CRGO SILICON STEEL 49 !

" So far we discussed the selection of grades of CRGO material, their processing, cutting, mitring notching and other constructional features. We shall now discuss in brief the systematic approach to quality checks on processed laminations. 4.13.1 Surface Conditions The laminations should be reasonably free from surface defects such as holes, sc abs, blisters, silver spots, dents, rust and other harmful defects. The coating should be smooth and u niform, and free from dust. It should be sufficiently adherent during processing and should be compati ble with hot transformer oil. 4.13.2 Finish, Workmanship and Appearance Sharp and short waves and buckles are extremely detrimental to the ef fective use of grain oriented electrical steel. Burrs on the cut and slit edges should be limited to 40 micron s. Camber should be as minimum as possible. 4.13.3 Tolerance on Dimensions (i) Thickness: Though ISS has recommended an acceptable tolerance on thickness a s 0.025 mm, for all practical purposes the tolerance should be 0.025 mm to have effective control on the uniformity of the overall core stack/diameter. (ii) Width: The width of materials supplied either as slit rolls or cut lengths shall be as close as possible to the ordered width, and in no case should the maximum deviation from the specified width exceed the values given in IS-3024 (Table 6) which is reproduced in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Specified width Width tolerance Over Up to and including Over (+) Under ( ) 100 mm (+) 0.15 mm ( ) 0.15 mm 100 mm 230 mm (+) 0.2 mm ( ) 0.2 mm 230 mm 380 mm (+) 0.25 mm ( ) 0.25 mm 380 mm 580 mm (+) 0.4 mm ( ) 0.4 mm 580 mm (+) 0.5 mm ( ) 0.5 mm The CRGO steel processors should be aware of the above tolerance limits to enabl e them to keep rigid checks while slitting the mother coils to baby hoops. Width beyond toleran ce will create unwanted air gaps during assembly, resulting in high no-load loss and current. Further, b oth the processors and the users should have requisite calibrated gauges (like vernier, micrometer, scale e tc.) of adequate sizes to make them able to measure the width within tolerance limits.50 POWER TRANSFORMER S : QUALITY ASSURANCE (iii) Length: ISS is silent over tolerance on length below 500 mm. For all pract ical purposes, the length should be as close as possible to the ordered length, but in no case shou ld the maximum deviation from the specified length exceed the values as given in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 Specified length Length tolerance Over Upto and including Over (+) Under ( ) 300 mm (+) 0.5 mm ( ) 0.5 mm

300 mm 700 mm (+) 0.75 mm ( ) 0.75 mm 700 mm 1100 mm (+) 1.0 mm ( ) 1.0 mm 1100 mm 1500 mm (+) 1.25 mm ( ) 1.25 mm (iv) Cutting angle: Tolerance on cutting angle shall be limited to 0.5. Necessary protractor should be made available for measuring such cutting angles with tolerance. (v) Out of square (cut length): The deviation of an edge from a straight line pl aced at right angle to the side touching one corner and extending to the other sid e, shall not exceed 2 mm over 150 mm width or fraction thereof. X X 90 90 90 90 Length Length w (width) Value of should not exceed 2 mm over 150 mm width or fraction thereof Fig. 4.14. Out of square #$%&&'()* " Specific loss, i.e., loss per kg of the mother coil, is generally known from the test certificates provided by the mills. But the transformer manufacturers are keen to know the watt loss p er kg at the designed flux density on the processed laminations, since this would give the correct val ue of handling factor CRGO SILICON STEEL 51 which includes all the deteriorations the laminations had suffered during slitti ng, shearing, notching as well as due to human errors and workmanship. To measure such losses, ISS has recommeded to check through Epstein Test Frame. It need not be elaborated further here, since IS-649 gives all the related informations with constructional details of such test frames. Refer Figs. 4.15 to 4.26 for the relationship between core loss and induction fo r various grades of laminations. As stated earlier, various grades of CRGO steel laminations with different thick nesses are available in the market and some of the widely available grades are given in Table 4.4. Table 4.4 Conventional grade HI-B grade Lazer grade M6 0.35 mm MOH 0.27mm ZDMH-95 0.27 mm M5 0.30 mm MOH 0.23 mm ZDMH-90 0.27 mm M4 0.27 mm ZDMH-90 0.23 mm M3 0.23 mm ZDMH-85 0.23 mm Various other grades of CRGO laminations are also available which have not been mentioned here. CRGO steel is basically an imported material and is not produce d in India in large scale. We therefore need to ascertain the availability of the particular grade o f material in the market before selecting it for use. For acceptable performance figures of no-load loss, no-load current, working flu

x density etc. the designer should select a suitable grade of CRGO lamination from the grades r eadily available in the market. The word readily available has great importance, since we must ensure the timely availability of the materials on demand. These days timely delivery is also consider ed to be a part of quality assurance. Quality products with delayed delivery is not appreciated by any cust omer. To conclude the discussion on CRGO laminations, a brief table is given below for ready reference on few aspects of quality assurance.52 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Table 4.5 Particulars Quality checks Surface conditions Free from surface defects, hole, scab, blister, silver spot, dent, rust and other harmful defects such as nonuniform insulating surface coating on either side of the lamination. Finished workmanship and Free from sharp and short waves, buckles etc. with appearance minimum burrs in the slit and cut edges. Camber should be appreciably low. Thickness tolerance (+) or ( ) 0.0125 mm over guaranteed value. Tolerance on width < 100 mm 0.15 mm > 100 mm < 230 mm 0.2 mm > 230 mm < 380 mm 0.25 mm > 380 mm < 580 mm 0.4 mm > 580 mm 0.5 mm Tolerance on length < 300 mm 0.5 mm > 300 mm < 700 mm 0.75 mm > 700 mm <1100 mm 1.0 mm > 1100 mm < 1500 mm 1.5 mm Tolerance on cutting angle Should be limited to 0.5 on the declared angle. Out of square (cut length) 2 mm over 150 mm width or fraction thereof. Checks on specific loss i.e. watts/kg Recommended to check through epstein test frame and the values should match the mills certificates. Selection of specific grade of CRGO To select on the basis of no-load loss, no l oad current and permissible maximum flux density. Market availability on demand should also be considered while selecting a specific grade of material. The discussion above provides a general guideline to the CRGO processors and tr ansformer manufacturers to produce a better product. In case the materials beyond toleranc e limits are used, the performance of the transformer will be adversly affected.CRGO SILICON STEEL 53 Fig. 4.15 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 7 10 20 50 100 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-6 0.35 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 M-6 0.35 mm54 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Fig. 4.16 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

10 20

10 20 50 100

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-5 0.35 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 0.35 mmCRGO SILICON STEEL 55 Fig. 4.17 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz

1.0 2 5

10 20

to

10 20 50 100

1.0 2 5

10 20

CORE LOSS M-5 0.30 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 0.30 mm56 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Fig. 4.18 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-4 0.30 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 0.30 mmCRGO SILICON STEEL 57 Fig. 4.19 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30

10 20 50 100

10 20

10 20 50 100

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-OH 0.30 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 M-OH 0.30 mm58 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Fig. 4.20 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5

10 20

10 20 50 100

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 7 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-4 0.27 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 M-4 0.27 mmCRGO SILICON STEEL 59 Fig. 4.21 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 2 5 7 10 100 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Core loss (W/lb) Induction (T) 3 4 6 8 9 0.2 2.0 AST-M3T23 CORR = LOSS60 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Fig. 4.22 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 7

10 20

10 20 50 100

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-OH 0.27 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 0.27 mmCRGO SILICON STEEL 61 Fig. 4.23 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5

10 20

10 20 50 100

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS M-OH 0.23 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/dm 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 M-OH 0.23 mm62 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Fig. 4.24 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

10 20

10 20 50 100

1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS 27ZDKH95 0.27 mm Tested by Single Sheet Tester, using as-sheared 800 m wide 600 mm long specimens taken longitudinal to the rolling direction. Assume density 7.65 kg/dm . 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 0.27 mmCRGO SILICON STEEL 63 Fig. 4.25 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 5 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) Core loss (W/lb) 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS 23ZDKH90 0.23 mm Tested by Single Sheet Tester, using as-sheared

10 20

10 20 50 100

10 20

800 m wide 600 mm long specimens taken longitudinal to the rolling direction. Assume density 7.65 kg/dm . 3 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 0.23 mm64 POWER TRANSFORMERS : QUALITY ASSURANCE Fig. 4.26 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 2 5 10 100 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla), ( 10; Kilogausses) 2.2 0.02 0.2 20 50 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS 27 ZDMH 0.27 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/cm 3 Core loss (W/lb)CRGO SILICON STEEL 65 Fig. 4.27 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 2 5 10 100 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0

2.1 Core loss (W/kg) Induction (Tesla) 2.2 0.02 0.2 20 50 Induction (Kilolines/in. ) 2 50 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 60 Hz CORE LOSS 27 ZDMH 85 0.23 mm Tested by Epstein test apparatus. Samples were sheared were in the rolling direction and subjected to stress-relief annealing at 800C (1,472F). Assumed density 7.65 kg/cm 3 Core loss curve66 FOOD FOR THOUGHT The concept of quality assurance in engineering has changed vastly over the last few decades. From simple quality control it has changed to quality in system engineering. Quality control activities were predominant in 1940s, 50s and 60s. The 1970s was an era of quality engineering; the 1990s showed quality system as an emerging field. Quality system requires global thinking in many facets of design, production and service. In the past, people in the quality assurance field needed to be proficient in st atistics, statistical control charts, regression analysis, sampling plan and other techniques. Over th e years, many software packages have been developed and the quality assurance professionals can use the se as aids in making intelligent decisions. ISO element 4.20 requires the use of statistical techniqu es to establish control and verify process capability and product characteristics (Section-II, Chapter-14). Quality assurance came into prominence with an increase in global competition. A wareness of quality system was created in all levels of employees and officers. The role of professionals in the twenty first century is quite different from th e role played in the twentieth. He is expected to think in terms of total system quality and have a s trategic approach and be a team player rather than an individual contributor. Working smarter rather than working harder is the norm. Knowledge of human psychology, software applications and teamwork concepts is an asset; besides statistical knowledge. It will not be an easy path for quality professional. There will be a constant f ight for survival. The demanding and challenging future will not accept a bureaucratic approach. A flexiable approach based on sound judgement and ethical principles will be accepted whole-heartedly . An efficient and effective approach will be required in all action under-taking. Like CRGO steel, winding wires and strips are also vital raw materials used in t he transformer. The basic material available in the market is in the form of wire rods with diameter

s varying from 8 mm to

Section II C H A P T E R 5WINDING WIRES AND STRIPS 67 16 mm. The wire rod is then drawn to the required size and insulated with paper or other insulating materials. Annealing or heat treatment is done on drawn materials for softening and stress relieving.

The process consists of extruding the rod through a die thereby causing reductio n in cross sectional area of the wire rod. The wire is drawn by pulling the rod in bull-block machine thro ugh several dies of decreasing diameter in order to obtain a thin wire. The drawing processes of alu minium and copper are almost same; but the drawing oils are different for the two materials. The drawi ng oil is used as lubricant and also as cooling agent for the die. It also helps to provide a bright finish. In wire drawing, there are two types of processes; single draft drawing and cont inuous drawing. In single draft drawing method, the drawing operation is started by making the e nd of the rod pointed and pushing it through a tapered hole in the die. The pointed end is pulled by pu ll-in-dog which is further attached to a power operated reel. The reel is rotated at a calculated speed and the wire is drawn through a die at the desired speed. The wire is drawn through several dies of reducing sizes till the necessary redu ction is obtained. The area of contact between the wire and the die is continuously lubricated to minim ise friction. In continuous drawing operation, the wire is drawn continuously through several dies and the drawing blocks are arranged in service . The number of dies in service depends upon the reduction required and the kind of materials being processed. The speed of drawing is care fully monitored so that the length of wire between the blocks remain constant. The dies generally used are of tungsten carbide. The final size is obtained usin g a diamond die. The strip is formed from the round wire obtained at bull-block machine using a f lattening mill. Cold rolling process is used. By continuously passing the material through the machin e 2 to 4 times, the desired cross section of the strip is achieved. The final size is obtained eithe r with the help of edger roll unit forming a part of the machine or by using tungsten carbide rectangular stri p die. The edger roll has grooves of various sizes which are adjustable to control the width and the corner radius of the strip. Final size of the strip can be obtained after passin g the rolled strips through the tungsten carbide drawing die which is nonadjustable and is made to draw spec ific size of strip. The objective of annealing is to soften the metal from the stresses developed du ring the cold drawing process. Annealing helps to: (a) improve machinability (b) obtain grain size and product uniformity (c) increase activity of the metal (d) modify and improve electric and magnetic properties68 POWER TRANSFORMERS : Q UALITY ASSURANCE (e) relieve internal stresses ( f) produce definite micro structure. Annealing of Copper

The wires and strips after drawing/rolling are full of stresses and are hard in nature. To relieve the material of stresses, it is annealed under vacuum in the electrically heated annealing pl ant. The process requires a temperature of 400 500C. The vacuum-sealed pot when pulled out from the furnace remai ns at high temperature and is allowed to cool down to the ambient temperature. After about 48 hours when the pot attains ambient temperature, the vacuum is released and the material i nside the pot is transferred to insulation section. Monitoring the vacuum during these 48 hours is very importan t, since any leakage of air (which essentially contains oxygen) will result in its reaction with copper affe cting the surface finish. Annealing of Aluminium Since aluminium does not react with oxygen normally, the annealing pro cess is carried out in open furnace. Electrical Grade Insulating Paper (EGIP) is generally used for covering the bare conductor. EGIP has certain properties which makes it a superior material to use as insulation in el ectrical equipments. These are: (a) Flexibility (b) Easy to use (c) Higher insulation with lesser thickness (d) Higher resistance to oil (e) Reasonable heat resistance while in contact with oil (f) Good compatibility with transformer oil (g) Low chloride content. Because of the above properties, EGIP finds a wide range of usage in insulated w ires and strips for oil immersed transformers and in certain other electrical equipments. EGIP is available in various widths in the form of rolls. The jumbo roll is slit to various sizes in the shape of small discs. The paper is slit into different widths depending upon the number of coverings required on the conductor (e.g. DPC/TPC/QPC/MPC etc.). The width of the slit als o depends on the factor of overlapping. In the case of double paper covered conductor, two slit papers are used which ar e wrapped in opposite directions. However in the case of triple or more paper covering all th e papers shall be overlapped in the same direction, unless otherwise specified/agreed upon. The following ISS may be referred: IS-6162 (Part-I) : Paper covered conductors (round conductor) IS-6160 : Rectangular conductors for electrical machines