Royal Institute of Philosophy

A. N. Whitehead on Good and Evil Author(s): R. K. Harrison Source: Philosophy, Vol. 28, No. 106 (Jul., 1953), pp. 239-245 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Institute of Philosophy Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3748099 . Accessed: 23/11/2013 21:00
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A. N. WHITEHEAD ON GOOD AND EVIL

PROFESSORR. K. HARRISON

THE many comments on good and evil found in the writingsof A. N. Whitehead are exhibitedin his mind against the two categories of positive and negative value. His concernin value-considerations is with the "trinity" of truth,beauty and goodness on the one hand, and with falsehood,uglinessand evil on the other.IFor him, "value" is a word employed for"the intrinsicrealityof an event"2 and very frequentlyin his treatment of the value-theme he uses the term "importance" as having equivalence to "value."3 Reality forhim consistsof a systematizedaccumulationofwhat he designates as "actual entities," or "actual occasions," which, he states, are "the final real things of which the world is made up."4 An actual entity correspondsto a "subject" or "self," which is so constitutedas to be able to express the data-productsof otheractual entities.5For the purposes of this paper it will be necessary to consider what Whitehead describes as "eternal objects," or general possibilities,since these categories have an integral relationshipto good and evil in his philosophicalsystem. An "eternal object" is definedas "any entity whose conceptual recognitiondoes not involve a necessary referenceto any definite actual entitiesof the temporalworld."6One of theirmost important is the relationalessence whichthey exhibit,and an eternal properties object can never properlybe considered apart fromits relations to other eternal objects. Such an object would be "redness," "man," "good" as simple quantities, whilst a complex eternal object would exhibitsimpleeternalobjects in specific relations,or in his own words it would be a "definite finite relationship involving the definite eternal objects of a limited set of such objects."7 Now these eternal objects exercise an importantinfluenceover actual entities in the sense that they act as guidingideals which very generallydirectthe process of experience of an actual entity, but this happens only because an actual entity uses them for that specificpurpose. For example, they govern the considerationand absorption of a datum (positive prehension),withinthe experienceof an actual occasion, or its examination and rejection (negative prehension), and so assist the actual entityto realize the ideal concept (or eternalobject) within
2

4 Process and Reality (I929), 3 Aims of Education (I929), p. 63. 6 Ibid., p. 70. 5 Cf. Ibid., pp. 337 ff. 7 Science and the Modern World, p. 239.

I Adventures of Ideas (1933), p. II. Scienceand theModernWorld(I929), p. I36.

p. 27.

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PHILOSOPHY
So then every actual entitycan be regardedas its experience. it mayonly or negative, value,whether although exhibiting positive form until is the abstract eternal have a potential object realizedas ofvaluerests actualvaluesfor it. But thisfruition upon constituting calls thecomprehensive thesubjective ofwhatWhitehead operation aim' of an actual entity(i.e., the guidanceby the ideal or eternal object),and notonlyon one phaseofthatactivity. We can now examinethe relation of the humanmind,whichin is a society ofactual entities, to the existence and recognition itself ofeternal claimsthatthemindis so constituted objects.Whitehead which as to be able to realizeconceptually certain abstract categories and moredetailedexamination upon subsequent proveto be consistent withtheir "The humanintelligence attributes. preconceived ofa typeofthings in abstraction from can conceive exemplification. of humanity The mostobviousdisclosures of thischaracteristic are mathematical conceptsand ideals of the Good."2 Good can be within succeeds claimedas realized whenan actualentity experience or in exemplifying the eternalobject "good." Justhow completely is likelyto be effected is a matter sucha realization upon appositely it difficult to be specific. he would whichWhitehead finds Probably maintainthat absolute exemplification does not fall within the runofexperience common ofactualentities. indicated the such Having abilityofthehumanmindto conceive abstract quantitiesas the "good," Whiteheadthen proceedsto in whichthe eternalobject "good" is in fact describethe manner the element achieved.In thisprocess ofpattern playsan important This is not of a or functional mechanical order,but purely part. the seems to reflect the mathematical of background philosopher, in thegeneral thefactoforder and hisdesireto stress and harmony Thisincidence ofpattern is a necessary forthe concept. prerequisite of the the is a neutral itself attaining "good,"though pattern specifiis neither cant, or in his own words,"in itselfa pattern good nor is notnecessarily ofsucha stateof bad."3 Uniformity characteristic for the of existence an element diverse from that ofthe"good" affairs, be the nature of the eternal to object. As withthe may integral eternal object "beauty," which may exhibit certain necessary ofdiscord,4 so "good" as an analogous characters category maylikewise containcertaindisorder, and even an actual quantity of evil. the "right Whilst chaosand theright are vagueness jointly required forany effective with yet "chaos is not to be identified harmony," evil."5The conditions whichWhitehead as necessary for maintains
Vide Processand Reality,pp. 37 f. Mathematicsand the Good. (The Philosophyof AlfredNorth Whitehead. 3 Ibid., p. 679. Ed. Schilpp.), pp. 672 f. 4 Adventures 5 and Process p. Ideas, 3. of Reality,p. I7I.
I
2

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A. N. WHITEHEAD ON GOOD AND EVIL Good to be realizedare the "infusion of pattern intonaturaloccurand the of the of such modification and rences, stability patterns, such patterns."'Unfortunately he does not deal withthe specific varieties of patterns, but merely assumesthat theyexist,and prethat or ofpattern willinsomeway sumably changes rearrangements the eternal From the object "good." exemplify standpointof the of that the the mind is such humanity, capacity apparently individual concerned is able to prehend those particular positively of the patternswhichwill assist in the ultimateexemplification eternal object"good." Professor cautions us againsta facileacceptance ofthe Whitehead eternal idea thatthe "good" is a "stationary" the concept. Though it situations object"good" is unchanging, particular mayexemplify at one timeand not at another, and it mustalso be bornein mind It mustbe noted thatnewexemplifications are constantly occurring. has always thathis wholephilosophy of"novelty"and "adventure" in view the distinctively forwithoutit "life element, progressive when enclosed withinthe shackles of mere confordegenerates In his book Religion attacks mation."2 in theMaking, he vigorously the concept ofstaticgoodness, in theway of withall thatit implies and self-satisfaction. "Good peopleof narrow smugness sympathies their are apt to be unfeeling and unprogressive, egotistical enjoying This typeofmoralcorrectitude their interior lifeis concerned. is, on The close a larger is trivial."3 view,so like evil thatthe distinction in is possible, connection between as evidenced good and evil which us to their the foregoing lead examine quotation, relationship may somewhat moreclosely,and also the generalnature of evil itself. beenprepared ofrelation We have already forconsiderable intimacy in Whitehead's evil-or a assertion that reduced disorder, form, by he associated which withthe"Bad"4-may be an integral partofthe eternalobject "good." It would appear that in his philosophical and badnesshave a fundamental thought, goodness bearingon the ofthe cosmos."Specific evilsmay fade structure and specific goods elements from but badness and are experience, goodness inescapable in all experience."5 With regardto the natureof evil, Whiteheadmakes a careful of in the enumeration analysisof the situationwhichculminates triviof severaldistinct have "evil We the noticed already types. evilas the"half-way which exhibits housebetween ality"6 perfection and triviality"7 Wherepatterns blockeach otherthereis the itself.
x Mathematics and theGood,p. 678. 2 Modes of Thought (1938), p. Io9. 3 Ibid., p. 98. 4 Ibid., p. io8. 5 A. H. Johnson, Philosophyof Science,II, No. i (I944), p. 23. 6 Mathematics 7 Adventure and theGood, p. 679. ofIdeas,p. 355.

goodness . . . they have reached a state of stable goodness so far as

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PHILOSOPHY of an actual evil of activedeprivation" in the experience "intrinsic this evil be into three and entity, may subdivided types:"a concept with a or realities or two may conflict reality, two may conflict, obvious thereis the more Further, variety concepts may conflict."' of evil withwhichwe are familiar as the "brute motiveforceof Evil is overthe eternal wisdom. disregarding fragmentary purpose, ruling, retarding, hurting."2 it has of evil exemplifies its natureas a norm, Wherethe pattern thecharacter ofa "good,"judgedby itsownstandards. Beyondthis it becomesan evil to itself, as well as to things outsideitself, and For this reason of its own destruction. thus containsthe elements insiststhat the natureof evil is one of essentialinstaWhitehead he maintains thatits activity Regarding bility.3 pain and suffering, a stateofmindwhich transcend can produce willnotmerely it, but its functioning altogether. ignore of God to good and evil may meritbriefconThe relationship at thisjuncture. The relation ofGod to "eternal sideration objects" His "primordial is one ofconsiderable which is nature," complexity. is expressedin the of various conceptualprehensions, comprised the eternalobjects of concretion, God arranges whereby principle actual entities.4 and makesthemavailable forprehension This by calls the "ultimate on the part of God is whatWhitehead function a basic factof the universe whichmustbe accepted irrationality," nature" or the "physicalpreHis unquestioningly. "consequent of the of the universe" God actualities hension evolving by implies virtue of His imbibing thatGod maybe developing continually by oftheactualentities. Within someofthemanyexperiences thisarea Divine the evil in the seen of and be Whitehead nature, may place thatevildoesin facthave a definite statesexplicitly the placewithin the albeit of of of evil speaking "overcoming experience God, by of evil into good"5in the sense of good" and "the transmutation to good.This showsthesubordinate ofevil to contributing position in the nature of God. good is as follows. Thus his formulation of the matter "God has in his naturethe knowledge of evil,of pain, and of degradation, but it is thereas overcome withwhatis good.Everyfactis whatit is, a fact In itsunionwithGod that ofpleasure, ofjoy,ofpain or ofsuffering. sideis an element factis nota totalloss,but on its finer to be woven into the of mortal Its evil becomes rhythm immortally things. very a stepping-stone in theall-embracing idealsofGod."6
2

Immortality (Whiteheadin Schilpp. ed.), pp. 686 f. Scienceand theModern World,p. 276. 3 Cf. Religionin theMaking, pp. 97 f. 4 Process and Reality,p. I34 passim. 5 Religionin theMaking, p. 155.
I

Ibid., p. I56.

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A. N. WHITEHEAD

ON GOOD AND EVIL

The positionwhichWhitehead adopts on this question of good and evil calls forsome discussion. In the first place, it is not at all clear as to what he understandsby the use of the term"good." It is clearly an eternal object, but are we to inferfromthis that it has a nature uniform with others of its kind, and in any case, what is the special characteristic whichmay be taken as distinguishing it, and makingit are that the and for it assured desirable is? We what recognizable But of exhibit variations. arises as the result which good patterns and do do these how we how, they fall may ask, patterns arise, withinthe discernment of actual entities?To implythat the type of patternwhichbringsthe achievementof goodnesswithinreach is the the eternalobject "good" tellsus verylittle varietywhichexemplifies about the specificbreakdownof the pattern,and comes dangerously near a tautology. Is it necessary,we may ask, that the good should exhibitpattern? May it not ratherbe foundin a "simple" or "naive" to functionalarrangement?Whitehead does withoutreference form, offer not any cogent proofof his assertion,and so it must remain an open question for the present. Nor does he seem to take adequate of degreesor grades ofgoodness,and this cognizanceof the possibility is rather important in view of the fact that he waxes wroth on "static goodness." Is goodness for him a concept which is apprehended in totality and final formas a result of prehensionby an actual entity,or is the experiencegradual and sustained as a result then of continuation?If God is capable of developingby prehension, perhaps the same may be said of "good" also. Whitehead claims that exactness of achievementof the "good" is impossibleat the present,but since he does no more than generalize upon the conditionswhichmightbe regardedas ideal forits fruition, one is left wonderingwhether such a realization can ever become part of the experienceof an actual entity.Until positive variations to are specified,instead of the vague references and pattern-forms of the situationleading "modification"and "stability," his treatment to the actualization of the "good" can have little concretemeaning. But perhapswe oughtnot to expect too muchin view of the fact that his method of investigation as a whole consists in a generalized descriptionof what he has found to be the case fromexperience.I Again, is it not a rather gratuitous assumption on the part of Whitehead that the human intelligenceis so constitutedthat it is able to conceive abstractlycertain types of eternal objects? For the majorityof people the cognizance of such thingsas good and evil, to limit our choice to the considerationsof this paper, are elements whichthe intelligence lays hold on throughpersonal experience,with rewards and chastisements,and are seldom conits corresponding "feel in our bones" ceptualized in abstract form.We may, further,
' Process and Reality,pp. I9 ff.

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PHILOSOPHY and we mayevenalignthatideal to thatan ideal ofgoodness exists, of"God"-though Whitehead theconcept wouldnot-but probably in the livingof mostpeopleis of a veryrudimentary its experience and is neveractualizedeither or by naturalist. Our order, by mystic are the of and "evil" background acquiredagainst concepts "good" of society,for withoutthis factorthey would be powerless.So as the resultof our social theseeternal objectsappear to us largely and less as of abstract the fruit training, by human contemplation intelligence. a complexnature to "good" Whiteheadapparently attributes and even evil. whenhe speaksof it exhibiting elements of disorder He does not and involved This is at oncean interesting speculation. the evil be of whichmay withthe explain compatible proportion in he the manner in which good, thateternal object,nordoes show in evilarrives thepattern Thisleads to another as a whole. important If "evil" is a recognized question. partoftheeternal object"good," can the reversesituationbe maintained? If this is possible-and Whitehead's appearsto leave roomforsucha contingencysystem then the terms"good" and "evil," along with many others,are relativein theirdescription of eternalobjects,and tell us merely of significance and especially the constiabout the nature, nothing tutionof the categories underconsideration. Thus,as ideals forthe conguidanceof actual entities, theyare apt to becomesomewhat on examination, to say the least of it. One rather feelsthat fusing in theremote there lurks mind ofWhitehead's background something of the spirit in the "law of Heraclitus-and Hegel-as exemplified of complementary ofwhichhe or the "cosmictensions" opposition" wrote. It wouldappear,then,thattherecognition of the eternal objects and "evil" for are as is by what offunctioning "good" they patterns no meansas easy a matter as might at In first one fact, appear sight. can hardly has as to far an how actual helpwondering exactly entity real of their nature as it is. The any cognizance actually possibility thenarisesofone pattern in experience in mistake beingexemplified fortheother. This is by no meansa remote since"evil" possibility, exhibits its ownharmony and pattern as does. Presumjust "good" the certain of is means of "intuition," ably only way apprehension by which itself in certain be construed as would, philosophical quarters, an appeal to ignorance. One must commentfavourably which upon the discernment Professor Whitehead in his remarks evidences on theplace ofevilin the natureof God. The reality ofevil is, of course, fully recognized, but Whitehead is careful not to overstate its importance, or unduly exalt its position in thescheme ofthings. It is a partof the cosmic notthewholeofit,and whilst itsexperience it is is credited, pattern, 244

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A. N. WHITEHEAD ON GOOD AND EVIL ofas operative in a subordinate and as integrated thought capacity, to theformulation ofultimate it to which is a contributing harmony, and necessaryfactor.Whitehead'sentireanalysis of the eternal and satisfactory, and it is unforobject "evil" is verypenetrating tunatethat,to thepresent the same of has writer, clarity exposition notbeenappliedto a description oftheeternal object"good." HuronCollege, Ontario, ofWestern University
London, Canada.

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