local as shown in Figure 404.3.4-2. These are repro-
duced herein is Figures 37.1 and 37.2.
37-8 Chapter 37
FIG. 37.2 DETAILS FOR LOCAL REINFORCEMENT OF FABRICATED BRANCHES (Source: ASME B31.4 Figure 404.3.4-2)
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The design of fabricated branches used in B31.4 construction is
based on the principle of area replacement similar to what is
observed in other B31 piping constructions. Area Replacement
requires that, in a longitudinal cross section through the branch
connection, as much or more metal area be available in extra
thickness in the header wall, branch wall, and, if necessary, added
external reinforcement, as the amount of metal removed from the
header pipe for the branch outlet, as illustrated in Figure 404.3.5-1,
reproduced herein as Figure 37.3.
The required details of branch fabrication depend on the rela-
tive hoop stress level in the header pipe and on the relative size of
the branch opening, as specied in Table 404.3.4-1 and associated
text. Table 404.3.4-1, reproduced here as Table 37.2, can be inter-
preted as a 3x3 matrix of requirements in terms of low, medium,
or high hoop stresses (20% SMYS or less, more than 20%
through 50% SMYS, and greater than 50% SMYS) versus small,
medium, and large branch openings (25% of the header OD or
smaller, more than 25% through 50%, or larger than 50%). For
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-9
FIG. 37.3 AREA REPLACEMENT FOR REINFORCEMENT OF FABRICATED BRANCHES (Source: ASME B31.4 Figure 404.3.5-1)
Ratio of design hoop
stress to SMYS
Ratio of diameter of branch hole cut to nominal header diameter
25% > 25% through 50% > 50%
20% Reinforcement not mandatory Reinforcement not mandatory Reinforcement not mandatory; but if
required, must be full circumference
> 20% through 50% Reinforcement of any type;
Not required for NPS 2 or smaller
Reinforcement of any type Forgings or extrusions preferred.
Fabricated reinforcement must be full
circumference.
> 50% Reinforcement of any type;
Not required for NPS 2 or smaller
Reinforcement of any type Forgings or extrusions preferred.
Fabricated reinforcement must be full
circumference.
TABLE 37.2 SUMMARY OF B31.4 FABRICATED BRANCH REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS
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the smallest sizes operating at the lowest stresses, a simple fabri-
cated branch without reinforcement is permitted, with caution
where the pressure exceeds 100 psig, the header pipe is thin-
walled, or high external loads are present. At the other extreme in-
volving the largest openings in the highest stress headers, smoothly
contoured wrought ttings are preferred. If such ttings cannot be
installed, fabricated branches must use external reinforcement that
extends around the full circumference of the header pipe. Local
methods of reinforcement such as pads or saddles are not permit-
ted in that case. For congurations of branch size and stress level
intermediate to the extremes, reinforcement is generally re-
quired, but may be of the local type.
B31.4 requires that where an external reinforcement member is
thicker than the header wall thickness, the edges of the reinforcement
must be beveled to an edge dimension equal to the header wall
thickness in order to minimize stress concentration in the highly
stressed, thin-walled carrier pipe adjacent to the reinforcement
attachment weld [20]. The required edge treatment is specied in
404.3.4(a) for large openings in high-stressed headers, and again
in 404.3.4(b) as a general requirement for all openings using
external reinforcement.
Welding outlets are permitted up to 50% of the header diameter
regardless of operating stress level. However, despite this allow-
ance, operating experience suggests that the use of such compo-
nents might prudently be limited to smaller relative sizes and/or
low to moderate operating stress levels. The reason for this is that
welding outlets tend to have very thick, stiff sections which can
introduce high local stresses in the highly-stressed thin-walled
headers. In addition, the thick outlet tting requires a large attach-
ment weld. The shrinkage stresses associated with the large weld
necessary to attach weld-on outlets can also aggravate the local
stress condition in the thin-walled header.
It should be noted that factory-made butt welding tees and
self-reinforcing outlets rarely meet the area replacement rules for
fabricated branch connections [21]. They do not need to meet the
rules because their designs are proven by prototype proof tests.
37.2.2.6 Material Selection Materials are discussed in B31.4
in Chapter III. Acceptable product specications for pipe, ttings,
bolting, and other materials are given in Table 423.1-1. Table
423.1-1 runs two pages and is not reproduced herein in its en-
tirety, but the portion of Table 423.1-1 listing recognized pipe
product specications is shown in Table 37.3. Footnote 1 of the
table cites a preference that API 5L line pipe be manufactured to
Product Specication Level 2 (PSL2) within that standard, be-
cause it provides for a higher level of quality control and quality
assurance than PSL1 pipe even though the products may be physi-
cally identical.
Pipe not conforming to a listed specication may be used pro-
vided it conforms to a published specication covering chemistry,
physical and mechanical properties, method and process of manu-
facture, heat treatment, and quality control, with allowable stresses
determined in accordance with the applicable provisions of the
Code or a more conservative basis. Such a provision might be used
to qualify certain varieties of pipe manufactured from corrosion-
resistant alloys, for example.
Charpy V-notch (CVN) testing is required for pipe intended to
operate at hoop stress levels above 20% SMYS. The test tempera-
ture is to be the lower of 32 F or the lowest expected metal tem-
perature in service. Most products transported by B31.4 systems
do not require high CVN absorbed impact energy properties, with
the exception of CO
2
transported as a supercritical liquid. The
fracture control of a CO
2
transportation pipeline requires special
analyses not described within B31.4.
37.2.3 Construction, Installation, and Testing
37.2.3.1 Construction Practices The construction of a liquids
transportation pipeline is covered under Chapter V Construction,
Welding, and Assembly, and Chapter VI Inspection and Test-
ing, with an emphasis on cross-country facilities. Paragraph
434.2.1 requires that personnel involved in several key tasks be
qualied by experience or training. ASME B31Q (see Section
37-10 Chapter 37
Specication Pipe Type
API 5L Line Pipe
ASTM A 53 Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated Welded and Seamless Pipe
ASTM A 106 Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
ASTM A 134 Steel, Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Pipe (Sizes NPS 16 and Over)
ASTM A 135 Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
ASTM A 139 Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Steel Pipe (Sizes NPS 4 and Over)
ASTM A 312 Seamless and Heavily Cold Worked Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM A 333 Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-temperature Service
ASTM A 358 Electric Fusion Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service and General
Application
ASTM A 381 Metal-Arc-Welded Steel Pipe for Use With High-Pressure Transmission Systems
ASTM A 409 Welded Large Diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for Corrosive or High-Temperature Service
ASTM A 524 Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures
ASTM A 530 General Requirements for Specialized Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe
ASTM A 671 Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures
ASTM A 672 Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Service at Moderate Temperatures
ASTM A 790 Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
ASTM A 928 Ferritic/Austenitic (Duplex) Stainless Steel Pipe Electric Fusion Welded with Addition of Filler Metal
TABLE 37.3 B31.4 LISTED PIPE PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
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37.7) or API 1163 may be used to satisfy this requirement. Article
434.3 provides requirements intended to minimize adverse
impacts of the pipeline construction process on the public, land
owners, and the environment.
Paragraphs 434.4 and 434.5 provide for avoiding and correcting
damage to the pipe caused during shipment or handling of the
pipe. Injurious damage to the pipe is dened to include any inden-
tation that affects a seam or girth weld, or that contains a scrape or
gouge, or that is deeper than 2% of the pipe diameter. Acceptance
criteria are more stringent than for conditions found later in ser-
vice because the damage can be readily repaired with little impact
on operations and maintaining service. Pipe is required to be trans-
ported in accordance with API RP 5L1 or 5LW [22,23] as applica-
ble in order to avoid shipment fatigue [24].
Providing adequate depth of cover over a buried line is an impor-
tant element in reducing the risk of the pipeline being damaged by
above ground activities. Minimum cover requirements are given in
Paragraph 434.6 and Table 434.6-1. The nominal requirement is 3 ft
(1 m), but 4 ft (1.2 m) of cover is required in cultivated, industrial,
commercial, and residential areas, and at crossings of rivers,
streams, drainage ditches, railroads, and roadways.
Pipelines must incorporate bends to follow changes in land
contour and routing. This is often accomplished by cold-bending
straight pipe in the eld. Quality requirements for eld-bent
pipe are contained in 434.7.1. Factory-made induction bends and
wrought elbows are often segmented (cut to smaller subtended
arcs) to t direction changes in the eld. This is permitted under
434.7.1 provided the arc length along the intrados is at least
2 inches. Minimum bend radius requirements are given in 404.2.2
as shown in Table 37.4. (The permitted direction change in de-
grees shown in Table 37.4 does not appear in B31.4 but it does
appear in B31.8.)
37.2.3.2 Welding Welding requirements are covered extensively
in Article 434.8. The provisions apply to all welds except seams in
the manufacturing of pipe and welds in vessels manufactured in
accordance with Section VIII of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel
(BPV) Code [25]. Qualication of welder performance and weld-
ing procedures is discussed in Paragraph 434.8.3. Performance and
procedure qualications for cross country pipelines shall be per-
formed in accordance with API 1104 [26], while either API 1104
or Section IX [27] of the BPV Code may be used for shop welding
and in terminals and stations. However, irrespective of which
welding standard was used for qualication purposes, the quali-
cation of welding nondestructive inspection methods shall be
in accordance with API 1104, and the acceptance or repair of
inspected welds shall be in accordance with API 1104, per Par-
agraph 434.8.5(b). All welds must be visually inspected. All welds
shall be nondestructively examined within populated and devel-
oped areas (residential or commercial), crossings of streams,
rivers, and bodies of water, within the rights-of-way of railroads
and public roads, offshore and in coastal waters, reused old welds,
and tie-in welds. Other welds may be inspected at the rate of 10%
of those completed each day, randomly selected, per 434.8.5(a).
Welding in pipeline construction has traditionally been per-
formed by the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW, or stick weld-
ing) process using cellulosic (E-XX10) consumables run in the
vertical down direction and pipe in the xed position. Larger
cross-country construction projects now often use automated gas
metal arc welding (A-GMAW) for most welds, except tie-ins and
fabricated branches. Acceptable details for various types of welded
joints are described in Paragraph 434.8.6 and Figures 434.8.61,
434.8.6-2, and 434.8.6-3. (These gures are substantially similar
to welding details described for other standards discussed in this
book and are not reproduced herein.) They are standard details for
open-root groove welds and llet welds made using the SMAW
process. All welding details require full penetration of the weld
and complete lling of the welding groove, without exception.
Preheating is required in accordance with qualied procedures,
while stress relief is required where the weld throat exceeds 1.25
inches unless it can be demonstrated that it is unnecessary, or if the
metal thickness is less than 1.5 inches and preheat to at least 200 F
is used. Paragraph 434.9 alerts the user to the fact that special con-
sideration should be given to proper pipe alignment at tie-ins, and
care exercised to avoid excess forces or strains on tie-in welds.
Tie-ins have been known to fail as a result of excessive stresses
due to poor control of stresses during construction.
37.2.3.3 Special Installations and Other Facilities Paragraphs
434.13 and 434.14 discuss crossings requiring special additional
design and construction considerations, including crossings of bod-
ies of water, coastal and shore approaches, overhead structures,
bridge attachments, railroad and highway crossings, and direc-
tionally drilled installations. Each situation presents a unique en-
gineering solution requiring detailed planning. Among factors to
consider are:
Awareness of other buried utilities, services, and foreign
pipelines
Positions and angles of approach at water crossings
Contours and consistency of bottom soil, and ow velocities,
in water crossings
Coating selection to counter effects of buoyancy and surf
Live loadings from ground surface vehicles
Monitoring position of boreholes for directionally drilled
installations.
Paragraph 434.13.4(b) cites a preference for uncased roadway or
railroad crossings. The reason for this is that casings complicate the
prevention and monitoring of external corrosion in service.
Block or isolation valves are required under Article 434.15 for
minimizing hazards from accidental pipeline discharges and to
facilitate maintenance. Valves must be at accessible locations,
protected from tampering and from damage (e.g. from vehicle
trafc), and suitably supported due to the fact that they can be
quite heavy. Main line block valves are required at each side of a
stream or river crossing (a backow check valve may be used on
the downstream side), and at pump stations. Valve spacing should
account for risk in developed areas due to the increased likelihood
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-11
Nominal Pipe Size
Minimum Radius
of Bend in Pipe
Diameters
Deection of
Longitudinal
Axis, deg
NPS 12 and smaller 18D* 3.2*
NPS 14 21D 2.7
NPS 16 24D 2.4
NPS 18 27D 2.1
NPS 20 and larger 30D 1.9
*Tighter bend radii permitted subject to bend quality requirements
TABLE 37.4 COMPILED B31.4 AND B31.8 FIELD BEND
MINIMUM RADIUS REQUIREMENTS
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of the pipe being damaged from excavators. If the pipeline trans-
ports anhydrous ammonia or LPG then the maximum valve spac-
ing is 7.5 miles in developed areas.
Requirements for marking the location of pipelines are dis-
cussed in Paragraph 434.18. Marking is critical because it is the
rst line of defense against the number one cause of pipeline fail-
ures. Markers are required at each crossing of a public road, rail-
road, navigable stream, where the pipeline is above ground and
accessible to the public, and in sufcient numbers elsewhere so
that the pipelines location and direction are apparent. Marking on
both sides of a crossing is recommended, especially where a
crossing is not perpendicular. Specic sign wording and legibility
requirements are also given. Marking is not required offshore, or
in locations where the placement of markings is impractical or
could not serve the intended purpose.
General requirements for pump stations, tank farms and termi-
nals are given in several parts under Article 434.20, including
aspects of locating facilities, buildings, and tankage; installation
of prime movers; facility piping; pressure control and relief
equipment; re protection; tank design; foundations; containment
dikes; and electrical installation. Atmospheric storage tanks are
required to be designed to API 650 [28] or other listed storage
tank standards as appropriate. Pressurized storage tanks are re-
quired to be designed to BPV Section VIII. General requirements
for liquid metering, strainers and lters, and piping assembly are
discussed under 434.23, and 435.
37.2.3.4 Inspection and Testing Inspection during the installa-
tion of the pipeline is covered under Article 436; testing of the
installed pipeline after construction is covered under Article 437.
Some details of these important steps are discussed below.
Inspections during construction are to include: visual examina-
tion of components and pipe for surface defects, weld bevel con-
dition and joint alignment, weld passes, potential pipe surface
damage at sites of coating damage, repairs or pipe replacements,
preparation of the ditch, t of the pipe to the ditch contour, back-
lling including compaction, placement of materials to prevent
erosion and pipe damage, support of the pipe inside casings, the
prole of underwater crossings, and a gauge plate or caliper tool
inspection of directionally drilled installations.
All liquid transportation piping systems are required to be
tested. Different testing requirements apply to pipe that will oper-
ate at hoop stresses greater than or less than 20% of SMYS. In the
higher stress category, the pressure test is a hydrostatic proof test
of adequate pipe strength; in the lower stress category, the pres-
sure test may be a leak test. A strength test, where required, is
performed at a minimum pressure of 1.25 times the internal de-
sign pressure at every location for a period of 4 hours, using liq-
uid as the test uid. Systems where all tested components are
visually inspected for leaks during the test require no further test-
ing; systems that are not visually inspected while under test must
be tested for leaks for an additional 4 hours at a reduced pressure
equal to at least 1.1 times the internal design pressure. The speci-
ed test uid is water, although provisions allow for testing with
petroleum under limited circumstances. Where thermal expansion
of the test uid could occur, pressure relief devices must be part
of the test conguration.
Leak tests for low-stress piping may be hydrostatic or pneu-
matic, for a period of 1 hour. Hydrostatic tests are to 1.25 times
the maximum operating pressure, while pneumatic tests are at 100
psig or the pressure corresponding to a hoop stress of 25% of
SMYS, whichever is less.
Fabricated items such as scraper traps or manifolds are required
to be tested to pressure levels at least equal to the attached piping.
Such tests may be performed separately or as part of the complete
system. Test pressures should not exceed the recommended test
levels for any components tested in line with the pipe, such as
anges or valves. Untested tie-in welds (the welds that join sepa-
rately tested sections of pipe) are required to be inspected.
37.2.4 Operations and Maintenance
B31.4 species practices for the safe operation and mainte-
nance of liquid pipeline systems under Chapter VII, and for corro-
sion control under Chapter VIII, as discussed below.
37.2.4.1 Pipeline Operating Practices Article 450 species
necessary operating practices affecting pipeline safety. Paragraph
450.1 states, in effect, that it is not possible to provide detailed
requirements for all situations, but that an operator may use the
Code as guidance to develop practices that reect the specic cir-
cumstances and conditions relevant to a given pipeline system.
The Code further implies in 450.1(b) that an operator must in any
case do what is prudent, implying that more than what is specied
by the Code may be required.
Paragraphs 450.2(a) through (l) describe requirements of oper-
ating plans and procedures. The operator must have written,
detailed plans and employee training programs for: normal opera-
tion, control of external and internal corrosion, emergency res-
ponse, patrolling for and reporting changes in conditions that
could affect the safety of the pipeline, liaison with local jurisdic-
tions that issue construction permits (in order to prevent accidents
caused by excavators), analyze pipeline failures, maintain maps
and records, procedures for abandoning pipeline systems, update
plans to reect changes in the system, and participate in public
damage prevention programs. Per 450.1, the operator is required
to operate and maintain the system according to these plans, and
provide special attention to facilities representing greatest hazard
to the public.
Paragraph 451.1 requires that the operator assure that the maxi-
mum steady state pressure, and static head, do not exceed the in-
ternal design pressure and component pressure ratings established
in Paragraph 404.1.4. The level of pressure rise due to surges or
other variation from normal operation may not exceed the design
pressure by more than 10%.
Paragraphs 451.3 through 451.5 discuss ROW maintenance and
patrolling. Line markers must be installed and maintained at cros-
sings of roads, railroads, navigable streams, and other locations as
described. Since land use may cause such signs to be damaged or
removed, the operator must repair or replace them as necessary.
The ROW must be maintained to provide visibility for aerial pa-
trolling, prevent encroachment, control overgrowth and erosion,
maintain locating signs, and to provide access to the ROW in the
event of an emergency. Patrolling is required on a periodic basis.
The purpose of the patrols is to identify evidence of changing
conditions that could affect the safety of the pipeline, whether
manmade (i.e. site development) or due to natural causes. The
maximum patrolling intervals are 1 week for ammonia and LPG
lines located in developed areas, and 2 weeks for all other onshore
lines. Underwater crossings also must be periodically inspected
(e.g. by diver or remotely operated vehicle) to assure the crossing
is in good condition. The patrolling frequency for underwater
crossings is not specied. Paragraph 451.6 discusses pipeline
integrity assessment and repairs and is discussed later herein un-
der section 37.2.4.2.
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Paragraphs 451.8 through 451.12 discuss other aspects of
pipeline maintenance, a few of which are reviewed here. Block
valves must be inspected, serviced, and at least partially operated
at least once per year, per 451.8. (Note that full operation would
affect operation of the line, whereas the line can continue to oper-
ate with a partial closure.) Paragraph 451.9 requires analysis of an
existing pipeline for loadings produced by a new highway or rail-
road crossing it. API RP 1102 [10] is cited as a method that may
be used to perform that analysis. Paragraph 451.11 states that all
pipe segments should be periodically monitored for leaks. The
operator is to select the technology and frequency of leak detec-
tion considering location, consequences of a leak, monitoring ac-
curacy, and the operators response time.
Maintenance of pump stations, terminals, and tank farms is dis-
cussed in Article 452. Considerations cited include monitoring
systems and methods, pressure control or pressure limiting equip-
ment, storage vessels, storage of combustible materials, facility
fencing and security, signs, and preventing accidental ignition.
Emergency plans are discussed in Paragraph 454. The plans
must provide for: methods to assure prompt response to an emer-
gency; training of personnel responsible for emergency response
with periodic reviews every 6 months; liaison with police, re
departments, and other civil agencies; communicating to residents
near the pipeline on how to recognize a pipeline emergency; an
emergency mobilization plan, with special considerations cited
for releases of LPG, anhydrous ammonia, or carbon dioxide.
37.2.4.2 Integrity Assessment and Repairs Pipeline integrity
assessment and pipeline repairs are discussed in Article 451.6.
The pipeline operator should consider the need for periodic integ-
rity assessment by hydrostatic testing, in-line inspection (ILI), or
other means such as above ground electrical measurements that
could indicate the presence of coating damage or corrosion. API
1160 [29] is cited as a reference for guidance. In the US, integrity
assessments of hazardous liquid pipelines in areas that could affect
high consequence areas must be performed within an interval pre-
scribed by regulations.
An integrity assessment is a test or inspection of the condition
of the pipeline, with respect to conditions that could affect the
integrity of the pipeline. An assessment may reveal conditions on
the pipeline that require remediation or repair. These conditions
and the appropriate responses are discussed in detail in 451.6.1
and 451.6.2.
Injurious defects
Safe limits for aws discovered on the pipeline are described in
451.6.2.2 through 451.6.2.8. Corrosion that is leaking must be re-
paired. Internal or external corrosion that is not leaking and not
affecting a weld may be evaluated using an appropriate tness-for-
purpose criterion. ASME B31G is one such method discussed
herein in Section 37.6. If the maximum depth of metal loss is 20%
of the wall thickness or less, then no repair is required. Multiple
closely-spaced pits must be considered to interact so as to be more
severe than the individual corroded areas evaluated separately.
Interaction criteria are given in 451.6.2.2(d). The criteria are
slightly different from what is specied in B31G-2009. Grooving,
selective, or preferential corrosion affecting a longitudinal seam of
any type must be repaired, not evaluated.
Gouges, grooves, and arc burns shall be examined nondestruc-
tively for cracks. The damaged surface may be treated by grind-
ing to facilitate inspection. Where the depth of grinding
necessary to remove a crack exceeds 12.5% of the nominal pipe
wall, the metal loss must be evaluated as for metal loss caused by
corrosion.
Dents are a deformation of the pipe circular cross section. Dents
caused by contact from excavating equipment are more injurious
than dents caused where the pipeline rests on rock, although the
latter condition is also not desirable [30]. Certain dents are consid-
ered injurious and must be repaired: dents containing gouges,
grooves, cracks, or stress concentrating features; dents containing
metal loss caused by corrosion or grinding such that less than
87.5% of the nominal pipe wall remains; dents affecting the curva-
ture at a seam or girth weld; and dents exceeding a depth of 6% of
the pipe diameter. Dents that could restrict the passage of ILI tools
must be removed, since they would interfere with performing an
integrity assessment. (This was the original basis for the 6%-OD
depth limitation, but ILI tools have since developed to be capable
of successfully passing larger obstructions.)
Buckles, ripples, or wrinkles do not require repair if the peak-to-
trough magnitude is not in excess of 0.5% of the diameter. Larger
deformations up to 2% of the diameter are permitted depending on
the operating stress level in accordance with limitations given in
Paragraph 451.6.2.8. The limits are intended to assure reliable
operation for 100 years with respect to thermal and pressure-cycle
fatigue [31]. Provisions for cracks, blisters, and pipe manufacturing
defects are also discussed.
Allowed repairs
Paragraph 451.6.1 discusses safe eld practices. Repairs are
often performed while maintaining continuous service. The Code
refers to API 2200 [32], API 2201 [33], API 1104, and API
1111[34] for supplemental guidance. Matters discussed include
safety precautions for handling hazardous uids, use of inert gas
for displacing uids, pressure reduction when investigating condi-
tions indicated by ILI, repair welding, and coating repair.
Paragraph 451.6.1(e) recommends a pressure reduction to a
level that would prevent an anomaly from failing while the exca-
vation, inspection, and repair are in progress. Where the failure
pressure of the anomaly can be calculated (e.g., with corrosion of
known size based on ILI) the pressure should be reduced to the
calculated safe level. For anomalies of unknown signicance and
operating at hoop stress levels of 40% SMYS or more, the pres-
sure during investigation should be reduced to 80% of the highest
pressure at the time of discovery. This provides a minimum factor
of safety of 1.25 with respect to a known tolerable stress level.
The product ow should not be reduced if it causes a static pres-
sure at the location of the anomaly greater than what it was at the
time of discovery.
Some repairs involve welding on the pipeline while it is in ser-
vice. Welding under such conditions requires special welding pro-
cedures that differ from welding during construction. The reason
for this is that static or owing product inside the pipe greatly
increases the weld cooling rate. High weld cooling rates may pro-
duce high heat-affected zone (HAZ) hardness. Welding under such
circumstances with cellulosic consumables normally used in con-
struction introduces a high risk of hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC).
Qualication testing of in-service welding procedures must con-
sider the effect of cooling rates and material chemistry.
Paragraph 451.6.2.9 discusses permanent repairs. Tables 451.6.2.9-1
and 451.6.2.9-2, introduced with the 2006 edition, summarize
requirements in matrix form (they run 3 pages and are not repro-
duced herein). A wide variety of repair methods are used with liq-
uid pipelines. These include: pipe removal, steel reinforcement
sleeves (known as Type A sleeves), pressure-containing sleeves
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(known as Type B sleeves), composite wraps, surface treatment
by grinding, weld metal deposition, mechanical clamps, hot taps,
and weld-on ttings. Patches and half-soles (essentially half a
sleeve) are prohibited.
Operators prefer repairs that do not require taking the line out
of service. Continuous service can be maintained even while
removing a segment of damaged pipe by installing a stopple and
hot-tap upstream and downstream of the cut-out with the hot taps
connected by a temporary by-pass line. However, most of the other
repair techniques can be installed without such an arrangement if
the pipe is not leaking.
Full-encirclement steel sleeves remain the primary method of
repair of almost all aws and defects. Reinforcement sleeves
restore the strength of the pipe primarily by restraining bulging
that occurs at a defect rather than take-up of hoop stress [35,36].
A hardenable ller material (e.g. epoxy) must be used to ll any
annular gap between the defect and sleeve, in order to improve
restraint of bulging and immobilization of the defect. The sleeve
must extend at least 2 inches beyond each end of the defect being
repaired. Pressure-containing sleeves may be used to repair leak-
ing or non-leaking defects. The longitudinal seam must be a full-
penetration groove butt weld, and end llet welds must be installed
using a suitable in-service welding procedure. The llet weld leg
must not exceed the pipe wall thickness by more than 1/16 inch.
Separate sleeves may be placed closer than one pipe diameter if
they are joined by a bridging sleeve.
Composite wrap repairs may be used to repair nonleaking cor-
rosion, and some other situations provided the design and installa-
tion procedure are proven for the application. Composite sleeves
must be marked or recorded so that its location is known, because
the composite material is invisible to ILI tools. Composite wraps
are not appropriate or permitted for the repair of leaks, metal loss
exceeding 80% of the wall thickness, cracks, or circumferentially
oriented defects (e.g. girth welds).
Surface treatment by grinding is permitted within limits. If it is
the sole means of repair of mechanical damage, it may not extend
to a depth in excess of 12.5% of the pipe wall. For application to
other defects, the length and depth of metal removal must be eval-
uated as for corrosion. The remaining wall thickness must be at
least 60% of the pipe wall. The effectiveness and limitations of
this technique have been proven by testing [37].
Weld metal deposition may be used to repair small areas of cor-
rosion, gouges, grooves, or arc burns, except within indentations.
A low-hydrogen welding process must be used to avoid HAC.
The welding procedure must dene the minimum safe wall thick-
ness to avoid burnthrough.
Bolt-on clamps may be used within their pressure ratings. They
may be fully welded and the bolts seal welded. Hot taps may be
used where they completely remove the defect. Fittings up to a
size of NPS 3 may be used to repair minor leaks and pitting.
37.2.4.3 Corrosion Control Chapter VIII prescribes minimum
requirements for protecting steel pipe from internal and external
corrosion. Paragraph 460 states that corrosion control requires
signicant professional judgment and deviations from the Code
requirements is permissible provided the operator can demon-
strate that corrosion is under control. It also states that additional
requirements than those specied in the Code might be necessary
and the operator must establish procedures to achieve the desired
objectives. External corrosion control for new installations of
buried pipelines is discussed in Article 461.1. All new pipelines
and associated terminal and pump station piping are required to
have external coating and be cathodically protected, unless test-
ing or experience shows that the materials are resistant to corro-
sion in the installation environment. Suitable external coatings
must be selected giving consideration to installation condition,
moisture absorption, operating temperatures of the pipeline, envi-
ronmental factors, adhesion characteristics and dielectric strength.
The pipe coating must be visually inspected for defects prior to
lowering in the ditch and precautions shall be exercised to prevent
damage during installation. Cathodic protection (CP) must be
installed on all buried or submerged facilities as soon as feasible
following installation, unless it can be demonstrated by testing or
experience that CP is not needed. A facility is considered to to be
cathodically protected if it meets criteria in Section 6 of NACE
SP0169 [39]. Electrical isolation is required at interconnections
with foreign pipeline systems In an area where a pipeline paral-
lels overhead electric transmission lines special consideration is
required to protect against voltages resulting from ground faults
and lightning and conducting a study with the electric company
that takes into account possible adverse affects from the shared
corridor. Additional requirements discussed in Paragrpah 461.1
include electrical connections and monitoring points, electrical
interference, and use of casings. Controlling corrosion on exist-
ing pipelines is covered in Article 461.2. Procedures must
include the consideration of available corrosion records, provide
corrective measures where necessary, dene cathodic protection
criteria, require examination of pipe when exposed and provide
requirements for tests and inspections of the CP system.
Control of internal corrosion for new installations is discussed
in Paragraph 462.2. It is often necessary to control internal corro-
sion in liquid petroleum product pipelines in order to protect
product quality, maintain ow efciency, and preserve pipe
integrity. Considerations for new installations during the design
and construction must include internal coating, chemical treat-
ment, cleaning pigs, monitoring devices, reducing corrosivity (use
of separators or dehydration equipment), and material selection.
Guidelines for corrosion control of existing installations are cov-
ered in Paragraph 462.3. Procedures are required for identifying
areas where internal corrosion may be present and where identied,
corrective measures are to be provided. Internal corrosion control
measures must be monitored by means such as, but not limited to,
evaluating corrosion coupons, checking corrosion probes, and mea-
suring wall thickness when the pipe is exposed.
External atmospheric corrosion control is discussed in Article
463. Corrosion resistant steel or external paint or coating is gener-
ally required unless the operator can demonstrate that a corrosive
atmosphere does not exist.
Pipelines in arctic environments are discussed in Article 464.
Pipelines must be coated with a suitable coating for low tem-
perature environments and cathodically protected. CP criteria
are the same as for normal temperature service. Impressed cur-
rent facilities should be used in permanently frozen soil and
where practical, anode beds must be installed below the per-
mafrost level.
Article 465 covers pipelines in high temperature service. The
coating selection shall pay particular attention to resistance to
thermal degradation. The criteria for CP are the same for normal
temperature service while cautioning the operator on the effects
of decreased resistivity and increased CP current requirements in
high temperature service.
External corrosion control is discussed in Article 466 for ther-
mally insulated pipelines. External corrosion mitigation by use of
an anti-corrosion coating applied to the surface of the pipe under
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the thermal insulation system is required. Adequate CP is difcult
to achieve therefore an integrity program should include monitor-
ing the system or using an external metal loss monitoring program.
Control of under-insulation corrosion must be in accordance with
NACE RP 0198 [40]. Paragraph 467 alerts the operator to the exis-
tences of other environmentally induced phenomena including
stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue, and microbiologically
inuenced corrosion.
Article 468 requires that records and maps showing the location
of cathodically protected pipe, CP facilities, and nearby structures
affecting or affected by the CP system be maintained for as long as
the piping system is in service. Results of corrosion control tests,
surveys, and inspections must also be maintained for as long as the
piping remains in service.
37.2.5 Offshore Pipelines
Chapter IX discusses offshore liquid transportation pipelines. It
only describes exceptions or additions to the requirements of
Chapters I through VIII due to the offshore nature of the system. It
maintains parallel paragraph numbering to those in Chapters I
through VIII, with an A prex. Thus a change in the requirement
of Paragraph 4wx.y.z in the main body of B31.4 is indicated in
Chapter IX in Paragraph A4wx.y.z. Only the highlights and more
signicant departures from the requirements of the main body of
B31.4 are reviewed here.
37.2.5.1 General The scope of Chapter IX, per A400.1, is the
design, material requirements, fabrication, installation, inspection,
testing, and safety aspects of the operation and maintenance of off-
shore pipeline systems. Offshore pipeline systems include offshore
liquid pipelines, pipeline risers, offshore liquid pump stations, and
related appurtenances, supports, and components. Denitions unique
to offshore pipelines are provided in paragraph A400.2.
37.2.5.2 Design Conditions Design conditions for offshore
pipelines are discussed in Article A401. General offshore load-
ings are listed in A401.1.1, including waves, currents, wind, ice,
platform motion, support settlement, marine vessel activity, and
several others unique to offshore conditions. Installation loads
are discussed in A401.9. Often, the loading associated with the
installation process is the highest magnitude loading the pipeline
will ever experience. This loading develops where the pipe string
hangs as a catenary from the lay vessel to the sea bottom.
Superimposed on the hanging tension is added tension intro-
duced by the lay vessel, curvature at the top controlled by the
articulated stinger which controls the angle of pipe departure
from the vessel, curvature at the bottom induced by soil compli-
ance, external hydrostatic pressure which increases with water
depth, lateral inertial loadings from underwater currents, and
dynamic motion of the lay vessel due to waves, current, and
wind.
Paragraph A401.10.1 requires designing the offshore pipeline for
the most critical combination of operational and environmental
loads acting concurrently. If the operation is to be reduced during
storm conditions, then the design must consider the full operational
load with the maximum coincidental environment loads, and the
design environmental loads with the reduced operational loads.
Operational loads are those imposed during operation such as inter-
nal and external pressure and buoyant weight, and excluding loads
from environmental conditions, per A401.10.2. Environmental
loads are those imposed by the environment, including waves, cur-
rent, and ice, per A401.10.3. Paragraph A401.11 discusses hydro-
static testing loads, with consideration for coincident environmental
loads.
37.2.5.3 Design Criteria Allowable stresses, for offshore
pipelines are covered in Article A402. Strength criteria are estab-
lished to avoid failure due to:
collapse of the pipe caused by external pressure in conjunc-
tion with imposed loads and curvatures;
fatigue caused by vortex-induced vibration (VIV, also known
as vortex shedding);
fracture at girth welds, mainly of concern during the pipe-
laying process;
loss of in-place instability, which can occur in a variety of
complex circumstances such as where currents scour away the
bedding leaving pipe spans exposed to the effects of currents,
or where compressive stresses due to thermal expansion cause
the pipe push out of the bedding soils; and
mechanical damage caused by impact from anchors, vessel
keels, ice keels, and other objects.
The hoop stress is calculated per A402.3.5 using the Barlow
equation, but the net pressure is the difference between the
internal operating pressure and the external hydrostatic pres-
sure. The hoop stress design factor F
1
is 0.72 for the pipeline
and 0.60 for the platform riser and piping. Design factors are
listed in Table A402.3.5-1 and are reproduced herein as Table
37.5.
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(Source: ASME B31.4, Table A402.3.5)
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37.3 ASME B31.8 GAS TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION PIPING
SYSTEMS
37.3.1 History, Scope, and Organization of B31.8
37.3.1.1 History of B31.8 Prior to 1951, natural gas piping and
pipelines were addressed in a single chapter of ASA B31.1. The
technical characteristics and requirements unique to cross-country
pipelines were sufciently divergent from those of piping in power
and process facilities that a new section (Section 8) of the B31.1
standard to address gas transmission and distribution piping sys-
tems and published as a separate document was deemed appropri-
ate. The rst edition of B31.8 (B31.1.8 at that time) was published
as a Tentative Standard in 1952. Other separate industry standards
(e.g. B31.1 for power piping, B31.3 for process piping) followed
suit after 1955. Subsequent editions of B31.8 were issued in 1955,
1958, 1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1975, 1982, 1986, 1989, 1992,
1995, 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2010. Addenda were issued in several
intermediate years between 1968 and 2000. The next edition of
this Standard is scheduled for publication in 2012.
37.3.1.2 Scope of B31.8 Par Article 801, B31.8 covers the
design, fabrication, installation, and testing of natural gas pipeline
systems, and safety-related aspects of operation and maintenance
of those systems. Facilities within the scope of B31.8 includes
onshore and offshore gas transmission lines, offshore gathering
lines with or without liquid separation at the wellhead, onshore
gathering lines downstream of liquid separation at the wellhead,
the main gas stream in gas processing facilities, compressor sta-
tions, gas metering facilities, gas distribution mains and service
lines to the outlet of the customers meter, and gas storage bottles.
A recent ballot approved a change to include gas piping entering
or exiting gas wells (e.g. storage) without liquid separation, pro-
vided the product stream is predominantly gas.
Exclusions from B31.8 are listed in Paragraph 802.1(b). These
include pressure vessels, pipelines transporting liquid, piping in
gas treating facilities other than the main gas stream in dehydra-
tion, vent piping, wellhead assemblies and gas wells, proprietary
equipment, and piping intended to be covered by other B31 pip-
ing standards.
37.3.1.3 Organization of B31.8 B31.8 is organized as follows.
The Forward describes background and history of B31.8 going
back to the rst edition of B31 piping standards. An
Introduction describes basic premises of B31.8, and is followed
by a Summary of Changes. An extensive General Provisions
and Denitions section describes basic principles of the Code,
which are generally common to all B31 standards, scope and
exclusions, and an extensive glossary. Chapter I Materials dis-
cusses material selection and materials requirements for steel and
plastic pipe. Chapter II Welding provides requirements for
qualifying welding procedures and welders, welding inspection,
and welding details. Chapter III Piping System Components and
Fabrication Details gives requirements for factory-made piping
ttings and components, pressure design requirements for branch
connections; design requirements for anged joints and other
joint types; longitudinal stresses for buried and above ground pip-
ing; exibility analysis; and supports. Chapter IV Design,
Installation, and Testing covers the pressure design for pipe;
location class factors; requirements for the installation of steel
pipe and plastic pipe; pressure testing requirements; design
37-16 Chapter 37
The longitudinal stress S
L
is limited such that
F
2
(SMYS), where S
L
is the sum of axial and bending stresses and
F
2
has a value of 0.80 at all locations. The combined stress is
S
L

the maximum distortion energy or von Mises criterion as

where S
L
, S
h
, and S
t
are
longitudinal, hoop, and torsional stresses, and F
3
has a value of
0.90 at all locations. Where the pipeline may experience a pre-
dictable non-periodic displacement, due to soil movement or pipe
sag into a supported condition, a strain criterion may be used
instead of the stress limits presented above. Consideration must
be given to the ability of the pipe to undergo plastic strains without
detrimental effects, but a specic value for the maximum allow-
able strain is not given. Qualitative guidance is given elsewhere in
A402.3.5 for designing against failure by the various mechanisms
discussed.
Paragraph A402.3.6 addresses exibility. A subsea pipeline that
is unburied is to be considered above ground for exibility pur-
poses. The allowable stress criteria are those in A402.3.5 discussed
above, not those in Table 403.3.1-1. Some additional guidance for
components, equipment, materials, and construction are discussed
through A423. Modern offshore pipeline welding is performed
substantially by the A-GMAW process and inspection by the A-UT
method. A434.8.5 requires inspection of at least 90% of all welds,
and 100% if practical. Alternative acceptance criteria based on
fracture mechanics are allowed. A436 and A437 discuss special
requirements for inspecting and testing the installation of an off-
shore pipeline. Hydrostatic testing with water is required except
where limited by temperatures in arctic regions. Internal inspection
for buckles or other damage by means of a caliper or geometry
tool is required by A437.1.4(e).
Some exceptional provisions for standard operation appropriate
for offshore systems are given in A450 and A451. A451.11 pro-
vides guidance for surveillance and inspection of pipe in areas
most prone to damage, including platform risers, shore zones, and
shipping lanes. Annual visual inspection is required in riser splash
zones, since those areas are most prone to external corrosion.
More extensive internal and external inspections are advised but
not specied.
External corrosion control is discussed in A460, A461, and
A463. All submerged steel pipe must be coated and cathodically
protected. Additional considerations for coating selection are
given. In addition to the provisions of 461.1.3, the CP system
must be designed to minimize outages. The criteria of NACE 06-
75 [41] are cited for cathodic protection. The periodic use of
internal inspection tools is recommended.
37.2.6 Appendices
Appendix I is a mandatory appendix that lists external standards
referenced within B31.4. Referenced standards listed in Appendix
I include those published by API, ASME, ASTM, AWS, MSS,
NACE, and NFPA. Nonmandatory Appendix A describes how to
submit technical inquiries to the B31 piping committees. It is a
uniform appendix that appears in all ASME B31 piping standards.
Nonmandatory Appendix B lists publications that are not refer-
enced in the body of B31.4 or listed in Appendix I but that may be
useful to the Code user. All documents currently listed in
Appendix B are published by API.
( )
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3 ( )
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requirements for compressor stations; and provisions for special
features such as mainline valves, storage bottles, and other auxil-
iary equipment. Chapter V Operation and Maintenance Proce-
dures provides requirements for operation and maintenance
(O&M) procedures for transmission pipelines, and for distribution
systems; emergency plans; pressure control; patrolling; assess-
ment of injurious defects discovered in service; pipeline repairs;
facility maintenance; location class changes; uprating; and aban-
donment. Chapter VI Corrosion Control discusses external
coatings; cathodic protection; external and internal corrosion con-
trol; atmospheric corrosion; corrosion of pipelines in arctic envi-
ronments and high temperature service; corrosion control for
thermally insulated pipeline; and corrective measures. Chapter
VII is currently reserved. Prior to the 2010 edition, it addressed
miscellaneous subjects but these were moved to more appropriate
locations in the Code. Chapter VIII Offshore Gas Transmission
addresses all aspects of offshore natural gas pipelines where they
differ from any parts of Chapters I through VI. Chapter IX Sour
Gas Service discusses special provisions for sour gas pipelines
that differ from those for non-sour gas in Chapters I through VI.
There are 18 Appendices, A through R, ten of which are
mandatory.
B31.8 observes a unique paragraph numbering convention. As
with all other B31 standards, the rst paragraph number indicates
the B31 Section, e.g. 8 for B31.8, 3 for B31.3, and so on.
However, in B31.8, the second number coincides with the Chapter
number. The numbered paragraphs in the General Provisions sec-
tion have a 0 in the second position, the paragraphs in Chapter I
have a 1 in the second position, the paragraphs in Chapter V
have a 5 in the second position, and so on. This makes it possi-
ble to quickly determine what part of the Code, general subject
matter, and context an isolated paragraph or clause may pertain
to. No other B31 standard follows this practice.
37.3.1.4 General Provisions The basic scope of B31.8 was dis-
cussed above in section 37.3.1.2, but the General Provisions and
Denitions contain important additional information. Section
802.2 Intent discusses the objectives of the Code. Paragraph
802.2.1 states The requirements of this Code are adequate for
conditions usually encountered in the gas industry which can be
interpreted to mean pipelines buried in stable soil on shore. It then
states Requirements for all unusual conditions cannot be speci-
cally provided for . . . meaning the Code does not provide
detailed guidance for situations outside the conditions usually
encountered, e.g. unstable slopes, heavy vehicles crossing over
the pipe, or the myriad other atypical or abnormal circumstances
that can arise. Further under Intent, Paragraph 802.2.3 states
that it is concerned with public safety and with employee safety
(except that it does not supersede industrial workplace safety reg-
ulations). Paragraph 802.2.4 states that provisions for design, con-
struction, and testing are not retroactive to existing facilities, but
provisions for operations and maintenance are retroactive.
Denitions for terminology are important for consistent appli-
cation and interpretation of the Code. Extensive denitions
arranged topically and covering 9 pages are given in Article 803.
Quality concerns can be expected to arise in any large-scale
complex project involving many suppliers and contractors spread
over large geographic regions, conditions which typically prevail
in the construction and ongoing operation of a large pipeline sys-
tem. In the U.S., several pipeline construction projects in recent
years were adversely affected by procurement of pipe that did not
meet published specications, and also by substandard eld con-
struction practices. Article 806 of the Code states that the integrity
of a pipeline system may be improved by the application of a
quality assurance (QA) program, and urges application of QA to
design, procurement, construction, testing, operating, and mainte-
nance activities.
Additional factors to account for in the overall pipeline design
are discussed under Article 840. Natural gas consists of a mixture
of methane, heavier hydrocarbons, non-hydrocarbon gasses (air,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and others), moisture, and contaminants.
These constituents affect the efciency of transportation,
longevity of the piping, hazard to the public, and usability to end
users. Paragraph 840.1(b) discusses the signicance of gas com-
position and gas quality to design. The constituents can affect the
heating value of the gas, which may affect the utility of the gas to
end users. It can also affect the potential impact radius as deter-
mined under ASME B31.8-S, which is discussed later in this
Chapter. The specic gravity and gas composition affects the
compressibility factor and overall efciency of transportation.
Heavy hydrocarbons, combined with moisture at certain tempera-
tures and pressures, can produce crystalline solids (hydrates) that
may interfere with effective operation of the pipeline. Carbon
dioxide and moisture may produce carbonic acid resulting in
aggressive internal corrosion in the pipe. Oxygen in the gas, with
moisture, also contributes to corrosion. Hydrogen sulde in the
gas can react with moisture to cause corrosion reactions which
evolve hydrogen gas that can cause environmental cracking.
Hydrogen sulde in small concentrations causes the gas to be
toxic to humans.
37.3.2 Pipeline Design
37.3.2.1 Location Classication B31.8 is unique among B31
piping standards in that the allowed hoop stress level due to inter-
nal pressure is explicitly tied to the land use around the pipeline.
Paragraph 840.1(c) and (d) set forth the basic principle behind
managing the hazard to the public presented by a gas pipeline,
specically:
(c) The most signicant factor contributing to the failure
of a gas pipeline is damage to the line caused by the activi-
ties of people along the route of the line. Damage will gener-
ally occur during construction of other facilities associated
with providing the services associated with human dwellings
and commercial or industrial enterprises. These services,
such as water, gas and electrical supply, sewage systems,
drainage lines and ditches, buried power and communication
cables, streets and roads, etc., become more prevalent and
extensive, and the possibility of damage to the pipeline
becomes greater with larger concentrations of buildings
intended for human occupancy. Determining the Location
Class provides a method of assessing the degree of exposure
of the line to damage.
(d) A pipeline designed, constructed, and operated in
accordance with the requirements of Location Class 1 . . . is
basically safe for pressure containment in any location; how-
ever, additional measures are necessary to protect the
integrity of the line in the presence of activities that might
cause damage. One of the measures required by this Code is
to lower the stress level in relation to increased public activ-
ity. This activity is quantied by determining Location Class
and relating the design of the pipeline to the appropriate
design factor.
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These two paragraphs have appeared in B31.8 since the 1982 edi-
tion but express concepts central to B31.8 since the 1955 edition,
that the design factor and location classication scheme constitute
a risk-informed design basis [4].
Location classications are dened in Article 840.2 by the den-
sity of development adjacent to the pipeline, within a reference
area
1
4 mile wide centered on the pipeline and 1 mile long. The
numbers of buildings intended for human occupancy are counted
within the reference area. Location Class denitions are summa-
rized in Table 37.6.
Paragraph 840.3 recognizes that local concentrations of people
may occur in what are predominately Class 1 or 2 areas, for
example a church, school, or recreational area. Pipelines near
such facilities must be designed and constructed in accordance
with the requirements of Class 3. Near is not dened, but
B31.8-S can be used to quantify proximity using the potential
impact radius concept.
Paragraph 840.2(b) cautions that due consideration be given to
future development around the pipeline when determining the
design and testing of the pipeline. A common practice is to extend
the length of the Class 3 design to well beyond current develop-
ments in order to avoid having to retest or replace pipe due to
later growth of the populated or developed areas.
37.3.2.2 Pressure Design Formula for Steel Pipe The pres-
sure design formula for steel pipe is specied in 841.1.1(a) in
strated that reliable operation at such stresses was feasible where
hydrostatic pressure testing was conducted to at least 1.25 times
the MAOP [8,43]. Operating at 80% SMYS would necessitate
pressure testing to hoop stress levels in excess of 100% of SMYS.
Testing in excess of 100% SMYS is feasible because the biaxial
stress state, absent large external loadings on the pipe, would not
cause gross yielding of the pipe until the hoop stress exceeds
112.5% of SMYS. In addition, most pipe is somewhat over-
strength. Thus Division 2 allows a design factor up to 0.80 with a
minimum test pressure of 1.25 times the MAOP.
Exceptions to the design factors are specied in Table 841.1.6-
2. All exceptions are reductions in the design factor due to poten-
tially greater hazard associated with particular installations. Table
841.1.6-2 is reproduced as Table 37.8.
The pipe design formula includes two other important factors,
the longitudinal seam factor, E, and the temperature derating fac-
tor, T. Factor E is given for various pipe specications in Table
841.1.7-1, which is not reproduced herein to save space. API 5L
DSAW and ERW line pipe are assigned a design factor of 1.00,
since 1955. These values have been in place since 1955. Certain
grades of pipe are assigned a lower value to E because the product
specications do not provide sufciently to assure seam quality,
namely furnace butt-welded (FBW) pipe (E equal to 0.60, and
electric-fusion-arc welded pipe manufactured to A134 or A139
and certain classes in A671, A672, and A691 (E equal to 0.80).
Factor T is found in Table 841.1.8-1, reproduced in Table 37.9.
The factor T maintains a value of 1.0 to a maximum temperature
of 250 F (121 C). The factor then decreases linearly to a value of
0.867 at a temperature of 450 F (232 C). The derating values
coincide with those used by SP-44 anges. The factors are trace-
able to the allowable stresses specied in the 1952 tentative edi-
tion of B31.1.8. The allowable stress levels for plain carbon steel
pipe specied in the 1942 edition of B31.1 were consistent with
the 0.867 factor at 450 F. The reduction in strength at 250 F was
less than 5% relative to that at 100 F, which probably provided
justication for maintaining the rated strength up to a temperature
of 250 F. There is some evidence that high-strength grades of line
pipe, e.g. X60 and stronger, may experience minor degradation of
yield strength at temperatures above 75 F, but there is no reason to
believe that this results in inadequate design [44].
37.3.2.3 Fracture Control B31.8 is unique in that pipe diame-
ter, wall thickness, and grade do not constitute complete pressure
design without fracture control. Paragraph 841.1.2 requires a frac-
ture control plan for (a) a pipeline designed to operate at stress
levels over 40% SMYS in sizes NPS 16 or larger; (b) a pipeline
designed to operate at stress levels over 72% SMYS in any pipe
size; or (c) a pipeline designed to operate at temperatures below
20 F (29 C).
37-18 Chapter 37
Location
Class Denition Description
1 10 or fewer buildings Rural, remote, or
unpopulated
2 11 to 45 buildings Outskirts of populated
areas
3 More than 45 buildings Developed suburban or
commercial areas
4 Multistory buildings or
heavy trafc
Urbanized areas
TABLE 37.6 SUMMARY OF B31.8 GAS PIPELINE
LOCATION CLASS DEFINITIONS
accordance with the Barlow formula as where P
2St
P FET
D
=
is the design pressure, S is the SMYS, t is the nominal wall thick-
ness, D is the pipe specied outside diameter, F is the location
class design factor obtained from Table 841.1.6-1, E is the longi-
tudinal joint factor obtained from Table 841.1.7-1, and T is the
temperature derating factor obtained from Table 841.1.8-1. The
design pressure may or may not be the maximum allowable oper-
ating pressure (MAOP) of the pipeline as that is determined in
consideration of the test pressure and the pressure ratings of com-
ponents and equipment.
The design factor F is given in 841.1.6-1, reproduced herein as
Table 37.7. It is noted that Class 1 has two divisions. Division 1
has a design factor of 0.72 derived historically as 80% of a pipe
mill pressure test of 90% of SMYS. It has historically had a mini-
mum test level of 1.1 times the maximum allowable operating
pressure (MAOP). In the early 1960s ASME studied whether
pipelines could reliably operate at higher stress levels, in remote
areas [42]. Industry operating experience with thousands of miles
of pipeline already operating at stress levels above 72% demon-
TABLE 37.7 B31.8 GAS PIPELINE DESIGN FACTOR, F
(Source: ASME B31.8, Table 841.1.6-1)
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Fracture control is important because the compressed gas con-
tains stored energy which can propagate a fracture. This became
evident in two astonishing pipeline failures that occurred in 1958
and 1959 which drove brittle fractures 11.5 miles and 8.5 miles,
respectively. There was nothing wrong with the pipe, but the frac-
tures were brittle. Brittle fracture propagates at the acoustic velocity
of steel, approximately 1,300 ft/second, while the gas decom-
pression wave travels up the pipeline at the acoustic velocity of the
gas, approximately 700 ft/second. Thus a brittle fracture propagates
faster than the pipeline can decompress and so always experiences
the full hoop stress at the crack tip. A ductile material absorbs
fracture energy through deformation and tearing, slowing the frac-
ture velocity. Fracture arrest is achieved when the fracture speed is
reduced such that the crack tip is behind the decompression wave
and experiences a reduced hoop stress. [45,46] Thus fracture con-
trol consists of two parts: brittle fracture control and ductile frac-
ture arrest.
Brittle facture control is intended to assure that the material is
not susceptible to brittle fracture propagation at the lowest operat-
ing temperature. This is achieved by performing Charpy V-notch
(CVN) impact testing at the lesser of 50 F or the lowest tempera-
ture the pipe will be exposed to in operation, and demonstrating at
least 60% average shear appearance in each heat and 80% average
shear appearance in all heats, or by demonstrating that at least
80% of the heats exhibit at least 40% shear appearance in the
drop-weight tear test (DWTT).
Ductile fracture control is demonstrated by assuring that the
all-heat average of the CVN absorbed energy values meets or
exceeds the value calculated in one of four equations: CVN
0.0108
2
R
1/3
t
1/3
, CVN 0.0315
3/2
R
1/2
, CVN 0.0315R/t
1/2
, or
CVN 0.00119
2
R, where CVN is the full-size (10-mm 10-mm
specimen) equivalent absorbed energy in ft-lb, is the hoop stress
in ksi, R is half the pipe diameter in inches, and t is the pipe wall in
inches. The four equations are empirical, produced by different
research teams. The Code recognizes all four expressions, which
give similar though not identical results.
Two cautionary notes follow Paragraph 841.1.2 to alert the
user to certain limitations in the CVN equations. The rst note
states that the equations were validated for essentially pure
methane gas. The presence of heavier hydrocarbons could pro-
duce a phase change during decompression that may delay
decompression and thus require a higher fracture toughness to
achieve arrest. The note also states that high-strength low-alloy
line pipe may not behave in the same manner as the C-Mn line
pipe used to validate the CVN equations [47]. The second cau-
tionary note alludes to an effect of test specimen size necessitat-
ing a lower test temperature. Thin sections have less constraint of
plasticity at the notch tip than thick sections. If the CVN speci-
men is smaller than approximately 70% of the full pipe wall
thickness, it may give a misleading indication of the ductility
relationship with temperature, which can be accounted for by
testing at a lower temperature [48].
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-19
TABLE 37.8 EXCEPTIONS TO BASIC DESIGN FACTORS (Source: ASME B31.8, Table 841.1.6-2)
TABLE 37.9 B31.8 TEMPERATURE DERATING FACTOR, T
(Source: ASME B31.8, Table 841.1.8-1)
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calculated as where i
i,o
1/ 2
2 2 2
(0.75 ) (0.75 )
R i i o o t
M i M i M M

= + +

are in-plane and out-of-plane stress intensication factors associ-
ated with the tting geometry per Appendix E, and M
i,o,t
are the
in-plane, out-of-plane, and torsional bending moments. The stress
intensication factors in Appendix E are based on the tests by
Markl [9] and are essentially similar to those used in other B31
piping standards. The product of 0.75i
i,o
must equal or exceed 1.0.
And nally the axial stress term is S
X
R/A where R is an exter-
nal axial force on the pipe and A is the metal area of the pipe.
The longitudinal stress components are combined for
restrained piping as S
L
S
P
S
T
S
B
S
X
. The values of the
individual stress components may be negative (compressive).
The maximum permitted value for is 0.90ST, where S is the
specied minimum yield strength (SMYS), and T is a tempera-
ture derating factor from 841.1.8. Clause 833.3(c) points out that
residual stresses from installation of buried piping are often pre-
sent but difcult to determine. Usually such stresses are not
harmful and can be disregarded, but it is the engineers responsi-
bility to establish that.
S
L

The summation of longitudinal stress in unrestrained piping is

S
L
S
P
S
T
S
B
. The longitudinal stress is limited to 0.75ST. It
is less than what is allowed for restrained pipe because the longi-
tudinal stresses in unrestrained piping are load-controlled and
necessary to satisfy the laws of equilibrium.
The combined biaxial stress state for the restrained pipe must
be calculated under Paragraph 833.4 using either the expression
or in accordance with the Tresca
1/ 2
2 2
H H L L
S S S S

- +

S
H
- S
L

(maximum shear stress) theory or the von Mises (distortion

energy theory0, respectively. The combined biaxial stress is lim-
ited to the value kST, where k = 0.9 for loads of long duration,
and 1.0 for occasional non-periodic loads of short duration, S is
SMYS, and T is the temperature derating factor. Loads that do not
occur simultaneously do not need to be combined.
Paragraph 833.5 allows the stress limits for restrained piping to
be exceeded where due consideration is given to the strain capac-
ity of pipe body and girth welds, and to the avoidance of buckles,
swelling, or coating damage. Typical situations where this may be
necessary are almost any soil movement phenomenon. The strain
limit is 2%.
37.3.2.5 Flexibility Article 832 requires that unrestrained pip-
ing be designed with sufcient exibility to prevent damage to
pipe or attached equipment from thermal expansion or contrac-
tion. The exibility is to be provided by installing bends, loops, or
offsets (of alignment). Paragraph 833.7 provides a screening crite-
rion to determine whether a exibility analysis is necessary. A
exibility analysis is unnecessary if the piping system design
duplicates one that has operated successfully (implying no prob-
lems related to inadequate exibility), or can be judged to be ade-
quate by comparison with a previously analyzed design, or that
meets the screening criterion described above in 37.2.2.4.
Systems not meeting the screening criteria in Paragraph 833.7
should be evaluated by conducting a exibility analysis. The exi-
bility analysis must account for the full range of thermal condi-
tions of the piping. The modulus of elasticity corresponding to the
lowest temperature in the range is to be used. Table 832.2-1 gives
the expected thermal expansion or contraction in inches per 100 ft
of pipe above or below 32 F. Table 832.2-2 gives the modulus of
elasticity for carbon steel for temperatures between 100 F and
500 F.
The thermal expansion stress range is calculated in Paragraph
833.8 as S
E
M
E
/Z where M
E
is the resultant intensied bending
moment range associated with thermal expansion or contraction,
calculated as . The cyclic (ther-
1/ 2
2 2 2
( ) ( )
E i i o o t
M i M i M M

= + +

mal expansion) stress range, S
E
, may not exceed an allowable
stress range, S
A
, calculated as S
A
f [1.25(S
c
S
h
) S
L
] where
S
L
is the net longitudinal stress calculated according to Paragraph
833.6, and f is Markls fatigue reduction factor f 6N
0.2
1.0,
and N is the equivalent number of cycles during the expected ser-
vice life of the piping system. While the provisions above are
consistent with the exibility calculation required in other B31
piping standards, B31.8 has adopted a unique denition of the hot
and cold reference stresses in the calculation of S
A
as follows. S
c
is taken as 0.33S
u
T at the minimum installed or operating temper-
ature and S
h
is taken as 0.33S
u
T at the maximum installed or
operating temperature where T is the temperature derating factor
per Paragraph 841.1.8, rather than 2/3 the yield strengths corre-
sponding to those temperatures as is done in other B31 standards.
37.3.2.4 Longitudinal Stress Design Effective with the 2003
edition, B31.8 recognized that buried and above ground piping
systems operate under differing conditions of restraint. The condi-
tions of restraint affect the magnitude and nature of longitudinal
stresses caused by operational and external loadings, and the sig-
nicance of those stresses to pipe integrity. Separate allowable
stresses for restrained and unrestrained piping systems were
established accordingly. These provisions are found in Article 833
Design for Longitudinal Stress.
Paragraph 833.1 introduces the concept of restrained and unre-
strained piping. Restrained piping includes straight sections of
buried pipeline, bends and adjacent tangent pipe sections buried in
stiff or consolidated soil, and sections of above ground piping
installed on rigid, closely-spaced supports. Unrestrained piping
is free to displace axially or ex at bends, including above ground
piping that is congured to accommodate thermal expansion or
anchor movements through exibility (e.g. expansion loops or
similar arrangements), bends and adjacent piping buried in soft
or unconsolidated soils (e.g., loose sand, waterlogged clay, or
muck), an unbacklled section of otherwise buried pipeline that is
sufciently exible to displace laterally or which contains a bend
(e.g. some ditch or creek spans), or pipe subject to an end cap
pressure force (e.g., pig traps).
Paragraph 833.2(a) through (f) species the calculation of lon-
gitudinal stress components. The longitudinal stress due to inter-
nal pressure in restrained piping is calculated as S
P
0.3S
H
where
S
H
is the hoop stress due to internal pressure. The longitudinal
stress due to internal pressure in restrained piping is calculated as
S
P
0.5S
H
. The longitudinal stress due the thermal expansion in
restrained piping is calculated as S
T
E (T
1
T
2
) where E is the
elastic modulus, is the coefcient of thermal expansion, T
1
is the
pipe temperature at the time of installation, and T
2
is the warmest
or coldest operating temperature. Clause 833.2(c) points out that if
a section of pipe can operate either warmer or colder than the
installed temperature, both conditions for T
2
may need to be exam-
ined. By denition, unrestrained piping does not have a stress
component due to thermal expansion by virtue of its exibility.
The bending stress component in straight pipe or large radius
bends is calculated as S
B
M/Z where M is the resultant bending
moment acting on the pipe section and Z is the section modulus.
The bending stress in ttings and components due to weight or
external loadings is S
B
M
R
/Z where M
R
is a resultant moment
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The reason for this is that Markls fatigue criterion was estab-
lished considering low-strength plain carbon steel seamless pipe
in the hot nished condition. The higher strength grades of line
pipe exhibit a larger increase in yield strength than in ultimate
tensile strength relative to the plain carbon steel baseline, and
do not exhibit an improved fatigue resistance proportionate to
the increase in yield strength. Using the ultimate strength instead
of the yield strength avoids a potentially unconservative fatigue
criterion.
Additional considerations for stress are discussed in Paragraphs
833.9 Local stresses and 833.10 Buckling and lateral instabil-
ity. Paragraph 833.9(a) points out that high local stresses occur at
structural discontinuities and sites of local loadings, such as
branch connections and other normal features of piping construc-
tion. Such stresses are not controlled by B31.8, but to a large
extent they are not of concern where standard ttings and other
design and construction features are used in accordance with pre-
scribed limits and applications.
Paragraph 833.9 recognizes the circumferential through-wall
bending stresses in a buried pipe subjected to ground surface
vehicle loads. The sum of circumferential stresses due to internal
pressure and live loading is limited to 0.9ST, irrespective of class
location. A limit load analysis would show that this sum of
stresses must be greatly in excess of yielding (around 1.5 times
SMYS) to affect the pressure integrity of the pipe. Note however
that the component of stress due to internal pressure varies with
location class (which is discussed later). Thus pipe operating at
Class 1 allowable stress levels will have a lower margin for sur-
face vehicle live loading than pipe operating at the lower allow-
able stress levels for other location classes.
Paragraph 833.10 establishes a maximum compressive stress to
2/3 of the stress that would cause instability. Two forms of instabil-
ity are contemplated: wrinkling of the pipe wall, and Euler beam-
column instability of laterally unsupported sections of exposed
pipe. At the time of this writing, a current ballot initiative seeks to
provide further guidance to the user.
37.3.2.6 Fittings and Components The selection and design
requirements for ttings and components are covered under
Chapter III, Piping System Components and Fabrication Details.
For the most part, the requirements are similar to those already
discussed for B31.4.
Valves
Several external standards are referenced for valves, depending
on the valve size and application. Mainline block valves must
conform to API 6D [49], which in turn refers extensively to
ASTM B16.34 [14]. Other valve specications for smaller-
diameter, lower-pressure, plastic, or cast iron are identied in Par-
agraph 831.1.
Flanges
Flanges used in natural gas pipeline systems follow standard
ANSI pressure classications, e.g. Class 300, Class 600, and so
on. Steel anges made from carbon steel in sizes up to 24-inch
OD may conform with B16.5. However MSS SP-44 provides for
anges compatible with pipe having larger diameters and thinner-
wall, higher-strength materials used with many natural gas
pipeline applications. It is noted that B16.5 anges derate the
pressure rating at temperatures in excess of 100 F, while SP-44
anges maintain the room-temperature pressure ratings up to a
temperature of 250 F. The SP-44 temperature derating prole
matches the temperature derating factor that B31.8 applies to the
design of pipe for internal pressure, avoiding a temperature-
pressure rating gap that can occur with B16.5 anges between
100 F and 250 F.
Butt Welding Fittings
Steel butt welding ttings such as forged elbows and tees must
be designed and manufactured in accordance with either ASME
B16.9, or MSS SP-75. Similarly to valves, the scope of B16.9 is
limited to plain carbon steel in sizes to 24-inch OD. SP-75 pro-
vides for forged components in larger diameters and higher-
strength materials that are often used with natural gas pipelines.
Both standards use a similar prototype proof test design basis.
Factory-made induction bends must be manufactured to the
requirements of ASME B16.49. B16.49 provides for qualication
of the induction bending process variables such as properties of
the tubular feedstock, heating temperature range, and quench rates
based on destructive testing of a prototype bend.
Fittings that do not meet dimensional requirements of standard
components, for example a B16.5 ange that has been overbored
to mate to a thinner-wall, higher-strength pipe, are nonstandard.
Paragraphs 831.3.2 and 831.3.6 provide for the use of nonstan-
dard components where the suitability has been proven by proof
testing, experimental stress analysis, or engineering calculations.
Closures are covered under 831.3.7. Requirements and restric-
tions are given for quick-opening closures, standard dished heads,
and fabricated heads.
Welded Branch Connections
Where forged tees in the required sizes are unavailable, branch
connections may be fabricated. B31.8 applies requirements on
the design of fabricated branch connections based on the princi-
ple of area replacement essentially identically to that used by
B31.4, discussed in section 37.2.2.5 of this Chapter. Appendix I
illustrates reinforcement requirements essentially identical to
those shown in Figure 37.1 and 37.2 of this Chapter (with refer-
ences in the notes for B31.8 paragraphs). Appendix F illustrates
the requirements for area replacement of fabricated branches, as
per 37.3, giving worked examples showing the application of the
method. In addition, Paragraph 831.4 describes specic technical
requirements. Table 831.4.2-1 therein presents a 3x3 matrix of
requirements that depend on the relative branch size and relative
operating stress. The essential requirements are given in Table
37.10. They are similar but not identical to those presented in
Table 37.2 for B31.4.
Table 831.4.2-1 and paragraph 831.4.2(j) presents an additional
requirement on each branch connection of any combination of rel-
ative size and relative stress level, if it is a hot tap. The dimen-
sions of the llet weld attaching the ends or edges of the hot tap
tting must be at least equal to the wall thickness of the pipe, plus
gap between the tting and the carrier pipe, but not to exceed a
dimension of 1.4 times the pipe wall thickness. The edge of the
tting must be tapered to provide an end face dimension that pre-
vents excessive llet weld dimensions. These requirements are
illustrated in Figure I-1.3, reproduced in Figure 37.4.
Reinforcement requirements for multiple outlets and extruded
outlets are given in Articles 831.5 and 831.6, respectively. Dia-
grams and worked examples illustrating the design requirements
for extruded outlets are presented in Appendix F.
37.3.2.7 Materials Steel Materials for gas pipelines are cov-
ered in Chapter I Materials. Paragraph 810 states that all mate-
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rials and equipment shall be suitable and safe for the conditions of
use (gas service, operating pressure, and operating temperature),
and be qualied for use by conforming to listed specications or
other requirements. Paragraph 815 points out that the Code does
not provide complete specications for the detailed design and
construction of equipment such as components external to the
piping system, or compressors. The safety of all connected equip-
ment must be equivalent to that of the piping.
Paragraph 811 recognizes six categories of qualication and
materials use. Items that conform to listed standards are qualied
for use without further qualications, as appropriate and within
the limits prescribed elsewhere in the Code. Items that are impor-
tant to safety and that are of a type for which specications are
listed, but not conforming to such specications may be used pro-
vided they conform to another written specication that does not
vary substantially from a listed one. An example would be pipe
manufactured to a published specication for corrosion-resistant
alloy pipe, since such specications are not currently listed in the
Code. Items that are unimportant to safety and which do not meet
a listed specication may be used provided that an evaluation
determines that they are suitable for the conditions, they operate
at no more than 50% of the stresses allowed for a listed material
of the same type, and they are not specically prohibited.
Unimportant to safety would be judged in terms of consequence
of a failure, e.g. it could only result in a leak at a facility in a
remote location. Items of a type for which no standards are listed
or that are proprietary may be used provided they are qualied for
conditions of use by testing and analysis, and the manufacturer
afrms that they are intended or suitable for natural gas service.
(This provision applies to many types of equipment but could also
be applied to nonlisted alloy pipe.) Finally, unidentied or used
pipe may be used subject to the requirements on characteristics
and condition of the pipe specied in Paragraph 817. (The use of
unidentied pipe, or the reuse of (identied) pipe is an artifact of
periods of time when it was difcult to obtain sufcient pipe to
support construction of a pipeline.)
Eleven specications for carbon steel and low-alloy steel pipe
products that are qualied for use in B31.8 are listed in Paragraph
814.1.1, and in Appendix D (which lists various strength grades
within the specication, seam types, and SMYS). These specica-
tions are listed in Table 37.11. The primary pipe product speci-
cation used in natural gas piping is API Specication 5L.
Two additional special requirements apply to steel pipe. One has
to do with use in arctic conditions. Article 812 permits the applica-
tion of B31.8 to piping operating below 20 F (29 C), which is
below the minimum temperature recognized in the nominal scope
of B31.8, provided a fracture control program is established to pre-
vent brittle fracture initiation in parent metal, pipe seams, girth
welds, attachment welds, and weld heat-affected zones.
The second special requirement has to do with the shipping of
steel pipe. Article 816 requires that any line pipe transported by
rail or by marine vessel be loaded and transported in accordance
with the requirements of API 5L1 and API 5LW, respectively.
These specications were developed to avoid fatigue damage that
can occur during transportation. Where proper loading and ship-
ping of pipe cannot be established, the user is required to conduct
hydrostatic strength testing that is somewhat more rigorous than
would ordinarily be required for Class 1 and 2 piping.
37.3.2.8 Materials Plastic Two product forms of non-metal-
lic pipe are used extensively in natural gas systems. Ther-
mosetting ber reinforced epoxy resin (berglass) pipe is used in
37-22 Chapter 37
Ratio of design hoop
stress to SMYS
Ratio of diameter of branch hole cut to nominal header diameter
25% > 25% through 50% > 50%
20% Reinforcement not mandatory Reinforcement not mandatory Reinforcement not mandatory; but if
required, must be full circumference
> 20% through 50% Reinforcement of any type;
Not required for NPS 2 or smaller
Reinforcement of any type Fabricated reinforcement must be full
circumference.
> 50% Reinforcement of any type;
Not required for NPS 2 or smaller
Forgings or extrusions
preferred. Full
circumference fabricated
reinforcement preferred.
Forgings or extrusions preferred.
Fabricated reinforcement must be full
circumference.
TABLE 37.10 SUMMARY OF B31.8 FABRICATED BRANCH REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS
FIG. 37.4 HOT TAP REINFORCEMENT END FILLET WELD DETAIL (Source: ASME B31.8 Figure I-3.1)
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gas production in order to avoid corrosion that can affect steel
pipe. It may also see use in distribution systems. Fiberglass pipe
is required to be manufactured in accordance with ASTM D2517
[50]. It is avai-lable in short rigid lengths with male and female
threaded ends.
Thermoplastic pipe is used extensively in gas distribution sys-
tems because it provides many cost advantages over steel pipe,
particularly in sizes smaller than NPS 8. Plastic pipe is required to
be manufactured in accordance with ASTM D2513 [51].
Thermoplastic pipe for gas service meeting D2513 is predomi-
nantly polyethylene (PE), but may also consist of polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC), polyamide (PA), or crosslinked polyethylene (PEX).
PE pipe is inexpensive to manufacture; is lightweight and there-
fore less expensive to transport, store, and handle; is exible and
quickly assembled and thus less expensive to install; and does not
corrode and so is less expensive to maintain. PE pipe is available
in coils or in individual lengths.
37.3.2.9 Pressure Control and MAOP Article 845 discusses
control and limiting of gas pressure. The maximum allowable
operating pressure (MAOP) may not exceed the lesser of the
design pressure of the weakest component of the piping system,
the test pressure following construction divided by the factor spec-
ied for the Location Class in accordance with Table 845.2.2-1,
the safe pressure based on the pipelines current condition, or cer-
tain limits (60 psig or 2 psig) set in Paragraph 845.2.4 where ser-
vice lines are connected depending on specic pressure control
congurations. Table 845.2.2-1 is reproduced herein as Table
37.12.
Every pipeline, main, distribution system, customer meter, com-
pressor station, pipe or bottle type holder, and other equipment
attached to a source of gas pressure, where the failure of pressure
control might result in exceeding maximum allowable operating
pressure (MAOP) levels shall be equipped with pressure-relief or
pressure-limiting devices. It is common practice to protect lower-
pressure systems connected to higher-pressure systems using a
monitor regulator connected in series with a pressure regulator, or
series regulators both set to the lower pressure level. Thus a double
failure would be required to overpressurize the lower-pressure sys-
tem. Detailed requirements are found in Paragraph 845.2.4 for
high-pressure distribution systems, 845.2.5 for low-pressure distri-
bution systems, and 845.2.7 for service lines.
The capacity of pressure control devices is established in
Article 845.4. In systems operating at hoop stress levels above
72% SMYS, the required capacity is the MAOP plus 4%. In sys-
tems operating at or below 72%, the required capacity is the lesser
of the MAOP plus 10% or the pressure corresponding to a hoop
stress of 75% SMYS. In low-pressure distribution systems, the
capacity is the pressure that would cause unsafe operation of any
connected equipment.
37.3.2.10 Compressor Stations Article 843 discusses design
requirements for compressor stations. Requirements are given in
the areas of
facility layout site arrangement, ingress and egress;
electrical standards;
station equipment liquid removal, re protection, emer-
gency shutdowns, blowdowns, compressor stops, pressure
relief, fuel gas control, compressor uid control, explosion
prevention, and gas detection and alarms;
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-23
API 5L Line Pipe
ASTM A 53/A 53M Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated Welded and Seamless Pipe
ASTM A 106 Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
ASTM A 134 Steel, Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Pipe (Sizes NPS 16 and Over)
ASTM A 135 Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
ASTM A 139 Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Steel Pipe (Sizes NPS 4 and Over)
ASTM A 333/A 333M Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-temperature Service
ASTM A 381 Metal-Arc-Welded Steel Pipe for Use With High-Pressure Transmission Systems
ASTM A 671 Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures
ASTM A 672 Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Service at Moderate Temperatures
ASTM A 691 Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe, Electric-Fusion-Welded for High-Pressure Service at High Temperatures
ASTM A 984 Electric Resistance Welded Steel Line Pipe
ASTM A 1005 Longitudinal and Helical Double Submerged-Arc Welded Pipe
ASTM A 1006 Laser Beam Welded Steel Line Pipe
Specication Pipe Type
TABLE 37.11 B31.8 LISTED PIPE PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE 37.12 MAOP FOR STEEL OR PLASTIC
GAS PIPELINES OR MAINS
(Source: ASME B31.8, Table 845.2.2-1)
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compressor station piping gas piping, fuel gas piping, air
piping, lube oil piping, water piping, steam piping, and
hydraulic piping.
Current practice is to design and build compressor stations as
highly automated process facilities where the process is gas
compression. The automation enables automatic real-time moni-
toring of equipment condition with minimal or no personnel on
site. Systems are installed to automatically identify, isolate, or
mitigate hazards and bring the facility to a safe condition more
quickly than could manual human intervention. Such capabili-
ties are not part of current code requirements for compressor
stations.
37.3.2.11 Mainline Block Valves Sectionalizing block valves
are required by Article 846 in all new transmission pipelines for
the purpose of isolating the pipeline for maintenance or in
response to emergencies. The primary consideration for locating
valves is continuous access. Secondary considerations include
quantity of gas released (methane is a powerful greenhouse gas),
blowdown time, nuisance and hazard of controlled gas release,
preserving continuity of service, and operational convenience.
The spacing of valves is not a safety matter, per se, in that the
immediate consequences of a pipeline rupture occur before gas
ow can be affected by valve closure, irrespective of the length of
line section discharging [52]. However, blow down time is
reduced with shorter section isolation and can affect the time to
make an area safe after a release.
In lieu of an assessment of the above factors, standard block
valve spacing of 20 miles in Class 1, 15 miles in Class 2, 10 miles
in Class 3, and 5 miles in Class 4 areas shall be used. The location
classications are those that are predominant. Spacing may be
adjusted to facilitate access.
37.3.2.12 Other Facilities and Design Information
Vaults
Valves and pressure control equipment may be located in vaults
or pits. Requirements for the design and conguration of such
facilities are given in Article 847. Consideration for the design of
vaults includes work space, prevention of damage to pressure con-
trol equipment, exposure to hazards such as trafc or ooding,
sealing or venting, and pipe materials.
Pipe and Bottle Holders
Pipe or vessels, discussed in Article 844, may be used for tem-
porary storage of gas to balance operation with respect to with-
drawals and supply. Both holder types must be buried at least 2 ft
deep. Bottle type holders must be located on property under con-
trol of the operator. Limitations are given on the allowable con-
centration of hydrogen sulde when free water is present and
provisions are required to prevent the formation or accumulation
of liquids.
Other Design Information
Additional design requirements are given in 841.1.9. Fabricated
assemblies such as manifolds and valve settings in Class 1 areas
are limited to a maximum design factor, F, of 0.6 over a length of
5 diameters or 10 ft beyond the last tting. Pipelines on bridges in
Class 1 areas are limited to a maximum design factor of 0.6. Add-
itional guidance for the design of meter facilities is also given in
this section.
37.3.3 Installation of Transmission Pipelines
37.3.3.1 Protection from Hazards Pipelines are buried for
physical protection, but they are still subjected to hazards of natural
and human origin. These are discussed in Paragraphs 841.1.10 and
841.1.11, respectively. Soil movement phenomena are particularly
damaging because soil strains transfer into the pipe through fric-
tion at the pipe-soil interface. Such strains may cause buckling,
girth weld separation, or coating failure. Where pipelines may be
subjected to natural hazards such as washouts, unstable soil, land-
slides, and other conditions that can cause abnormal loading of the
pipe, precautions such as heavier wall pipe, revetments, anchors or
other measures are required. Where pipelines cross water, river
weights or weighted coating must be used. Submarine pipelines
must be installed to withstand underwater currents and unstable
bottom soils. Where pipelines are installed above ground, they
must be protected by distance or barriers from accidental damage
caused by vehicle trafc.
Providing adequate depth of cover is an important step in pro-
tecting the pipe from damage due to encroachment. The depth of
burial in soil is specied in 841.1.11 to be 24 inches in Class 1, 30
inches in Classes 2 and 3, and 36 inches in Class 4. Shallower
depth is acceptable for excavation by blasting in rock. Where the
standard depths cannot be met, or where large external loads
(from heavy vehicles) is expected, casing or bridging the pipe is
required. Where action that could reduce the depth of cover is
expected (erosion, deep plowing, ditching or grading work), addi-
tional mechanical protection is required in the form of a concrete
or steel slab, concrete coating, added depth of cover, marker tape
or signs, or other strategy, in conjunction with a damage preven-
tion program that includes public education, periodic surveillance
and patrolling, and participation in an excavator notication
(one-call) process. Pipe alignment across roads and railroads
must be marked and should be straight and perpendicular in order
to minimize confusion by road and rail maintenance personnel
concerning the location of the pipe.
37.3.3.2 Field Bends Pipelines must incorporate bends to fol-
low changes in land contour and routing. This is often accom-
plished by cold-bending straight pipe in the eld. Quality
requirements for eld-bent pipe are contained in 841.2.3.
Minimum bend radius requirements are given in Table 841.2.3-1
and are the same as those shown in Table 37.3 presented for
B31.4. Minor incidental ripples may develop in thin-walled pipe
during eld bending. Ripples are permitted to have peak-to-
trough dimensions of 1% of the pipe diameter. Larger ripples may
be permitted based on engineering analysis.
Factory-made induction bends and factory-made wrought
elbows are often segmented (cut to smaller subtended arcs) to
fit direction changes in the field. This is permitted under
841.2.3(e) provided the arc length along the intrados is at least
1 inch.
37.3.3.3 Supports and Anchorage Article 834 provides guid-
ance for the support of exposed piping. Piping must be supported
in a substantial and workmanlike manner, shall be installed so as
to minimize undue loads on attached equipment and so as not to
interfere with required free movement of piping, and damp out
vibration (834.2). Support materials must be noncombustible
(834.3) which rules out use of timbers, because the loss of a sup-
port during a re could cause the loss of the piping. Support struc-
tures may attach directly to the pipe where the hoop stress due to
37-24 Chapter 37
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internal pressure is less than 50% of SMYS (834.5). Otherwise
the supports must attach to a fully encircling member which may
be welded or clamped to the pipe.
Exposed pipe joints must be capable of withstanding or transmit-
ting end cap pressure forces and other axial loads (834.4).
Compression or sleeve type couplings (e.g. Dresser couplings) that
cannot withstand such forces must be suitably braced or reinforced.
Anchorage requirements for buried piping are given in Article
835. Bends and offsets cause longitudinal forces that are transmit-
ted into the soil by direct bearing or through friction at the pipe-
to-soil interface. These forces could exceed the strength of weak
soil resulting in movement of the pipe at bends, and at areas of
transition from below ground to above ground. Anchors in the
form of concrete thrust blocks may be required in those situations
(835.2). Similar concerns for compression couplings discussed
above exist where they are used in buried construction (835.4).
Coupled pipelines rely on the weight and cohesive strength of the
soil to preserve stability of the piping, so loss of cover due to ero-
sion, oatation, or excavation can cause loss of resistance to
thrust forces.
Highly stressed thin-walled pipelines are easily damaged by
local loadings in the soil. The pipe must be uniformly supported
in the ditch (835.5(a)) in order to avoid damage in the form of
indentations at points of local loading or buckles due to settle-
ment or sagging into a gap underneath the pipe.
Branch connections introduce lateral thrust forces. The addition
of hot taps introduces high loadings due to the weight of the hot
tap and tapping equipment, as well, and disturbs the consolidation
of soil supporting the pipe. Fabricated branch connections are
designed primarily for internal pressure and are sensitive to exter-
nal loadings. Thus care must be taken to assure that the branch
connection is well supported against weight and thrust forces
(835.5(c)). Such support may require special attention to soil com-
paction, the use of bags of sand or concrete under or around the
branch, a poured concrete foundation, or other strategies for
immobilizing the connection. High loadings may also occur at lat-
eral connections between parallel lines or other installations
(835.6).
37.3.3.4 Welding Steel pipe in gas systems is primarily joined by
welding. Chapter II is devoted entirely to requirements on welding.
Welding may be performed by any combination of processes that
meet the qualication requirements (paragraph 821.2). Prior to
welding of any pipe, components, or equipment, welding procedures
must be established and qualied (paragraph 821.3). For piping sys-
tems operating at hoop stress levels of 20% of SMYS or greater, the
standard of acceptability of weld quality is API 1104 (paragraph
821.4). Prior to welding, it is necessary to determine whether a com-
bustible air-gas mixture is present. A safe condition must be veried
before welding can begin (paragraph 821.6).
Details for weld joints and preparation (e.g. bevels) are pro-
vided in several gures in Appendix I. They are similar to those
used in other B31 standards.
Article 823 discusses qualication of welding procedures and
welders. Per Paragraph 823.2.1, welding procedures and welders
used in the construction and fabrication of pipelines operating at
hoop stress levels of 20% of SMYS or greater shall be qualied in
accordance with the qualication procedures given in ASME BPV
Section IX, or API 1104. The testing requirements of Section IX
and 1104 differ signicantly, but correct application of either
standard results in establishing satisfactory welding procedures.
API 1104 is more suited to the qualication of welding proce-
dures of adequate quality and high productivity meeting the needs
of pipeline construction. For in-service welding, procedures and
welders must be qualied in accordance with the requirements of
Appendix B of API 1104, because Section IX is for construction
only and does not contemplate welding on in-service equipment.
Per Paragraph 823.2.2, welding performed in compressor stations
may only be performed by welders who have qualied in accor-
dance with the destructive testing methods of API 1104. The rea-
son for this requirement is that a girth weld failure in a
compressor station could cause the loss of the station, and the
specied testing requirements are the most rigorous on the
welder.
Preheating and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) requirements
are given in Articles 824 and 825. For the most part, this is not
required for ordinary welding of most line pipe grades and pipe.
However, it may be necessary with ttings that have a high chem-
istry, thick sections, or under conditions that promote rapid weld
cooling. Currently Paragraph 825.2 requires PWHT in sections
thicker than 1.25 inches. A current ballot item seeks to remove
this requirement where testing shows that it is unnecessary or
detrimental.
Welding inspection requirements are provided in Article 826.
For piping systems operating at hoop stress levels of 20% of
SMYS or greater, all welds must be visually inspected, and a
certain proportion of girth welds produced each day during
pipeline facility construction must be subjected to nondestruc-
tive examination (NDE). Per Paragraph 826.3(b), the require-
ment for NDE is: 10% of welds in Class 1, 15% of welds in
Class 2, 40% of welds in Class 3, 75% of welds in Class 4, and
100% of welds in compressor stations, highway crossings, rail-
road crossings, and river crossings (if practical, but in no case
less than 90%). These requirements date to a time when radiog-
raphy in the field was an expensive and unconventional practice.
Today, due to NDE becoming routine and cost-effective bal-
anced against the immense cost of major pipeline construction
projects, few such projects would incorporate less than 100%
NDE. The procedure for radiographic testing (RT) must be qual-
ified in accordance with the provisions of API 1104. RT is the
appropriate NDE method for welds made using the SMAW
(stick welding) process. Welding on large pipeline projects is
often performed using the automated gas-metal arc welding
(AGMAW) process, for which the suitable NDE method is auto-
mated ultrasonic testing (AUT). It is noted that API 1104 pro-
vides requirements for the qualification of ultrasonic testing
procedures, but B31.8 has not yet adopted that requirement. In
any case, all inspected welds must be repaired if they do not
meet the weld quality standards of API 1104 with respect to
type and size of welding imperfections.
The foregoing requirements on welding procedure and welder
qualication applies to pipelines that operate at hoop stress levels
of 20% of SMYS or greater. Many gas distribution systems oper-
ate at low stresses due to internal pressure. B31.8 allows relaxed
requirements for such systems as a concession to controlling
costs. The Code is silent on the requirements for procedure quali-
cation, and allows the alternative qualication of welders using
Appendix G.
37.3.3.5 Inspection The Code requires inspection of all phases
of the construction and installation of the pipeline, under 841.2,
to assure that the pipe enters service free of damage, that the
requirements of the Code have been met, and that construction speci-
cations have been followed. Inspections should include: the
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surface of the pipe prior to coating, the condition of the coating as
the pipe is lowered into the ditch, the t-up of joints prior to weld-
ing, the making and completion of welds, the t of the pipe to the
ditch before backlling, the making and completion of repairs or
changes, and the backll material for objects that could damage
coatings.
Pipe and coating may be mechanically damaged during trans-
portation, handling, or lowering in. Should damage to the pipe
surface be discovered during the installation process, Paragraph
841.2.4 species criteria for evaluating it. Scrapes or gouges are
considered injurious, so coating damage must be examined to
determine whether damage affects the pipe surface. Gouges or
grooves may be removed by grinding to a smooth contour pro-
vided the remaining metal thickness is not less than 90% of the
specied nominal wall dimension. Otherwise, the pipe must be
cut out and replaced. Indentations that contain scrapes, gouges,
arc burns, affect seams or girth welds, or that contain other stress
concentrating features must be repaired by cutting out and replac-
ing the pipe. Plain indentations that exceed 2% of the pipe diame-
ter also must be cut out. Arc burns are prohibited; the associated
metallurgical notch must be removed by grinding within the metal
removal limits, or the pipe must be cut out.
37.3.3.6 Testing All piping systems must be pressure tested fol-
lowing construction and prior to entering service, except pretested
fabricated assemblies, which may include pretested single or mul-
tiple lengths of pipe. Pressure testing requirements are given in
Article 841.3. Welded tie-ins not subjected to a pressure test must
be subjected to NDE, while non-welded tie-ins (e.g., anges)
must be leak-checked at the service pressure.
The Code expresses a clear preference for using water as the
test uid but acknowledges that sometimes use of a gaseous test
medium is necessary (841.3.1(c)). Situations where testing with
gas may be necessary include unavailability of clean water in suf-
cient quantity, large elevation changes, or the effect of test uid
weight on spans.
The Code requires that test heads and manifolds be designed
and constructed to safely operate at the test pressure. Pre-testing
of the test assembly is recommended in general, and is required if
the test is to be performed using sour gas. Paragraph 841.3.6
emphasizes test safety. Testing is potentially hazardous, especially
with a compressed gas due to the effects of a release of stored
energy in the event of a test failure. Paragraph 841.3.1(c) recom-
mends a formal risk assessment when testing with a gas. Safe sep-
aration distances for nonessential personnel and the public must
be observed when the test stress level is above 50% SMYS during
tests with air or gas.
The test pressure requirements for pipe operating at hoop stress
levels of 30% SMYS or greater are given in Table 841.3.2-1,
reproduced herein as Table 37.13. The minimum test pressure
37-26 Chapter 37
TABLE 37.13 TEST PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS FOR GAS PIPELINES
(Source: ASME B31.8, Table 841.3.2-1)
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level is 1.25 times MAOP for Classes 1 and 2, and 1.5 times
MAOP for Classes 3 and 4. (Prior to the 2010 edition, Class 1,
Division 2 pipe only needed to be tested to 1.1 times MAOP.)
Table 841.3.3-1, reproduced herein as Table 37.14, species limits
on test stress level when testing with a gas. Allowed test stresses
are higher with an inert gas. Combined with the test pressure
ratios specied in Table 841.3.2-1, testing with a gas may limit
the operating stress to less than what is allowed by the design
factor, F.
The minimum test requirement applies at the highest elevation,
so pipe at lower elevation in the test section will experience a
higher test pressure if water is the test medium. No maximum test
pressure is specied for testing with water, but considerations for
yielding the pipe may limit the maximum elevation difference
within a test section. Some pipelines are constructed with heavier
wall pipe at lower elevations in order to accommodate larger ele-
vation differences with fewer test sections.
Fabricated assemblies and crossings of rivers, roads, and rail-
roads may be tested separately, or may be tested in line with the
connected segments of pipeline. It is not uncommon for such
assemblies to be tested separately to assure that they are sound,
and then be tested in line in order to minimize pipeline test
segments.
37.3.4 Distribution Systems
Gas distribution systems distribute gas within communities to
individual residential, commercial, or industrial customers. They
operate at lower pressures than transmission systems, tend to be
highly branched or networked, and make extensive use of plastic
pipe. Thus different technical requirements apply to distribution
piping than transmission piping. The requirements for distribution
systems are found throughout B31.8, usually following para-
graphs concerning corresponding topics for steel transmission
pipelines. Some of these requirements are discussed here.
37.3.4.1 Design of Plastic Pipe The pressure design require-
ments for plastic pipe are found in Article 842.2. The formula for
years of service owing to the inverse stress-time-to-rupture rela-
tionship of the viscoelastic material. The occurrence of leaks after
a few years indicates elevated stress levels typically attributable to
faulty installation.
Design limitations on thermoplastic pipe are given in Paragraph
842.2.2. They are that the maximum design pressure is 100 psig,
the minimum operating temperature is 20 F, the maximum oper-
ating temperature is the temperature at which the HDB used in the
design formula was established and not greater than 140 F, the
value of t shall not be less than the value shown in Table 842.2.2-1
for various nominal pipe sizes and standard diameter ratios, and
the minimum wall thickness for plastic tubing shall not be less
than 0.062 inch.
Design limitations on thermosetting plastic pipe are given in
Paragraph 842.2.3. They are that the maximum design pressure is
100 psig, the minimum operating temperature is 20 F, the maxi-
mum operating temperature is 150 F, and the value for t shall not
be less than as shown in Table 842.2.3-1.
37.3.4.2 Joining Plastic Pipe Several techniques are recognized
in Paragraph 842.2.9 for joining lengths of plastic pipe used in gas
service, including solvent cement, adhesives, heat-fusion, and com-
pression couplings. Threading of plastic pipe is prohibited. Heat-
fusion joining or mechanical joints are required with PE pipe.
Sound joints of any type require proper preparation of the pipe ends
and contacting surfaces strictly in accordance with proven proce-
dures. Heat-fusion requires the use of special devices to uniformly
heat the material to the proper temperature, make the joint with
adequate contact pressure, and hold the joint immobile for the
appropriate set time. Many mechanical compression style joints
require special tools to create an interference or swaged t between
the pipe and metal components in the coupling.
37.3.4.3 Installing Plastic Pipe Installation of plastic pipe for
mains is addressed in Article 842.3, and for service lines in
Article 849.4. The Code cautions that plastic pipe is easily dam-
aged by rough handling. The pipe must be inspected before, dur-
ing, and after installation for damage in the form of gouges, cuts,
scrapes, or kinks. If such damage is found the affected pipe must
be cut out and replaced as a cylinder.
Plastic pipe is sensitive to the conditions of installation. It may
be installed above ground only within a metal casing and pro-
vided it is protected from external loadings. It also may be
installed in vaults or enclosures only within gas-tight metal pipe
and ttings having protection against corrosion.
Plastic pipe is commonly buried in soil. The Code requires
that it be laid on compacted soil and be protected from rocks. It
must be fully supported and not bear directly on blocks or supports.
The pipe must be installed in a slack condition to allow for thermal
contraction without introducing stresses into joints and branches. It
may be deected to a radius specied by the pipe manufacturer to
accommodate changes in direction. Poor installation practices will
produce locally excessive stresses in the plastic pipe that will even-
tually result in leaks in the plastic pipe. Excessive axial loadings
may cause separation of coupling devices.
A positive method for locating the buried pipe must be pro-
vided. This is usually accomplished by running a tracer wire
detectable from above ground alongside the pipe.
37.3.4.4 Testing Plastic Pipe Pressure testing of plastic pipe is
required after construction, per Article 842.4, to prove that the
pipe is not leaking. A minimum test duration is not specied but
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TABLE 37.14 MAXIMUM HOOP STRESS FOR TESTING
WITH AIR OR GAS (Source: ASME B31.8, Table 841.3.3-1)
the design pressure is , where S is a speci- 2 0.32
( )
t
P S
D t
=
-
ed strength value (discussed below), t is the specied wall thick-
ness, D is the specied outside diameter. This equation is recog-
nizable as the Barlow equation written for the mean diameter
(Dt) rather than outside diameter. For thermoplastic pipe, S is
the long-term hydrostatic strength determined as a projection of
short-term rupture strength tests to the intercept at 100,000 hours;
and for thermosetting pipe it has a value of 11 ksi. The long-term
hydrostatic strength is also known as the hydrostatic design basis
(HDB). The 0.32 factor in the design equation corresponds to a
nominal factor of safety of 3. For thermoplastic pipe, maintaining
stresses at 32% of the HDB would ideally assure several hundred
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must be sufcient to disclose all leaks. Untested tie-in joints must
be checked for leaks in service. The minimum test pressure is the
greater of 1.5 times the MAOP or 50 psig, but shall not exceed 3
times the MAOP at temperatures of 100 F or less, or 2 times the
MAOP at temperatures above 100 F. Testing may be performed
with water, air, or gas as the test medium. Air, inert gas (nitrogen),
or natural gas is commonly used because distribution lines are dif-
cult to dewater and the presence of water in service lines may
cause difculties to gas customers.
37.3.4.5 Steel Pipe in Distribution Systems Steel pipe is still
installed extensively in distribution systems particularly in
sizes larger than NPS 10 or anywhere pressure exceeds 100
psig, due to physical limitations of thermoplastic pipe. The
pressure design for steel pipe used in distribution systems is
the same as with transmission systems. Steel service pipe must
be designed for at least 100 psig, even where the operating
pressure is less than that. Steel service line pipe may be joined
by threaded or coupled joints, compression fittings, or quali-
fied welding procedures.
37.3.4.6 Other Details Requirements for the installation of
valves in high- and lo-pressure distribution mains are described in
Article 846. Requirements for the installation of customer meters
and regulators are given in Article 848. Additional requirements
for gas service lines, including connections of service lines to
mains, are discussed in Article 849.
37.3.5 Operations and Maintenance
37.3.5.1 Pipeline Operating Practices Article 850 species
necessary operating practices affecting gas pipeline safety. The
operator must have written, detailed plans and employee training
programs for normal and emergency operation, operate and main-
tain the facility according to those plans, modify the plans as
required by changes to the facilities or to the operating conditions,
train employees in the procedures, and maintain records.
Essential features of normal operating plans (850.3) include
detailed instructions for normal operation, surveillance and
patrolling of the ROW, conducting leak surveys, making repairs,
corrosion control, and identication of potential changes in
Location Class. The plans should give particular attention to those
locations where the pipeline poses the greatest hazard to the pub-
lic in the event of an emergency.
Essential features of emergency plans include detailed proce-
dures for: receiving and handling calls from the public of a poten-
tial emergency, identifying personnel responsible for responding,
identifying actions to be taken at the scene, disseminating informa-
tion to the public, restoring service, reporting and documenting the
incident. The plan must also identify personnel responsible for
training and maintenance of the plan. Additional responsibilities
include maintaining ongoing liaison with local emergency respon-
ders and public ofcials, and establishing procedures for analyzing
failures.
37.3.5.2 Transmission Pipeline Maintenance The ROW must
be maintained to provide visibility for aerial patrolling, prevent
encroachment, control overgrowth and erosion, maintain locating
signs, and to provide access to the ROW in the event of an emer-
gency. Patrolling is required (851.2) at least once per year in
Class 1 and 2, at least once every 6 months in class3, and at least
once every 3 months in Class 4. Highway and railroad crossings
must be inspected more frequently. The purpose of the patrols is
to identify evidence of changing conditions that could affect the
safety of the pipeline, whether manmade (i.e. site development) or
due to natural causes. It is not uncommon for transmission pipe-
line operators to patrol by air every two weeks, and weekly by ve-
hicle in urban areas.
The operator must determine the depth of cover over the
pipeline at road crossings and drainage ditches (851.2.1). If road
or ditch work has reduced the cover to unacceptable levels, pro-
tection for the pipe against damage must be provided in the form
of barriers, slabs, restoring cover, lowering the line, or other
means. A similar response is required at other locations where the
operator discovers a reduced depth of cover (851.2.2).
Marking the location of the line is the rst line of defense
against the most signicant threat to the pipeline. Line markers
must be installed and maintained at crossings of roads, railroads,
navigable streams, and other locations as described in 851.7.
Since land use may cause such signs to be damaged or removed,
the operator must repair or replace them as necessary.
Abandoning or decommissioning existing lines is discussed in
851.8 and 851.9, respectively. Abandonment is permanent and
potentially more onerous from the standpoint of restoring original
land use, and may result in the loss of the legal right of way.
Decommissioning is a temporary disconnecting or deactivation,
but requires continued maintenance of damage prevention, pa-
trolling, and corrosion prevention measures so that the pipeline
may return to service. Recommissioning a deactivated line is dis-
cussed under 851.10.
It is sometimes necessary to lower or reposition a pipeline in
order to provide sufcient overhead clearance with respect to an
existing or new road crossing. Such repositioning is routinely per-
formed with the line in continuous service. Factors to consider are
discussed in Paragraph 851.11. API RP 1117 [53] provides a pro-
cedure for evaluating in-service line lowering that would satisfy
this requirement.
Hydrostatic pressure testing is sometimes performed on an
existing pipeline to revalidate the integrity and MAOP, usually
after discovery of an integrity concern that could affect an entire
pipeline segment, or where no record exists of a prior strength
test. The requirements for such a test are given in Article 851.12.
The test is to be performed at a hoop stress level of at least 90%
SMYS for a period of
1
2 hour. If the hoop stress may exceed 100%
SMYS, the test must be monitored for evidence of yielding in
accordance with Appendix N. If the integrity concern is stress-
corrosion cracking (SCC) the test should be conducted at stress
levels in excess of 100% SMYS for a period of
1
2 hour or less, fol-
lowed by a leak test at a reduced pressure for long enough to
detect leaks. Time intervals for periodic retesting should be based
on an engineering critical assessment that considers public risk,
prior test history, and defect growth rates. The effectiveness of a
hydrostatic test is a function of the test pressure ratio, not the test
duration. The purpose of the test hold period is to detect leaks,
which can be done at a lower pressure than the maximum level
[54].
37.3.5.3 Transmission Pipeline Repairs
Injurious defects
Damage or degradation may occur to a pipeline over time.
Conditions that impair the safety of the pipeline are injurious, as
dened in 851.4.1, and must be repaired. Corrosion that is leaking
must be repaired. Internal or external corrosion that is not leaking
37-28 Chapter 37
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and not affecting a weld may be evaluated using an appropriate
tness-for-purpose criterion. ASME B31G is one such method
discussed in section 37.6 of this Chapter.
Dents are a deformation of the pipe circular cross section.
Dents caused by contact from excavating equipment are more
injurious than dents caused where the pipeline rests on rock,
although the latter condition is also undesirable [55]. Certain
dents are considered injurious and must be repaired: dents con-
taining gouges, grooves, cracks, or stress concentrating features;
dents affecting the curvature at a seam or girth weld and having a
depth in excess of 2% of the pipe diameter; dents of any depth
affecting nonductile seams or welds; and dents exceeding a depth
of 6% of the pipe diameter. Plain dents may also be evaluated for
local strain of deformation. If the local strain calculated in accor-
dance with Appendix R is in excess of 6%, it is considered injuri-
ous. All mechanical damage to the pipe surface is considered
injurious.
Minor ripples formed by pipe bending are acceptable with peak-
to-trough heights of 2% of the diameter where the hoop stress is
37 ksi or less, 2% of the diameter where the hoop stress is 47 ksi
or greater, or as interpolated between those limits. The limits are
intended to assure reliable operation for 100 years with respect to
thermal and pressure-cycle fatigue [31]. Provisions for cracks,
blisters, and pipe manufacturing defects are also discussed.
Allowed repairs
Paragraphs 851.4.2 through 851.4.5 discuss permanent repairs.
Allowed pipe repairs include: pipe removal, steel reinforcement
sleeves (known as Type A sleeves), pressure-containing sleeves
(known as Type B sleeves), composite wraps, surface defect
removal by grinding, weld metal deposition, mechanical clamps,
hot taps, and weld-on ttings. Patches may only be used to repair
corrosion in low-strength pipe.
Operators prefer repairs that do not require taking the line out
of service. Continuous service can be maintained even while
removing a segment of damaged pipe by installing a stopple and
hot-tap upstream and downstream of the cut-out with the hot taps
connected by a temporary by-pass line. However, most of the
other repair techniques can be installed without such an arrange-
ment if the pipe is not leaking.
Full-encirclement steel sleeves remain the primary method of
repair of almost all aws and defects. Reinforcement sleeves
restore the strength of the pipe by restraining bulging that occurs
at a defect, not by take-up of hoop stress. A hardenable ller
material (e.g. epoxy) must be used to ll any annular gap between
the defect and sleeve, in order to improve restraint of bulging and
immobilization of the defect [35,36]. The sleeve must extend at
least 2 inches beyond each end of the defect being repaired.
Pressure-containing sleeves may be used to repair leaking or non-
leaking defects. The longitudinal seam must be a full-penetration
groove butt weld, and end llet welds must be installed using a
suitable in-service welding procedure.
Nonmetallic composite wraps may be used to repair nonleaking
corrosion, and some other situations provided the design and
installation procedure are proven for the application. Composite
wraps are not reliable for the repair of leaks, cracks, or circumfer-
entially oriented defects (e.g. girth welds).
Removal of surface defects by grinding is permitted within
limits. Grinding may be used to repair mechanical damage in
dents not deeper than 4% of the pipe diameter. Grinding is per-
mitted to a depth of 10% of the wall with no limit on length.
Deeper grinding is permitted within a length given by the formula
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-29
40% of the pipe wall, where a is the depth of grinding, t is the
pipe wall thickness, and D is the pipe diameter [37]. For applica-
tion to other defects, the length and depth of metal removal must
be evaluated as for corrosion.
Weld metal deposition may be used to repair small areas of cor-
rosion, gouges, grooves, or arc burns, except within indentations.
A low-hydrogen welding process must be used to avoid hydrogen-
assisted cracking (HAC). The welding procedure must dene the
minimum safe wall thickness to avoid burnthrough [38].
Bolt-on clamps may be used within their pressure ratings. They
may be full welded and the bolts seal welded. Hot taps may be
used where they completely remove the defect.
37.3.5.4 Distribution Pipeline Maintenance Distribution sys-
tems have different integrity concerns and maintenance issues
from transmission pipelines, as described in Article 852. Owing to
their proximity to buildings and trafc, and location under pave-
ment that could promote migration of gas underground, leakage
surveys are an important and frequent maintenance activity. The
frequency of leakage testing in urbanized areas should be at least
annually. It is common practice to conduct leakage surveys more
often however. Any notication of a leak from the public must be
promptly investigated (852.3.2). The leak must be pinpointed and
its severity should be classied in accordance with Appendix M.
Category 1 leaks pose a probable hazard and must be repaired
immediately; Category 2 leaks are not an immediate hazard but
could be in the future and must be scheduled for repair within 1
year; while Category 3 leaks are not expected to be a hazard and
should be reevaluated at the next survey.
Other subjects addressed under Article 852 include distribution
piping abandonment, temporary disconnection, plastic pipe repair,
cast iron pipe maintenance, and recordkeeping. It is noted that
Paragraph 852.6.1 requires that any time a section of buried distri-
bution pipe is uncovered for any purpose, the condition of the
pipe surface and the condition of protective coating be recorded,
along with any repairs made. Paragraph 852.6.3 requires that dis-
tribution piping condition reports be analyzed periodically and
any indicated remedial action be taken and recorded.
37.3.5.5 Facilities Maintenance Article 853 covers mis-
cellaneous facilities maintenance, including: compressor station
maintenance, pipe and bottle-type holder maintenance, pressure-
limiting and pressure-regulating station maintenance, valve main-
tenance, and vault maintenance. While details for each type of
facility differs, they all require procedures for periodically exam-
ining the equipment, determining whether it is still in sound or
correctly functioning condition, and correcting, repairing, or rem-
edying any unacceptable condition.
37.3.5.6 Location Class Changes It is not uncommon for pop-
ulated areas to expand geographically. Spreading development
may cause changes in Location Class due to density thresholds
being exceeded in Classes 1, 2, or 3. If that occurs, a pipeline may
no longer be operating in accordance with the hoop stress limits
associated with its current Location Class. The management of
class location changes discussed in Article 854 constitutes a major
ongoing endeavor and cost factor for pipeline operators.
to a maximum depth of
1 _
_
1


, 1
,
]
2
/
1.12 ( ) 1
1.1 / 0.11
a t
L Dt
a t
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Existing pipelines or mains operating at hoop stress levels of
40% SMYS or greater must be monitored to determine if addi-
tional buildings intended for human occupancy have been con-
structed near the pipeline. If so, then a study must be
undertaken within 6 months to determine whether the Location
Class of that section of pipeline has changed. If the pipe is no
longer operating commensurate with the existing Class and is
in good condition, the operator has 18 months to confirm the
operating pressure by one of several methods. If the pipe was
previously tested, the operating pressure may be confirmed or
reduced as necessary to comply with Table 854.1-1, reproduced
herein as Table 37.15. Table 854.1-1 allows one class change
without necessitating action. If the prior test pressure was not
high enough to enable the pipe to meet the requirements in
Table 854.1-1, the affected section of pipe may retain its
MAOP by being strength tested commensurate with the existing
Location Class condition, or the MAOP must be reduced. If the
current MAOP is not confirmed by testing or reduced, then the
pipe must be replaced with new pipe specified so as to comply
with the existing Location Class. It is noted that pressure test-
ing and pipe replacement each require interruption of continu-
ous service.
Changes in Class Location may also impact block valve spac-
ing, because shorter spacing is required in classes corresponding
to higher density of development. If the affected section of pipe
can maintain its MAOP because of a prior test, or the pipe is
retested, or the MAOP is reduced, no additional valves need to be
added. If more than 1 mile of pipe must be replaced, the benets
of installing an additional valve must be evaluated (854.2).
A site may develop so as to cause concentrations of people
near an existing Class 1 or Class 2 pipeline. Had the site been
developed before the pipeline was installed, the pipe would have
been required to have a design factor of 0.5 near the population-
concentrating facility. The operating pressure of the existing
pipeline need not be reduced if the pipeline was tested to 100%
SMYS for existing Class 1 pipe or 90% SMYS for existing
Class 2 pipe, and patrolling and leakage surveys commensurate
with Class 3 locations are implemented for the affected pipe
segment (854.3).
37.3.5.7 Odorization A disastrous gas leak that blew up a
school in New London, TX in 1937 led to the development of
methods of rendering odorless and colorless natural gas
detectable in small concentrations without affecting the usability
of the gas. Any gas distributed to customers through gas mains or
service lines and that is not naturally detectable by humans at
one-fth of the lower explosive limit, must be odorized, per
Article 856. The gas odor must be detectable at a concentration of
1% in air. The odorant is not specied by the Code, but is typi-
cally a mercaptan blend.
Odorant may be absorbed by new pipe surfaces, soil, and water
such that gas leaks are not detectable if the odorant concentration
is too low, so the operator must conduct odorant concentration
testing. Odorization is not required for gas in storage, gas used for
further processing where odorant would serve no useful purpose
or would be determental, or gas used in eld operations.
37.3.6 Corrosion Control
Chapter VI prescribes minimum requirements for protecting
steel pipe from internal and external corrosion. Paragraph 860.1
states that corrosion control requires signicant professional judg-
ment and deviations from the Code requirements is permissible
provided the operator can demonstrate that corrosion is under
control. It also states that additional requirements than those spec-
ied in the Code might be necessary and the operator shall estab-
lish procedures to achieve the desired objectives.
External corrosion control for new installations of buried
pipelines is discussed in Article 861. All new pipelines and asso-
ciated terminal and pump station piping are required to have
external coating and be cathodically protected, unless testing or
experience shows that the materials are resistant to corrosion in
the installation environment. Suitable external coatings shall be
selected giving consideration to installation condition, moisture
absorption, operating temperatures of the pipeline, environmental
factors, adhesion characteristics and dielectric strength. The pipe
coating must be visually inspected for defects prior to lowering in
the ditch and precautions shall be exercised to prevent damage
during installation. Cathodic protection (CP) must be installed on
all buried or submerged facilities as soon as feasible following
37-30 Chapter 37
TABLE 37.15 LOCATION CLASS CHANGE REQUIREMENTS (Source: ASME B31.8, Table 854.1-1)
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installation, unless it can be demonstrated by testing or experi-
ence that CP is not needed. Additional requirements discussed in
Article 861 include electrical connections and monitoring points,
electrical interference, and use of casings.
Per Article 862, a facility is considered cathodically protected
if it meets criteria in Appendix K, which reiterates requirements
from NACE SP0169, Section 6 [39]. Electrical isolation is
required at interconnections with foreign pipeline systems In an
area where a pipeline parallels overhead electric transmission
lines special consideration is required to protect against voltages
resulting from ground faults and lightning and conducting a study
with the electric company that takes into account possible adverse
affects from the shared corridor. Operation and maintenance of
the CP system is addressed in Article 863.
Control of internal corrosion for new installations is discussed
in Article 864. Certain gas constituents in the presence of free
water may render the gas corrosive. If corrosive gas is transported,
an inspection and monitoring program is required to evaluate the
effectiveness of internal corrosion control measures. The program
may include injecting inhibitors, corrosion coupons, examination
of pipe removed from service, checking wall thickness of exposed
pipe, and records analysis. Considerations for new installations
shall include the use of internal coating, chemical treatment, clean-
ing pigs, monitoring devices, reducing corrosivity (use of separa-
tors or dehydration equipment), and material selection.
Corrosion control for pipelines in arctic environments is dis-
cussed in Article 865. Pipelines must be coated with a suitable
coating for low temperature environments and cathodically pro-
tected. CP criteria are the same as for normal temperature service.
Impressed current facilities should be used in permanently frozen
soil and where practical, anode beds must be installed below the
permafrost level.
Article 866 covers corrosion control for pipelines in high tem-
perature service. The coating selection shall pay particular atten-
tion to resistance to thermal degradation. The criteria for CP are
the same for normal temperature service while cautioning the
operator on the effects of decreased resistivity and increased CP
current requirements in high temperature service.
37.3.7 Offshore Gas Pipelines
Chapter VIII discusses offshore gas transmission pipelines. It
only describes exceptions or additions to the requirements of
Chapters I through VII due to the offshore nature of the system. It
maintains parallel paragraph numbering to those in Chapters I
through VII, with an A prex. Thus a change in the requirement
of Paragraph 8wx.y.z in the main body of B31.8 is indicated in
Chapter VIII in Paragraph A8wx.y.z. Only the highlights and more
signicant departures from the requirements of the main body of
B31.8 are reviewed here.
37.3.7.1 Scope and Intent The scope of Chapter VIII, per
Article A802, is the design, material requirements, fabrication,
installation, inspection, testing, and safety aspects of the operation
and maintenance of offshore gas pipeline systems. Offshore gas
pipeline systems include offshore gas pipelines, pipeline risers,
offshore compressor stations, and related appurtenances, supports,
and components. A scope diagram is given in Figure Q-1.
Denitions unique to offshore pipelines are provided in section
A803.
37.3.7.2 Design Conditions Design conditions for offshore
pipelines are discussed in Article A841. General offshore loadings
are listed in A841.1 include waves, currents, wind, ice, platform
motion, support settlement, marine vessel activity, and several
others unique to offshore conditions. Installation loads are dis-
cussed in A841.2. Often, the loading associated with the installa-
tion process is the highest magnitude loading the pipeline will
ever experience. This loading develops where the pipe string
hangs as a catenary from the lay vessel to the sea bottom.
Superimposed on the hanging tension is added tension introduced
by the lay vessel, curvature at the top controlled by the articulated
stinger which controls the angle of pipe departure from the ves-
sel, curvature at the bottom induced by soil compliance, external
hydrostatic pressure which increases with water depth, lateral
inertial loadings from underwater currents, and dynamic motion
of the lay vessel due to waves, current, and wind.
Operational loads are those imposed during operation such as inter-
nal and external pressure and buoyant weight, and excluding loads
from environmental conditions, per A841.3.2. Environmental loads
are those imposed by the environment, including waves, current, and
ice, per A841.3.3. The offshore pipeline only needs to be designed for
the most critical combination of operational and environmental loads
acting concurrently. If the operation is to be reduced during storm
conditions, then the design must consider the full operational load
with the maximum coincidental environment loads, and the design
environmental loads with the reduced operational loads.
37.3.7.3 Design Criteria Design criteria, i.e. allowable
stresses, for offshore pipelines are covered in Article A842.
Strength criteria are established to avoid failure due to:
collapse of the pipe caused by external pressure in conjunc-
tion with imposed loads and curvatures;
fatigue caused by vortex-induced vibration (VIV, also known
as vortex shedding);
fracture at girth welds, mainly of concern during the pipe-
laying process;
loss of in-place instability, which can occur in a variety of
complex circumstances such as where currents scour away the
bedding leaving pipe spans exposed to the effects of currents,
or where compressive stresses due to thermal expansion cause
the pipe push out of the bedding soils; and
mechanical damage caused by impact from anchors, vessel
keels, ice keels, and other objects.
The hoop stress is calculated per A842.2.2 using the Barlow
equation, but the net pressure is the difference between the inter-
nal operating pressure and the external hydrostatic pressure. The
hoop stress design factor F
1
is 0.72 for the pipeline and 0.60 for
the platform riser and piping. Design factors are listed in Table
A842.2.2-1. Table A842.2.1 is identical to the analogous table for
offshore liquid pipelines, reproduced herein as Table 37.2.
The longitudinal stress S
L
is limited such that S
L

F
2
(SMYS), where S
L
is the sum of axial and bending stresses and
F
2
has a value of 0.80 at all locations. The combined stress is lim-
l l
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-31
ited in A842.2.2(c) by the maximum shear stress or Tresca crite-
rion as or is limited by the
maximum distortion energy or von Mises criterion as
1/ 2
2
2
3
2 ( )
2
L h
t
S S
S F SMYS

-
+




where S
L
, S
h
, and S
t
are
longitudinal, hoop, and torsional stresses, and F
3
has a value of
( )
1/ 2
2 2 2
3
3 ( )
h h L L t
S S S S S F SMYS - + +
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0.90 at all locations. Where the pipeline may experience a pre-
dictable non-periodic displacement due to soil movement or pipe
sag into a supported condition, a strain criterion may be used
instead of the stress limits presented above. Consideration must
be given to the ability of the pipe to undergo plastic strains with-
out detrimental effects, but a specic maximum allowable strain is
not given. Qualitative guidance is given elsewhere in A842.2.2 for
designing against failure by the various mechanisms discussed.
On-bottom stability is discussed in Article A844. Factors to be
considered include wave and current forces, scouring and the resultant
spans, soil liquefaction, and slope failure. Such conditions may
develop as a result of storms. Design wave and current conditions
must be based on a return interval of either ve times the design life
or 100 years, whichever is less. The most unfavorable expected
combination of wave and current conditions must be considered.
A847 discusses special requirements for inspecting and testing
the installation of an offshore pipeline. Use of water as the test
uid is required except where limited by temperatures in arctic
regions. The minimum test level is 1.25 times the MAOP for
pipelines, and 1.4 times the MAOP for risers. Internal inspection
for buckles or other damage by means of a caliper or geometry
tool is required by A847.7.
Some exceptional provisions for standard operation appropriate
for offshore systems are given in A850 and A851. Paragraph
A854 exempts offshore pipelines from Location Class require-
ments. Corrosion control is discussed in A860 through A864. All
submerged steel pipe must be coated and cathodically protected.
37.3.8 Sour Gas Systems
Chapter IX addresses special requirements necessary for the
safe transportation of sour gas. As with the offshore pipeline
chapter, only changes in requirements with respect to those in
Chapters I thorugh VII are discussed. Paragraph numbering fol-
lows a similar convention, except for the use of a prex B.
Sour gas is dened in B803 as gas containing H
2
S at 65 psia or
greater at a partial pressure of 0.05 psia or greater. Special provi-
sions for transporting sour gas are necessary for two reasons. One
is that corrosion reactions with hydrogen sulde (H
2
S) in the
presence of water generate atomic hydrogen that may diffuse into
the steel and cause sulde stress cracking (SSC) at susceptible
sites that could be highly detrimental to pipe integrity.
Susceptibility may be controlled by appropriate material selec-
tion, management of stresses, and minimizing moisture content of
the gas. The second reason is that H
2
S in relatively small concen-
trations is toxic to humans, such that a release of sour gas poses
an added hazard to the public.
Material selection and control of the effects of welding are
important steps in avoiding degradation due to exposure to sour
gas. Paragraphs B814, B830, B831, B841, B842, and B843
require that all pipe, ttings, valves, anges, and other metallic
materials in contact with pressurized sour gas meet the require-
ments of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 [56]. Pipe and bottle type
holders are prohibited in sour gas service.
Articles B820 through B826 provide special requirements for
welding procedure qualication, and making welds. Welding pro-
cedure qualication test specimens must be tested and exhibit
weld hardness not in excess of 22 HRC. It is recommended that
the HAZ microhardness not exceed 250 HV10. Welding on used
pipe must be preceded by preheating to 400 F to drive off diffused
hydrogen. Arc burns are prohibited and must be removed. The
chemistry of base metals must be controlled to minimize HAZ
hardness. Alternatively, full thermal stress relief must be per-
formed at 1,100 F.
Paragraph B850 provides equations for calculating the radius of
exposure corresponding to 100 ppm and 500 ppm, as a function
of the H
2
S mol fraction and the gas release rate from a pipeline
rupture in million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD) equiva-
lent. Examples are presented in Tables B850.1-1 and B850.1-2.
At concentrations of 100 ppm, eye damage occurs and the sense
of smell disappears, leading to a loss of sense of danger. At
500 ppm, pulmonary edema (uid in the lungs) occurs and the
onset of disruption to the central nervous system causing loss of
breathing. Where the 100-ppm radius of exposure is greater than
37-32 Chapter 37
Appendix Subject Mandatory
A References Y
B Not in use N
C Publications that do not appear in the Code or Appendix A N
D SMYS for steel pipe commonly used in piping systems Y
E Flexibility and stress intensication factors Y
F Extruded headers and welded branch connections Y
G Testing of welders limited to work on lines operating at hoop stress < 20% SMYS Y
H Flattening test for pipe Y
I End preparations for welding Y
J Commonly used conversion factors N
K Criteria for cathodic protection Y
L Determination of remaining strength of corroded pipe N
M Gas leakage control criteria N
N Recommended practice for hydrostatic testing of pipelines in place N
O Preparation of technical inquiries N
P Nomenclature (reserved) N
Q Scope diagrams Y
R Estimating strain in dents N
TABLE 37.16 B31.8 APPENDICES
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50 ft, signage indicating the words Poison Gas must be posted.
Use of are systems is recommended when blowing down sour
gas lines.
All sour gas facilities must be presumed to be corrosive. Moisture
content should be monitored but operational upsets may render
monitoring alone ineffective as a method of controlling internal cor-
rosion. Chemical inhibitors may also be required (B864).
37.3.9 Appendices
B31.8 contains 18 Appendices, some mandatory and some not.
Due to the number of appendices they are not discussed in detail.
Their subject matter is evident from their titles as listed in Table
37.16.
37.4 ASME B31.8S MANAGING SYSTEM
INTEGRITY OF GAS PIPELINES,
SUPPLEMENT TO B31.8
37.4.1 History, Scope, and Organization of B31.8S
37.4.1.1 History ASME B31.8S is concerned with managing
gas pipeline integrity through established practices in pipeline
design, construction, operation, and maintenance. The natural gas
pipeline industry and pipeline safety regulators recognized the
need for an enhanced, systematic approach to managing pipeline
integrity focused on the principles and decision processes, as a
result of a serious pipeline incident at Carlsbad, NM on August
19, 2000. The rst edition of ASME B31.8S presenting this
enhanced approach was issued in 2004, with a revision in 2010.
The next edition of this Standard is scheduled for publication in
2012.
37.4.1.2 Scope B31.8S describes a process that a pipeline sys-
tem operator may use to assess and mitigate risks in order to
reduce both the likelihood and consequences of incidents. Both
prescriptive and performance based integrity management pro-
grams are described.
The standard applies to onshore gas transmission pipelines con-
structed with steel pipe. The basic concepts can be applied to
other types of pipelines, although details of implementation may
differ. The standard is intended to supplement ASME B31.8, but it
may be applied to a system that was not designed and constructed
to that Code.
37.4.1.3 Organization B31.8S is organized as follows. The
Section 1 Introduction describes the scope, purpose and objec-
tives, and Integrity Management (IM) principles. Section 2
Integrity Management Program Overview describes the
Integrity Management Program (IMP) elements, threats classica-
tion scheme, and overall process ow. Section 3 Consequences
provides a model for quantifying consequences in terms of the
Potential Impact Radius (PIR). Section 4 Gathering, Reviewing,
and Integrating Data discusses sources of data that must be used
in executing the IMP. Section 5 Risk Assessment describes the
process of conducting risk assessment for prioritizing IMP activi-
ties. Section 6 Integrity Assessment discusses methods for eval-
uating the condition of the pipeline with respect to identied
integrity threats. Section 7 Responses to Integrity Assessments
and Mitigation (Repair and Prevention) describes required
response times to conditions identied by the integrity assess-
ments. Section 8 Integrity Management Plan describes the over-
all execution process of the IMP. Section 9 Performance Plan
discusses methods of evaluating the effectiveness of the IMP.
Section 10 Communications Plan discusses requirements for
communicating IMP information to company personnel and pub-
lic stakeholders. Section 11 Management of Change Plan
describes requirements for updating the IMP to reect changes in
the pipeline system. Section 12 Quality Control Plan describes
quality control measures required by the IMP. Section 13 Terms,
Denitions, and Acronyms denes terminology used throughout
the standard. Section 14 References lists documents used by the
Committee to develop the content of B31.8S.
There are two Nonmandatory Appendices. Appendix A describes
requirements for a prescriptive IMP. Appendix B describes the
Direct Assessment (DA) process.
Due to space limitations for this Chapter, only the highlights of
certain parts of B31.8S are reviewed herein.
37.4.2 Integrity Management Process
37.4.2.1 Overview An overview of the IM process is given in
Sections 2 and 8. The IMP program consists of ve key elements:
the integrity management plan, a performance plan, a communica-
tions plan, a management of change plan, and a quality control
plan. Most of the effort is focused on the IMP itself, but the
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-33
FIG. 37.5 INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT PLAN PROCESS
FLOW (Source: ASME B31.8S Figure 2)
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program is incomplete without the other elements. The overall
process is not dissimilar to an integrity management process pre-
viously developed for the hazardous liquids pipeline industry [29].
The IMP process ow is shown in B31.8S Figure 2 reproduced
herein as Figure 37.5. Threats to the integrity of the pipeline are
identied in accordance with Section 2, discussed below. A large
quantity of technical and historical data about the existing
pipeline system must be accumulated and reviewed in order to
support a risk assessment (RA) to determine which integrity
threats pose the highest risk. There may be considerable chal-
lenges associated with the data owing to the age and geographic
extent of many pipeline systems. The results of the RA are then
used to prioritize pipeline segments for assessment. Integrity
assessments are then performed using one or more methods capa-
ble of determining the condition of the pipeline with respect to the
integrity threats that are driving the risk. Integrity assessments
may consist of hysrostatic testing, in-line inspection, or direct
assessment. The operator must then respond to the results of the
integrity assessment with timing dictated by the severity of the
conditions. In addition, mitigative measures must be taken to pre-
vent future recurrence of conditions. The process is then repeated
at an interval determined by the rate of degradation or as specied
in the prescriptive IMP.
37.4.2.2 Pipeline Integrity Threats Integrity threats are classi-
ed in Article 2.2. Pipeline incident data reported to the US
Department of Transportation [57] (in accordance with applicable
regulations) were reviewed to identify 21 integrity threats in terms
of their time dependency. (A 22
nd
category, unknown was also
identied, but it is not possible to assess and mitigate an unknown
threat.) Time-dependent threats are those that get worse over time,
including corrosion and SCC. Time-stable threats are those that
are deemed to not get worse with time provided they have with-
stood an initial assessment. Time-independent threats occur ran-
domly, such as excavator hits or natural events. The 21 integrity
threats are listed in Table 37.7.
The time dependency determines the assessment strategy.
Assessments for time-dependent threats must be repeated on a
periodic basis, depending on the rate of degradation, and the
effectiveness of the assessment and responses. Time-stable threats
only require a one-time assessment provided the assessment is
effective. Randomly occurring threats can affect a pipeline at any
time after an assessment has been performed, so they are best mit-
igated by preventive measures and surveillance activities.
Note that fatigue is not shown as an integrity threat. Owing to
gas being compressible, gas transmission service does not experi-
ence the large and frequent pressure uctuations associated with
transmission of an incompressible uid. Studies [58] have shown
that, unlike pipelines transporting liquids, gas pipelines are not
susceptible to fatigue in pipe seams due to the effects of operating
pressure cycles, at least in less than several hundred years, pro-
vided the pipe has experienced a pressure test to a high level, and
at least 1.25 times the MAOP at Class 1 operating stresses. This is
the basis for categorizing manufacturing defects in pipe seams as
stable integrity threats [7]. If the pipe has experienced adequate
pressure testing at the pipe mill and/or prior to entering service,
the seam is unlikely to fail in conventional gas service due to the
manufacturing aw, absent interaction with another condition such
as corrosion. However, in the absence of a conrmed pressure test
to an adequate margin, stability of a latent seam defect cannot be
assured even in natural gas service. Although fatigue can occur due
to vibration or pulsation effects in environments such as compres-
sor stations that utilize reciprocating prime movers, those situa-
tions are not readily assessed in the eld by standard pipeline
assessment techniques. They can be assessed through routine or
enhanced facility maintenance activities, or by analysis [59].
Some integrity threats interact to create a more acute risk than
the simple sum of risks. Examples of threats that interact could
include:
poor quality girth welds (or compression couplings) in areas
where soil movement could occur (the soil movement could
generate tensile strains in the pipe that could separate a cou-
pling or defect weld);
external corrosion and low-frequency ERW seams (low-
frequency ERW seams are susceptible to grooving corrosion
the focuses on the low-toughness bond line).
Many or most integrity threats do not interact. Interaction of
integrity threats must be considered by the risk assessment.
37.4.3 Consequences
The principal hazard associated with a pipeline failure is radi-
ant heat ux produced by ignition of the escaping gas. Radiant
heat ux is proportional to the quantity of fuel present, which is a
product of the pressure and pipe cross sectional area, and to the
inverse square of the distance separating the ame from a target.
Thresholds of damage have been identied with various heat ux
levels in terms of effects on people and buildings. A threshold of
interest is 5,000 Btu/hr-ft
2
which corresponds to 1% mortality (or
99% survivability) to a person exposed for 30 seconds unabated
(a mobile person would ee, increasing separating distance and
lowering incident heat ux), and also corresponds to the lower
limit for piloted ignition of wood, meaning a wood frame struc-
ture could provide protection for occupants indenitely. While
37-34 Chapter 37
Time Dependency Integrity Threat
Time-dependent
External corrosion
Internal corrosion
Stress-corrosion cracking
Time-Stable
Defective pipe seam
Defective pipe body
Defective girth weld
Defective fabrication weld
Wrinkle bend or buckle
Threaded connection or coupling failure
Gasket or O-ring failure
Pressure control/relief equipment failure
Pump or valve seal or packing failure
Miscellaneous equipment failure
Time-independent
(random)
Mechanical damage (immediate)
Previously damaged pipe
Vandalism
Incorrect operation
Cold weather
Lightning
Heavy rain or oods
Earth movement
TABLE 37.17 B31.8S PIPELINE INTEGRITY THREAT
CLASSIFICATIONS
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many variables related to the gas characteristics, the pipeline
operation, and the surrounding environment affect the heat ux,
an estimate for the radius corresponding to this heat ux threshold
has been developed [60] as where r is the radius in
feet, D is the pipe diameter in inches, and P is the operating pres-
sure in psig. Radius r is referred to as the Potential Impact Radius
(PIR).
The purpose of the PIR is not to dene an exclusionary zone,
nor a safe versus unsafe boundary. It is used to dene seg-
ments of pipe that could affect a sensitive site based on whether
that target is inside the PIR. The length of the pipeline for which
an identied site falls within the PIR is considered to potentially
affect a high consequence area (HCA). The HCA pipe segments
are then subjected to the IMP process. An example of the applica-
tion of the PIR concept to dening HCA pipe is shown in B31.8S
Figure 3 reproduced herein as Figure 37.6.
37.4.4 Data Integration
Data integration involves pulling together all relevant data con-
cerning the attributes and operating history of the pipeline that
may indicate potential integrity threats. B31.8S Table 1, repro-
duced herein as Table 37.18, describes data to be considered.
Collecting the data for older pipeline systems can be challenging.
If the data exists it is likely in nondigital form. It may be neces-
sary to make conservative yet realistic assumptions about the pipe
or other factors affecting risk. Default data values that are overly
conservative may give an unrealistic indication of risk levels or
risk-drivers so as to skew integrity work in unproductive ways.
Unsubstantiated data should be tracked in order to gauge the
effect of data uncertainty on indicated risk. The more data and the
more accurate the data, the more useful the risk assessment
will be.
37.4.5 Risk Assessment
Risk assessment (RA) is a required step in the IMP. The pri-
mary objective of the RA is to prioritize HCA line segments for
condition assessment. A secondary objective is to evaluate the
effectiveness of mitigation strategies for lowering risk.
Many styles of risk assessment are used with pipelines includ-
ing subject-matter expert review, relative ranking algorithms,
0.69 r D P =
and probabilistic models. Probabilistic models are the least com-
mon because there is often insufficient data to support an accu-
rate analysis of that type. Risk assessments must be performed
annually.
37.4.6 Integrity Assessment
The integrity condition of the prioritized pipeline segments
must be determined by an assessment method capable of indicat-
ing the presence and severity of the integrity threat associated
with the identied risk level. Recognized assessment methods are
hydrostatic pressure testing, in-line inspection (ILI), and direct
assessment.
Hydrostatic testing
Hydrostatic testing as an integrity assessment must be per-
formed at a high proportion of SMYS. It is a reliable method for
exposing signicant corrosion, SCC, seam manufacturing defects,
or mechanical damage. Minor conditions that are not severe
enough to fail during the test are not revealed. Hydrostatic testing
is not an effective assessment for girth weld integrity, and may not
be entirely effective for locating or preventing leaks. It also
requires taking the line out of service.
In-line inspection
Two primary technologies exist for in-line inspection of natural
gas pipelines, geometry tools, and magnetic ux leakage (MFL)
tools. Caliper tools indicate the location, magnitude, and shape of
deformations in the pipe, such as dents or buckles. More
advanced geometry tools with inertial sensors can indicate curva-
ture and spatial data.
MFL tools indicate the location, depth, and extent of metal loss
caused by corrosion on the exterior and interior surface of the
pipe. MFL tools can also sense the presence of some other condi-
tions such as metal loss associated with mechanical damage.
Special versions with transversely oriented magnetization are
capable of nding longitudinally-oriented features such as seam
defects.
Other ILI technologies do exist. Ultrasonic shear wave crack
detection tools and ultrasonic metal loss tools are used in liquid
lines because the liquid product can act as a couplant. They are
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-35
FIG. 37.6 EXAMPLE APPLICATION OF THE PIR TO DEFINE HCA SEGMENT (Source: ASME B31.8S Figure 3)
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not easily used in gas pipelines. Tools using electro-magnetic
acoustic technology can be used in gas pipelines and are still
developmental.
A signicant proportion of gas pipelines cannot be assessed by
ILI because of restrictions in the line, a lack of launchers and
receivers, or inadequate backpressure. ILI tools can be more sen-
sitive than hydrostatic testing, but inherent error affects the proba-
bility of detection and probability of indication.
Direct assessment
Direct assessment (DA) is a structured process incorporating
two or more independent indirect measurements capable of indi-
cating the location and severity of a condition. It is used to determine
where to expose the pipe for direct examination. DA for external
corrosion (ECDA) [61] relies on electrical measurements per-
formed above ground of pipe-to-soil potentials, voltage gradients,
and current ows to determine where corrosion may be occurring.
DA for internal corrosion (ICDA) [62] considers ow rates, mois-
ture content, and elevation proles to identify locations where
internal corrosion could occur. DA for SCC (SCCDA) [63] uses
ECDA techniques along with consideration for stresses, soil char-
acteristics, and thermal considerations to identify sites where SCC
could occur. DA is most often used with systems that cannot be
assessed using ILI.
Each method has benets and limitations which would require
more discussion to fully describe than is in the scope of this
Guide document. Guidance on selection of an assessment technol-
ogy is provided in Section 6. More than one assessment method
may be necessary.
37.4.7 Mitigation
Mitigation is the response to the integrity assessment. A rst-
level response is to repair problems discovered by the assessment,
for example installing a repair sleeve on a piece of pipe affected
by signicant corrosion. A second-level response is to determine
why corrosion has occurred and take corrective measures to
reduce the likelihood of corrosion occurring elsewhere. Table 4 in
B31.8S (not reproduced here due to size) presents a matrix of
appropriate threat mitigation and repair methods for various con-
ditions identied by the assessment.
Response time to conditions indicated by the assessment
depends on the severity of the condition and the pipeline operat-
ing stress. Response categories are Immediate, if the indicated
defect is near failure; Scheduled, if the indicated defect could fail
before the next assessment; and Monitored, if the indicated defect
will not fail before the next assessment.
B31.8S Table 3 and Figure 4, reproduced herein as Figure 37.7,
provide scheduled response times for time-dependent conditions.
Response times are shown for low, moderate, and high
stress levels dened at 30% SMYS or less, above 30% up to 50%
SMYS, and greater than 50% SMYS, respectively. The response
time chart shows that if the ratio of calculated failure pressure to
MAOP is as 1.1 or less, the response time is immediate, for any
operating stress level. Note that at a given failure pressure ratio,
response times are longer for pipe operating at high stresses than
at low stresses. Likewise, corresponding to a given response time,
the required failure pressure is less for pipe operating at high
stresses than at low stresses. While this seems counterintutitive,
the reason for this is that large defects may be tolerated when
stresses are low, implying corrosion could be quite deep, with less
remaining time to failure than would be the case in pipe operating
at high stress.
If the integrity threat is time-dependent, the assessment must
be repeated. The same table or chart for response times can be
used to establish reassessment intervals. The response times pre-
sume a corrosion rate of 12 mils per year in pipe having a wall
thickness of 0.5 inch, or 2.4% of the wall thickness per year [64].
The response time charts are considered to be conservative most
of the time but are not assured to be in all situations. Paragraph
7.2.4 states that an analysis using appropriate assumptions
about growth rates shall be used to ensure that the defect will not
attain critical dimension prior to the scheduled repair or next
inspection.
37.4.8 Other Components of the IMP
Other components of the IMP include the performance plan,
the communications plan, the management of change plan, and
the quality control plan. While important, these are not reviewed
herein due to space limitations.
37-36 Chapter 37
TABLE 37.18 B31.8S IMP DATA ELEMENTS
(Source: ASME B31.8S, Table 1)
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37.5 ASME B31.11 SLURRY
TRANSPORTATION PIPING
SYSTEMS
37.5.1 History, Scope, and Organization of B31.11
37.5.1.1 History By 1977, the technology for the design and
construction of slurry pipelines had developed to the point that a
standard for slurry transportation pipelines was needed. The rst
edition of ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Pipeline
Systems was published in 1986, with an addenda in 1988, and
subsequent editions in 1989 and 2002. The B31.11 Section
Committee typically has shared membership with and met in con-
junction with the B31.4 Section Committee. At the time of writing
of this Chapter, there are active ballot initiatives to incorporate the
technical content of B31.11 into B31.4, which if adopted, would
effectively sunset B31.11.
37.5.1.2 Scope A slurry is a two-phase mixture of solid parti-
cles entrained in a liquid. Paragraph 1100.1.1 specically restricts
the scope of B31.11 to a slurry in which the solids are non-
hazardous and the liquid is aqueous. Cited examples of nonhaz-
ardous slurry solids are coal and mineral ores. A liquid such as
crude oil could not be used to transport a slurry within the scope
of B31.11.
37.5.1.3 Organization B31.11 provides requirements for the
design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection, testing,
operation, and maintenance of a slurry pipeline system. The struc-
ture and organization of B31.11 is parallel to B31.4, except that
there is no chapter for offshore slurry pipeline systems, and
appendices are labeled as Mandatory.
Facilities within the scope of B31.11 include the pipeline, piping
within related facilities used for pumping, storage, and terminal
operations, and piping to the rst valve of auxiliary water lines. The
standard covers operations and maintenance of slurry transportation
systems relating to the safety of the general public, operating com-
pany personnel, the environment, property, and the facility.
Most aspects of the design, materials, construction, operation,
and repair of slurry pipelines are similar to those of liquid trans-
portation pipelines. Moreover, the provisions of the 2002 edition of
B31.11 are substantially similar to those of the 2002 edition of
B31.4. Certain requirements found in B31.4 are relaxed in B31.11
owing to the nonhazardous nature of slurries, while certain other
requirements are specied related to the unique properties of slur-
ries. Hence only the key differences are discussed here.
37.5.2 Key Differences with Respect to B31.4
37.5.2.1 Design Design requirements are given in Chapter II
Design. Article 1101 discusses design conditions. Paragraph
1101.2.1 denes the maximum steady state operating pressure as
the sum of the static head pressure, pressure to overcome friction
losses, and any back pressure. Paragraphs 1101.4 through 1101.10
require giving consideration to the possible effects of aqueous slur-
ries including: uid freezing under design for ambient inuences,
erosion-corrosion due to abrasive effects of slurry solids, slope
limitations, density differentials, solids accumulation in equip-
ment, and solids drop-out during shut-down.
Paragraph 1102.3 allows some stress levels to exceed those in
B31.4, specically the pressure design factor, F, may equal 0.80,
and the sum of longitudinal stresses due to pressure, live loads,
dead loads, and occasional loads may equal 88% of SMYS. Other
allowable stress values are similar to those found in B31.4.
37.5.2.2 Materials and Construction Requirements for mate-
rials, ttings, and components are similar to those in B31.4.
The requirements for Chapters III and IV are the same. A few
additional requirements for slurry pipelines are found in Chapter
V. Paragraph 1134.19 requires protection of steel pipe from inter-
nal erosion-corrosion with reference to Chapter VIII. Paragraph
1134.21 discusses holding ponds. Holding ponds must be large
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37-37
FIG. 37.7 RESPONSE TIMES TO ASSESSMENT RESULTS (Source: ASME B31.8S Figure 4)
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enough to hold discharges associated with normal and emergency
operation. They should lie entirely on property controlled by the
operator, and be fenced in to prevent trespassing.
37.5.2.3 Operation and Maintenance Operation and mainte-
nance requirements are discussed in Chapter VII. Paragraph
1151.1(a) requires the operator to assure that the maximum
steady state operating pressure and static head pressure with the
line in a static condition not exceed the design pressure and com-
ponent pressure ratings. Surges and other variations from normal
conditions may not exceed the design pressure by more than
10%.
Repair criteria and repair methods are similar thought not iden-
tical to those found in the 2002 B31.4. Paragraph 1151.6.2 per-
mits plain indentations as large as 7.5% of the diameter. Slurry
pipelines may experience wall thinning due to the abrasive effect
of the slurry solids. A method is provided for evaluating the
remaining strength where wall thinning occurs, due to erosion or
corrosion, which is the original B31G method. This method is
discussed in detail in Part 37.6 of this Chapter.
37.5.2.4 Corrosion and Erosion Control Chapter VIII
addresses corrosion and erosion control. Paragraph 1160(d) rec-
ognizes internal corrosion and internal erosion as separate prob-
lems which may also interact. Erosive effects of transported solids
may act to worsen corrosion by removal of corrosion scale or pas-
sivated metal surfaces, thereby continually exposing fresh metal
to the corrosive environment.
External corrosion considerations and methods discussed in
Articles 1161 and 1162 for slurry pipelines are similar to those for
liquid pipelines. Internal corrosion and erosion control are dis-
cussed in Article 1163. Paragraph 1163.1 states that use of corro-
sion inhibitors, internal coating, or controlling liquid pH, ow
velocity, and solids particle size may be used to control internal
wall loss. If internal coatings are used, additional measures such
as inhibitors will still be needed due to uncoated areas adjacent to
girth welds. Abrupt changes in direction, excessive protrusion of
girth weld root passes into the pipe interior, and eccentrically
located gaskets, can create ow disturbances that locally worsen
erosion-corrosion.
Monitoring to determine the effectiveness of internal erosion-
corrosion is required annually and at intervals not to exceed 15
months by Paragraph 1163.3. Areas where accelerated wall loss is
likely must be monitored more frequently.
37.5.2.5 Appendices B31.11 has two appendices. Appendix I
lists referenced external standards and other documents published
by API, ASME, ASTM, AWS, MSS, NACE, and NFPA. Appendix
II describes how to submit written technical inquiries to ASME.
37.6 ASME B31G MANUAL FOR
DETERMINING THE REMAINING
STRENGTH OF CORRODED
PIPELINES
37.6.1 History, Scope, and Organization of B31G
37.6.1.1 History The pipeline industry recognized that
pipelines with long service histories may experience corrosion,
either externally due to exposure to the soil environment, or inter-
nally due to characteristics of transported products. Theoretical
analysis, scientic research and testing, and industry operating
experience, indicated that some amount of metal loss due to cor-
rosion can be tolerated without impairing the ability of the
pipeline to operate safely. The B31G document provided pipeline
operators with a simplied assessment method, based on the
results of theory and research, to reliably determine safe operating
pressure levels for pipe affected by corrosion and to determine
whether repairs are necessary in order to continue operating
safely.
The first edition of ASME B31G was published in 1984.
B31G was reissued in 1996 with no significant revision,
although other corrosion assessment methodologies had evolved
since B31Gs initial publication. Some of the other methods
were based on the same theoretical models from which the orig-
inal B31G derived but offer improved accuracy, while others
incorporate new concepts. Subsequently, B31G was revised in
2009 to recognize corrosion assessment methods that have
proven sound and that have seen successful use in the pipeline
industry. The next edition of this Standard is scheduled for pub-
lication in 2012.
37.6.1.2 Technical Basis Several methods are in widespread
usage in the pipeline industry for evaluating the remaining
strength of line pipe affected by metal loss caused by external or
internal corrosion. The principal methods are the original B31G,
the Modied B31G method, the Effective Area Method, and API
579 [65] Levels 1 and 2. This list, though not comprehensive of
all known methods for evaluating pipe affected by corrosion,
accounts for the vast majority of in-service corrosion assessments
performed on pipelines in the US.
The methods listed above were derived from the NG-18 log-
secant equation which describes the relationship between the
size of a longitudinally-oriented defect and the failure stress level
in a pressurized cylinder [66]. The NG-18 log-secant equation
was the result of several years of research funded by the gas
pipeline industry via the Pipeline Research Committee (now the
Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., or PRCI). NG-18
refers to the designation of the committee task group assigned to
administrate that particular research contract. The equation was
derived in several stages by various researchers starting from the
strip-yield model for a through-wall crack in an elastic-plastic
at plate in tension [67], with subsequent modication with a fac-
tor accounting for the bulging that occurs around a crack in a
pressurized cylinder [68], expression in terms of plane stress frac-
ture toughness [69], correlation of the strain energy release rate at
fracture to the Charpy V-notch upper shelf impact energy [70] and
the heuristic transformation to surface defects [66], and expres-
sion in terms of ow stress and validation testing. The NG-18
equation was validated by 130 experiments consisting of burst
tests performed on pipe specimens covering a wide range of
dimensions and strength levels with through-wall slits or surface
notches machined into them.
The complexity of the NG-18 equation presented a barrier to
ready usage in the eld in an era when digital calculators were not
necessarily widely available, let alone laptop computers. The origi-
nal B31G document contained look-up tables of acceptable length
dimensions of corroded areas depending on the maximum mea-
sured depth and the dimensions of the pipe, along with optional cal-
culations for the Safe Operating Pressure considering the
measured length and depth of the corroded area. Certain assump-
tions and simplications were imposed in order to reduce the com-
plexities of the NG-18 equation to a eld-level assessment tool,
including a simpler mathematical expression for Folias bulging
37-38 Chapter 37
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factor valid over a limited length, a limitation to pipe having suf-
cient ductility to initiate a fracture in a ductile manner, an assump-
tion that the net area of metal loss in a longitudinal section is the
same as if the corroded prole were parabolic with the same maxi-
mum length and depth dimensions as the actual defect, and approx-
imation of the ow stress as SMYS multiplied by a factor of 1.1.
B31G proved to be reliably conservative after tens of thousands
of applications in the eld or by in-line inspection (ILI), the con-
servatism inherent to the simplications caused unnecessary pipe
repairs. This led to the development of the Modied B31G
method by removing conservative simplications in an effort to
be a bit more accurate. Specically, the original but more com-
plex calculation of Folias bulging factor was restored, the ow
stress was approximated as SMYS plus 10 ksi based on a statisti-
cal t to the NG-18 test data, and the net area of metal loss in a
longitudinal cross section through the corroded area was approxi-
mated as 85% of a uniform-depth defect having the same maxi-
mum length and depth as the actual defect. [71] Hence the
Modied B31G Method is sometimes referred to as the 0.85dL
Method. (The 85% area assumption is actually more conserva-
tive than the parabolic prole assumption in B31G which assumes
the metal loss area is only 67% of that of a uniform-depth defect,
but is more accurate for long-shallow corrosion.) As a result of
these modications, the Modied B31G Method usually though
not always indicates a somewhat greater safe operating pressure
than the original B31G method.
As a further enhancement, the Effective Area Method was
developed to account as well as possible for actual metal present
by using the exact prole of a longitudinal section through the
corroded area. It examines all possible combinations along the
prole of local metal loss as reinforced by the surrounding metal.
The number of possible combinations depends on the prole dis-
cretization (there are N!/[2(N2)!] combinations to check where
N is the number of measurement points), so an algorithm in a
computer program or spreadsheet is a practical necessity. The rst
commercially available computer program making use of the
Effective Area Method was RSTRENG (for Remaining
Strength). The method exists in the public domain [72], hence it
has been written into other calculation tools available to the
pipeline industry. The Effective Area Method and the Modied
B31G Method were validated by 215 burst tests performed on
pipe containing actual corrosion defects, service failures, pipeline
hydrostatic test failures, and articial metal-loss defects [73]. It is
interesting to note that the original B31G document states that
the operator may make a more rigorous analysis of the corroded
area . . . by performing a fracture mechanics analysis based upon
established principles and practices using the actual prole of the
corroded region. This allowance for a more advanced calculation
appeared several years before the Effective Area Method was
available.
37.6.1.3 Scope B31G is applicable to all pipelines within the
scope of the pipeline codes that are part of ANSI/ASME B31
Code for Pressure Piping: i.e., ANSI/ASME B31.4, Pipeline
Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other
Liquids; B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Systems; and B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems. It
may also be applied to other types of pipelines within the scope of
ANSI/ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping within the stated
technical limitations.
B31G is intended to apply to metal loss caused by corrosion.
The corrosion may be internal or external. Prior to the 2009 edi-
tion B31G was limited only to evaluating corrosion, and only in
straight pipe. The 2009 edition expands application to other situa-
tions [74] including: metal loss produced by grinding in order to
remove mechanical damage, cracks, or other defects from the
pipe surface; metal loss in bends or elbows; metal loss that inci-
dentally affects seams or girth welds provided they are ductile and
free of workmanship defects in close proximity; metal loss of any
depth in the pipe wall; metal loss in new pipe; and metal loss in
pipe operating at elevated temperature.
Certain conditions are excluded from application of B31G.
These include: crack-like defects; mechanical damage that has not
been fully removed by grinding to a smooth contour; grooving,
selective, or preferential corrosion affecting seams or welds;
metal loss in ttings other than bends or elbows; metal loss in
pipe that is incapable of initiating fracture in a ductile manner;
pipe operating at temperatures in the creep range; and pipe where
the primary loading is axial.
37.6.1.4 Organization B31G is organized in three parts.
Section 1, Introduction describes intended applications, exclu-
sions, additional considerations, and nomenclature. It denes
analysis levels, material properties, evaluation procedures, and
safety factors. It also discusses accuracy, aw interaction, and
aw orientation.
Section 2 Evaluation Methods provides the details of con-
ducting evaluations. Section 3 Tables of Allowable Length of
Corrosion consists of tables of allowable dimensions of corro-
sion depending on the pipe size and wall thickness, from the orig-
inal B31G.
37.6.2 Considerations for Use
37.6.2.1 Flow Stress B31G presumes that the material has suf-
cient ductility to initiate fracture in a ductile manner. (The
validity and application of the assessment method is independent
of whether the ensuing fracture may propagate in a nonductile
manner.) That being the case, the evaluation essentially reduces
to strength dependency. The linear-elastic fracture mechanics
basis was extended to the elastic-plastic regime by considering
the ow stress as representative of the stress at the root of a
defect at the point of failure in a material capable of strain hard-
ening. Article 1.7 species the ow stress, S
ow
, to be one of the
following:
S
ow
= 1.1 x SMYS for plain carbon steel at temperatures
below 250 F (120 C);
S
ow
= SMYS + 10 ksi (69 MPa) for plain carbon or low-alloy
steel having SMYS not in excess of 70 ksi (483 MPa);
S
ow
equal to the average of specied yield strength and ten-
sile strength at the operating temperature for plain carbon and
low-alloy steel having SMYS not in excess of 90 ksi.
The document does not prescribe which value for S
ow
must be
used, but it notes that 1.1 x SMYS was used in the original B31G.
37.6.2.2 Safety Factors A aw is considered acceptable where
the computed failure stress is equal to or greater than the hoop
stress multiplied by a suitable safety factor. There is no single
safety factor that is suitable for all construction and location of
piping. Article 1.9 recommends that the ratio of hydrostatic pres-
sure test required for the pipeline construction and location to the
maximum allowed operating pressure is a suitable safety factor,
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but that it should not be less than 1.25 in any case. In choosing a
safety factor, consideration should be given to the accuracy of
corrosion defect measurements, corrosion growth rates, and other
factors that affect risk.
The original B31G document gave a calculation for the Safe
Operating Pressure which maintained a safety factor of 1.39 with
respect to the calculated failure pressure. The factor 1.39 is equal
to the inverse of 0.72. The Safe Operating Pressure presumed
that the pipeline operates at 72% of SMYS and establishes the
repair criterion at 100% SMYS. While this is reasonable it may
not suit all scenarios. Starting with the 2009 edition, B31G pro-
vides for calculating an estimated failure pressure. The operator
applies a factor of safety that is suitable for the circumstances to
determine a safe operating pressure.
37.6.2.3 Accuracy All methods of measuring the severity of
corrosion contain error. Accurately measuring the irregular pro-
les of corroded surfaces is notoriously difcult in the eld, or
when using indirect methods. The user should consider how mea-
surement error affects the accuracy of the assessment. Measure-
ment error can be accounted for by increasing the presumed aw
size, or by statistical means.
Clause 1.2(f) permits evaluation of metal loss of any depth, but
requires due consideration of measurement accuracy when the
depth of metal loss exceeds 80% of the pipe wall. The evaluation
methods have been validated for deeper metal loss, but measure-
ment error becomes important when the remaining wall is very
thin. The effect of expected magnitude of measurement error is
not particularly signicant when the metal loss is shallow.
37.6.2.4 Flaw Interaction The concept of aw interaction recog-
nizes that individual aws that are very closely spaced may result in
a lower failure stress than would be the case if either aw were eval-
uated and acted separately. That interaction occurs in closely-spaced
corrosion pits or crack-like aws has been demonstrated experimen-
tally and by advanced analyses. Paragraph 1.12 species that aws
that are separated by less than 3 times the wall thickness should be
considered to interact. The overall dimensions of both metal loss
features must be considered in the analysis. Figure 1.12-1, repro-
duced herein as Figure 37.8, illustrates the interaction concept.
37.6.2.5 Helically Oriented Corrosion Some pipelines are
protected against external corrosion by a wrapped coating.
Such coatings may fail to bond along the wrap seams, resulting
in moisture entry and corrosion in a helical pattern. The helical
pattern or corrosion may be quite long. Testing showed that
with helix angles less than 45 degrees to the pipe surface, the
failure pressure is governed by the worst individual longitudi-
nal profile through the helical corrosion pattern, rather than by
the total length of the helical pattern. This is illustrated in
Figure 1.13-1, reproduced herein as Figure 37.9.
37.6.2.6 Additional considerations for use Article 1.4 dis-
cusses certain additional considerations for the application of
37-40 Chapter 37
FIG. 37.8 B31G CORROSION PIT INTERACTION (Source: ASME B31G Figure 1.12-1)
FIG. 37.9 EVALUATION LENGTHS FOR HELICALLY ORIENTED CORROSION (Source: ASME B31G Figure 1.13-1)
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B31G. Pipe operating at hoop stresses below 25% SMYS may leak
due to perforation of the pipe wall. The methods embodied in
B31G presume a stress-related failure occurs and cannot assess
against that mode of failure. Also, pipe that experiences general
wall loss effectively operates at an elevated hoop stress level. Deep
pits within such regions should be evaluated accordingly.
The methods presume that failure is governed by the hoop
stress of the pipe, so the depth and axial extent of corrosion gov-
ern, but circumferential extent does not. If a pipe operates with a
higher axial tensile stress than hoop stress, regions with large cir-
cumferential extent may be more critical and are not addressed by
B31G. If a pipe operates with a large axial compressive stress,
large areas of metal loss could wrinkle or buckle. API 579-
1/ASME FFS-1 provides methods for evaluating those situations.
37.6.3 Evaluations
37.6.3.1 Level 0 The original B31G document presented exten-
sive tables arranged by applicable pipe size, presenting maximum
allowed lengths and depths of corrosion for various dimensions of
wall thickness. The tables were quite conservative, but enabled a
technician or inspector to perform a safe, reliable assessment.
Some operators nd these tables to be useful for that reason,
despite the development of more advanced assessment methods.
The tables have been retained as a Level 0 analysis. Guidance
for the use of the tables is provided in article 2.1. The tables are
collected in part 3 of the document.
37.6.3.2 Level 1 The Level 1 analyses include several methods
that rely on the maximum length and maximum depth of the cor-
roded area as input. The important dimensions are shown in
Figure 2.1-1, reproduced herein as Figure 37.10. The methods are
the original B31G calculation (which was the basis for the tables
in Level 0), the Modied B31G method, and the Level 1 calcu-
lation for metal loss areas in API 579.
37.6.3.3 Level 2 The Level 2 analysis is performed using a
detailed prole of the corroded area in accordance with the
Effective Area Method. The Level 2 calculation for metal loss
areas in API 579 is in accordance with this requirement.
37.6.3.4 Level 3 The level 3 evaluation is a user-defined
analysis which accurately accounts for all factors that could
affect the failure stress of the pipe of interest, including internal
and external forces, metal loss profile, material properties,
deformations, stress-strain behavior, ductility, and boundary
conditions. Such an analysis is likely to be performed using
finite element analysis.
37.7 ASME B31Q PIPELINE PERSONNEL
QUALIFICATION
37.7.1 History, Scope, and Organization of B31Q
37.7.1.1 History of B31Q Pipeline incidents in which human
error played a role prompted the National Transportation Safety
Board to recommend better training, testing, and qualification
of pipeline personnel in 1987. Congress amended the Pipeline
Safety Act of 1992 to include language requiring pipeline per-
sonnel to be tested and certified to operate and maintain
pipelines. A subsequent series of proposed and negotiated rule-
making activity led to issuance of a final rule by the
Department of Transportation in 1999 delineating the essential
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elements of an operator qualification (OQ) program. Owing to
continued differences between regulatory and operating organi-
zations over the process for implementing OQ requirements,
ASME undertook sponsorship of a consensus standard for
pipeline personnel qualification, culminating in the publication
of ASME B31Q in 2006. A major revision was published in
2010. The next edition of this Standard is scheduled for publi-
cation in 2013.
37.7.1.2 Scope of B31Q The standard establishes the require-
ments for developing and implementing an effective pipeline
personnel qualication program. It offers guidance and examples
of methods to meet the requirements. The standard species
requirements for identifying covered tasks, for qualifying individ-
uals for those tasks, and for managing the qualications of per-
sonnel. The goal is to minimize adverse effects of human error on
the safety and integrity of the pipeline.
The standard is applicable to personnel performing covered
tasks, which are dened as those tasks that can affect the safety or
integrity of the pipeline. An individual who performs or is responsi-
ble for such a task is an affected individual. Excluded from the
scope of these requirements are design and engineering tasks, be-
cause quality assurance is provided by appropriate education and
training, procedurally through design reviews, and ultimately by eld
inspection and testing. Also excluded are tasks intended to assure
personnel safety, as those are already covered under existing occupa-
tional safety programs and regulations.
It is noted that other operator qualication standards and guide-
lines are also in use in the hazardous liquids pipeline industry [75]
and in the gas distribution industry [76]. B31Q may serve as a
useful supplement to those guidelines.
37.7.1.3 Organization of B31Q B31Q is organized as follows.
Section 1 Introduction presents the scope, purpose, and objec-
tives. Section 2 Denitions denes terminology. Section 3
References cites external documents referred to in the standard
and which be important for its implementation. Section 4
Qualication Program describes the requirements for an effective
OQ program. Section 5 Determining Covered Tasks describes
methods that can be used to determine what tasks are covered.
Section 6 Abnormal Operating Conditions discusses require-
ments for recognition of abnormal operating conditions (AOCs).
Section 7 Training sets forth requirements for training individuals
in covered tasks. Section 8 Evaluation establishes the processes
for evaluating whether personnel have the necessary knowledge,
skills, and ability (KSA) for the tasks of concern. Section 9
Qualications describes requirements for assuring that evalua-
tions and qualications are properly conducted and managed.
Section 10 Portability, which is nonmandatory, describes require-
ments for accepting personnel evaluations and qualications estab-
lished by others. Section 11 Program Effectiveness discusses
requirements for appraising and improving the implementation and
effectiveness of the OQ program. Section 12 Communicating the
Qualication Program and Managing Program Changes discusses
how necessary information about the OQ program is to be commu-
nicated, and procedures for making changes to the OQ plan.
Section 13 Documentation Requirements establishes require-
ments for documenting the elements of the OQ program and main-
taining records. Section 14 Bibliography cites external
documents that were important to the development of B31Q. There
are eight nonmandatory Appendices that provide guidance or pro-
vide means for complying with specic requirements contained in
Sections 1 through 14.
37.7.2 Qualication Program Elements
The OQ program elements are alluded to in the brief section
descriptions above. Due to space limitations in this Chapter, only
certain major elements are reviewed.
37.7.2.1 Determining Covered Tasks Section 5 requires the
operator to determine the safety related tasks that must be covered
by the OQ plan. Three methods are recognized: a subject-matter
expert (SME) review, the fault-tree process, and the covered task
list in Appendix 5A and 5B.
In the SME review method, one or more SMEs must identify
and review all tasks in building, operating, and maintaining a
pipeline system. If a task performed for the construction, opera-
tion, or maintenance of a pipeline system can affect safety, then it
is a covered task.
In the fault tree process, nine integrity threats from B31.8S
(natural hazards, construction defects, pipe manufacturing
defects, equipment failure, internal corrosion, external corrosion,
stress-corrosion cracking, and mechanical damage) are consid-
ered. Tasks that could detect, prevent, mitigate or otherwise con-
trol the integrity threat are then covered tasks.
The third method is to review and adopt the pre-screened cov-
ered task list in Appendix 5A and 5B. Approximately 169 tasks
are identied and described in terms of a task summary; task
steps; applicability to gas transmission, liquids transmission, or
gas distribution; difculty; importance; testing interval; evaluation
method (performance, written test, or oral evaluation); and span
of control (the maximum number of nonqualied personnel per-
forming the task that a qualied individual can direct or super-
vise). Adoption of the pre-screened task list can simplify
compliance.
37.7.2.2 Abnormal Operating Conditions Failure to recog-
nize AOCs has been implicated as a contributor to some serious
pipeline incidents. Section 6 requires that qualied individuals be
able to recognize AOCs. This has been a controversial subject
because it could presume a depth of knowledge that may not be
appropriate for all personnel. Appendix 6A lists nine AOCs that
should be recognized: unplanned escape of product from the pipe;
re or explosion; unplanned pressure deviation (high or low);
unplanned ow rate deviation; pipeline damage; activation of a
safety device (e.g. pressure relief); unplanned status change (e.g.
startup or shutdown); interruption of communications, control, or
power; and reported gas odor or inadequate odorization. These
could indicate important changes in the condition of the pipeline
that may or may not be an emergency, and generally rely on little
specialized knowledge.
37.7.2.3 Evaluation Section 8 addresses evaluation, which is
the process for determining that the individual possesses adequate
KSA to perform the covered task. The evaluation process must
include policies and procedures for selecting evaluators, assuring
honest evaluations, selecting evaluation methods (performance,
written, or oral), assuring content validity, and evaluation criteria.
Appendix 8A provides guidance on developing task evaluations
by way of explanation and example.
37.7.2.4 Qualication Section 9 establishes requirements for
initial qualication and requalication; suspension, reinstatement,
or revocation of qualication; assigning qualied and nonquali-
ed personnel to tasks; and observing span-of-control ratios and
requalication intervals. The span-of-control ratios and requali-
cation intervals must consider the difculty, importance, and fre-
37-42 Chapter 37
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quency (DIF) of the task. Appendix 9A provides a procedure for
performing a task DIF analysis and rating.
37.8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Ms. Carolyn Kolovich, Senior
Engineer with Kiefner & Associates, Inc. for her careful review of
the draft and suggestions for improvement.
37.9 REFERENCES
1. U.S. Energy Information Agency, www.eia.gov
2. Association of Oil Pipelines, www.pipeline101.org
3. American Gas Association, www.aga.org
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and Federal Pipeline Safety Regulations: Implications for Todays
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5. Kiefner, J.F. and Clark, E.B., History of Line Pipe Manufacturing in
North America, ASME CRTD Vol. 43, 1996.
6. American Petroleum Institute (API) Specication 5L, Specication
for Line Pipe, 43
rd
Edition, 2007.
7. Kiefner, J.F., Evaluating the Stability of Manufacturing and
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8. Duffy, A.R., G.M. McClure, W.A. Maxey, and T.J. Atterbury, Study
of Feasibility of Basing Natural Gas Pipeline Operating Pressure on
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9. Markl, A.R.C., Piping Flexibility Analysis, Paper 53-A-51,
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10. API Recommended Practice (RP) 1102, Steel Pipelines Crossing
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th
Ed. 2007.
11. Gresnigt, A.M., Plastic Design of Buried Steel Pipelines in
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NPS 24, 2009.
13. ASME B16.9, Factory-Made Wrought Buttwelding Fittings, 2007.
14. ASME B16.34, Valves Flanged, Threaded and Welding End,
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15. ASME B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges, 2006.
16. ASME B16.49, Factory-Made Wrought Steel Buttwelding Induction
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17. Materials Standardization Society (MSS) SP-44, Steel Pipeline
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18. MSS SP-75, Specications for High Test Wrought Butt Welding
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21. Rodabaugh, E.C., A Review of Area Replacement Rules for Pipe
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23. API RP 5LW, Recommended Practice for Transportation of Line
Pipe on Barges and Marine Vessels, 3
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Ed., 2009.
24. Bruno, T.V., How to Prevent Transit Fatigue to Tubular Goods, Pipe
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26. API Standard 1104, Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities,
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27. ASME BPV, Section IX, Qualication Standard for Welding and Brazing
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28. API Standard 650, Welded Tanks for Oil Storage, 11
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Ed., 2007.
29. API Recommended Practice 1160, Managing System Integrity for
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st
Ed., 2001.
30. Alexander, C.R., and J.F. Kiefner, Effects of Smooth and Rock Dents
on Liquid Petroleum Pipelines, API Publication 1156, November 1997
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31. Rosenfeld, M.J., Hart, J.D., and Zulqar, N., Development of
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32. API RP 2200, Repairing Crude Oil, Liqueed Petroleum Gas, and
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Ed., 2010.
33. API RP 2201, Safe Hot Tapping Practices in the Petroleum &
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34. API RP 1111, Design, Construction, Operation, and Maintenance of
Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines (Limit State Design), 4
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Ed., 2009.
35. Kiefner, J.F., Whitacre, G. R., and Eiber, R. J., Further Studies of
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36. Kiefner, J. F., Bruce, W.A., and Stephens, D.R., Pipeline Repair
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39. National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) Standard
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40. NACE SP0198, Control of Corrosion Under Thermal Insulation and
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41. NACE Recommended Practice RP06-75, Control of Corrosion on
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42. Bergman, S.A., Why Not Higher Operating Pressures for Lines
Tested to 90% SMYS?, Pipeline and Gas Journal, December, 1974.
43. Brooks, L.E., High-Pressure Testing - Pipeline Defect Behavior and
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45. Maxey, W.A., Fracture Initiation, Propagation, and Arrest, Paper J,
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Symposium on Line Pipe Research, AGA Catalog No. L30174,
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46. Maxey, W.A., Kiefner, J.F., and Eiber, R.J., Ductile Fracture Arrest in
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48. Rosenfeld, M.J., A Simple Procedure for Synthesizing Charpy
Impact Energy Transition Curves from Limited Test Data, ASME 1
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IPC, Calgary, 1996.
49. API Specication 6D, Specication for Pipeline Valves, 23
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Ed., 2007.
50. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D2517,
Standard Specication for Reinforced Epoxy Resin Gas Pressure
Pipe and Fittings, 2006.
51. ASTM D2513, Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Gas
Pressure Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings, 2006.
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Basis for Gas Transmission Pipelines, PR-249-9728, PRCI, January
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53. API RP 1117, Recommended Practice for Movement of In-Service
Pipelines, 3
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54. Kiefner, J.F. and Maxey, W.A., The Benets and Limitations of
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302-03152-1, PRCI, September 30, 2004.
60. Stephens, M.J., A Model for Sizing High Consequence Areas
Associated with Natural Gas Pipelines, GTI, Topical Report GRI-
00/0189, October 2000.
61. NACE SP0502, Pipeline External Corrosion Direct Assessment
Methodology, 2010.
62. NACE SP0206, Internal Corrosion Direct Assessment Methodology
for Pipelines Carrying Normally Dry Natural Gas (DG-ICDA), 2006.
63. NACE RP0204, Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Direct Assessment
Methodology, 2004.
64. Kiefner, J.F., Criteria for Reinspection Intervals for Low-Stress Steel
Pipelines, GTI, Topical Report GRI-02/0060, 2002.
65. API 579-1/ASME FFS-1, Fitness for Service, 2
nd
Ed., 2007.
66. Kiefner, J.F., Maxey, W.A., Eiber, R.J., and Duffy, A.R., Failure
Stress Levels of Flaws in Pressurized Cylinders, ASTM STP 536,
1973.
67. Dugdale, D.S., Yielding of Steel Sheets Containing Slits, Journal of
the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, Vol. 8, 1960.
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Crack, ARL 64-174, Aerospace Research Laboratories, October
1964.
69. Hahn, G.T., Sarrate, M., and Roseneld, A.R., International Journal of
Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 5, 1969.
70. Maxey, W.A., Kiefner, J.F., Eiber, R.J., and Duffy, A.R., Ductile
Fracture Initiation, Propagation, and Arrest in Cylindrical Vessels,
ASTM STP 514, 1972.
71. Kiefner, J.F., and Vieth, P.H., A Modied Criterion for Evaluating the
Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe, Project PR 3-805, AGA
Catalog No. L 51609, December 22, 1989.
72. Kiefner, J.F., and Vieth, P.H., Evaluating Pipe 1: New Method
Corrects Criterion for Evaluating Corroded Pipe, Oil & Gas Journal,
Aug. 6, 1990, and Evaluating Pipe Conclusion: PC Program
Speeds New Criterion for Evaluating Corroded Pipe, Oil & Gas
Journal, Aug. 20, 1990.
73. Kiefner, J.F., Vieth, P.H., and Roytman, I., Continued Validation of
RSTRENG, Project PR 218-9304, AGA, Catalog No. L51749,
December 20, 1996.
74. Rosenfeld, M.J., Vieth, P.H., and Haupt, R.W., A Proposed Corrosion
Assessment and In-Service Safety Factors for Process and Power
Piping Facilities, ASME Pressure Vessels & Piping Conference,
Orlando, July 27-31, 1997, PVP Vol. 353.
75. API, Guidance Document for the Qualication of Liquid Pipeline
Personnel, Publication 1161, 1
st
Ed., 2001.
76. US DOT, PHMSA, OQ Guide for Small Distribution Systems, April
2004.
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38.1 BACKGROUND AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ASME B31.12 covers piping in gaseous and liquid hydrogen
service and pipelines in gaseous hydrogen service. This chapter is
based on the 2008 edition of B31.12 which includes three major
Parts; General Requirements (GR), Industrial Piping (IP) and Pipe-
lines (PL). Also included are mandatory appendices I through XI
and nonmandatory appendices A through F. The 2008 edition is
the rst Edition of B31.12. The next edition will be the 2011 edi-
tion and will be published in 2012.
38.1.1 History
In 2000 a request for a study of the need for a piping code for
hydrogen infrastructure was issued by the Board of Directors on
Standards and Certication (BOD S&C) to the Board on Pressure
technology Codes and Standards (BPTCS). A task group was
formed and the need for a B31 code was studied by ASME volun-
teers from ASME B31.3 and B31.8 along with technical experts
from industrial gas producing companies, pipe, pipe tting and
valve manufactures. In early 2003 a report in favor of writing a
B31 code for hydrogen piping and pipelines was sent to BPTCS
and was approved.
In the summer the BOD S&C approved the scope and creation
of B31.12. A working group was formed at this time from mem-
bers of the task group plus selected technical experts. Work pro-
gressed in drafting the code and as the rst draft sections were
ready for balloting the working group was formalized into sub-
committee B31.12 and reported to the B31 Standards committee.
Final approval was received on the complete code in late 2008
and the rst edition, the 2008 edition, was published in spring of
2009.
38.1.2 Scope
This code is applicable up to and including the joint connecting
the piping to associated pressure vessels and equipment but not to
the vessels and equipment themselves. It is applicable to the loca-
tion and type of support elements but not the structure to which
they are attached.
The design for pressure and temperature shall be in accordance
with the requirements of Part IP for industrial piping and Part PL
for pipelines. This code is presented in the following Parts:
a) Part GRGeneral Requirements. This Part contains
requirements applicable to and referenced by other Parts.
This part contains denitions and requirements for materi-
als, welding, brazing, heat treating, forming, testing,
inspection, examination, operation and maintenance. Also
this Part contains quality system topics common to other
Parts.
b) Part IP Industrial Piping. This part includes requirements
for components, design, fabrication assembly, erection,
inspection, examination and testing of piping.
c) Part PL Pipelines. This part sets forth requirements for
components, design, installation and testing of hydrogen
pipelines.
Each Part denes requirements for piping or pipelines as
applicable, within its scope. The requirements are different for
different aspects of components, design, fabrication, installation
assembly, erection, inspection, examination and testing. It is
required that each part be used in conjunction with the General
Requirements section but independent of the other parts. It is not
intended that this code be applied retroactively to existing hydro-
gen systems.
38.1.3 Intent of the Code
It is the intent of this code to set forth engineering requirements
deemed necessary for safe design, construction and installation
for piping and pipeline systems in hydrogen service. This is a
uid specic code and therefore has requirements that may not be
entirely applicable to other services. A number of the hydrogen
specic requirements are based on pressure and temperature rela-
tionships and have a direct effect on the wall thickness and mate-
rials used for the components in a hydrogen piping or pipeline
system.
The engineering requirements of this code, while considered
necessary and adequate for safe design, generally employ a sim-
plied approach. Designers capable of a more rigorous analysis
have the latitude to do so; however the approach must be docu-
mented in the engineering design and its validity must be accept-
able to the owner. Piping elements should, insofar as practicable,
conform to the specications and standards listed in this Code.
Piping elements neither specically approved nor specically pro-
hibited by this Code may be used, provided they are qualied for
use as set forth in applicable parts of this Code.
The engineering design shall specify any unusual requirements
for a particular service. Where service requirements necessitate
measures beyond those required by this Code, such measures
shall be specied by the engineering design. Where so specied,
the Code requires that they be accomplished.
This code has requirements that include specic provisions
applicable to hydrogen service. These requirements shall include,
but not be limited to, selection and application of materials,
CHAPTER
38
HYDROGEN PIPING AND PIPE LINES
Louis E. Hayden
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components and joints. Service requirements include prohibitions,
limitations and conditions, such as temperature and pressure lim-
its or a requirement for safeguarding. Code requirements for a
piping or pipeline system are established by the most restrictive
requirements that apply to any element of the system.
38.1.4 How is ASME B31.12 Developed and
Maintained
ASME B31.12 is a consensus document. It is written by a com-
mittee that aims to contain balanced representation from a variety
of interests and technologies. These include volunteer members
with the following perspectives:
(1) Manufacturer (AK)
(2) User (AW)
(3) Designer/Constructor (AC)
(4) Regulatory (AT)
(5) Insurance/Inspection (AH)
(6) General Interest (AF)
The members of the committee are not intended to be represen-
tatives of specic organizations; their membership is individual
and is considered based on qualications of the individual and
desire for balanced representation of various interest groups and
technologies.
ASME B31.12 is written as a consensus code and is intended to
reect industry practice and technology. This differs from a regu-
latory approach in which rules may be written by a government
body. Changes to the Code are prepared by the B31.12 Section
Committee. The need for change may come from the committee
members or interested parties who use the code.
The Section Committee chair assigns a technical project man-
ager from the committee. This committee member is responsible
for working on the assigned item and preparing a ballot for sec-
tion committee vote. The Section Committee as a whole to vote
on the change. Anyone who votes against the change, i.e., nega-
tively, must state their reason for doing so, which is shared with
the entire Section Committee. The responsible technical project
manager makes an effort to resolve any negatives. In fact, it is rare
for any change to go forward with more than a couple of negative
votes out of a Section Committee. However, only two-third
approval is required for the change to move forward to the next
level of approval, the B31 Standards Committee.
Any changes to the Code are forwarded to the B31 Standards
Committee along with any reasons for negative votes. In this fash-
ion, the Standards Committee is given the opportunity to see any
opposing viewpoints. If anyone on the B31 Standards Committee
votes negatively on a change, on rst consideration, the item is
returned to the Section Committee with written reasons for the
negative vote. The Section Committee must consider and respond
to any negatives, either by withdrawing or modifying the pro-
posed change or by providing explanations that respond to the
negative. If the item is returned to the Standards Committee for
second consideration, it requires a two-third approval to pass.
Once an item is passed by the Standards Committee, it is for-
warded to the Board of Pressure Technology Codes and
Standards. The Board is the nal level at which the item is voted
on within ASME. Again, any negative votes at this level returns
the item to the Section Committee and a second consideration
requires two-third approval to pass.
While the Board of Pressure Technology Codes and Standards
reports to the Council on Standards and Certication, the Council
does not vote on changes to the Code. The nal step is a public
review process. The availability of drafts is announced in two
publications: ANSIs Standards Action and ASMEs Mechanical
Engineering. Any comments from the public are considered by
the Section Committee. The described procedures help ensure
careful consideration and public review of any change to the
Code.
38.1.5 Code Editions, Errata and Code Cases
This chapter is based on the 2008 Edition which is the rst edi-
tion of ASME B31.12. This code is on a three year publication
cycle. Signicant changes can occur in each Edition. An engineer
whose practice includes process piping should keep a current
copy of the Code. New Editions may be obtained from ASME.
The elimination of addenda service can add an additional year
between the passing of a Code change and its publication. To
address this, if a Code change is considered to be sufciently
urgent, it may be issued as a Code Case. Code Cases may be used
as soon as they are approved; there is no need to wait for publica-
tion. They will be posted on the ASME B31.12 Section
Committee website. Note that Code Cases are essentially optional
rules. Errata are corrections to typographical errors and the like.
Code interpretations and errata are posted on the ASME web site.
38.1.6 How are Questions About the Code
Answered?
The B31.12 Section Committee responds to all questions on the
Code via an inquiry process. Instructions for writing a request for
an interpretation are provided in Appendix VI. The committee
will provide a strict interpretation of the existing rules. As a mat-
ter of policy, the Committee will not approve, certify, rate, or
endorse anything, nor will it act as a consultant on specic engi-
neering problems or the general understanding or application of
Code rules. Further, it will not provide explanations as to back-
ground or reasons for Code rules.
The Section Committee will answer any request for interpreta-
tion with a literal interpretation of the Code. It will not create
rules that do not exist in the Code, and will state that the Code
does not address an item if it is not specically covered by rules
written into the Code. Even if the Section Committee disagrees
with how the Code is written, it will answer in the manner it is
written, and then possibly change the Code. This strict procedure
is considered to be necessary since interpretations are often
asked because of disagreements that may be subject to contrac-
tual terms or litigation. If the Code is the binding document, it
must be as it was written at the time, not how one may like it
to have been written. Answering requests for interpretations is
one of the highest priorities in the Section Committee meetings.
The response is almost always prepared at the rst Section
Committee meeting following receipt of the request, and is then
forwarded to the inquirer by ASME staff. Interpretations are pub-
lished and posted on the committee web site for the benet of
all Code users. New interpretations, as well as errata and Code
Cases are posted on the ASME B31.12 web site, you can go to the
ASME web site, www.asme.org; click on Codes and Standards,
click on Committee Pages; click on B31 Code for Pressure
Piping; then click on B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines
Section Committee.
38.1.7 How Can Non-Committee Persons Change the
Code?
The simplest means to try to change the Code is to write a letter
suggesting a change. Any requests for revision to the Code are
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considered by the Section Committee. To increase the likelihood
of a suggested change being adopted, the individual should come
to the meeting at which the item will be discussed. ASME B31.12
Section Committee meetings are open to the public, and participa-
tion of interested parties are generally welcomed. Having a person
explain the change and the need for it is even more effective than
a letter. If you become an active participant and have appropriate
professional and technical qualications, you could be invited to
become a B31.12 Section Committee member. Your request for a
Code change may be passed to one of three technical committees
under ASME B31. These are the Fabrication and Examination
Technical Committee, the Materials Technical Committee, and
the Mechanical Design Technical Committee. These Technical
Committees exist to provide technical advice to the Section
Committees and ensure consistency among the various code
sections.
38.2 ORGANIZATION OF B31.12
As outlined in 38.1.2 this code is presented in three Parts
within one book. This is somewhat of a departure for B31 codes
but necessary due to the Parts of this code having many identical
requirements that do not need to be stated in multiple locations.
This strategy allows volunteer members to maintain this code
more efciently and provides for more efcient use of the code by
engineers. The three Parts currently in this code are General
Requirements (GR), Industrial Piping (IP) and Pipelines (PL). A
fourth Part is in process, Residential and Commercial (RC).
Additional code information is included in mandatory appen-
dices as follows:
Appendix I Design of Above Ground Hydrogen Pipeline
facilities
Appendix II Reference Standards
Appendix III Safeguarding
Appendix IV Nomenclature
Appendix V (in preparation)
Appendix VI Preparation of Technical Inquires
Appendix VII Gas Leakage and Control Criteria
Appendix VIII (in preparation)
Appendix IX Allowable Stresses and Quality Factors for
Metallic Piping, Pipeline and Bolting Materials
Nonmandatory appendices are also included to provide guid-
ance and information to code users that may help them in material
selection and design:
Appendix A Precautionary Considerations
Appendix B Alternative Rules for Evaluating Stress Range
Appendix C Recommended Practices for Proof Testing of
Pipelines in Place
Appendix D Estimating Strain in Dents
Appendix E Sample Calculations for Branch Reinforcement in
Piping
Appendix F Welded Branch Connections and Extruded Headers
in Pipeline Systems
38.2.1 Organization of the Parts of B31.12
This code is divided into three major Parts which are then
divided into Chapters within each part. The rst Part, General
Requirements (GR) is divided into six Chapters that contain the
information used by the other two Parts as referenced require-
ments. The Chapters of GR as listed as follows:
Chapter GR-1; Scope and Denitions
Chapter GR-2; Materials
Chapter GR-3; Welding, Brazing, heat treating, Forming and
Testing
Chapter GR-4; Inspection, Examination and Testing
Chapter GR-5; Operation and Maintenance
Chapter GR-6; Quality System for Hydrogen Piping and Pipeline
Systems
The second Part of this code is Industrial Piping (IP) and is
divided into ten Chapters that cover the design of piping systems.
The Chapters of IP are listed as follows:
Chapter IP-1; Scope and Responsibilities
Chapter IP-2; Design Conditions and Criteria
Chapter IP-3; Pressure Design of Piping Components
Chapter IP-4; Service Requirements for Piping Components
Chapter IP-5; Service Requirements for Piping Joints
Chapter IP-6; Flexibility and Support
Chapter IP-7; Specic Piping Systems
Chapter IP-8; Dimensions and Ratings of Components
Chapter IP-9; Fabrication, Erection and Assembly
Chapter IP-10; Inspection, Examination and Testing
The third Part of this code is Pipelines (PL) and is divided into
three Chapters that cover the design of pipeline systems. The
Chapters of PL are listed as follows:
Chapter PL-1; Scope and Exclusions
Chapter PL-2; Pipeline Systems, Components and Fabrication
Details
Chapter PL-3; Design, Installation and Testing
38.3 PART GR- GENERAL
REQUIREMENTS
38.3.1 GR-1; Scope and Denitions
The information covered in this section is general in nature.
38.3.2 GR-1.2; Responsibilities of the Code Entities
OwnerThe owner shall have overall responsibility for compli-
ance with this Code and for establishing the requirements for
design, construction, examination inspection, testing, operation,
and maintenance of the hydrogen piping or pipeline system.
Designer The designer is responsible to the owner for assur-
ance that the engineering design of piping or the pipeline system
complies with the requirements of this Code and with any addi-
tional requirements established by the owner.
Construction Organization The construction organization of
piping and pipeline systems is responsible for providing materi-
als, components, and workmanship in compliance with the
requirements of this Code and the engineering design.
Owners Inspector The owners Inspector is responsible to the
owner to verify that all required examinations, inspections, and
testing is complete. The owners Inspector veries that all
required certications and records have been completed. Also, the
owners Inspector is responsible for verication of the construc-
tion organizations quality systems program implementation.
38.3.3 GR-1.4
Piping included on packaged or skid mounted equipment is
dened as being within the scope of this code.
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38.3.4 GR-1.5
Terms and denitions are listed in this section to ensure consis-
tent use throughout this code.
38.4 PART GR; MATERIALS
This section provides information on selection of materials to
resist deterioration in hydrogen service. Table 38.4(a) [GR-2.2.1(a)]
provides an index of acceptable piping and piping component
material specications. Table 38.4 (b) [GR-2.2.1(b)] provides an
index for acceptable pipeline materials.
The tables, 38.4 (a) and 38.4 (b) show the materials that are
known as listed materials for B31.12. There are also materials
that are unsuitable for use in B31.12 designs or that must be used
with care. A few of these are:
(1) Irons Cast, Ductile, Malleable, and High Silicon
(14.5%).
Due to their lack of ductility and their sensitivity to thermal and
mechanical shock, these materials are prohibited.
(2) Carbon Steel, and Low and Intermediate Alloy Steels
(a) the possible conversion of carbides to graphite during
long-time exposure to temperatures above 427C
(800F) of carbon steels, plain nickel steel, carbon
manganese steel, manganesevanadium steel, and car-
bonsilicon steel
(b) the possible conversion of carbides to graphite during
long-time exposure to temperatures above 468C
(875F) of carbonmolybdenum steel, manganese
molybdenumvanadium steel, and chromium vanadium
steel
(c) the advantages of silicon-killed carbon steel (0.1% sil-
icon minimum) for temperatures above 482C (900F)
(d) the possibility of damage due to hydrogen exposure at
elevated temperature (see API RP 941)
(e) the possibility of suldation in the presence of hydro-
gen sulde at elevated temperatures
(3) Nickel and Nickel Base Alloys
(a) should be avoided due to hydrogen embrittlement
concerns
(b) should be avoided in services where the material can
be susceptible to grain boundary attack
(c) nickel and nickel base alloys not containing chromium
when exposed to small quantities of sulfur at temper-
atures above 316C (600F)
(d) nickel base alloys containing chromium at temperatures
above 593C (1,100F) under reducing conditions.
38.4.1 GR-2.1.3 Impact Testing Methods and
Acceptance Criteria
Materials used in B31.12 construction, particularly carbon and
low alloy steels should have a minimum toughness that allow
them to perform in a hydrogen environment. Hydrogen service
can cause embrittlement to these materials and lower their ability
to sustain impact or cyclic loading. Their toughness is one charac-
teristic that can guide an engineer as to an alloys suitability for
hydrogen service. Minimum Charpy impact values for materials
with specied minimum tensile strengths less than 656 MPa (95
ksi) shall be those shown used in B31.12 construction are as
shown in Table 38.3.6(a). Other carbon and low alloy steels
having specied minimum tensile strengths equal to or greater than
656 MPa (95 ksi), all bolting materials, and all high alloy steels
(P-Nos. 6, 7, and 8) shall have a lateral expansion opposite the
notch of not less than 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) for all specimen sizes.
38.5 GR-3 WELDING, BRAZING, HEAT
TREATING, FORMING, AND TESTING
This chapter provides all the common requirements for weld-
ing, brazing, heat treating, forming and testing of welded and
brazed joints, qualication of the welding and brazing procedures
and qualication of the welders and brazers to those procedures.
Additional specic requirements are provided in Parts IP and PL.
ASME Section IX Welding Code and API Standard 1104 are
allowed for qualifying welding procedures and welders for Part
PL and ASME Section IX is used for the same qualications
when working in Part IP. The balance of the welding discussion is
fairly straight forward and conforms to most industry practices
used in pipe welding.
38.5.1 Gr-3.5 Preheating of Weldments
Preheating of carbon and low alloy steels used in construction
of hydrogen piping and pipeline systems is very important. The
need for preheat in most cases is to minimize the hydrogen intro-
duced into the weld during welding. The use of low hydrogen
welding consumables along with preheat is a major step in keep-
ing levels of hydrogen low in the weld and heat effected zone of
the weld. The preheat temperature shall be maintained during the
weld process. If welding is interrupted, the rate of cooling shall be
controlled or other means shall be used to prevent detrimental
effects in the piping. The preheat specied in the WPS shall be
applied before welding is resumed.
38.6 GR-4 INSPECTION, EXAMINATION
AND TESTING
This Code distinguishes between inspection, examination, and
testing. Inspection applies to functions performed for the owner
by the owners Inspector or the Inspectors delegates. References
in this Code to the Inspector are to the owners Inspector or the
Inspectors delegates. Examination applies to quality control func-
tions performed by the manufacturer (for components only), fab-
ricator, or erector. Reference in this Code to an examiner is to a
person who performs quality control examinations. After con-
struction of the piping system and after completion of the applica-
ble examinations and repairs, but prior to the initial operation,
each piping system shall be tested to ensure tightness. The test
method and extent of testing shall be as required by the applicable
Part IP or PL.
38.7 GR-5 OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE
This Chapter references operating and maintenance procedures
affecting the safety of hydrogen transmission and distribution
facilities. Because of the many different hydrogen uid services
and many different types of piping and pipeline systems
addressed by this Code, it is not possible to prescribe a detailed set
of operating and maintenance procedures that will encompass all
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TABLE 38. 4 (A) MATERIAL SPECIFICATION INDEX FOR PIPING AND PIPE COMPONENTS
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table GR-2.1.2(a))
Spec. No. Title
ASTM
A 36 Carbon Structural Steel [Note (1)]
A 53 Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded and Seamless [Note (2)]
A 105 Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping Applications [Note (2)]
A 106 Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service [Note (2)]
A 134 Pipe, Steel, Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded (Sizes NPS 16 and Over) [Note (1)]
A 135 Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe [Note (2)]
A 139 Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Steel Pipe (NPS 4 and Over) [Note (2)]
A 167 Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip [Note (2)]
A 179 Seamless Cold-Drawn Low-Carbon Steel Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes [Note (2)]
A 181 Carbon Steel Forgings for General-Purpose Piping [Note (2)]
A 182 Forged or Rolled Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature
Service [Note (2)]
A 204 Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Molybdenum [Note (2)]
A 213 Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger Tubes
A 216 Steel Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Welding, for High-Temperature Service
A 234 Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for Moderate and High Temperature Service [Note (2)]
A 240 Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications
[Note (3)]
A 249 Welded Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger, and Condenser Tubes
A 269 Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
A 283 Low and Intermediate Tensile Strength Carbon Steel Plates [Note (1)]
299 Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, Manganese-Silicon [Note (2)]
A 302 Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Manganese-Molybdenum and Manganese- Molybdenum-Nickel [Note (2)]
A 312 Seamless, Welded, and Heavily Cold Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes [Note (2)] A 333Seamless and Welded Steel
Pipe for Low-Temperature Service [Notes (2) and (4)]
A 334 Seamless and Welded Carbon and Alloy-Steel Tubes for Low-Temperature Service [Notes (2) and (4)]
A 335 Seamless Ferritic Alloy-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service [Note (2)]
A 350 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Forgings Requiring Notch Toughness Testing for Piping Components [Note (2)]
A 358 Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Pipe for High- Temperature Service and General
Applications
A 369 Carbon and Ferritic Alloy Steel Forged and Bored Pipe for High-Temperature Service
A 376 Seamless Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-Station Service
A 381 Metal-Arc-Welded Steel Pipe for Use With High-Pressure Transmission Systems [Note (2)]
A 387 Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum [Note (5)]
A 403 Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping Fittings
A 409 Welded Large Diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for Corrosive or High-Temperature Service
A420 Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for Low-Temperature Service [Note (2)]
A 451 Centrifugally Cast Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
A 479 Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes for Use in Boilers and Other Pressure Vessels [Note (3)]
A 516 Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, for Moderate- and Lower-Temperature Service [Note (5)]
A 524 Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures [Note (2)] A 537 Pressure Vessel Plates, Heat-
Treated, Carbon-Manganese-Silicon Steel [Note (5)]
A 587 Electric-Resistance-Welded Low-Carbon Steel Pipe for the Chemical Industry [Note (2)]
A 671 Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures [Note (2)]
A 672 Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Service at Moderate Temperatures [Note (2)]
A 691 Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe, Electric-Fusion-Welded for High-Pressure Service at High Temperatures [Note (2)]
B 21 Naval Brass Rod, Bar, and Shapes
B 26 Aluminum-Alloy Sand Castings
B 42 Seamless Copper Pipe, Standard Sizes
B 43 Seamless Red Brass Pipe, Standard Sizes
B 61 Steam or Valve Bronze Castings [Note (6)]
B 62 Composition Bronze or Ounce Metal Castings [Note (6)] B 68 Seamless Copper Tube, Bright Annealed
B 75 Seamless Copper Tube
B 88 Seamless Copper Water Tube
B 96 Copper-Silicon Alloy Plate, Sheet, Strip, and Rolled Bar for General Purposes and Pressure Vessels
B 98 Copper-Silicon Alloy Rod, Bar and Shapes
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TABLE 38. 4 (A) MATERIAL SPECIFICATION INDEX FOR PIPING AND PIPE COMPONENTS (CONTD)
Spec. No. Title
B 127 Nickel-Copper Alloy (UNS N04400) Plate, Sheet, and Strip
B 133 Copper Rod, Bar, and Shapes
B 148 Aluminum-Bronze Sand Castings
B 150 Aluminum Bronze Rod, Bar, and Shapes
B 152 Copper Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Rolled Bar
B 165 Nickel-Copper Alloy (UNS N04400) Seamless Pipe and Tube
B 169 Aluminum Bronze Plate, Sheet, Strip, and Rolled Bar
B 171 Copper-Alloy Condenser Tube Plates
B 187 Copper Bar, Bus Bar, Rod, and Shapes
B 209 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Sheet and Plate
B 210 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Drawn Seamless Tubes
B 211 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Bar, Rod, and Wire
B 221 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Extruded Bars, Rods, Wire, Proles, and Tubes
B 241 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Seamless Pipe and Seamless Extruded Tube
B 247 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Die Forgings, Hand Forgings, and Rolled Ring Forgings
B 280 Seamless Copper Tube for Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Field Service
B 283 Copper and Copper-Alloy Die Forgings (Hot-Pressed)
B 345 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Seamless Pipe and Seamless Extruded Tube for Gas and Oil Transmission and Distribution
Piping Systems
B 361 Factory-Made Wrought Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Welding Fittings
B 466 Seamless Copper-Nickel Pipe and Tube
B 467 Welded Copper-Nickel Pipe
B 491 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Extruded Round Tubes for General-Purpose Applications
B 547 Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Formed and Arc-Welded Round Tube API 5 L Line Pipe [Note (2)]
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) The design pressure shall not exceed 15,000 psi for all materials unless otherwise noted, provided the material suitability is demonstrated
by tests in hydrogen, such as per KD-10 of ASME BPV Code Section VIII, Division 3.
(b) See Appendix II for reference dates of specications.
NOTES:
(1) For nonpressure applications only.
(2) The design pressure shall not exceed 6,000 psi unless the material suitability is demonstrated by tests in hydrogen, such as per KD-10 of
ASME BPV Code Section VIII, Division 3.
(3) Austenitic grades only.
(4) Grades containing Ni additions above 0.50 shall not be used.
(5) The design pressure shall not exceed 4,500 psi unless the material suitability is demonstrated by tests in hydrogen, such as per KD-10 of
ASME BPV Code Section VIII, Division 3.
(6) Brass and bronze castings that are polymer impregnated should not be used.
cases. It is possible, however, for each operating company to
develop operating and maintenance procedures based on the pro-
visions of this Code, its experience, and its knowledge of its facil-
ities and conditions under which they are operated that will be
adequate from the standpoint of public safety.
38.7.1 GR-5.2 Operation and Maintenance Plan
Each operating company having industrial piping, pipeline, and
commercial and residential systems within the scope of this Code
shall
(a) have a written plan covering operating and maintenance
procedures in accordance with the requirements of this
Code.
(b) have an emergency plan covering facility failure, acci-
dents, leakage, and other emergencies.
(c) operate and maintain its facilities in conformance with
these plans.
(d) modify the plans from time to time as experience dictates,
and as exposure of the public to the facilities and changes
in operating conditions require.
(e) provide training for employees in procedures established
for their operating and maintenance functions. The training
shall be comprehensive and designed to prepare employees
for service in their area of responsibility.
(f) prepare and maintain records showing successful imple-
mentation of above items (a) through (e).
38.7.1(a) GR-5.2.1 Essential Features of the Operating
and Maintenance Plan
(a) Content. The plan prescribed in para.38.7.1 [GR-5.2(a)]
shall contain detailed instructions for employees covering
operating and maintenance procedures for hydrogen facili-
ties during normal operations and repairs, and either (1) or
(2) as described below
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COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-7
TABLE 38. 4 (B) MATERIAL SPECIFICATION INDEX FOR PIPELINES
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table GR-2.1.2(b))
Spec. No. Grade Description
ASTM
A 53
A 53
A 106
A 106
A 106
A
B
A
B
C
Electric resistance welded, seamless 30,000 psi
Electric resistance welded, seamless 35,000 psi
Seamless 30,000 psi
Seamless 35,000 psi
Seamless 40,000 psi
A 135
A 135
A
B
Electric resistance welded 30,000 psi
Electric resistance welded 35,000 psi
A 139
A 139
A 139
A 139
A 139
A
B
C
D
E


A 333 1 Seamless, electric resistance welded 30,000 psi
A 333 6 Seamless, electric resistance welded 35,000 psi
A 333 10 Seamless, electric resistance welded 65,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-35 double submerged-arc welded 35,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-42 double submerged-arc welded 42,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-46 double submerged-arc welded 46,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-48 double submerged-arc welded 48,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-50 double submerged-arc welded 50,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-52 double submerged-arc welded 52,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-56 double submerged-arc welded 56,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-60 double submerged-arc welded 60,000 psi
A 381 . . . Class Y-65 double submerged-arc welded 65,000 psi [Note (1)]
API
API 5L A Electric resistance welded, double submerged-arc welded 30,000 psi
API 5L
API 5L
API 5L
B
42
52
Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded 35,000 psi
Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded 42,000 psi
Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded

52,000 psi
API 5L
API 5L
API 5L
56
60
65
Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded 56,000 psi
Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded 60,000 psi

Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded

65,000 psi [Note (1)]
API 5L 70 Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded 70,000 psi [Note (1)]
API 5L 80 Electric resistance welded, seamless, double submerged-arc welded 80,000 psi [Note (1)]
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) The maximum operating pressure (MOP) shall not exceed 3,000 psi for all materials unless other- wise noted, provided the material
suitably is demonstrated by tests in hydrogen, such as per KD-10 of ASME BPV Code Section VIII, Division 3.
(b) Grades containing Ni additions above 0.50 shall not be used
(c) See Appendix II for reference dates of specications.
NOTE:
(1) MOP shall be less than 1,500 psi
Electric fusion welded 35,000 psi
Electric fusion welded 42,000 psi
Electric fusion welded 46,000 psi
Electric fusion welded 52,000 psi
Electric fusion welded 30,000 psi
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(1) items describing piping maintenance requirements,
transmission pipeline maintenance and distribution
pipeline maintenance.
(2) integrity management program as prescribed in
ASME B31.8S, as modied by (b) and (c) below.
Plans shall give particular attention to those portions
of the facilities presenting the greatest hazard to the
public, either in the event of an emergency or
because of construction or extraordinary maintenance
requirements.
(b) Integrity Management of Piping Systems. The integrity
management process for industrial piping shall use ASME
B31.8S as a basis. ASME B31.8S was written to provide
guidance for integrity management of pipeline systems,
and therefore contains requirements, information, and ter-
minology that are not always applicable to piping systems.
The methods set forth in B31.8S are applicable to all pip-
ing systems not just natural gas pipelines and distribution
systems. Compatibility of all materials used with hydrogen
shall be factored into the integrity management process.
The guidance provided by ASME B31.8S shall be fol-
lowed with modications as stated in (1) through (5)
below:
(1) The following suggested listing of failure mode fac-
tors for industrial piping shall be used in place of
those listed in para. 2.2 of ASME B31.8S:
(a) external corrosion
(b) internal corrosion
(c) hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) and conse-
quent reduction of physical properties
(d) fatigue
(e) manufacturing defects
(1) defective pipe seam
(2) defective pipe
(f) welding/fabrication/erection related
(1) defective pipe girth weld
(2) defective attachment weld
(3) defective pipe threads/ange facing
(4) improperly hung/supported pipe
(g) equipment
(1) gasket, O-ring, packing failure
(2) valve failure
(3) pressure regulator failure
(4) compressor, pump failure
(h) mechanical damage
(1) damage inicted by rst, second, or third
party with immediate failure
(2) damage with delayed failure
(3) vandalism
(i) operation
(1) incorrect or inadequate operational
procedure
(2) operator error
(j) weather related or outside force
(1) cold/hot weather
(2) heavy rain/ood
38-8 Chapter 38
TABLE 38.4 (C) MINIMUM REQUIRED CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT VALUES
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table GR-2.1.3(e))
Energy [Note (2)]
Fully Deoxidized Steels
Other Than Fully Deoxidized
Steels
Specied Minimum Tensile Strength Number of Specimens Joules ft-lbf Joules
ft-lbf
[Note (1)]
(a) Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
448 MPa (65 ksi) and less Average for 3 specimens
18 13 14 10
Minimum for 1 specimen 16 10 10 7
Over 448 to 517 MPa (75 ksi) Average for 3 specimens 20 15 18 13
Minimum for 1 specimen 16 12 14 10
Over 517 but not including Average for 3 specimens 27 20 . . . . . .
Minimum for 1 specimen 20 15 . . . . . .
Lateral Expansion
656 MPa and over [Note (3)] Minimum for 3 specimens 0.38 mm (0.015 in.)
(b) Steels in P-Nos. 6, 7, and 8 Minimum for 3 specimens 0.38 mm (0.015 in.)
NOTES:
(1) See para. GR-2.1.3(e)(4) for permissible retests.
(2) Energy values in this Table are for standard size specimens. For subsize specimens, these values shall be multiplied by the ratio of the
actual specimen width to that of a full-size specimen, 10 mm (0.394 in.).
(3) For bolting of this strength level in nominal sizes M 52 (2 in.) and under, the impact requirements of ASTM A 320 may be applied. For
bolting over M 52, requirements of this Table shall apply.
656 MPa (95 ksi)
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(3) lightning
(4) windstorm
(5) earth movement
This listing is for illustrative purposes and may not be a com-
plete listing of specic piping system threats. The balance of this
section of B31.12 covers pipeline operation and maintenance
which are very similar to B31.8 requirements.
38.8 GR-6 QUALITY SYSTEM PROGRAM
FOR HYDROGEN PIPING AND
PIPELINE SYSTEMS
This Chapter provides requirements for development of Quality
System Programs. The purpose of these programs is to ensure the
required level of construction quality is achieved for all hydrogen
piping and pipeline systems. The Quality System Program (QSP)
shall follow the Quality System description of this Chapter, which
applies to all Parts of this Code following the principles of the
appropriate ANSI/ASQC Q9000 series standards.
The program may require amendments or revisions to include
specic project and jurisdictional requirements for hydrogen
installations.
Each construction organization shall be responsible for devel-
oping a QSP. The Quality System shall include a quality manual,
quality policy and objective, structure of organization, docu-
mented procedures, work instructions, a quality plan, and docu-
ment and data control. The Quality System shall provide for
interface with the owner and jurisdiction. The QSP shall be
reviewed for acceptance by the owner and shall be subject to
jurisdictional participation.
38.9 PART IP- 2 DESIGN CONDITIONS AND
CRITERIA
Rules for this Part have been developed for hydrogen service
included in petroleum reneries, refueling stations, chemical
plants, power generation plants, semiconductor plants, cryogenic
plants, hydrogen fuel appliances and related facilities.
This Part includes requirements for materials and components,
design, fabrication, assembly, erection, inspection, examination,
testing, operation, and maintenance of piping, and applies to pip-
ing for liquid and gaseous hydrogen and joints connecting piping
to equipment.
38.9.1 IP- 1.1.2 Exclusions
(a) This Part excludes tubes, tube headers, crossovers, and
manifolds of red heaters, which are internal to the heater
enclosure, and pressure vessels, heat exchangers, pumps,
compressors, and other uid handling or processing equip-
ment, including internal piping and connections for exter-
nal piping.
(b) A high pressure uid service is a uid service for which
the owner species the use of ASME B31.3, Chapter IX
for piping design and construction. High pressure is con-
sidered herein to be pressure in excess of that allowed by
the ASME B16.5 Class 2500 rating for the specied
design temperature and material group. However, there are
no specied pressure limitations for the application of
these rules. When piping is designated by the owner as
being in high pressure uid service, it shall meet the
requirements of ASME B31.3, Chapter IX for materials
and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection,
inspection, examination, and testing. A material perfor-
mance factor, Mf, shall be applied to the allowable stress,
S, in all minimum wall thickness or pressure calculations.
38.9.2 IP- 2.1.2 Design Pressure and IP-2.1.4 Design
Temperature
(a) The design pressure of each component in a piping system
shall be not less than the pressure at the most severe condi-
tion of coincident internal or external pressure and temper-
ature (minimum or maximum) expected during service.
(b) The most severe condition is that which results in the great-
est required component thickness and the highest compo-
nent rating.
(c) When more than one set of pressuretemperature condi-
tions exist for a piping system, the conditions governing the
rating of components conforming to listed standards may
differ from the conditions governing the rating of compo-
nents designed in accordance with Chapter IP-3.
(d) When a pipe is separated into individualized pressure-
containing chambers (including jacketed piping, blanks,
etc.), the partition wall shall be designed on the basis of the
most severe coincident temperature (minimum or maxi-
mum) and differential pressure between the adjoining
chambers expected during service.
(e) The design temperature of each component in a piping sys-
tem is the temperature at which, under the coincident pres-
sure, the greatest thickness or highest component rating is
required in accordance with para (d) above. To satisfy the
requirements of para (d), different components in the same
piping system may have different design temperatures. In
establishing design temperatures, consider at least the uid
temperatures, ambient temperatures, solar radiation, heat-
ing or cooling medium temperatures.
38.9.3 IP- 2.2.7 Basis for Design Stresses
The design stress allowable for 31.12 piping systems are the
same as those for B31.3 at design temperature. As an example,
the basic allowable stress values at temperature for materials other
than bolting materials shall not exceed the following:
(1) the lower of one-third of S
T
and one-third of tensile strength
at temperature
(2) except as provided in (3) below, the lower of two-thirds of
S
Y
and two-thirds of yield strength at temperature
(3) for austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys having simi-
lar stressstrain behavior, the lower of two thirds of SY and
90% of yield strength at temperature
(4) 100% of the average stress for a creep rate of 0.01% per
1 000 h
(5) 67% of the average stress for rupture at the end of 100 000 h
(6) 80% of the minimum stress for rupture at the end of 100 000 h
(7) for structural grade materials, the basic allowable stress
shall be 0.92 times the lowest value determined in (1)
through (6) above
(8) in the application of these criteria, the yield strength at
room temperature is considered to be S
Y
R
Y
and the tensile
strength at room temperature is considered to be 1.1S
T
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38.10 IP-3 PRESSURE DESIGN OF PIPING
COMPONENTS
Components manufactured in accordance with standards listed
in Table IP-8.1 shall be considered suitable for use at
pressuretemperature ratings in accordance with para. IP-2.2.2 or
para IP-2.2.3, as applicable. The rules in para. IP-3.2 are intended
for pressure design of components not covered in Table IP-8.1,
but may be used for a special or more rigorous design of such
components, or to satisfy requirements of para. IP-2.2.3. Designs
shall be checked for adequacy of mechanical strength under
applicable loadings.
38.10.1 Methods for Internal Pressure Design
The ASME B31.12 Code provides four basic methods for
design of components for internal pressure, as described in para.
IP-3.2 and IP-3.8.
(1) Components in accordance with listed standards for which
pressure ratings are provided in the standard, such as
ASME B16 standards, are considered suitable by ASME
B31.12 the for the pressure rating specied in the standard.
Note that other methods of pressure design provided in
ASME B31.12 can be used to rerate such listed compo-
nents and/or extend their temperature range.
(2) Some listed standards, such as ASME B16.9 for pipe t-
tings, state that the tting has the same pressure rating as
matching seamless pipe. ASME B31.12 modies this
slightly by stating that the ttings are accepted to have the
same rating as the matching seamless pipe, considering
only 87.5% of the wall thickness less corrosion allowance
or threading allowance. This takes into consideration the
typical mill tolerance for pipe. Note that design calcula-
tions are not usually performed for these components;
design calculations are performed for the straight pipe, and
matching ttings are simply selected.
(3) Design equations for some components, such as straight
pipe and branch connections, are provided in para. IP-3.2.1
of ASME B31.12. These can be used to determine the
required wall thickness with respect to internal pressure of
components. Furthermore, some specic branch connec-
tion designs are assumed to be acceptable.
(4) Components that are not in accordance with a listed stan-
dard and for which design equations are not provided in
the Code are subject to the directives of para. IP-3.8.2.
This paragraph provides accepted methods, such as burst
testing, to determine the pressure capacity of unlisted
components.
38.10.2 IP-3.2 Straight Pipe
(a) The required thickness of straight sections of pipe shall be
determined in accordance with eq. (2)
t
m
t c (2)
The minimum thickness, T, for the pipe selected, considering
the manufacturers minus tolerance, shall be not less than t
m
.
(b) The following nomenclature is used in the equations for
pressure design of straight pipe:
c sum of the mechanical allowances (thread or groove
depth) plus corrosion and erosion allowances. For
threaded components, the nominal thread depth
(dimension h of ASME B1.20.1 or equivalent) shall
apply. For machined surfaces or grooves where the
tolerance is not specied, the tolerance shall be
assumed to be 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) in addition to the
specied depth of the cut.
D outside diameter of pipe as listed in tables of stan-
dards or specications, or as measured
d inside diameter of pipe. For pressure design calcula-
tion, the inside diameter of the pipe is the maximum
value allowable under the purchase specication.
E quality factor from Table IX-2 or Table IX-3A
M
f
material performance factor that addresses loss of
material properties associated with hydrogen as ser-
vice. See Mandatory Appendix IX for performance
factor tables and application notes.
P internal design gage pressure
S stress value for material from Table IX-1A
T pipe wall thickness (measured or minimum per pur-
chase specication)
t pressure design thickness, as calculated in accordance
with para. IP-3.2.1 for internal pressure or as deter-
mined in accordance with para. IP-3.2.2 for external
pressure
t
m
minimum required thickness, including mechanical,
corrosion, and erosion allowances
W weld joint strength reduction factor per para. IP-
2.2.10
Y coefcient from Table IP-3.2, valid for t < D/6 and for
materials shown. The value of Y may be interpolated
for intermediate temperatures.
(d 2c)/(D d 2c) for t D/6
38.10.3 IP-3.2.1 Straight Pipe Under Internal Pressure
For t < D/6, the internal pressure design thickness for straight
pipe shall be not less than that calculated in accordance with
either eq. (3a) or (3b):
(3a)
(3b) t =
PD
2[SEWM
f
+ P(1 - Y)]
t =
PD
2(SEWM
f
+ PY)
38-10 Chapter 38
TABLE 38.10.2 VALUES OF COEFFICIENT Y FOR T < D/6
(Source: ASME B31 .12 2008 edi ti on Table IP-3.2)
Temperature, C (F) 482& Lower 510 (950) 538 (1,000) 566 (1,050) 593 (1,100) 621 (1,150 & Up)
Materials:
Ferritic steels 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Austenitic steels 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7
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For t D/6 or for P/SEWM
f
> 0.385, calculation of pressure
design thickness for straight pipe requires special consideration of
factors such as theory of failure, effects of fatigue, and thermal
stress.
38.10.4 Material Performance Factor M
f
The material performance factor has been added to equations
(3a) and (3b) to address the loss of mechanical properties of car-
bon and low alloy steels in hydrogen service. The factors were
developed after an extensive literature search focusing on the
change in physical properties of steels normally used in hydrogen
piping systems. The tables IX-5(b) and IX-5 (c) were stated using
system design ranges to the decrease in the material performance
with increase in system pressure. The literature search also
included a review of the effect of temperature on hydrogen em-
brittlement. The notes for both tables indicate that the material
performance factors are used within the temperature range of rec-
ommended lowest service temperature up to 300 F (150 C). For
temperatures outside this range the values shown in Table IX-1A
applies. For design temperatures above this range the engineer
should refer to API RP 941 for guidance. The material perfor-
mance factors M
f
are shown in Table 38.10.3.
38.10.5 IP-3.2.2 Straight Pipe Under External
To determine wall thickness and stiffening requirements for
straight pipe under external pressure, the procedure outlined in
ASME BPV Code Section VIII, Division 1, UG-28 through UG-
30 shall be followed, using as the design length, L, the running
centerline length between any two sections stiffened in accor-
dance with UG-29. As an exception, for pipe with Do/t < 10, the
value of S to be used in determining Pa
2
shall be the lesser of the
following values for pipe material at design temperature:
(a) 1.5 times the stress value from Table IX-1A of this Code
(b) 0.9 times the yield strength tabulated in ASME BPV Code
Section II, Part D, Table Y-1 for materials listed therein
(The symbol Do in ASME BPV Code Section VIII is
equivalent to D in this Code.)
38.10.6 IP-3.4.1 Strength of Branch Connections
A pipe having a branch connection is weakened by the opening
that must be made in it and, unless the wall thickness of the pipe
is sufciently in excess of that required to sustain the pressure, it
is necessary to provide added reinforcement. The amount of rein-
forcement required to sustain the pressure shall be determined in
accordance with para. IP-3.4.2 or IP-3.4.3. There are, however,
certain branch connections which have adequate pressure strength
or reinforcement as constructed. It may be assumed without cal-
culation that a branch connection has adequate strength to sustain
the internal and external pressure which will be applied to it if
(a) the branch connection utilizes a listed tting in accordance
with Chapter IP-3.
(b) the branch connection is made by welding a threaded or
socket welding coupling or half coupling directly to the
run in accordance with para. GR-3.4.9 provided the size of
the branch does not exceed DN 50 (NPS 2) nor one-fourth
the nominal size of the run. The minimum wall thickness
of the coupling anywhere in the reinforcement zone (if
threads are in the zone, wall thickness is measured from
root of thread to minimum outside diameter) shall be not
less than that of the unthreaded branch pipe. In no case
shall a coupling or half coupling have a rating less than
Class 3000 per ASME B16.11.
(c) the branch connection utilizes an unlisted branch connec-
tion tting (see para. GR-1.2), provided the tting is made
from materials listed in Mandatory Appendix IX, Table
IX-1A and provided that the branch connection is qualied
as required by para. IP-3.8.2.
38.10.7 IP-3.4.2 Reinforcement of Welded Branch
Connections
The pressure design of branch connections is based on a rather
simple approach, although the resulting design calculations are
the most complex of the design by formula approaches provided
in the Code. A branch connection cuts a hole in the run pipe. The
metal removed is no longer available to carry the forces due to
internal pressure. An area replacement concept is used for those
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-11
TABLE 38.10.3 CARBON STEEL PIPING MATERIALS PERFORMANCE FACTOR, M
f

(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table IX-5B (appendix IX))
Specied Min. Strength, ksi System Design Pressure, psig
Tensile Yield 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
70 and under 52 1.0 0.948 0.912 0.884 0.860 0.839
Over 70 through 75 56 0.930 0.881 0.848 0.824 0.800 0.778
Over 75 through 80 65 0.839 0.796 0.766 0.745 0.724 0.706
Over 80 through 90 80 0.715 0.678 0.645 0.633 0.618 0.600
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Tables IX-5A, IX-5B, and IX-5C are for use in designing carbon steel, low, and intermediate alloy piping and pipeline systems that will
have a design temperature within the hydrogen embrittlement range of the selected material [recommended lowest service temperature
up to 150C (300F)]. If the system design temperature is out of this range, use the design allowable stresses from Table IX-1A for pip-
ing or the specied minimum yield strength for pipelines from Table IX-1B.
(b) Tables IX-5B and IX-5C were developed for piping systems and as such the design factors are based on the specied minimum tensile
strength of the material ranges shown.
(c) Design factors may be calculated by interpolation between pressures shown in the tables.
(d) For materials not covered by Tables IX-5A, IX-5B, and IX-5C, use the allowable stresses in Table IX-1A.
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branch connections that either do not comply with listed standards
or with certain designs. The area of metal removed by cutting the
hole, to the extent that it was required for internal pressure, must
be replaced by extra metal in a region around the branch connec-
tion. Sample problems illustrating the calculations for branch
reinforcement are shown in Nonmandatory Appendix E.
(a) The nomenclature below is used in the pressure design of
branch connections. It is illustrated in Fig. IP-3.4.2, which
does not indicate details for construction or welding. Some
of the terms dened in Appendix E, para. E-2 are subject
to further denitions or variations, as follows:
b subscript referring to branch
d
1
effective length removed from pipe at branch
[Db 2(Tb c)]/sin for branch intersections
where the branch opening is a projection of the
branch pipe inside diameter (e.g., pipe-to-pipe fab-
ricated branch)
d
2
half-width of reinforcement zone
d
1
or (T
b
c) (T
h
c) d
1
/2, whichever is
greater, but in any case not more than D
h
h subscript referring to run or header
L
4
height of reinforcement zone outside of run pipe
2.5(T
h
c) or 2.5(T
b
c) T
r
, whichever is less
T
b
branch pipe thickness (measured or minimum per
purchase specication) except for branch connec-
tion ttings (see para. GR-1.2). For such connec-
tions, the value of T
b
for use in calculating L
4
, d
2
,
and A
3
is the thickness of the reinforcing barrel
(minimum per purchase specication), provided
that the barrel thickness is uniform and extends at
least to the L
4
limit (see Fig. IP-3.4.2).
T
h
header pipe thickness (measured or minimum per
purchase specication)
T
r
minimum thickness of reinforcing ring or saddle made
from pipe (use nominal thickness if made from plate)
0, if there is no reinforcing ring or saddle
t pressure design thickness of pipe, according to the
appropriate wall thickness equation or procedure in
para. IP-3.2. For welded pipe, when the branch
does not intersect the longitudinal weld of the run,
the basic allowable stress, S, for the pipe may be
used in determining t
h
for the purpose of reinforce-
ment calculation only. When the branch does inter-
sect the longitudinal weld of the run, the product
SEW {of the stress value, S, the appropriate weld
joint quality factor, Ej, from Table IX-3A, and the
weld joint strength reduction factor, W [see para.
IP-2.2.10(a)]} for the run pipe shall be used in the
calculation. The product SEW of the branch shall
be used in calculating t
h
.
smaller angle between axes of branch and run
(b) Required Reinforcement Area. The reinforcement area, A
1
,
required for a branch connection under internal pressure is
A
1
t
h
d
1
(2 sin ) (6)
For a branch connection under external pressure, area A
1
is
one-half the area calculated by eq. (6), using as t
h
the
thickness required for external pressure.
(c) Available Area. The area available for reinforcement is
dened as
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
1
(6a)
These areas are all within the reinforcement zone and are
further dened below.
(1) Area A
2
is the area resulting from excess thickness in
the run pipe wall
A
2
(2d
2
d
1
)(T
h
t
h
c) (7)
(2) Area A
3
is the area resulting from excess thickness in
the branch pipe wall
A
3
2L
4
(Tb tb C)/sin B (8)
If the allowable stress for the branch pipe wall is less than
that for the run pipe, its calculated area must be reduced in
the ratio of allowable stress values of the branch to the run
in determining its contributions to area A
3
.
(3) Area A
4
is the area of other metal provided by welds
and properly attached reinforcement. Weld areas
shall be based on the minimum dimensions specied
in para. GR-3.4.9, except that larger dimensions may
be used if the welder has been specically instructed
to make the welds to those dimensions.
(d) Reinforcement Zone. The reinforcement zone is a parallel-
ogram whose length extends a distance of d
2
on each side
of the centerline of the branch pipe, and whose width starts
at the inside surface of the run pipe (in its corroded condi-
tion) and extends beyond the outside surface of the run
pipe a perpendicular distance L
4
.
(e) Multiple Branches. When two or more branch connections
are so closely spaced that their reinforcement zones over-
lap, the distance between centers of the openings should be
at least 1 12 times their average diameter, and the area of
reinforcement between any two openings shall be not less
than 50% of the total that both require. Each opening shall
have adequate reinforcement in accordance with paras. IP-
3.4.2(b) and (c). No part of the metal cross section may
apply to more than one opening or be evaluated more than
once in any combined area. (Consult PFI Standard ES-7
for detailed recommendations on spacing of welded
nozzles.)
(f) Added Reinforcement
(1) Reinforcement added in the form of a ring or saddle as
part of area A
4
shall be of reasonably constant width. A
vent hole shall be provided in accordance with para.
GR-3.4.9(g).
(2) Material used for reinforcement may differ from that of
the run pipe, provided it is compatible with run and
branch pipes with respect to weldability, heat treatment
requirements, galvanic corrosion, thermal expansion,
etc.
(3) If the allowable stress for the reinforcement material is
less than that for the run pipe, its calculated area must
be reduced in the ratio of allowable stress values in
determining its contribution to area A
4
.
(4) No additional credit may be taken for a material having
higher allowable stress value than the run pipe.
38.10.8 IP-3.4.4 Additional Design Considerations
The requirements covered in 38.10.7 only address the neces-
sary considerations for design of branch connections subject to
pressure. The engineering shall also consider:
(a) In addition to pressure loadings, external forces and move-
ments are applied to a branch connection by thermal
38-12 Chapter 38
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expansion and contraction, dead and live loads, and move-
ment of piping terminals and supports. Special considera-
tion shall be given to the design of a branch connection to
withstand these forces and movements. A good source of
design information and guidance is WRC 537, Local
Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells Due To
External Loading.
(b) Branch connections made by welding the branch pipe
directly to the run pipe should be avoided under the fol-
lowing circumstances:
(1) when branch size approaches run size, particularly if
pipe formed by more than 1.5% cold expansion, or
expanded pipe of a material subject to work hardening,
is used as the run pipe.
(2) where repetitive stresses may be imposed on the con-
nection by vibration, pulsating pressure, temperature
cycling, etc. In such cases, it is recommended that the
design be conservative and that consideration be given
to the use of tee ttings or complete encirclement types
of reinforcement.
(c) Adequate exibility shall be provided in a small line that
branches from a large run, to accommodate thermal expan-
sion and other movements of the larger line. Calculations
of displacements and rotations at specic locations may be
required where clearance problems are involved. In cases
where small-size branch pipes attached to stiffer run pipes
are to be calculated separately, the linear and angular
movements of the junction point must be calculated or
estimated for proper analysis of the branch.
(d) If ribs, gussets, or clamps are used to stiffen the branch
connection, their areas cannot be counted as contributing
to the reinforcement area determined in para. IP-3.4.2(c)
or IP-3.4.3(f). However, ribs or gussets may be used for
pressure-strengthening a branch connection in lieu of rein-
forcement covered in paras. IP-3.4.2 and IP-3.4.3 if the
design is qualied as required by para. IP-3.8.2.
(e) For branch connections that do not meet the requirements
of para. IP-3.4(b), integral reinforcement, complete encir-
clement reinforcement, or other means of reinforcement
should be considered.
38.11 IP-7 SPECIFIC PIPING SYSTEMS
Hydrogen gas presents some challenges instrument and pres-
sure relief piping systems. These systems need to be addressed to
assure leak free service and venting of hydrogen gas properly to
avoid ignition of the vented gasses.
38.11.1 IP-7.1.1 Instrumentation Piping
Instrument piping within the scope of this Code includes all
piping and piping components used to connect instruments to
other piping or equipment. It does not include instruments, or per-
manently sealed uid lled tubing systems furnished with instru-
ments as temperature or pressure responsive devices. Instrument
piping shall meet the applicable requirements of the Code and the
following:
(a) Consideration shall be given to the mechanical strength
(including fatigue) of small instrument connections to pip-
ing or apparatus (see para. IP-3.4.4).
(b) When blowing down or bleeding instrument piping con-
taining hydrogen, consideration shall be given to safe dis-
posal or venting of the hydrogen gas.
(c) Instrumentation piping/tubing mechanical joints may be
ared, areless, and compression-type tubing joints may
be used. The tubing components and joints shall be suit-
able for maximum and minimum wall thickness tubing and
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-13
FIG. 38.10.1 BRANCH CONNECTION
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pressuretemperature limitations designated by the manu-
facturer or ANSI-approved standards. In addition to the
requirements specied by the engineering design, the
joints shall be qualied for use under severe cyclic condi-
tions. Mechanical joints used in this service shall be quali-
ed of use in hydrogen gas for both materials and leakage.
Pressure design of tubing joints shall be based on calcu-
lations consistent with design requirements of this Code.
These calculations shall be substantiated by testing. The
testing shall consider such factors as assembly and disas-
sembly, cyclic loading, vibration, shock, hydrogen embrit-
tlement, thermal expansion and contraction, and other
factors that may apply.
38.11.2 IP-7.2 Pressure-Relieving Systems
Pressure relief systems for hydrogen gas require special atten-
tion to routing and discharge point for pressure safety valve vent
piping. Hydrogen gas is lighter than air and will accumulate in
areas where it does not have a direct path to the atmosphere.
Discharge points should always be outside of buildings and struc-
tures into unconned areas and at a sufcient height above the
building to allow hydrogen gas to dissipate. Discharge lines from
pressure relieving safety devices shall be designed to prevent
accumulation of materials that may cause ow blockage, e.g., dirt,
water, ice, etc.
When discharging directly to the atmosphere, discharge shall
not impinge on other piping or equipment and shall be directed
away from platforms and other areas used by personnel.
Reactions on the piping system due to actuation of safety relief
devices shall be considered, and adequate strength shall be pro-
vided to withstand these reactions. Consideration shall be given to
the temperature increase of hydrogen during depressurization
when designing a system (negative Joule-Thompson coefcient).
38.12 IP-8.1 DIMENSIONAL
REQUIREMENTS
Dimensional standards for piping components are listed in
Table 38.12 [Table IP-8.1]. Dimensional requirements contained
in specications listed in Mandatory Appendix IX shall also be
considered requirements of this Code.
Dimensions of piping components not listed in Table 38.12
[Table IP-8.1] or Mandatory Appendix IX shall conform to those
of comparable listed components insofar as practicable. In any
case, dimensions shall be such as to provide strength and perfor-
mance equivalent to standard components except as provided
in Chapter IP-3.
38.13 IP-8.2 RATINGS OF COMPONENTS
The pressuretemperature ratings of components design in
accordance with Chapter IP-3 listed in Table 38.12 [Table IP-8.1]
are accepted for pressure design in accordance with Chapter IP-3.
The pressuretemperature ratings of unlisted piping compo-
nents shall conform to the applicable provisions of Chapter IP-3.
The documents listed in Table 38.12 [Table IP-8.1] contain ref-
erences to codes, standards, and specications not listed in Table
38.12 [Table IP-8.1]. Such unlisted codes, standards, and speci-
cations shall be used only in the context of the listed documents
in which they appear.
The design, materials, fabrication, assembly, examination,
inspection and testing requirements of this Code are not applica-
ble to components manufactured in accordance with the docu-
ments listed in Table IP-8.1, unless specically stated in this Code
or the listed document.
38.14 IP10 INSPECTION, EXAMINATION,
AND TESTING
This Chapter includes the requirements for inspections by
owner, quality control examinations, nondestructive examinations,
and specied tests by the construction organization (manufac-
turer, fabricator, or erector). Inspection, examination, and testing
shall be in (e) ensuring that all examinations are conducted by
qualied and certied personnel (see para. GR-4.4) compliance
personnel qualications, and quality control records.
38.14.1 IP-10.3 Inspections by Owner
Inspections by owner include inspections, verications, and
audits of the construction of piping systems, which include fabri-
cation, welding, heat treatment, assembly, erection, examination,
and testing, in addition to the construction organizations docu-
mented procedures, personnel qualications, and quality control
records.
38.14.2 IP-10.4 Examinations by the Construction
Organization
Inspections by owner do not relieve the construction organiza-
tion of the responsibility for examinations.
(a) providing materials, components, and workmanship in
accordance with the requirements of this Code and the
engineering design [see para. GR-1.3(b)]
(b) performing all required examinations
(c) providing approved documented procedures for A ll qual-
ity and NDE examinations [see para. GR-4.3.1(c)]
(d) preparing suitable records of examinations and tests for the
Inspectors use
38.15 PL PIPELINES
Rules for this Part of the Code apply to transmission pipelines,
distribution pipelines, and service lines used for transporting
hydrogen from a production facility to the point of nal use. This
Part sets forth requirements for materials, components, design,
fabrication, assembly, erection, inspection, examination, testing,
operation, and maintenance of hydrogen pipelines. This Part
excludes the following:
(a) design and manufacture of pressure vessels covered by the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(b) pipeline systems with temperatures above 450F or below
80F
(c) pipeline systems with pressures above 3000 psig
(d) pipeline systems with moisture content greater than 20
ppm (dew point at 1 atm p 67F)
(e) pipeline systems with a hydrogen content less than10% by
volume
38-14 Chapter 38
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COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-15
TABLE 38.12 COMPONENT STANDARDS
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table IP-8.1)
Standard or Specication Designation
Bolting
Square and Hex Bolts and Screws (Inch Series) ASME B18.2.1
Square and Hex Nuts (Inch Series) ASME B18.2.2
Metallic Fittings, Valves, and Flanges
Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings: NPS
1
2

Through NPS 24 Metric/Inch Standard ASME B16.5
Factory-Made Wrought Buttwelding Fittings ASME B16.9
Face-to-Face and End-To-End Dimensions of Valves ASME B16.10
Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded ASME B16.11
Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, and Locknuts With Pipe Threads ASME B16.14
Valves Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End ASME B16.34
Orice Flanges ASME B16.36
Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 Through NPS 60 Metric/Inch Standard ASME B16.47
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Braze-Joint Pressure Fittings ASME B16.50
Class 150 Corrosion Resistant Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves With Flanged and Butt Weld Ends MSS SP-42
Wrought Stainless Steel Butt-Welding Fittings MSS SP-43
Class 150LW Corrosion Resistant Cast Flanges and Flanged Fittings MSS SP-51
Socket-Welding Reducer Inserts MSS SP-79
Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves MSS SP-80
Class 3000 Steel Pipe Unions, Socket-Welding and Threaded MSS SP-83
Integrally Reinforced Forged Branch Outlet Fittings Socket Welding, Threaded, and Buttwelding Ends MSS SP-97
Instrument Valves for Code Applications MSS SP-105
Factory-Made Wrought Belled End Socket-Welding Fittings MSS SP-119
Metallic Pipe and Tubes [Note (1)]
Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe ASME B36.10
Stainless Steel Pipe ASME B36.19
Specication for Threading, Gaging and Thread Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads API 5B
Flanged Steel Pressure-Relief Valves API 526
Check Valves: Flanged, Lug, Wafer and Butt-welding API 594
Metal Plug Valves Flanged, Threaded and Welding Ends API 599
Bolted Bonnet Steel Gate Valves for Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries API 600
Steel Gate, Globe and Check Valves for Sizes DN 100 and Smaller for the Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries API 602
Corrosion-Resistant, Bolted Bonnet Gate Valves Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends API 603
Metal Ball Valves Flanged, Threaded and Butt-Welding Ends API 608
Buttery Valves: Double Flanged, Lug- and Wafer-Type API 609
Miscellaneous
Unied Inch Screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form) ASME B1.1
Pipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch) ASME B1.20.1
Dryseal Pipe Threads (Inch) ASME B1.20.3
Hose Coupling Screw Threads (Inch) ASME B1.20.7
Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges Ring-Joint Spiral Wound, and Jacketed ASME B16.20
Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges ASME B16.21
Buttwelding Ends ASME B16.25
Steel Line Blanks ASME B16.48
Surface Texture (Surface Roughness, Waviness, and Lay) ASME B46.1
GENERAL NOTE:
It is not practical to refer to a specic edition of each standard throughout the Code text. Instead, the approved edition references, along with
the names and addresses of the sponsoring organizations, are shown in Mandatory Appendix II.
NOTE:
(1) See also Mandatory Appendix IX
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38-16 Chapter 38
TABLE 38.14 REQUIRED NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION FOR HIGH, MEDIUM, AND LOW PRESSURE PIPE
DESIGN AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR WELDMENTS AND EVALUATION OF WELD IMPERFECTIONS
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table IP-10.5(a))
Piping Design
High Pressure
[Note (1)]
Medium Pressure
[Note (2)]
Low Pressure
[Note (3)]
Type of Weld Type of Weld Type of Weld
Weld Imperfections Examination Methods
The criteria value for the type
of weld and pipe design
pressure is identied by
the letter symbol for the
measure and acceptable
value limits of each NDE
method. See Table IP-
10.5(b).
A A A A A A A A A A Cracks

B B B B B B B B B B Lack of fusion and incomplete
penetration

C C C C C C C C C C Surface porosity; inclusions,
slag or tungsten

D D N/A D D N/A D D N/A D Internal porosity . . .

... ...
E E N/A F F N/A F F N/A F Internal inclusions, slag
or tungsten; elongated
indications
. . .

... ...
G G G H H H H H H H Depth of undercut

... ...
I I N/A J J N/A J J N/A J Depth of root surface concavity

... ...
K K K K K K K K K K Weld surfaces nish O.D.
and I.D.
... ...
L L L L L L L L L L Weld reinforcement O.D.
and I.D.
... ...
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a
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GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Weld imperfections are evaluated by one or more of the types of examination methods given, as specied in para. IP-10.5, or by the
engineering design.
(b) N/A indicates the Code does not establish acceptance criteria or does not require evaluation of this kind of imperfection for this type
of weld.
(c) Check () indicates examination method generally used for evaluating this kind of weld imperfection.
(d) Ellipsis (...) indicates examination method not generally used for evaluating this kind of weld imperfection.
(e) Visual (VT) includes in-process and completed welds.
(f) For cyclic service, additional nondestructive examination and criteria may be specied by the engineering design. See Nonmandatory
Appendix A.
(g) For high, medium, and low pressure pipe weldments, the required percentage of NDE examination shall be of a specied kind of item in
a designated lot of piping. See Notes (1)(3).
NOTES:
(1) High pressure pipe design, pressures greater than 600 psig at all temperatures, NDE examinations required:
(a) VT 100% visual examination required for all in-process and completed welds
(b) RT 100% radiographic examination of all butt weld connections, and branch weld connections when accessible, prior to the
addition of nonintegral reinforcing material
(c) PT or MT 100% penetrant or magnetic particle examination of all llet welds and branch weld connections that are inaccessible
for RT
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38.16 CHAPTER PL-2 PIPELINE SYSTEMS
COMPONENTS AND FABRICATION
DETAILS
The purpose of this Chapter is to provide requirements for
hydrogen pipeline systems covering than the pipe itself
(a) specications for, and selection of, all items and acces-
sories that are a part of the pipeline system, other
(b) acceptable methods of making branch connections
(c) provisions to address the effects of temperature changes
(d) methods for support and anchorage of exposed and buried
pipeline systems
38.16.1 PL-2.2 Piping System Components
All components of pipeline systems, including valves, anges,
ttings, headers, special assemblies, etc., shall be designed in
accordance with the requirements of this section and recognized
good engineering practices to withstand operating pressures and
other specied loadings.
Components shall be designed to withstand the specied eld
test pressure without failure, impairment of their serviceability, or
leakage detectable by the test procedure. Components not listed in
Mandatory Appendix II, but which conform to a published speci-
cation or standard may be used within the following limitations:
(a) The designer shall be satised that composition, mechanical
properties, method of manufacture, and quality controls
are comparable to the corresponding characteristics of
listed components.
(b) Pressure design shall be veried in accordance with para.
PL-3.7.1.
38.16.2 PL-2.2.2 Valves and Pressure-Reducing
Devices
(a) Valves shall conform to standards and specications refer-
enced in this Code and shall be used only in accordance
with the service recommendations of the manufacturer.
(1) Valves manufactured in accordance with the follow-
ing standards may be used:
(a) ASME B16.34
(b) ASME B16.38
(c) API 6D
(d) API 609
(e) API 600
(f) API 602
(2) Valves having shell (body, bonnet, cover, and/or end
ange) components made of cast or ductile iron shall
not be used in hydrogen service.
(3) Pipeline valves purchased to API 6D requirements
shall be capable of passing the pressure tests de-
scribed in API 6D Annex C, para. C4, using helium
as the test medium. Other valves shall be capable of
passing the pressure tests described in API 598, using
helium as the test medium.
(b) Threaded valves shall be threaded according to ASME
B1.20.1 or API 5B.
(c) Pressure reducing devices shall conform to the requirements
of this Code for valves in comparable service conditions.
38.16.3 PL-2.3 Reinforcement of Fabricated Branch
Connections
All fabricated branch connections shall meet the following
requirements:
(a) When branch connections are made to pipe in the form of
a single connection or in a header or manifold as a series
of connections, the design must be adequate to control the
stress levels in the pipe within safe limits. The construc-
tion shall accommodate the stresses in the remaining pipe
wall due to the opening in the pipe or header, the shear
stresses produced by the pressure acting on the area of the
branch opening, and any external loadings due to thermal
movement, weight, vibration, etc. The following para-
graphs provide design rules for the usual combinations of
the above loads, except for excessive external loads.
(b) The reinforcement required in the crotch section of a
welded branch connection shall be determined by the rule
that the metal area available for reinforcement shall be
equal to or greater than the required area as dened in this
paragraph as well as in Nonmandatory Appendix F.
(c) The required cross-sectional area, AR, is dened as the
product of d times t
AR dt
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-17
NOTES (Contd):
(2) Medium pressure pipe design, pressures greater than 150 psig up to and including 600 psig at all temperatures, NDE examinations
required:
(a) VT 100% visual examination required for all in-process and completed welds
(b) RT 10% radiographic examination of all butt weld connections, 2

in. NPS and greater, including branch weld connections 6 in.
NPS and greater when accessible, prior to the addition of nonintegral reinforcing material
(c) PT or MT 20% penetrant or magnetic particle examination of all butt weld connections 2

in. NPS and under, branch weld
connections that are inaccessible for RT, and all llet welds
(3) Low pressure pipe design, pressures up to and including 150 psig at all temperatures, NDE examinations required:
(a) VT 100% visual examination required for all completed welds
(b) RT 5% radiographic examination of all butt weld connections, 2

in. NPS and greater, including branch weld connections 6 in.
NPS and greater when accessible, prior to the addition of nonintegral reinforcing material
(c) P-8 material group (stainless steel) all llet welds, butt welds, and branch connections 2

in. NPS and under require 10% PT
examination
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where
d greater of the length of the nished opening in the
header wall measured parallel to the axis of the run or
the inside diameter of the branch connection
t nominal header wall thickness required by para. PL-
3.7.1 for the design pressure and temperature. When
the pipe wall thickness includes an allowance for cor-
rosion or erosion, all dimensions used shall result
after the anticipated corrosion or erosion has taken
place.
(d) The area available for reinforcement shall be the sum of
(1) the cross-sectional area resulting from any excess
thickness available in the header thickness over the
minimum required for the header as dened in (c)
above and that lies within the reinforcement area as
dened in (e) below.
(2) the cross-sectional area resulting from any excess
thickness available in the branch wall thickness over
the minimum thickness required for the branch and
that lies within the reinforcement area as dened in
(e) below.
(3) the cross-sectional area of all added reinforcing metal
that lies within the reinforcement area, as dened in
(e) below, including that of solid weld metal that is
conventionally attached to the header and/or branch.
(e) The area of reinforcement, shown in Nonmandatory
Appendix F, is dened as a rectangle whose length shall
extend a distance, d, on each side of the transverse center-
line of the nished opening and whose width shall extend
a distance of 2 12 times the header wall thickness on each
side of the surface of the header wall. In no case, however,
shall it extend more than 2 12 times the thickness of the
38-18 Chapter 38
TABLE 38.14.1 ACCEPTANCE CRITERION/VALUE FOR TABLE IP-10.5(A);
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table IP-10.5(b))
Criterion
Symbol Measure Acceptable Value Limits [Note (1)]
A
B
C
D
E
Cracks
Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration
Surface porosity; inclusions, slag or tungsten
Size and distribution of internal porosity
Internal inclusions, slag or tungsten; elongated indications
None of weld deposit, HAZ and BM
None of weld deposit or weld deposit to BM
None of weld deposit
See ASME BPV Code Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 4
Individual length
Individual width
T
W
/4 and 4 mm (
5
/32 in.)
T
W
/4 and 2.5 mm (
3
/32 in.)
Cumulative length T
W


in any 12 T

weld length
F Internal inclusions, slag or tungsten; elongated indications
Individual length
Individual width
T
W
/3
2.5 mm (
3
/32 in.) and T
W
/3
Cumulative length T
W

in any T
W
weld length
G Depth of undercut None allowed
H Depth of undercut [Note (2)] 1 mm (
1
/32 in.) and T
W
/4
I Depth of root surface concavity None below pipe component I.D.
J Depth of root surface concavity [Note (3)] Total joint thickness, including weld reinforcement, T
W
K Weld surface of O.D. nish [Note (4)] Roughness average 12.5 1-m R
a
(500 1-in. R
a
) per ASME
B46.1
L Weld reinforcement O.D. and I.D. [Note (5)] See Table GR-3.4.6
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Criteria given are for required examination method(s). More stringent criteria may be specied in the engineering design.
(b) Longitudinal groove welds (single or double) include straight seam only. Criteria are not intended to apply to welds made in accordance
with a standard listed in Table IP-8.1.
(c) Fillet welds include socket and seal welds, and attachment welds for slip-on anges, branch reinforcement, and supports. (d) Branch
connection welds include pressure containing welds in branches and fabricated laps.
NOTES:
(1) Where two limiting values are separated by and, the lesser of the values determines acceptance. T
W
is the nominal wall thickness of
the thinner of two components joined by a butt weld.
(2) Depth of undercut shall be applied to the O.D. and I.D. surfaces.
(3) Concavity on the root side of a single groove weld is permitted when the resulting thickness of the weld is at least equal to the thick- ness
of the thinner member of the two sections being joined and the contour of the concavity is smooth without sharp edges.
(4) Weld metal reinforcement, O.D. and I.D., shall merge smoothly into the weld surfaces.
(5) For all butt groove welds (single and double), height is the lesser of the measurements made from the surfaces of the adjacent compo-
nents. For single groove welds, I.D. reinforcement (internal protrusion) is included in a weld [see Fig. GR-3.4.4(a)]. Weld reinforcement,
O.D. or I.D., may be ush to the adjoining surfaces. For llet welds and added reinforcement to nonbutt groove welds, height is mea-
sured from the theoretical throat [see Fig. GR-3.4.7(a)]. Internal protrusion does not apply.
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branch wall from the outside surface of the header or of
the reinforcement, if any.
(f) The material of any added reinforcement shall have an
allowable working stress at least equal to that of the header
wall, except that material of lower allowable stress may be
used if the area is increased in direct ratio of the allowable
stress for header and reinforcement material, respectively.
(g) The material used for ring or saddle reinforcement may be
of specications differing from those of the pipe, provided
the cross-sectional area is made in direct proportion to the
relative strength of the pipe and reinforcement materials at
the operating temperatures, and provided it has welding
qualities comparable to those of the pipe. No credit shall
be taken for the additional strength of material having a
higher strength than that of the part to be reinforced.
(h) When rings or saddles cover the weld between branch
and header, a vent hole shall be provided in the ring or
saddle to reveal leakage in the weld between branch and
header, and to provide venting during welding and heat-
treating operations. Vent holes should be plugged during
service to prevent crevice corrosion between pipe and rein-
forcing member, but no plugging material that would be
capable of sustaining pressure within the crevice should be
used.
(i) The use of ribs or gussets shall not be considered as con-
tributing to reinforcement of the branch connection. This
does not prohibit the use of ribs or gussets for purposes
other than reinforcement, such as stiffening.
(j) The branch shall be attached by a weld for the full thick-
ness of the branch or header wall plus a llet weld, as
required by para. GR-3.4.9. The use of concave llet welds
is preferred to further minimize corner stress concentra-
tion. Ring or saddle reinforcement shall be attached as
required by para. GR-3.4.9. When a full llet is not used, it
is recommended that the edge of the reinforcement be
relieved or chamfered at approximately 45 to merge with
the edge of the llet. (See Nonmandatory Appendix F.)
(k) Reinforcement rings and saddles shall be accurately tted
to the parts to which they are attached. Paragraph GR-
3.4.9 describes some acceptable forms of reinforcement.
(l) Branch connections attached at an angle less than 85 to
the run become progressively weaker as the angle de-
creases. Any such design must be given individual study,
and sufcient reinforcement must be provided to compen-
sate for the inherent weakness of such construction. The
use of encircling ribs to support the at or reentering sur-
faces is permissible and may be included in the strength
calculations. The designer is cautioned that stress concen-
trations near the ends of partial ribs, straps, or gussets may
defeat their reinforcing value.
38.16.4 PL-2.6 Design for Longitudinal Stress
(a) The restraint condition is a factor in the structural behavior
of the pipeline. The degree of restraint may be affected by
aspects of pipeline construction, support design, soil prop-
erties, and terrain. For purposes of design, this Code rec-
ognizes two axial restraint conditions, restrained and
unrestrained. Guidance in categorizing the restraint con-
dition is given below.
(b) Piping in which soil or supports prevent axial displace-
ment of exure at bends is restrained. Restrained piping
may include the following:
(1) straight sections of buried piping
(2) bends and adjacent piping buried in stiff or consoli-
dated soil
(3) sections of above-ground piping on rigid supports
(c) Piping that is freed to displace axially or flex at bends
is unrestrained. Unrestrained piping may include the
following:
(1) above-ground piping that is congured to accommo-
date thermal expansion or anchor movements through
exibility
(2) bends and adjacent piping buried in soft or unconsoli-
dated soil
(3) an backlled section of otherwise buried pipeline that
is sufciently exible to displace laterally or which
contains a bend
(4) pipe subject to an end cap pressure force
The actual design analysis of the longitudinal stress for hydro-
gen pipelines is the same as for natural gas pipelines and is cov-
ered in B31.8.
The key factor for hydrogen pipelines is the magnitude of the
biaxial stress (combined hoop stress and longitudinal stress).
Hydrogen embrittlement of carbon and low alloy steels is depen-
dent on the total tensile stress in the pipe. The design object
should be to keep this stress as low as possible and still fulll the
operational mission of the pipeline.
The combined biaxial stress state of the pipeline in the operat-
ing mode is evaluated using the calculation in either (1) or (2)
below
(1) |S
H
S
L
|
(2) (S
L
2
L S
L
S
H
S
H
2
)
1/2
The maximum permitted value for the combined biaxial stress
is kST, where S is the specied minimum yield strength per para.
PL-3.7.1(a), T is the temperature derating factor per Table PL-
3.7.1(g), and k is dened in below.
(1) For loads of long duration, the value of k shall not exceed
0.90.
(2) For occasional nonperiodic loads of short duration, the
value of k shall not exceed 1.0.
(3) S
L
in para. PL-2.6.3 is calculated considering both the ten-
sile and compressive values of S
B
.
(4) Stresses induced by loads that do not occur simultaneously
need not be considered to be additive.
(5) The biaxial stress evaluation described above applies only
to straight sections of pipe.
38.16.5 Chapter PL-3: Design, Installation, and
Testing
The design requirements of this Code are intended to address
conditions encountered in the hydrogen gas transmission industry.
Conditions that may cause additional stress in any part of a line or
its appurtenances shall be further addressed following recognized
good engineering practice. Examples of such conditions include
long self-supported spans, unstable ground, mechanical or acoustic
vibration, weight of special attachments, earthquake-induced dis-
placements, temperature and pressure differential, and the soil and
conditions found in the Arctic or harsh environment.
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Temperature and pressure differences shall be taken as the dif-
ference between the lowest and highest values expected during
pressure test and operation, considering recorded data and the
possible effects of lower or higher air and ground temperatures.
The quality of the hydrogen gas to be transported in the
pipeline, or by the pipeline system, shall be considered when
designing facilities. Steps shall be taken to effect the control of or
minimize adverse hydrogen gas components when either of the
following may be a concern:
(a) Composition. For certain applications, such as for fuel
cells, pure hydrogen is transported. A pipeline may trans-
port blends of hydrogen and other fuel gases such as
methane, propane, etc. Potential concern may include
hydrogen leak detection along cross-country pipelines.
This may require advanced investigative assessments.
(b) Additives. When an odorant or chemical is used, the effect
of chemical composition of these additives should be
investigated for ensuring negligible impact on material
degradation.
Location Class (1, 2, 3, or 4) is dened as the general descrip-
tion of a geographic area having certain characteristics as a basis
for prescribing the types of design, construction, and methods of
testing to be used in those locations, or in areas that are compara-
ble. A numbered Location Class does not necessarily indicate that
a particular design factor sufces for all construction in that par-
ticular location or area. This is true in pipeline system design
using B31.12. This code has two design methods that may be
used in the design of the line pipe for the pipeline. Option A is
prescriptive of design by rule and the second option B is perfor-
mance based. In option A the largest value of MSYS that may
be used in the design is 50% in any location class area. In design
option B 72% of MSYS may be used with prequalication of
the line pipe material mechanical properties.
38.16.6 PL-3.5 Risk Assessment
(a) The potential impact radius of a proposed hydrogen
pipeline shall be determined according to para. 3.2 of
ASME B31.8S, Managing System Integrity of Gas
Pipelines, modied by the substitution of the following in
formula (1):
r 0.47pd
2
38-20 Chapter 38
TABLE 38.16.6 LOCATION CLASS (Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table PL-3.6.1)
Original [Note (1)] Current
Location
Class
Number of
Buildings
Location
Class
Number of
Buildings Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP)
Designed to Option A [Note (2)]
1 Division 2 010 1 1125 Previous MAOP but not greater than 50%

[Note (3)]
1 010 2 2645 0.800 test pressure but not greater than 50%
1 010 2 4665 0.667 test pressure but not greater than 50%
1 010 3 66+ 0.667 test pressure but not greater than 50%
1 010 4 Note (4) 0.555 test pressure but not greater than 40%
2 1145 2 4665 Previous MAOP but not greater than 50%
2 1145 3 66+ 0.667 test pressure but not greater than 50%
2 1145 4 Note (4) 0.555 test pressure but not greater than 40%
3 46+ 4 Note (4) 0.555 test pressure but not greater than 40%
Designed to Option B [Note (5)]
1 Division 2 010 1 1125 Previous MAOP but not greater than 72%

[Note (3)]
1 010 2 2645 0.800 test pressure but not greater than 72%
1 010 2 4665 0.667 test pressure but not greater than 60%
1 010 3 66+ 0.667 test pressure but not greater than 60%
1 010 4 Note (4) 0.555 test pressure but not greater than 50%
2 1145 2 4665 Previous MAOP but not greater than 60%
2 1145 3 66+ 0.667 test pressure but not greater than 60%
2 1145 4 Note (4) 0.555 test pressure but not greater than 40%
3 46+ 4 Note (4) 0.555 test pressure but not greater than 40%
NOTES:
(1) At time of design and construction.
(2) For use with design option A, prescriptive design method, para. PL-3.7.1(b)(1). Existing hydrogen pipelines not designed to this Code
shall use this portion of the Table for location class and MAOP changes.
(3) S
m
is the maximum allowable operating stress, calculated as specied minimum yield strength , where is the material performance
factor from Mandatory Appendix IX, Table IX-5A or IX-5B. Material performance factors account for the adverse effects of hydrogen
gas on the mechanical properties of carbon steels used in the construction of pipelines.
(4) Multistory buildings become prevalent.
(5) For use with design option B, performance based method, para. PL-3.7.1(b)(2).
H
f
H
f

S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
m
S
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(b) If one or more buildings intended for human occupancy
are found to be within the potential impact area of a pro-
posed hydrogen pipeline, a full risk assessment shall be
carried out. A method of risk assessment suitable for
hydrogen pipelines is contained in section 4.6 of
Compressed Gas Association G-5.6, Hydrogen Pipelines
Systems 2005. See Table 38.16.6.
38.16.7 PL-3.7.1 Steel Piping Systems Design
Requirements
(a) Steel Pipe Design Formula. The design pressure for steel
gas piping systems or the nominal wall thickness for a
given design pressure shall be determined by the following
formula [for limitations, see (b) below]:
where
D nominal outside diameter of pipe, in.
E longitudinal joint factor obtained from Table IX-3B
of Mandatory Appendix IX
F design factor obtained from Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-1
or Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-3 as applicable, depending
upon the fracture control option specied in (b)
below used in the design. In setting the values of
the design factor, F, due consideration has been
given and allowance has been made for the various
underthickness tolerances provided for in the pipe
specications listed and approved for usage in this
Code.
H
f
material performance factor from Table IX-5A.
Material performance factors account for the
adverse effects of hydrogen gas on the mechanical
properties of carbon steels used in the construction
of pipelines.
P design pressure, psig [see also (b) below]
S specied minimum yield strength, psi, stipulated in
the specications under which the pipe was pur-
chased from the manufacturer or determined in
accordance with (c) below. The specied minimum
yield strengths of some of the more commonly
used pipeline steels whose specications are incor-
porated by reference herein are tabulated for con-
venience in Table IX-1B.
T temperature derating factor obtained from Table
PL-3.7.1(b)(8)
t nominal wall thickness, in.
(b) Fracture Control and Arrest. A fracture toughness crite-
rion or other method shall be specied to control fracture
propagation when a pipeline is designed to operate at a
hoop stress over 40% of the specied minimum yield
strength. When a fracture toughness criterion is used, con-
trol shall be achieved by ensuring that the pipe has ade-
quate ductility. Two options are provided on fracture
control. Option A (prescriptive design method) shall be
used with design factors, F, specied in Table PL-
3.7.1(b)(6)-1. Option B (performance-based design
method) shall be used with design factors, F, specied in
Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-3 or with design factors specied in
Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-1. The pipe material tensile require-
P =
2St
D
FETH
f
ments shall be specied on the purchasing specication
and shall comply with the chemical and tensile require-
ments of API 5L Specication for Line Pipe, Annex G
PSL 2, with supplementary testing as follows:
(1) Option A (Prescriptive Design Method). The follow-
ing requirements apply:
(a) Brittle Fracture Control. To ensure that the pipe
has adequate ductility, fracture toughness testing
shall be performed in accordance with the test-
ing procedures of supplementary requirements
of Annex G of API 5L. These can be applied
providing test specimens meet the minimum
sizes given in Annex G. Toughness testing for
brittle fracture control is not required for pipe
sizes under 4.5 in. (114.3 mm). The test temper-
ature shall be the colder of 32F (0C) or the
lowest expected metal temperature during ser-
vice or during pressure testing, if the latter is
performed with air or gas, having regard to past
recorded temperature data and possible effects of
lower air and ground temperatures. The average
shear value of the fracture appearance of three
Charpy specimens from each heat shall not be
less than 80% for full-thickness Charpy speci-
mens, 85% for reduced-size Charpy specimens
or 40% for drop-weight tear testing specimens.
(b) Ductile Fracture Arrest. To ensure that the
pipeline has adequate toughness to arrest a duc-
tile fracture, the pipe shall be tested in accor-
dance with the procedures of Annex G of API
5L. This can be applied providing test specimens
meet the minimum sizes given in Annex G.
Toughness testing for ductile fracture control is
not required for pipe sizes under 4.5 in. (114.3
mm). The test temperature shall be the colder of
32F (0C) or the lowest expected metal temper-
ature during service. The average of the Charpy
energy values from each heat shall meet or
exceed the requirements specied by the follow-
ing equation:
CVN 0.008(RT)
0.39

2
h
where
CVN full-size specimen CVN energy, ft-lb
R radius of pipe, in.
T nominal pipe wall thickness, in.

h
hoop stress due to design pressure, ksi
(c) Pipe Strength. Maximum ultimate tensile
strength of the pipe shall not exceed 100 ksi.
(d) Weld Metal Strength. Maximum ultimate tensile
strength of the weld metal shall not exceed 100
ksi.
(e) Yield Strength. Minimum specied yield strength
shall not exceed 70 ksi.
(f) Charpy Tests. Weld procedure shall be qualied
by Charpy tests. Three specimens from weld
metal and three specimens from heat affected
zone shall be tested at test temperature specied
in (b)(1)(b) above. Minimum Charpy energy per
specimen fracture area of each specimen shall
meet the following criteria:
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(1) 20 ft-lb for full-size CVN specimens or 161
ft-lb/in.
2
for subsize CVN specimens for
pipe not exceeding 56 in. outside diameter
(2) 30 ft-lb for full-size CVN specimens or 242
ft-lb/in.
2
for subsize CVN specimens for
pipe outside diameter > 56 in.
(2) Option B (Performance-Based Design Method).
The following requirements apply:
(a) The pipe and weld material shall be qualied for
adequate resistance to fracture in hydrogen gas
at or above the design pressure and at ambient
temperature using the applicable rules provided
in Article KD-10 of ASME BPV Code Section
VIII, Division 3, except as shown below.
(1) The purpose of this test is to qualify the
construction material by testing three heats
of the material. The threshold stress inten-
sity values, K
IH
, shall be obtained from the
thickest section from each heat of the mate-
rial and heat treatment. The test specimens
shall be in the nal heat-treated condition
(if applicable) to be used in pipe manufac-
turing. A set of three specimens shall be
tested from each of the following locations:
the base metal, the weld metal, and the heat
affected zone (HAZ) of welded joints,
welded with the same qualied welding
procedure specication (WPS) as intended
for the piping manufacturing. A change in
the welding procedure requires retesting of
welded joints (weld metal and HAZ). The
test specimens shall be in the TL direction.
If TL specimens cannot be obtained from
the weld metal and the HAZ, then LT speci-
mens may be used. The values of K
IH
shall
be obtained by use of the test method
described in KD-1040. The lowest mea-
sured value of K
IH
shall be used in the
pipeline design analysis.
(2) When using Option B, the material perfor-
mance factor, H
f
, used in para. PL-3.7.1(a)
shall be 1.0.
(3) The values obtained in (a) above may be
used for other pipes manufactured from the
same material specication/grade or similar
specication/grade having the same nomi-
nal chemical composition as dened in
Table PL-3.7.1 and same heat treatment
condition, providing its tensile and yield
strengths do not exceed the values of the
material used in the qualication tests by
more than 5%. The welded joints shall meet
the requirements of the welding procedure
specication (WPS) used for qualifying the
construction material.
(4) Calculate maximum K
IA
required at design
pressure for the following elliptical surface
crack. Where K
IA
is the applied stress inten-
sity factor, the critical crack size is devel-
oped by applicable fatigue loading. Fatigue
design rules specied in Article KD-10
shall be used, or depth t/4, length 1.5t,
where t is the pipe wall thickness.
(5) Measure K
IH
in H2 gas as specied in KD-
1040. K
IH
is the threshold stress intensity factor.
(6) K
IH
shall be equal to or higher than the cal-
culated value of K
IA
. In any case, K
IH
shall
not be less than 50 ksi*in.
(b) Phosphorus content of pipe material shall not
exceed 0.015% by weight. The pipe material
shall be manufactured with inclusion shape con-
trolled practices.
(c) Pipe material shall meet all applicable rules of
API5l Annex G, PSL2.
(d) Brittle fracture control: All rules specied in
(2)(a)(1) above shall be met.
(e) Ductile fracture arrest: All rules specied in
(2)(a)(2) shall be met.
(f) Maximum ultimate tensile strength of the pipe
shall not exceed 110 ksi.
(g) Maximum ultimate tensile strength of the weld
metal shall not exceed 110 ksi.
(h) Minimum specied yield strength shall not
exceed 80 ksi.
(3) Limitations on Design Pressure, P, in Para. PL-
3.7.1(a). The design pressure obtained by the formula
in para. 38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)] shall be reduced to
conform to the following: P shall not exceed 85% of
the mill test pressure for all pipes in the pipeline, pro-
vided, however, that pipe, mill tested to a pressure
less than 85% of the pressure required to produce a
hoop stress equal to the specied minimum yield,
may be retested with a mill type hydrostatic test or
tested in place after installation. In the event the pipe
is retested to a pressure in excess of the mill test pres-
sure, then P shall not exceed 85% of the retest pres-
sure rather than the initial mill test pressure. It is
mandatory to use a liquid as the test medium in all
tests in place after installation where the test pressure
exceeds the mill test pressure. This paragraph is not
to be construed to allow an operating pressure or
design pressure in excess of that provided for by para.
38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)].
(4) Limitations on Specied Minimum Yield Strength, S,
in Para. 38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)]
(a) When pipe that has been cold worked for meet-
ing the SMYS is subsequently heated to a tem-
perature higher than 900F (482C) for any
period of time or over 600F (315C) for more
than 1 hr, the maximum allowable pressure at
which it can be used shall not exceed 75% of the
value obtained by use of the steel pipe design
formula given in para. 38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)].
(b) In no case where the Code refers to the specied
minimum value of a mechanical property shall
the higher actual value of a property be substi-
tuted in the steel pipe design formula given in
para. 38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)]. If the actual value
is less than the specied minimum value of a
mechanical property, the actual value may be
used, when it is permitted by the Code.
(5) Additional Requirements for Nominal Wall Thickness,
t, in Para.38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)]
(a) The nominal wall thickness, t, required for pres-
sure containment as determined by para.
38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)] may not be adequate for
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other forces to which the pipeline may be sub-
jected (see para. PL-3.1.1). Consideration shall
also be given to loading due to transportation or
handling of the pipe during construction, weight
of water during testing, and soil loading and
other secondary loads during operation, such as
earthquake or soil/ ground movements. See para.
PL-3.7.3(d) for suggested methods to provide
additional protection. Consideration should also
be given to welding or mechanical joining
requirements. Standard wall thickness, as pre-
scribed in ASME B36.10M, shall be the least
nominal wall thickness used for pipe 4 in. and
below. Pipe sizes above 4 in. shall have a wall
thickness of at least 0.25 in.
(b) Transportation, installation, or repair of pipe shall
not reduce the wall thickness at any point to a
thickness less than 87.5% of the nominal wall
thickness as determined by para. 38.16.7(a) [PL-
3.7.1(a)] for the design pressure to which the
pipe is to be subjected.
(6) Design Factors, F, and Location Classes. The design
factor in Table 38.16.7(b) [PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-1] shall
be used for the designated Location Class when
using the Option A methodology. All exceptions to
basic design factors to be used in the design formula
for Option A methodology are given in Table
38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-2]. The design factor in
Table 38.16.7(d) [PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-3] shall be used for
the designated Location Class when using the Option
B methodology. All exceptions to basic design fac-
tors to be used in the design formula for Option B
methodology are given in Table 38.16.7(c) [PL-
3.7.1(b)(6)-4].
(7) The longitudinal joint factor shall be in accordance
with Mandatory Appendix IX, Table IX-3B.
(8) The temperature derating factor shall be in accordance
with Table 38.16.7(e) [PL-3.7.1(b)(8)].
38.16.8 PL-3.7.2 Protection of Pipelines and Mains
from Hazards
(a) When pipelines and mains must be installed where they
will be subject to natural hazards, such as washouts,
oods, unstable soil, landslides, earthquake related events
(such as surface faulting, soil liquefaction, and soil and
slope instability characteristics), or other conditions that
may cause serious movement of, or abnormal loads on, the
pipeline, reasonable precautions shall be taken to protect
the pipeline, such as increasing the wall thickness, con-
structing revetments, preventing erosion and installing
anchors.
(b) Where pipelines and mains cross areas that are normally
under water or subject to ooding (i.e., lakes, bays, or
swamps), sufcient weight or anchorage shall be applied
to the line to prevent otation.
(c) Because submarine crossings may be subject to washouts
due to the natural hazards of changes in the waterway bed,
water velocities, deepening of the channel, or changing of
the channel location in the waterway, design consideration
shall be given to protecting the pipeline or main at such
crossings. The crossing shall be located in the more stable
bank and bed locations. The depth of the line, location of
the bends installed in the banks, wall thickness of the pipe,
and weighting of the line shall be selected based on the
characteristics of the waterway.
(d) Where pipelines and mains are exposed, such as at spans,
trestles, and bridge crossings, the pipelines and mains shall
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-23
TABLE 38.16.7(A) DESIGN FACTORS FOR STEEL PIPE CONSTRUCTION (USED WITH OPTION A)
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-2)
Location Class
Facility 1 Div. 2 2 3 4
Pipelines, mains, and service lines
Crossings of roads, railroads without casing:
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(a) Private roads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(b) Unimproved public roads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(c) Roads, highways, or public streets, with hard surface and railroads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Crossings of roads, railroads with casing:
(a) Private roads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(b) Unimproved public roads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(c) Roads, highways, or public streets, with hard surface and railroads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Parallel encroachment of pipelines and mains on roads and railroads:
(a) Private roads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(b) Unimproved public roads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
(c) Roads, highways, or public streets, with hard surface and railroads 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Fabricated assemblies 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.40
Pipelines on bridges 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Pressure/ow control and metering facilities 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Compressor station piping 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Near concentration of people in Location Classes 1 and 2 (see para. PL-3.3.2) 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
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be reasonably protected by distance or barricades from
accidental damage by vehicular trafc or other causes.
38.16.9 PL-3.7.5 Bends, Elbows, and Miters in Steel
Pipelines and Mains
Changes in direction and orientation may be made by the use of
bends, elbows, or miters under the following limitations:
(1) A bend shall be free from buckling, cracks, or other evi-
dence of mechanical damage.
(2) The maximum degree of bending on a eld cold bend may
be determined by either method in Table PL-3.7.5(a)(2).
The rst column expresses the maximum deection in an
arc length equal to the nominal outside diameter, and the
second column expresses the minimum radius as a func-
tion of the nominal outside diameter.
(3) A eld cold bend may be made to a shorter minimum
radius than permitted in (a)(2) above, provided the com-
pleted bend meets all other requirements of this section
and the wall thickness after bending is not less than the
minimum permitted by para. 38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)]. This
may be demonstrated through appropriate testing. Note
that cold bending may make line pipe more susceptible to
the effects of hydrogen embrittlement.
(4) For pipe smaller than NPS 12, the requirements of (a)(1)
above must be met, and the wall thickness after bending
shall not be less than the minimum permitted by para.
38.16.7(a) [PL-3.7.1(a)]. This may be demonstrated
through appropriate testing.
(5) Hot bends made on cold worked or heat treated pipe shall
be designed for lower stress levels in accordance with
para. PL-3.7.1(b)(4).
(6) Factory-made, wrought-steel welding elbows or transverse
segments cut there from may be used for changes in direc-
tion, provided that the arc length measured along the
crotch is at least 1 in. on pipe sizes NPS 2 and larger.
38.16.10 PL-3.7.6 Pipe Surface Requirements
Gouges, grooves, and notches have been found to be an impor-
tant cause of pipeline failures, and all harmful defects of this
nature must be prevented, eliminated, or repaired. Precautions
shall be taken during manufacture, hauling, and installation to
prevent the gouging or grooving of pipe. These defects can be
38-24 Chapter 38
TABLE 38.16.7(B) BASIC DESIGN FACTOR,
F (USED WITH OPTION A)
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-1)
Location Design Factor, F
Location Class 1, Division 2 0.50
Location Class 2 0.50
Location Class 3 0.50
Location Class 4 0.40
TABLE 38.16.7 (C) DESIGN FACTORS FOR STEEL PIPE CONSTRUCTION (USED WITH OPTION B);
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table PL-3.7.1(b)(6)-4)
Location Class
Facility 1 Div. 2 2 3 4
Pipelines, mains, and service lines
Crossings of roads, railroads without casing:
0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
(a) Private roads 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
(b) Unimproved public roads 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
(c) Roads, highways, or public streets, with hard surface and railroads 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.40
Crossings of roads, railroads with casing:
(a) Private roads 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
(b) Unimproved public roads 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
(c) Roads, highways, or public streets, with hard surface and railroads 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
Parallel encroachment of pipelines and mains on roads and railroads:
(a) Private roads 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
(b) Unimproved public roads 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40
(c) Roads, highways, or public streets, with hard surface and railroads 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Fabricated assemblies 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Pipelines on bridges 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Pressure/ow control and metering facilities 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40
Compressor station piping 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
Near concentration of people in Location Classes 1 and 2 (see para. PL-3.3.2) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40
3.7.1(b)(6)-3)
Location Class Design Factor, F
Location Class 1, Division 2 0.72
Location Class 2 0.60
Location Class 3 0.50
Location Class 4 0.40
TABLE 38.16.7(D) BASIC DESIGN FACTOR,
F (USED WITH OPTION B)
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table
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more injurious to hydrogen pipelines due to increased tensile
stress in their localized area.
(a) Detection of Gouges and Grooves
(1) Examination shall be made to determine that the coat-
ing machine does not cause harmful gouges or
grooves.
(2) Lacerations of the protective coating shall be care-
fully examined prior to the repair of the coating to
determine if the pipe surface has been damaged.
(3) Field examination of uncoated pipe shall ensure that
gouged or grooved pipe will not get into the nished
pipeline or main.
(b) Field Repair of Gouges and Grooves
(1) Injurious gouges or grooves shall be removed.
(2) Gouges or grooves may be removed by grinding to a
smooth contour, provided that the resulting wall
thickness is not less than the minimum prescribed by
this Code for the conditions of usage [see para. PL-
3.7.1(b)(5)(b)].
(3) When the conditions outlined in (2) above cannot be
met, the damaged portion of pipe shall be cut out as a
cylinder and replaced. Insert patching is prohibited.
(c) Dents
(1) A dent may be dened as a depression that produces a
gross disturbance in the curvature of the pipe wall (as
opposed to a scratch or gouge, which reduces the pipe
wall thickness). The depth of a dent shall be mea-
sured as the gap between the lowest point of the dent
and a prolongation of the original contour of the pipe
in any direction.
(2) A dent, as dened in (1) above, which contains a
stress concentrator such as a scratch, gouge, groove,
or arc burn, shall be removed by cutting out the dam-
aged portion of the pipe as a cylinder.
(3) All dents that affect the curvature of the pipe at the
longitudinal weld or any circumferential weld shall
be removed. All dents that exceed a maximum depth
of 14 in. in pipe NPS 12 and smaller or 2% of the
nominal pipe diameter in all pipe greater than NPS 12
shall not be permitted in pipelines or mains intended
to operate at hoop stress levels of 40% or more of the
specied minimum yield strength. When dents are
removed, the damaged portion of the pipe shall be cut
out as a cylinder. Insert patching and pounding out of
the dents is prohibited.
(d) Notches and Arc Burns
(1) Notches on the pipe surface can be caused by
mechanical damage in manufacture, transportation,
handling, or installation, and when determined to be
mechanically caused, shall be treated the same as
gouges and grooves in (a) above.
(2) Stress concentrations that may or may not involve a
geometrical notch may also be created by a process
involving thermal energy in which the pipe surface is
heated sufciently to change its mechanical or metal-
lurgical properties. These imperfections are termed
metallurgical notches. Examples include an arc
burn produced by accidental contact with a welding
electrode or a grinding burn produced by excessive
force on a grinding wheel. Metallurgical notches may
result in even more severe stress concentrations than a
mechanical notch and shall be prevented or elimi-
nated in all pipelines intended to operate at hoop
stress levels of 20% or more of the specied mini-
mum yield strength.
(3) Arc burns shall be eliminated as follows:
(a) The metallurgical notch caused by arc burns
shall be removed by grinding, provided the
grinding does not reduce the remaining wall
thickness to less than the minimum prescribed
by this Code for the conditions of use.
(b) In all other cases, repair is prohibited, and the
portion of pipe containing the arc burn must be
cut out as a cylinder and replaced with a good
piece. Insert patching is prohibited. Care shall be
exercised to ensure that the heat of grinding does
not produce a metallurgical notch.
(c) Complete removal of the metallurgical notch
created by an arc burn can be determined as
follows:
After visible evidence of the arc burn has been removed by
grinding, swab the ground area with a 20% solution of ammo-
nium persulfate. A blackened spot is evidence of a metallurgical
notch and indicates that additional grinding is necessary.
38.16.11 PL-3.9 Precautions to Prevent Combustion
of HydrogenAir Mixtures During
Construction Operations
Operations such as gas or electric welding and cutting with cut-
ting torches cannot be safely performed on hydrogen gas
pipelines, mains, or auxiliary equipment, unless all possibility of
leakage of hydrogen into the work area is eliminated. The follow-
ing procedures are recommended:
(a) removal of a pipe spool between the pressurized pipeline
and the work area
(b) closure of two valves, with continuous monitoring of an
open vent valve by means of a hydrogen gas detector (dou-
ble block and bleed)
(c) closure of an integral double block and bleed valve, with
continuous monitoring of the open body vent valve
(d) closure of a valve, and installation of a blind ange or
spectacle blind on the downstream ange of the valve or
(e) use of a venturi air mover to draw hydrogen gas away from
the work area
(f) When a pipeline is to be placed in service, the air in it shall
be displaced. In order to avoid the creation of a combustible
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-25
TABLE 38.16.7 (E) TEMPERATURE DERATING
FACTOR, T, FOR STEEL PIPE
(Source: ASME B31.12 2008 edition Table PL-3.7.1(b)(8))
Derating Temperature, F Factor, T
250 or less 1.000
300 0.967
350 0.933
400 0.900
450 0.867
GENERAL NOTE:
For intermediate temperatures, interpolate for derating factor.
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mixture, a slug of inert gas shall be introduced between the
hydrogen and air. The hydrogen gas ow shall then be con-
tinued without interruption until all the air and inert gas
have been removed from the facility. The vented gases shall
be monitored and the vent closed before any substantial
quantity of hydrogen gas is released to the atmosphere.
Dead-ended legs of the pipeline system that cannot be
swept by inert gas must be pressure purged.
38.16.12 PL-3.10 Testing After Construction
(a) Pipeline systems shall be tested after construction to the
requirements of this Code except for pretested fabricated
assemblies, pretested tie-in sections, and tie-in connec-
tions. The circumferential welds of welded tie-in connec-
tions not pressure tested after construction shall be
examined by radiographic, ultrasonic, or other nondestruc-
tive methods in accordance with para. PL-3.19.2.
(b) Pipelines shall be tested at a pressure of at least 150% of
MAOP for at least 2 hours. Water is the preferred medium.
(c) In selecting the test level, the designer or operating com-
pany should be aware of the provisions of para. PL-3.6 and
the relationship between test pressure and operating pres-
sure when the pipeline experiences a future increase in the
number of dwellings intended for human occupancy.
(d) Other provisions of this Code notwithstanding, pipelines
and mains crossing highways and railroads may be tested
in each case in the same manner and to the same pressure
as the pipeline on each side of the crossing.
(e) Air or inert gas testing may be used in Location Classes 3
and 4, provided that all of the following conditions apply:
(1) The maximum hoop stress during the test is less than
50% of the specied minimum yield strength in
Location Class 3 and less than 40% of the specied
minimum yield strength in Location Class 4.
(2) The maximum pressure at which the pipeline or main
is to be operated does not exceed 80% of the maxi-
mum eld test pressure used.
(3) The pipe involved is new pipe having a longitudinal
joint factor, E, in Mandatory Appendix IX, Table IX-
3B of 1.00.
38.16.13 PL-3.13.6 Requirements for Design of
Pressure-Relief and Pressure-Limiting
Installations
(a) Pressure-relief or pressure-limiting devices except rupture
disks shall
(1) be constructed of materials such that the operation of
the device will not normally be impaired by corrosion
of external parts by the atmosphere or internal parts
by gas
(2) have valves and valve seats that are designed not to
stick in a position that will make the device inopera-
tive and result in failure of the device to perform in
the manner for which it was intended
(3) be designed and installed so that they can be readily
operated to determine if the valve is free, can be
tested to determine the pressure at which they will
operate, and can be tested for leakage when in the
closed position
(b) Rupture discs shall meet the requirements for design as set
out in the ASME BPV Code, Section VIII, Division 1.
(c) The discharge stacks, vents, or outlet ports of all pressure
relief devices shall be located where gas can be dis-
charged into the atmosphere without undue hazard. As it
is likely that hydrogen will ignite spontaneously when
released, consideration should be given to all exposures
in the immediate vicinity when deciding on the location
of a vent to atmosphere. API 521 should be used to deter-
mine a safe setback distance from hydrogen vents. The
possibility of ignition may be reduced by injecting an
inert gas into the vent stack. Where required to protect
devices, the discharge stacks or vents shall be protected
with rain caps to preclude the entry of water. A perma-
nent flare shall be installed if the presence of a flame at
the stack or vent is considered unacceptable. A discharge
rod welded to the vent must be extended above the gas
discharge point so normal venting GH2 is always below
the flammability point at the discharge rod tip for sys-
tems with static vent stacks where ignition of the vented
GH2 is a concern.
(d) The size of the openings, pipe, and ttings located
between the system to be protected and the pressure reliev-
ing device and the vent line shall be of adequate size to
prevent hammering of the valve and to prevent impairment
of relief capacity.
(e) Precautions shall be taken to prevent unauthorized opera-
tion of any stop valve that will make a pressure relief valve
inoperative. This provision shall not apply to valves that
will isolate the system under protection from its source of
pressure. Acceptable methods for complying with this pro-
vision are as follows:
(1) Lock the stop valve in the open position. Instruct
authorized personnel of the importance of not inad-
vertently leaving the stop valve closed and of being
present during the entire period that the stop valve is
closed so that they can lock it in the open position
before they leave the location
(2) Install duplicate relief valves, each having adequate
capacity by itself to protect the system, and arrange
the isolating valves or three-way valve so that
mechanically it is possible to render only one safety
device inoperative at a time.
(f) Precautions shall be taken to prevent unauthorized opera-
tion of any valve that will make pressure limiting devices
inoperative. This provision applies to isolating valves,
bypass valves and valves on control or oat lines that are
located between the pressure limiting device and the sys-
tem that the device protects. A method similar to (e)(1)
above shall be considered acceptable in complying with
this provision.
(g) When a monitoring regulator, series regulator, system relief,
or system shutoff is installed at a district regulator station to
protect a piping system from over pressuring, the installa-
tion shall be designed and installed to prevent any single
incident, such as an explosion in a vault or damage by a
vehicle, from affecting the operation of both the overpres-
sure protective device and the district regulator (see para.
PL-3.15). Special attention shall be given to control lines.
All control lines shall be protected from falling objects,
excavations by others, or other foreseeable causes of dam-
age, and shall be designed and installed to prevent damage
to any one control line from making both the district regula-
tor and the overpressure protective device inoperative.
38-26 Chapter 38
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(h) Each pressure relief station, pressure limiting station, or
group of such stations installed to protect a piping system
or pressure vessel shall have sufcient capacity and shall
be set to operate to prevent the pressure from exceeding
the following levels:
(1) Other than in low-pressure distribution systems, the
required capacity is at the MAOP plus 10%.
(2) For low-pressure distribution systems, the required
capacity is a pressure that would cause the unsafe
operation of any connected and properly adjusted gas
burning equipment.
(3) When more than one pressure-regulating or compres-
sor station feeds into the pipeline or distribution sys-
tem and pressure relief devices are installed at such
stations, the relieving capacity at the remote station
may be taken into account in sizing the relief devices
at each station. In doing this, however, the assumed
remote relieving capacity must be limited to the
capacity of the piping system to transmit gas to the
remote location or to the capacity of the remote relief
device, whichever is less.
(4) Where the safety device consists of an additional reg-
ulator that is associated with or functions in combina-
tion with one or more regulators in a series
arrangement to control or limit the pressure in a pip-
ing system, suitable checks shall be made. These
checks shall be conducted to determine that the
equipment will operate in a satisfactory manner to
prevent any pressure in excess of the established
MAOP of the system, should any one of the associ-
ated regulators malfunction or remain in the wide-
open position.
38.17 MANDATORY APPENDIX III
SAFEGUARDING
Safeguarding is the provision of protective measures to mini-
mize the risk of accidental damage to the piping or to minimize
the harmful consequences of possible piping failure. In most
instances, the safeguarding inherent in the facility (the piping, the
plant layout, and its operating practices) is sufcient without need
for additional safeguarding. In some instances, however, engi-
neered safeguards must be provided.
Appendix G outlines some considerations pertaining to the
selection and utilization of safeguarding. Where safeguarding is
required by the Code, it is necessary to consider only the safe-
guarding that will be suitable and effective for the purposes and
functions stated in the Code or evident from the designers analy-
sis of the application.
38.17.1 III-2 General Considerations
In evaluating a piping installation design to determine what
safeguarding may exist or is necessary, the following should be
reviewed:
(a) the hazardous properties of hydrogen, considered under
the most severe combination of temperature, pressure, and
composition in the range of expected operating conditions.
(b) the quantity of hydrogen that could be released by piping
failure, considered in relation to the environment, recog-
nizing the possible hazards ranging from large releases to
small leakages.
(c) expected conditions in the environment, evaluated for their
possible effect on the hazards caused by a possible piping
failure. This includes consideration of ambient or surface
temperature extremes, degree of ventilation, proximity of
red equipment, etc.
(d) the probable extent of operating, maintenance, and other
personnel exposure, as well as reasonably probable
sources of damage to the piping from direct or indirect
causes.
(e) the probable need for grounding, bonding, or specialized
electrostatic discharge techniques to minimize ignition of
released hydrogen due to accumulation of static charges.
(f) the safety inherent in the piping by virtue of materials of
construction, methods of joining, and history of service
reliability.
38.17.2 III-3 Safeguarding by Plant Layout and
Operation
Representative features of plant layout and operation which
may be evaluated and selectively utilized as safeguarding include
(a) plant layout features, such as open-air process equipment
structures, spacing and isolation of hazardous areas, buffer
areas between plant operations and populated communi-
ties, or control over plant access
(b) protective installations, such as re protection systems,
barricades or shields, ventilation to remove released
hydrogen, and instruments for remote monitoring and
control
(c) operating practices, such as restricted access to processing
areas; work permit system for hazardous work; or special
training for operating, maintenance, and emergency crews
(d) means for safe discharge of hydrogen released during
pressure-relief device operation, blowdown, cleanout, etc.
(e) procedures for startup, shutdown, and management of
operating conditions, such as gradual pressurization or
depressurization, and gradual warmup or cooldown, to
minimize the possibility of piping failure
38.17.3 III-4 Engineered Safeguards
Engineered safeguards that may be evaluated and selectively
applied to provide added safeguarding include
(a) means to protect piping against possible failures, such as
(1) thermal insulation, shields, or process controls to pro-
tect from excessively high or low temperature and
thermal shock
(2) armor, guards, barricades, or other protection from
mechanical abuse
(3) damping or stabilization of process or uid ow
dynamics to eliminate or to minimize or protect
against destructive loads (e.g., severe vibration pulsa-
tions, cyclic operating conditions)
(b) means to protect people and property against harmful con-
sequences of possible piping failure, such as conning and
safely disposing of escaped hydrogen by shields for
anged joints, valve bonnets, or gages
(c) limiting the quantity or rate of hydrogen escaping by auto-
matic shutoff or excess ow valves, additional block
valves, ow-limiting orices, or automatic shutdown of
pressure source
(d) limiting the quantity of hydrogen in process at any time,
where feasible
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 38-27
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38.18 REFERENCES
1. ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines
2. ASME B31.3 Process Piping
3. ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
4. ASME B31.8S Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
5. ASME Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualications
6. ASME Section II, Part D Properties, Materials
7. ASME Section VIII, Division 3 High Pressure Vessels
8. ASME B16.9 Factory-Made Wrought Buttwelding Fittings
9. ASME B16.11 Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded
10. ASME B1.20.1 Screw Threads
11. API 1104 Standard for Field Welding of Pipe Lines
12. API 598 Valve Inspection and Test
13. API 521 Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems
14. API 941 Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and
Pressures in Petroleum Reneries and Petrochemical Plants
15. API 6D Steel Gate, Plug, and Check Valves for Pipeline Service
16. API 5L Line Pipe Specications
17. API 5B Inspection of External and Internal Pipe Threads
18. ANSI/ ASQC 9000 Standards
19. WRC 537 Local Stress in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells Due to
External Loading
38.18.1 Standards Development Organizations
(SDO)
1. ASME, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Three Park Ave.
New York, NY 10016-5990
2. API, American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L Street, NW Washington,
DC 20005-4070
3. ASQC, American Society for Quality Control, 600 North Plankinton
Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53203
4. WRC, Welding Research Council, P.O. Box 1942, New York, NY
10156
38-28 Chapter 38
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