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An Introduction to Database Concepts

Topics Covered…
 DATABASE
 DBMS & RDBMS
 DATABASE MODELS
 DATABASE OBJECTS
 NORMALIZATION
 SQL COMMANDS & FUNCTIONS
 JOINS

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 Database

• A database is a structured collection of records

or data that is stored in a computer system so
that a computer program or person can easily
retrieve and manipulate the data using a query
language.

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 Database Management System[DBMS]

• A database management system (DBMS) is

computer software designed for creating and
maintaining databases and allows users to
retrieve information from that database.

MSAccess, Foxpro,DBase

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Relational Database Management System[RDBMS]

• A type of DBMS in which the database is

organized and accessed according to the
relationships between data values. It is based on
the relational model.

•Oracle, DB2, MS SQL Server,Teradata

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 Database Model

• A database model is a theory or specification

describing how a database is structured and used.

Three types of Data models are…

 Hierarchical Model
 Network model
 Relational Model

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 Hierarchical Model

• Hierarchical data model

organizes data in a tree
structure,hierarchy is of
parent and child data
segments.hierarchical model
structures data as a tree of
records, with each record
having one parent record and
many children

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 Network Data Model

• Network data model

organize data as a network
and the network model
allows each record to have
multiple parent and child
records.

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 Relational Data Model

• A relational database allows

the definition of data
structures, storage and
retrieval operations and
integrity constraints. In
such a database the data
and relations between them
are organised in tables.

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 Database Objects

 Table
Table is a database object or structure where the
data is stored.A table will contains rows and
columns. A row in a table is called 'tuple' and the
column in the table is called 'Attribute'.

 View
• A view is a virtual, dynamic or logical table
computed or collated from data in the database.
• Changing the data in a table alters the data shown
in the view.

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 Database Objects

 Stored Procedure
A stored procedure is a subroutine available to
applications accessing a relational database
system. Stored procedures are actually stored in
the database.

 Trigger
A database trigger is procedural code that is
automatically executed in response to certain
events on a particular table in a database. Triggers
can restrict access to specific data, perform
logging, or audit data modifications.

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 Database Objects

• Index
A database index is a data structure that improves the
speed of operations in a table.Indexes can be created
using one or more columns.The disk space required
to store the index is typically less than the storage of
the table , or audit data modifications.

Types of Index are

 Unique Index
 Non-unique Index
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 Keys in a table

 Primary Key
• It is a unique and non-nullable attribute of the table
• The primary key of a relational table uniquely
identifies each record in the table.

 Foreign key
• It is a field in a relational table that matches the
primary key column of another table.
• Foreign key is used to establish and enforce a link
between the data in two tables.

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 Keys in a table

 Candidate Keys
• A key that uniquely identifies rows in a table. Any of
the identified candidate keys can be used as the
table's primary key.
 Super Key
• A Candidate Key as a Super Key that contains only
the minimum number of columns necessary to
determine uniqueness.

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 Database Normalization

It is a technique for designing relational

database tables to minimize duplication of
information.

The goals of normalization are,

Eliminating redundant data
Ensuring data dependencies make sense

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 Database Normalization

Types of Normalization are

1st Normal form
 2nd Normal form
 3rd Normal form
 Boyce-Codd Normal Form
 4th Normal form
 5th Normal form

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 Database Normalization

 1st Normal form

A relation to be in 1NF, each column must contain only
a single value and each row must contain the same
columns.
 2nd Normal form
In order to be in Second Normal Form, a relation must
first fulfill the requirements to be in First Normal Form.
Additionally, each nonkey attribute in the relation must
be functionally dependent upon the primary key.

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 Database Normalization

 3rd Normal form

In order to be in Third Normal Form, a relation must
first fulfill the requirements to be in Second Normal
Form. Additionally, all attributes that are not
dependent upon the primary key must be eliminated.
 Boyce-Codd Normal Form
A relation is in Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) if
every determinant is a candidate key.

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 Database Normalization

 4th Normal form

To be in Fourth Normal Form, a relation must first be
in Boyce-Codd Normal Form. Additionally, a given
relation may not contain more than one multivalued
dependency.
 5th Normal form
A 4NF table is said to be in the 5NF if and only if every
join dependency in it is implied by the candidate keys.

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 Structured Query Language[SQL]

SQL is an ANSI standard computer language for

accessing and manipulating Database systems.

 Data Definition Language[DDL]

 Data Manipulation Language[DML]
 Data Control Language [DCL]
 Transaction Control Language[TCL]

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 Data Definition Language [DDL]

SQL statements that can be used either

interactively or within programming language
source code to define databases and their
components.
DDL commands are …

 CREATE -Create tables

 ALTER -Changing the table definition
 DROP -Drop tables
 RENAME -Renaming table
 TRUNCATE -Deletes the data

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 Data Manipulation Language [DML]

SQL statements that can be used to manipulate the

data in a relational table. It includes …

 SELECT - extracts data from a database table

 UPDATE - updates data in a database table
 DELETE - deletes data from a database table
 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database table

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 Data Control Language[DCL]

SQL statements that can be used for control access

to data in a database. It includes…

 GRANT -to allow specified users to perform specified tasks.

 REVOKE- to cancel previously granted or denied
permissions

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 Transaction Control Language[TCL]

SQL statements that can be used for used to

control transactional processing in a database

 COMMIT -to apply the transaction.

 ROLLBACK -to undo all changes of a transaction

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 Select Options…

 where -it is used to apply condition on queries

 group by - we can use the GROUP BY clause to divide the

rows in a table into groups, to return summary information for
each group.

 having -it is used in combination with the GROUP BY

clause. It can be used in a SELECT statement to filter the
records that a GROUP BY returns.

 order by -It allows to specify the order in which rows

appear in the Result.

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 Functions in SQL

The syntax for built-in SQL functions is,

SELECT function(column) FROM table

Important types of functions…

 String Functions
 Conversion Functions
 Mathematical Functions
 Date Functions

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 String Functions

The string functions allows to manipulate strings

Some String functions are…

 length - Length of the specified string.

 concat - Concatenate two strings together.
 substr -Used to extract a substring from a string
 upper - Converts all letters uppercase
 trim - Removes all specified characters either from the
beginning or the ending of a string

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 Conversion Functions

Conversion functions are used to convert the

datatype.
Some Conversion functions are…

 Cast -converts one datatype to another.

 to_char -converts a number or date to a string
 to_date -converts a string to a date.
 to_number-converts a string to a number.
 to_lob -converts LONG or LONG RAW values to LOB
values.
 Convert -converts a string from one character set to
another

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 Aggregation Functions

Aggregate functions operate against a collection of

values, but return a single value.
Some Aggregation functions are…

 avg(column) -Returns the average value of a column

 count(column) -Returns the number of rows
 max(column) - Returns the highest value of a column
 first(column) -Returns the value of the first record in a
specified field
 sum(column) - Returns the total sum of a column

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 Date Functions

Date functions used to manipulate date & time

values.
Some Date functions are…

 current_date -returns the current date

 last_day -returnsthe last day of the month based
on a date value
 next_day -returns the first weekday
 to_date -converts a string to a date
 Round - returns a date rounded to a specific unit
of measure

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 Some other Commands / Functions

rowid -it is a pseudo column that uniquely identifies a

row within a table, but not within a database.
rownum -For each row returned by a query,
the ROWNUM pseudocolumn returns a
number indicating the order in which Oracle
selects the row from a table.
coalesce function -the coalesce function
returns the first non-null expression in the
list. If all expressions evaluate to null, then
the coalesce function will return null.
sample -sample in queries used for getting
sample output.

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 Set Operations in Database

 Union : the UNION operator combines the results of two SQL

queries into a single table of all matching rows. The two queries
must have the same number of columns and compatible data
types in order to join them. Any duplicate records are
automatically removed unless UNION ALL is used.

 Intersect: SQL INTERSECT operator takes the results of two

queries and returns only rows that appear in both result sets.

 Except : The SQL EXCEPT operator takes the distinct rows of

one query and returns the rows that do not appear in a second
result set.

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 Joins

A JOIN clause in SQL combines records from two

tables in a relational database and results in a new
(temporary) table, also called a "joined table".

Structured Query Language specifies two types of

joins: Inner join and Outer join

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 Inner Joins

INNER JOIN returns all rows from both

tables where there is a match.

Inner join is subdivided into three types

Equi-join
Natural join
Cross join

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 Inner Joins

Equi-join : The type of Join which links the

columns of two tables using an equal relationship.
Natural join: An inner join in which redundant
columns are eliminated.
Cross join : A cross join (or Cartesian Product join)
will return a result table where each row from the first
table is combined with each row from the second table.
The number of rows in the result table is the product of
the number of rows in each table

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 Outer Joins

A Join operation in which all source records are

included in the result, even those that don't satisfy
the join condition

The Outer joins subdivided in to

 Left outer join
 Right outer join
 Full outer join

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 Outer Joins

Left outer join : The resultant table will contain all the
records from the first table plus the records from second table
which satisfying the join condition.
Right outer join : The resultant table will contain all the
records from the second table plus the records from first table
which satisfying the join condition
Full outer join : A full outer join combines the results
of both left and right outer joins. The joined table will contain
all records from both tables

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 Joins Diagrams

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