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Habisch Andre
tt-Ingolstadt, Ingolstadt Business School, Catholic University of Eichsta Ingolstadt, Germany
Abstract
Purpose The notion of compassion is a cornerstone in Chinese as well as western orientations for business practice. Spiritual and religious traditions, philosophical approaches and historical and present business practices outline this notion in a comparative perspective. This paper seeks to address this issue. Design/methodology/approach Interdisciplinary paper, summarizing social science, philosophical and business literature. Findings With its focus on compassion, business ethics in the Chinese tradition highlights a notion, which variously resonates within western traditions. Based on this, multiple lines or thought consequences for management development are derived. Practical implications In terms of management development the call for compassionate management can be held as a common denominator of different traditions. Therefore, it will be important to include this aspect in our management development, cultural management as well as international strategy courses. Originality/value In a broad interreligious and intercultural overview some basic characteristics of compassionate management can be identied. Keywords Wisdom, Compassionate management, Trust, Western philosophy, Christianity, Chinese traditions, China Paper type Conceptual paper
Journal of Management Development Vol. 30 No. 7/8, 2011 pp. 778-788 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0262-1711 DOI 10.1108/02621711111150272
1. Chinese wisdom and compassionate management Research (Opdebeeck, 2010a) on practical wisdom in management from the perspective of classical Chinese traditions leads to Taoism, Confucianism and Zen Buddhism. Lao-Tse (604-531 BC), born half a century before Confucius (551-497 BC), was the founder of Taoism. Tao, although indenable as it has to be experienced, means something like the way or the path. For Taoism, the development of virtue is ones main task and to be found in moderation, humility and especially in compassion. Taoism considers man to be compassionate by nature, without expecting a reward. Zen Buddhism is a Chinese/Japanese synthesis between Indian Buddhism and Taoism in which compassion plays a central role. Important also in Zen Buddhism is the relativity of individuals. This means that only by giving the right answer in the relation to one another, can people coexist.
The authors want to thank explicitly Professor Dr Gilbert Lenssen for his constructive suggestions during the publication process of this article.
Confucius lived during the Chinese Spring and Autumn period characterised by moral laxity. A crucial virtue of Confucianism is compassion (Ren), humaneness towards the others. The golden rule for Confucianism is reciprocity: one should not behave towards others in a way which is disagreeable to oneself (Mencius VII.A.4). A fundamental thread to business management dened by compassion is the Chinese Diamond Sutra text in which cooperation is the key to survival and success, and non-aggressive philosophy and wisdom is advocated for running business ventures and organisations (Opdebeeck, 2010a). Dot ZEN, written by Phan and Peng (2003), is inspired by this Diamond Sutra. For the authors the central question is if there is a way for executives to nurture ethical management in themselves and peers, whilst enabling the organisation to grow (Phan, 2004, pp. 1359-1360). As a lifelong student of eastern philosophy since the age of six, Phan learned compassion as an exceptionally powerful value in building ethical or sustainable businesses. He quotes The Dalai Lama who in the Art of Happiness says:
Be compassionate. Not just to your friends, but with everyone. Be compassionate.
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Compassion is the sympathy for others, with a desire to help. So why would compassion and management be distant to each other, Phan asks. The problem for many managers today lies in the fact that by only adhering to the letter of the law, they believe they are ethical to the spirit or core of their business or organisation:
But ethics is more than compliance to the law [. . .] And that has to do with compassion for everyone, every stakeholder, every customer, and every employee [. . .] As the Chinese says, make big problems small, and small problems nothing at all. If you can reduce our problem from big to small to nothing, you may end up not with new enemies every time, but new allies and friends (Phan, 2004, pp. 1360-1361).
Phan explains that compassion is not just for enlightened leaders like HH The Dalai Lama: it can be nurtured and tightly integrated into the fabric of any corporation, including highly competitive and volatile technology businesses. To enact compassionate management in a corporation, compassionate management must be grounded in ethics, not just in compliance. It is crucial to educate everyone in the culture of compassion before any short-term perceived gain:
In almost any management failure, most are attributed to the lack of proper and timely communication with employees. If the leader is to create an environment for compassionate results, he or she must lead in the education, and must be the role model for others to follow [. . .] Reward not just those who deliver results, but especially those who create meaningful partnerships (even with the competition) (Phan, 2004, pp. 1361-1362).
The compassionate way forward for managers and employees is to be happy at their workplace and content with the same mindful courage of a Taoistic warrior:
Compassion and management are twins at birth, separated perhaps by the environment, but must ultimately be joined together for true wisdom and strength to emerge. Even as we debate the issue of ethics and of ethical dilemmas, we can learn to appreciate that if we intrinsically understand and apply principles of compassion and contentment, ethics and management would simply fall into place (Phan, 2004, p. 1363).
Whilst compassionate management emerges from a belief in minimising self-interest and maximising mutually benecial transactions, the Confucian perspective on
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compassion comes from the disposition of the man of benevolence who understands his responsibility for promoting public morality and behaviour and in putting people rst. The current reconstruction of Confucian thought in contemporary China is already creating a fresh interest in the application of Confucian thinking in Chinese business education. In The Analects, the compilation of Confuciuss teachings, compassion is expressed in his call to leaders to exemplify a moral nobility and to act with kindness, loyalty and faithfulness (Ciulla, 2002, p. 123). Compassion is central to Confuciuss notion of the man of humanity, who is called to really love humanity n-tzu, and to hate inhumanity (Confucius, 1969, 4:6). The responsibility of the chu literally meaning son of the ruler but also referring to the morally superior person, is to practice shu (altruism). The distinction is made with the inferior person whose life is based on the standard of prot and self-interest. Ren Jianxin, president of ChemChina, a state-owned enterprise, once was asked why his company owned the n-tzu but in the contemporary restaurant chain, Malan Noodle. He answered as a chu guise as a responsible manager:
[. . .] [A]s a responsible entrepreneur I have to try as hard as I can to create jobs for the unfortunate. Creating a service business like Malan Noodle was one of the solutions I came up with ( Jianxin, 2008, p. 56).
The common thread in Taoistic and Confucian thought lies in respect and compassion for the other. It is fundamentally a sympathy for the other, especially those who are more unfortunate than oneself. In an interesting way, Po-Keung Ip illustrates how compassionate management might be developed by exploring the case of the Chinese state-owned enterprise (SOE), the Double Star Group (Opdebeeck, 2010a). The Double Star Group is headquartered in the coastal city of Qingdao in Chinas Shangdong province. Shangdong is the birthplace of Confucius, whose teachings have become the heart and soul of Chinese culture. From Confucianism, Po-Keung Ip identied values like compassion, which is not only a value of the local culture, but also has universal appeal. Qingdao, which was under German occupation at the turn of twentieth century, is home to several famous corporations, many of which are either state-owned or collectively owned. They include the Qingdao Brewery Corporation, which brews the world famous Qingdao beer, the Haier Group that produces home electrical appliances and the Double Star Group, which manufactures shoes. Those SOEs with good management swiftly grasped the signicance of the reform in China, and started searching for the future of their enterprise as Po-Keung Ip points out:
Prior to the reform, workers were accustomed to the iron rice bowl way of life, as they were taken care of by the state. They adopted a laid-back work ethic which cared very little about output and performance. One popular saying you get 36 dollar when you work yourself to death, you get 36 dollar when you do nothing pretty much captured the ethos of the time. A companys corporate culture cannot be copied mechanically from others, but must be built using its own cultural resources (Ip, 2003, p. 64).
Double Star was one of the SOEs that recognised the full force and implications of the Chinese reform policies where the values and visions of leaders including compassion, tended to dene the values and visions of the company. An example of one is:
Relentless disciplines. Compassionate leadership (Ip, 2003, p. 66).
A quasi-military style of management has been complemented by a compassionate familial management style which treats employees as family members. The spirit of familial management is captured by the slogan:
One should love the factory as your home, and manage the factory like your own home.
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Chinese entrepreneurs should treat their enterprises as their own home. Po-Keung Ip summarizes:
Treating their factory as home will make managers treat their workers like they take care of their own parents, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters. This is to combine affection with discipline. Factory disciplines are merciless, while management is compassionate. When workers are treated with respect and care, they will reciprocate (Ip, 2003, pp. 66-67).
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In the experience of Double Star compassionate management generates trust which results in higher acceptance of disciplinary rules and identication with the company. 2. Compassionate management: contexts and traditions in the West The notion of compassion in Confucianism brings to mind corresponding western philosophical (see section 3) and religious ideas about loving you neighbour and solidarity. In fact it is not difcult to identify elements of compassion in the teachings of the monotheist western spiritual tradition as well. This holds true for the Golden Rule in Judaism: Whatever you wish that men would do to you, do so to them (Leviticus 19.18); in Christianity: Not one of you is a believer until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself (Matthew 7.12) and in Islam A man should wander about treating all creatures as he himself would be treated (Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi ). The overwhelming importance of compassion is obvious in the teachings of Jesus who in his parables, instructions and even prayer stresses the generosity of the father as point of reference; it is the compassion of the ABBA-father, which sets the tone for a practice of compassion among humans. When Christianity left the ethnic context of the Jewish people and developed into an international community of belief, the call for compassion evolved as a universal imperative strongly inuencing even modern times philosophy. Compassion is now grounded in the personal dignity of every human as creature of God stated as a natural law by renaissance and humanist authors. Even the positive international law of enlightenment ages and later the social and labour laws of industrialization are rooted in that generalized cultural concept of the west. Somewhere less known is the inuence of compassion on local economic development in many European regions and even on the emergence of the modern corporation. The relationship is most obvious in the eld of nancial institutions with the Montes Pietatis founded by Franciscan monks in order to start what we today discuss as micro-lending (Pullan, 2005, the rst Mons Pietatis was founded at Perugia in 1462): providing small loans for socially deprived families in order to allow for basic investments and ways to better their living conditions. From the tradition of Montes Pietatis later local savings banks developed in France, the UK, and (in the late eighteenth century) Germany. The main motivation for their foundation was to offer to poor families a secure, long-term and interest-bearing investment vehicle thus triggering regional development and ghting against poverty. Therefore, it was the basic notion of compassion with the poor, which triggered economic development on a
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local level including the foundation of small and medium companies in decentralized areas of many European countries. The modern corporation evolved in the nineteenth century not only as an economic but rst and foremost as a social entity. Even for this process and the legal-administrative direction it took, the practise of compassion played a crucial role. The early industrialization created rather difcult living conditions for workers and their families. Not only economic resources were scarce but also a cultural and institutional infrastructure was basically lacking. It was in this situation that spiritually grounded Entrepreneurs did not limit themselves in pursuing their economic endeavour with personal success. Rather persons like Franz Brandts in on Harmel in France cared for their workers in a very complete way: Germany and Le they provided housing, education and credit; workers councils were empowered for self-responsible decision making; later they even started civil society organisations in order to improve the social status of workers and to inuence the political process of crafting social and labour institutions. Compassionate entrepreneurs became an important civic and political force for shaping the modern corporation and for the emergence of an institutional framework to humanize industrialization (Habisch and Adui, 2010). Without social initiatives of these early industrialization entrepreneurs it would have been much harder to stabilize the emergent structures of the industrialized society. 3. Philosophical wisdom and compassionate management An interesting guide to the approach of considering not only classical traditions like Confucianism or religions like Christianity as a source of wisdom but also philosophy, ` vivre is the French philosopher Luc Ferry. Following Ferry in his book Apprendre a (Ferry, 2006), the starting point of philosophy is man, mortally bounded just like a company can crash. As a nite being, man and what he undertakes is limited in space and time. Unlike the animals he knows he will die like the people whom he loves. This situation a priori is alarming and often unbearable by the fear it creates. Think of the well known expression of Hobbes: Fear and I were twins. Full of fear, man becomes unhappy and questions rise concerning the meaning of life or meaningfulness. In meaningfulness or spirituality as presented by religions like Christianity, the answer to the fear for death (or in a wider sense, for a manager, the fear for bankruptcy of the company) mainly refers to the importance of condence or trust. It is remarkable to know that the Latin word for trust is des, the same word that also means the religious term faith. If you trust in God, you are saved beyond death. It goes without saying that this attitude of trust, by denition means an attitude of humility in front of God. Fear not only prevents us being happy, but also thinking or acting in a free way. Philosophy as a source for wisdom therefore puts forward that man is free to save himself and others. It is remarkable that the search for wisdom to get rid of our fear for death from the beginning also was prominently present in both western and eastern philosophy. The fear for death confronts man with his question concerning the meaning of life or the demand for meaningfulness in general. However this fear for death does not prevent man to look for a rational interpretation of wisdom to get an answer. Compassion for the other as the articulation of the meaning of life is essential, whether you are a Christian or reecting from a Taoistic philosophical point of view or from a stoic,
Kantian or Levinasian one. Compassion can be seen as a trans-cultural interpretation of what wisdom really means. One of the rst philosophical schools that systematically connected this rational demand for wisdom is the antique Greek philosophical school of stoicism. For stoics a good life is a life without hope or fear. It can only be realised from the belief that the world is harmonious and good. Because the present is the only dimension of real life and this present by denition is unstable, it is wise not to attach to what is perishing or to detach us from earthly goods. Also in Chinese philosophy this is a central topic. Instead of hope as an eternal spring, hope is the greatest calamity for both Stoicism and Taoism. Because of hope we risk forgetting that there is no other reality than the here and now. We then miss the chance to practise wisdom as love or concrete compassion (Ferry, 2006, p. 256). It is interesting to see how this form of wisdom not only is applicable in response to mans existential fear for death but also as a guide for the question today on how one can manage a company in a wise way. It is remarkable therefore that nowadays also in Western management literature the concept of compassionate management is being put forward. This means that more and more, also in management, compassion is expressed as a trans-cultural source of wisdom, expressing trust. The philosopher Martha Nussbaum argues that the relationship between compassion and an institution (like a company) is, and should be, a two-way street: compassionate managers construct companies that embody what they imagine. Companies, in turn, inuence the development of compassion in managers (Nussbaum, 2001, p. 405). In this way compassion really functions as a solid basis for management with wisdom. What seems to be essential in compassionate management is that a manager with compassion takes the other and his suffering or failing seriously without losing his own interest. In a globalised society with problems like child labour, climate change, nancial uncertainty and multiculturalism, compassionate management more and more might become a necessary management style in the west and the east. 4. Compassionate management and trust In the context of Chinese as well as Christian and western philosophical traditions, compassion is introduced as intrinsic motivation without focussing much on the social consequences of such behaviour. However, from a modern social science perspective even a complementary dimension could be added: compassionate behaviour breeds trust. The notion of (social) trust is at the very heart of recent developments in social and management science. Following research by 2009 Nobel Prize winner in Economics Elinor Ostrom, the level of mutual trust within small communities is crucial for the creation and maintenance of local public goods (Ostrom, 1990). Trust has important cultural and emotional implications but could also be analysed concerning its structural and institutional implications. The concept of the prisoners dilemma in game theory shows that fear of being exploited by others can impede the emergence of cooperative solutions or trigger the decline of existing (local) traditions of cooperation. Political philosopher Putnam (1993) and Fukuyama (1997) analyse different regional and national cultural traditions. They identify stable cultural equilibriums of trust or of distrust: in a trusting equilibrium the experience of cooperation and of keeping promises is breeding (renewed) dispositions to invest in cooperative solutions. In a
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culture of distrust the opposite holds true: the fear of being exploited prevails, limits the willingness of investments in building trust and ultimately the experience of cooperation. Compassion was not envisioned explicitly in either of these social science approaches nor is the notion of social trust reected in the major philosophical or spiritual traditions sketched above. An attitudinal intrinsic foundation of compassionate behaviour might even reject altogether merely consequentialist deliberations of game theorists. However, from the point-of-view of social scientic organizational studies, it is easy to understand compassion as a dimension of practical wisdom, which takes the interconnectedness of fear, trust and cooperation into account. Compassion may be perceived as investment in trust, here: as a leadership attitude, which helps to trigger a corporate spirit and a wise mode to exert operational authority, which nurture attitudes of identication and engagement. Compassionate management includes both: an emphatic mode of dealing with people and their personal concerns inside and outside the organization (micro-level on a face-to-face encounter) as well as the crafting of governance structures and organizational decisions taking other persons and groups into consideration (organizational level: see above the example of Double Star). Such an approach to our topic is also supported by important authors of management literature (Opdebeeck, 2010a). Raelins Leaderful Organisations (Raelin, 2003) for instance is built on creating a trust-oriented environment in which he develops a vision that reinvents management for todays organisations citing new management models in some of the worlds most progressive companies. He cites the management style of Jim Kelly, former CEO of UPS, who rejects the notion of the CEO superstar in favour of people working together to get things accomplished (Raelin, 2003, p. 116). Harley-Davidson is cited for their circle structure in which each circle selects a coach who has acute communication, listening and inuencing skills (Raelin, 2003, p. 33). Raelin also quotes Robert Kelleys observation that management should have the moral and psychological balance to pursue personal and corporate goals at no cost to either and, above all, pursues the desire to participate in a team effort for the accomplishment of some greater purpose (Raelin, 2004, p. 132). These examples illustrate the possibility of management being transformed from an individual property to a collective responsibility. Raelin explains how through work-based learning and its dialogic approaches, participants over time appear to surface a different form of management that is less characterised by the traditional manager model and more by a collective form that he refers to as leaderful (Raelin, 2003, pp. 134-135). The author juxtaposes the traditional management paradigm as dispassionate against the new paradigm as being compassionate. His use of compassion is connected with values that may be regarded as values that are primary to the creation of wisdom in management. Pruzan and Pruzan Mikkelsen (2006) give one section of their book, Leading with Wisdom, to compassion which is based on interviews with ve business leaders who believe that a leader must have a concern for others and even move from fear to love. It may be concluded that the positive effect that individual and organisational compassion have is not always evident. But it seems that employees and citizens will reward companies and government that treat them humanely and built up trust relationships. The costs of not providing management and the organisational infrastructure to support people are considerable. For instance,
people tend to be distracted at work, and if they do not have appropriate outlets, they may become unresponsive and even uncooperative. In fact, just as compassion can be contagious, so can the detachment that accompanies a non-compassionate response (Pruzan and Pruzan Mikkelsen, 2006, p. 61). Similar approaches are developed by Bejou (2011) in Compassion as the New Philosophy of Business and Lilius et al. (2011) Compassion Revealed: What We Know About Compassion at Work. 5. Compassion in management education Exploring practical wisdom in management in our globalised society, invites us to rediscover the essence of various Chinese traditions. Classical Chinese wisdom is enjoying a revival in China that is also supported by the government. In order to understand Chinese culture, western managers need to better understand and learn the and stereotype. A realistic way to classical Chinese traditions beyond mere cliche achieve this target in management learning is reconnecting with the western wisdom both in the Greek philosophy and the Judeo-Christian traditions. This renders the Chinese traditions less exotic and distant for westerners. And what is more: this brings us to what in both traditions can be summarized as the need for compassionate management. From what we learn from Chinese publications and best practice, western philosophy, social science and management literature as well, it becomes clear that compassionate leaders can help individuals and companies take action that demonstrates their own wisdom, thereby unleashing a compassionate response throughout the organisations and institutions. Although the human capacity to show compassion is universal, some organisations suppress it while others create an environment in which compassion is not only expressed but is extended. It will be important to include this wisdom in our business ethics courses, our cultural management courses and in our international strategy courses. The Chinese managerial practices are heavenly inuenced by Chinese practical traditions as this special issue shows. Therefore it is crucial that western managers learn about these traditions and their connections with their own traditions. It is clear that it can also be an interesting perspective for Chinese managers to learn more about western traditions and connect them to their own culture. What does this mean for management education within the university faculty as well as business schools? Given the crowded timetable of these institutions an extensive introduction into much of the cited literature will only nd limited entry into their curricula. However, a variety of instruments might serve to bring to the mainstream compassionate management in business education. This will result in the seasoning business knowledge (Habisch and Adui, 2010). . Seminars about the experiences of compassionate companies many of them engaging in corporate citizenship projects with social partners like educational organizations or social entrepreneurs may confront students with widespread business practice in their social environment. Involved managers may talk to the students about their compassionate practices highlighting also the effects on trust inside the organisation and with the social environment. This will be especially useful for FDI activities where the local environment is distrustful against the non-domestic company and confronts management and employees with prejudices. Moreover, such management may be grateful for concrete
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initiatives where they are able to translate the general unease with poor living conditions in guest countries into taking action. Knowledge about the practice of corporate citizenship as an expression of compassionate management may be accompanied by references to the local spiritual and religious traditions as well. Empirical research might focus on the role that basic attitudes like compassion play in the day-to-day operations of managers. According to the economic theory of religion, for business elites spiritual values are generally more important than for academic or other elites (especially those in the humanities and the social sciences) (Iannaccone, 1998). Thus, many small- and medium-sized entrepreneurs (SME) talk very openly about their business values, which often correspond to the dominant religious tradition. They perceive these values as being not a burden but a helpful device for sustainable business success (Hammann et al., 2009). This holds especially true in the relationship with employees and the social environment where the desirable consequences of trust generated by compassionate management are most obvious. SME entrepreneurs clearly perceive the reciprocal character of their business activity and want their corporate culture to be corresponding to this (Spence et al., 2004). Business research should produce more evidence about this important factor of SME activity, which is greatly underrepresented in empirical studies; business education should highlight these conditions and be more explicit about effects resulting from this type of compassionate management for the competitive situation of SMEs on labour as well as consumer markets. Personal experiences of voluntary engagement as a concrete expression of compassionate behaviour might complement theoretical instruction of business education. Programs of service learning, which are regularly implemented in business-related programs of many leading organisations worldwide, allow for personal experiences of future business leaders with compassionate behaviours to be shared (Hutchinson, 2005, Hirsch and Horowitz, 2006). Reections of program participants on their experiences may also include references to spiritual traditions outlined above.
It is becoming clear that an updating of the wisdom from Chinese and western traditions like Taoism, Confucianism, western philosophy and Christianity, helps to support compassionate leadership in current east-west management theory and practice. We discover that even from a general management point of view, it is amazing how the importance of compassion in Chinese practical wisdom invites us to rediscover and revitalise this forgotten (compassion) wisdom in western and Christian traditions (Opdebeeck, 2010b). This is a central issue in the context of the whole project of practical wisdom in management.
References Bejou, D. (2011), Compassion as the new philosophy of business, Journal of Relationship Marketing, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 1-6. Ciulla, J. (2002), The Ethics of Leadership, Cengage Learning, Andover. Confucius (1969), The Analects, in Wing-Tsit, Ch. (Ed.), A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
` vivre, Plon, Paris. Ferry, L. (2006), Apprendre a Habisch, A. and Adui, C. (2010), Seasoning business knowledge: challenging recent Catholic social thought, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 29 Nos 7/8, pp. 660-8. Hammann, E., Habisch, A. and Pechlaner, H. (2009), Values that create value: socially responsible business practices in SMEs empirical evidence from German companies, Business Ethics, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 37-51. Hirsch, P. and Horowitz, P. (2006), The global employee volunteer: a corporate program for giving back, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 50-5. Hutchinson, M. (2005), Living the rhetoric: service learning and increased value of social responsibility, Pedagogy, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 427-44. Iannaccone, L.R. (1998), Introduction to the economics of religion, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 36, pp. 1465-96. Ip, P-K. (2003), Business ethics and a state-owned enterprise in China, Business Ethics: A European Review, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 64-77. Jianxin, R. (2008), President of ChemChina interviewed, McKinsey Quarterly, Vol. 3, pp. 55-60. Lilius, J., Kanov, J., Dutton, J.E., Worline, M.C. and Maitlis, S. (2011), Compassion revealed: what we know about compassion at work, in Cameron, K. and Spreitzer, G. (Eds), Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship, Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Nussbaum, M. (2001), Upheavals of Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Opdebeeck, H. (2010a), Compassionate management as an expression of the common good, in de Bettignies, H.-C. and Thompson, M.J. (Eds), Management, Spirituality and the Common Good, Garant, Antwerp/Appeldoorn, pp. 115-28. gral, in Bouckaert, L. Opdebeeck, H. (2010b), The legacy of Jacques Maritains Humanisme Inte and Arena, P. (Eds), Respect and Economic Democracy, Garant, Antwerp/Appeldoorn, pp. 55-70. Ostrom, E. (1990), Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. Phan, S. (2004), Dot ZEN, ethical and compassionate management, International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management, Vol. 4, pp. 1359-63. Phan, S. and Peng, T. (2003), Dot ZEN: Practical Tips and Thoughts on Business, Marketing, PR and Internet from the Diamond Sutra, McGallen & Bolden Associates, Singapore. Pruzan, P. and Pruzan Mikkelsen, K. (2006), Leading with Wisdom: Spiritual-based Management in Business, Greenleaf Publishing, Shefeld. Putnam, R. (1993), Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Raelin, J. (2003), Creating Leaderful Organizations: How to Ring Out Management in Everyone, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA. Raelin, J. (2004), Dont bother putting leadership into people, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 131-5. Further reading Benioff, M. and Southwick, K. (2004), Compassionate Capitalism, How Corporations Can Make Doing Good an Integral Part of Doing Well, Career Press, Franklin Lakes, NJ. Daniels, P. (2005), Economic systems and the Buddhist world view, Journal of Socio-Economics, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 245-68.
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Dutton, J., Worline, M., Frost, P., Lilius, J. and Kanov, J. (2002), Leading in times of trauma, Harvard Business Review, January, pp. 54-61. Enslin, P. and White, P. (2003), Democratic citizenship, in Blake, N., Smeyers, P., Smith, R. and Standish, P. (Eds), The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 110-25. Lutz, M. and Lux, K. (1979), The Challenge of Humanistic Economics, The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company, London/Menlo. Opdebeeck, H. (2002), Building Towers, Perspectives on Globalisation, Ethical Perspectives Monographs Series, Peeters, Leuven. Putnam, R. (1995), Bowling alone: Americas declining social capital, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 65-78. Putnam, R. (2000), Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon & Schuster, New York, NY. Stern, P. (2000), New environmental theories: toward a coherent theory of environmentally signicant behavior, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 56 No. 3, pp. 407-24. Swann, R. (1998), Compassionate management in schools, International Studies in Educational Administration, Vol. 26 No. 1, pp. 21-9. About the authors Hendrik Opdebeeck is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Antwerp where he is afliated with the Centre for Ethics. He studied philosophy and economics at the Universities of Leuven and Ghent. His research interest is focused on the cultural-philosophical backgrounds and effects of globalisation and technology. He is president of the SPES-Forum with a focus on spirituality or meaningfulness in economics and society His co-authored publications in English include The Foundation and Application of Moral Philosophy (Peeters, Leuven, 2000), Building Towers, Perspectives on Globalisation (Ethical Perspectives Monographs Series, Peeters, Leuven, 2002), Frugality, Rebalancing Material and Spiritual Values in Economic Life (Peter Lang, Oxford, 2008), Can One Prevent Globalisation Leading to Ethical Decay? (CIC Edizioni Internazionali, gral (Garant, Roma, 2009), The Legacy of Jacques Maritains Humanisme Inte Antwerp/Appeldoorn, 2010) and Planet and People-centered Economics (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011). Hendrik Opdebeeck is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: Hendrik.opdebeec@ua.ac.be Habisch is Professor for Christian Social Ethics and Civil Society at the Catholic Andre University of Eichstaett-Ingolstadt where he is afliated with the Ingolstadt Business School. He studied theology at the University of Tuebingen and economics at Free University of Berlin. His research interest is focused on Applied Business Ethics and CSR, Small and Medium Companies, Corporate Citizenship and Value based Management. He serves as Associate Research Director of the European Academy Business in Society (EABIS) and is member of the German Parliaments Study Commission Growth, Wellbeing and Quality of Life. Co-authored Publications include Responsibility and Social Capital: The World of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (Palgrave 2004), CSR Across Europe (Springer Publishers 2006), Values That Create Value: Socially Responsible Business Practices in SMEs Empirical Evidence From German Companies (BE 2009), Different Talks with Different Folks: A Comparative Survey of Stakeholder Dialog in Germany, Italy, and the US ( JBE 2010), Ethics and Economics: Towards a New Humanistic Synthesis for Business ( JBE 2011).
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