1

PARTICULATE POLLUTANT CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

Prof. Ir. Dr. Wan Ramli Wan Daud
Department of Chemical & Process Engineering
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

1. Overview Of Particulate Control Technology

Particles in industrial tail or flue gases could be removed by means of a variety of particle
control technologies. Most of these technologies could remove particles of a certain range
of sizes peculiar to the particular technology. The most common particle control
technologies are:

1. Gravity settling chamber
Particles are separated from a rapidly slowing gas by settling under gravity in a
chamber that is long enough to settle the particles

2. Wet scrubber
Particles are separated by impact on larger droplets of atomised liquid which is then
removed

3. Centrifugal separator (Cyclone)
Particles are separated by the action of centrifugal forces on the particles, generated by
the spiral motion of the gas in the cyclone, compelling the particles to impact on the
outer surface of the cyclone and get collected

4. Electrostatic precipitator
Particles are separated by charging them in a transverse electric field and impacting
them on the collecting electrode

5. Fabric collector
Particles are separated by impact on flat and cylindrical targets of the fabric.

The size range of the particles in the flue gas is usually used to select the most suitable
particle control equipment. For very large particles of size ranging from 1 mm to 10 mm,
gravity settling chambers are sufficient. For large particles of size ranging from 0.1 mm
to 1 mm, centrifugal separators such as cyclones could also be used, in addition to gravity
settling chambers. A greater range of equipment is available for small particles of sizes
ranging from 10 m to 0.1 mm that also include wet scrubbers, fabric collectors and
electrostatic precipitators in addition to gravity settling chamber and centrifugal
separators. Fine particles of size less than 10 m could be removed by wet scrubbers,
fabric collectors and electrostatic precipitators. The selection process is shown in Figure
1.



( ) =
ln 2
1
p n
d f


Figure 1 Selection of Particle Control Technology

2. Particle Size Distribution

Particle size is not uniform but vary according to a distribution function. Since particle
size is non-negative, a suitabl
function. Particle distribution could be expressed on a number or mass of particles basis.
Various types of mean particle size derived from the size distribution are used as
representative particle sizes in various engineering applications.
The log normal distribution based on numbers is given by



2
( )
( )

2
2
ln 2
ln ln
exp
gn
gn p
gn
d d


Figure 1 Selection of Particle Control Technology
Particle Size Distribution
Particle size is not uniform but vary according to a distribution function. Since particle
negative, a suitable distribution function is the log normal distribution
function. Particle distribution could be expressed on a number or mass of particles basis.
Various types of mean particle size derived from the size distribution are used as
es in various engineering applications.
The log normal distribution based on numbers is given by
Particle size is not uniform but vary according to a distribution function. Since particle
e distribution function is the log normal distribution
function. Particle distribution could be expressed on a number or mass of particles basis.
Various types of mean particle size derived from the size distribution are used as
(1)
3
T
T
i
N
N
i
n
pi gn
d d
1
1

=

=
( )
T
N
i
gn pi i
gn
N
d d n
T

=
1
2
ln ln
ln
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
d ( m)
f
n

(
d
)
where the number geometric mean diameter,
gn
d is given by

(2)


where the number geometric standard deviation,
gn
is given by


(3)
























Figure 2 The log normal distribution function for particles
with d
gn
= 4.7 m and
gn
= 1.7 m

3. Collection Efficiency of Particle Control Equipment

Particles are removed from a gas stream by collecting them in the particle control
equipment. The collection efficiency of the particles is defined as the ratio of the mass of
particles removed to the mass of particles originally present.





4












Figure 3 Mass balance of particle control equipment

Particle collection efficiency for the equipment, is given by

o o o o o o
o o
C Q
QC
C Q
E
C Q
E C Q
= =

= 1 1 (4)
The penetration of the particle, P is defined as
= = 1
o o
C Q
E
P (5)
If
o
Q Q = then
o
C
C
=1 and
o
C
C
P = (6)
A decontamination factor can also be defined by as

P C
C
D
o
F
1
= = (7)
Since the sizes of the particles vary according to a size distribution function, a grade
efficiency can be defined as the particle collection efficiency as a function of the size
distribution.
The grade efficiency is defined as the efficiency of collecting a certain range of particle
size represented by d
pi
given by
( )
pi i
d f = (8)
The grade efficiency depends on the equipment. The overall particle collection efficiency
could be derived from the grade efficiency. Consider the particulate collection equipment
shown in Figure 3.

i o o
m C Q i = grade of particles of flowrate mass feed The (9)
where m
i
is the mass fraction of grade i.
( )
i o o i
m C Q i = 1 gas clean the in grade of particles of flowrate mass The (10)
The mass flow rate of all particles in the clean gas is given by
( )

=
i
i i o o
m C Q E 1 (11)

Particle
Control
Equipment
Feed volumetric
gas flow rate
Q
o

Exhaust volumetric
gas flow rate
Q
Particle laden gas
C
o,
n
o

Clean gas
C
,
n
Removed
particles
Particle flow rate
Q
o
C
o
- E
Particle flow rate
E = QC
5

=

i
i i
i
i o o
m m C Q E (12)

= =

i
i i o o
m C Q QC E 1 (13)
Then the penetration becomes

= =

i
i i o o
m C Q E P 1 (14)
Then the overall efficiency is given by
( )

= = =
0
1 dx d f m P
i i
i
i i

(15)
Efficiency of multiple collectors could also be determined by using penetration. Lets
assume that there are 2 collectors in series as shown in Figure 4.











Figure 4 Two collectors in series

The penetration of collector 1 is given by

1 1
1 = P (16)
The flow rate of particles leaving collector 1 is given by

1 1
P C Q E
o o
= (17)
The penetration of collector 2 is given by

2 2
1 = P (18)
The flow rate of particles leaving collector 2 is given by

2 1 2 1 2
P P C Q P E E
o o
= = (19)
but the total penetration is given by

o o T
C Q E P
2
= (20)
then
2 1
2 1
P P
C Q
P P C Q
P
o o
o o
T
= = (21)
The overall efficiency is given by
( )( )
2 1 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 = = = P P P
T T
(22)
In general for N collectors in series the overall efficiency is given by
Q
o
C
o

Q
o
C
o
E
1

E
1
E
2

E
1
- E
2

6
( )

=
2 2
4 2
1
p f p f D D
d u u C F

g d F
f p B

=
3
6
( )( ) ( )

=
=
N
i
N T
1
2 1
1 .... 1 1 1 (23)
and the overall penetration is given by
( )( ) ( )

=
=
N
i
N T
P
1
2 1
1 .... 1 1 (24)
These two formulas are also true for grade efficiency as well.

4. Principles of Particle Collection

4.1 Aerodynamic Capture

4.1.1 Forces acting on a particle suspended in a fluid

When a particle of size d
p
is compelled by an external force, F
E
to move at a velocity u
p
in a fluid that is also moving at a velocity u
f
, a drag force, F
D
acting in the opposite
direction is created by dynamic pressure and viscous forces of the fluid. The drag force is
given by

(25)

where C
D
is the drag coefficient and
f
is the fluid density. The particle also displaces its
own volume of fluid which in return exerts a buoyancy force, F
B
on the particle in the
opposite direction of gravity. The buoyancy force is given by
(26)


where g is the gravitational constant.

4.1.2 Settling velocity of particles

When particles are discharged by the stack into the atmosphere, the large particles settle
out quickly while the smaller particles take a longer time to settle out. The settling time
is determined by the settling velocity of the particles. The particle in the atmosphere is
pulled down by gravitational force F
E
and it is also resisted by a drag force F
D
and
buoyancy force F
B
.









Figure 5 Forces on a particle

F
B

F
E

F
D

7
A force balance on a particle under the influence of gravity at steady state gives
B D E
F F F + = (27)

g d d u C g d
f p p f D p p

3 2 2 3
6 4 2
1
6
+ = (28)

( )
f
f p
D
p
t
g
C
d
u u

= =
4
3
(29)

where u
t
is te settling velocity. The above equation could be solved if the value of C
D
, the
drag coefficient is known. The coefficient depends on a parameter which characterise the
relative contributions of viscous and inertial forces on the the drag coefficient. The
particle Reynolds Number is given
Re
p f p f
ud =
where
f
is the fluid viscosity. At Re
p

0.3, particle motion is governed by Stokes law where
u d F
f p D
3 = (30)
and
p
D
C
Re
24
= (31)
Then the terminal velocity is given by

( )
f
f p p
t
gd
u

18
2

= (32)
For 0.3 Re
p
10
3
which is known as the Allen region, the drag coefficient is given by
Osseens correlation

+ =
16
Re 3
1
Re
24
p
p
D
C (33)
and by Schiller and Nauman
( )
887 . 0
Re 15 . 0 1
Re
24
p
p
D
C + = (34)

For the Newton region where Re
p
> 10
3
the drag coefficient is given by
C
D
= 0.44 (35)

For very small particles whose diameters are of the same order as the molecular mean
free path, Stokes law must be corrected for molecular interactions. The corrected drag
force is given by

( )
p
DStokes DStokes
D
d A
F
C
F
F
+
= =
1
(36)
where C is the Cunningham correction factor and 0.07 m for air and A = 1.728.
Therefore for every small particles

8

( )
( )
p
f
f p p
t
d A
gd
u

= 1
18
2
(37)

4.1.3 Stokes stopping distance

Suppose a particle initially travelling at a velocity u
o
is decelerated by the drag force, F
D

with a deceleration a in a horizontal direction as given in Figure 6. A force balance on the
particle at unsteady state gives
u d a d
f p p p

3
6
3
= (38)

or u
d dt
du
p p
f
2
18

= (39)




Figure 6 Force balance on horizontallly moving particle

Intergrating the equation from t = 0, u = u
o
to t = t and u = u

t
o
e u u

= (40)
where is the relaxation time given by

f
p p
d

18
2
= (41)
Therefore

=
u
u
t
o
ln (42)
and ( )

t
o
e u x

= 1 (43)
When the particle stops then the Stokes stopping distance is given by

o Stokes
u x = (44)

4.1.4 Unsteady vertical motion of particle

A force balance on a particle under the influence of gravity at unsteady state gives
B D E p p
F F F a d =

3
6
(45)
g d d u C g d a d
f p p f D p p p p

3 2 2 3 3
6 4 2
1
6 6
= (46)
Then

( )
p p
f
D
p
f p
d
u
C g
dt
du

4
3
2

= (47)
If Stokes law is valid (Re
p
0.3)
u F
D

9
u d F
f p D
3 = (48)
then

u
g
dt
du
= (49)
( )
p f p
= (50)
By inspection, the Stokes Law terminal velocity is given by
g u
t
= (51)
Then ( ) u u
dt
du
t
=

1
(52)
Intergrating the equation from t = 0, u = u
o
to t = t and u = u

( )
( )

=
u u
u u
t
t
o t
ln (53)
If t = 0, u = 0 then

[ ]
t
t
e u
dt
dx
u

= = 1 (54)
and
( )
( )
)
`

1
]
1

=
t t
o t
t
u
u
u u
u u
u x ln (55)
or ( ) [ ]

t
t
e t u x

= 1 (56)

4.2 Particle collection efficiency

4.2.1 Aerodynamic particle collection efficiency on target surfaces

Many particle removal equipment such as the fabric filter and the wet scrubber are based
on impaction of particles on surfaces or targets. Entrained small particles in a steady
horizontally flowing fluid move at the same velocity of the fluid. If an obstruction is
placed in the path of the fluid, the stream lines diverge but entrained particles continue in
a straight path due to its inertia.












Figure 7 Impact of particle on a target

D
10
The collection efficiency is given as D = for rods or cylinders and ( )
2
D = for
spheres and discs. If Stokes law is valid, then

( ) Stk , f = (57)
where is the inertia parameter given by

D
p
f
p f
f f
Du
Re 18
18
2

= = (58)
where
Re
D f f f
u D = .
Stokes or separation number is defined as
p
p
f
p
f
f p p
D
d
D
u d
Re
18 18
Stk
2

= = or
gD
u u
f t
= Stk or
D
x
Stokes
= Stk (59)
The impact efficiency on a cylinder at Re
D
= 10 is shown experimentally to be

22 . 0 Stk 77 . 0 Stk
Stk
2 3
3
+ +
= (60)
The impact efficiency on a sphere is given by

3 2
Stk 2 . 16 Stk 68 . 9 Stk 464 . 0 00376 . 0 + = for 0.0416 Stk 0.3 (61)
and
( )
2
2
25 . 0 Stk
Stk
+
= (62)
for Stk > 0.3. The efficiency increases if the gas velocity increases and the size of the
target decreases. Alternatively the efficiency increases if the gas velocity decreases and
the size of the target decreases.



















Figure 8 Collection efficiency of a cylinder and a sphere Re
D
= 10



0.001
0.010
0.100
1.000
10.000
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
Stk

Cylinder
Sphere
11
4.2.2 Brownian Diffusion Collection Efficiency

For very small particles (aerosols) the effect of diffusion due to molecular interactions is
significant. Brownian diffusion causes particles to diffuse down a concentration gradient
according to Ficks law.

2
C
D C
t

(63)
where C is the concentration of particles and D is the diffusivity is the Brownian
diffusivity. Particles moving in Brownian diffusion collect on impact at a surface.
Reduction in particles there due to collection causes more particles to diffuse to the
surface. The diffusivity could be calculated using

3
f p
CkT
D
d
= (64)
where k is the Boltzmann constant and C is the Cunningham correction factor. For even
smaller particles of the order of the molecular mean free path of the gas, then the
diffusivity is given by

2
4 8
3
f p
kT RT
D
M d P
= (65)
where P is the pressure of the gas and M is its molecular weight.
The collection efficiency due to Brownian motion depends on Pe, the Peclet number
Pe
f
u d
D
= (66)
and the Schmidt number

D
Re Pe Sc = (67)
The collection efficiency for cylindrical targets for very small particles where Brownian
diffusion is significant according to Langmuir is given by

( )
3 2
3 1
Pe
Re ln 1
71 . 1

=
D
(68)
Ranz on the other hand gives

3 2
6 1
Pe
Re
727 . 1
Pe
1
D
+ = (69)
which is valid 0.1 < Re
D
< 10
4
, Sc < 100, and 10 < Pe < 10
6
.
The collection efficiency for spherical targets according to Johnston and Roberts is given
by
( )
8 3 2 1
Sc Re 557 . 0 2
Pe
4
D
+ = (70)

4.2.3 Collection Efficiency in Electrostatic Precipitation

Some aerosols are charged during formation while others are charged while in motion by
friction with gas, other particles or surfaces. Aerosols could also acquire charges from an
electric field. There are therefore four types of interactions of electrostatic forces in
particle collection equipment.


12
Charged particle neutral target interaction

Charged particle neutral target interaction where the charge on the particle induces an a
charge of opposite polarity on the neutral target resulting in an attractive force, F
EM

which for spherical targets is given by

( )
2 2
2
3
2
4
2
8 D r
Dr q
r
D q
F
o o
EM

=

(71)
where q is the charge on the particle, D is the diameter of the target, r is the distance
between the target and the particle and
o
= 8.85 x 10
-21
Coulomb dyne
-1
cm
-2
is the
inductive capacity of the gas. For cylindrical targets,

( )
( )
( ) 1
1
2 4
2
2
+

=
D
D
o
EM
D r
q
F

(72)
where
D
is the dielectric constant of the target.

Neutral particle charged target interaction

Neutral particle charged target interaction where the charge on the neutral target
induces a charge with an opposite polarity on the particle giving rise to an attractive
force, F
EI
which is for spherical targets is given by

( )
( )
5
2 2
16 2
1
r
Q d
F
o
p
EI

= (73)
where Q is the charge on the target and is the dielectric constant of the particle. For
cylindrical targets

( )
( )
( )
3
2 3
2 4
2
1
r
Q d
F
o
p
EI

= (74)

Charged particle charged target interaction

Charged particle charged target interaction gives rise to an attractive force, F
EC
or a
repelling force, F
ES
depending on whether the charges are of the opposite or the same
polarity which for spherisal targets, is given by

2
4 r
Qq
F
o
EC

= (75)
For cylindrical targets,

r
Qq
F
o
EC

2
= (76)

Charged Particle in an Electric Field

Another important case is that of a charged particle with charge q in an electric field of
strength E. The electrostatic force generated, F
E
is given by

13
qE F
E
= (77)
Assume a charged particle enters the electric field as shown in the Figure. If Stokes Law
is valid, then the horizontal motion in the x-direction is given by
( )

t
o
e u x

= 1 (78)











Figure 9 Particle moving transversely to an electric field

The vertical motion in the y-direction is given by
( ) [ ]

t
t
e t u y

= 1 (79)
Motion along the electric field in the z-direction is given by

z
p
z z
u
m
qE
dt
du
= (80)
If this equation is integrated then
( ) [ ]

t
t
p p
z
e t u
gd
qE
z

= 1
6
3

or ( )

t
f
p p z
e
t
d qE
z 1
54
2
(81)
After t 5, the motion in the x-direction practically ceases at x x
s
. After that time, the
particle trajectory is a straight line in the y-z plane at x = x
s
where its velocity components
in the z and y direction given by

ES
f p
z
p p
z
z
u
d
qE
d
qE
u = = =

3
6
3
(82)


s y
u g u = = (83)


Charging of Particles in Electric Fields

If high voltage of opposite signs is applied at two parallel plates at a fixed distance from
each other, then at a certain voltage a corona discharge occurs between the plates. At a
higher voltage, sparks are produced indicating a short circuit between the plates. Particles
located in the corona between the two plates are charged by two main mechanisms.

E
z

u
o

g
z
x
y
14
Field charging

The electric flux lines nearest to an uncharged particle are attracted towards the surface of
the particle. Ions in the corona discharge moving along the flux lines collide and adhere
to the particle surface. A charge is then induced on the surface with the same polarity as
those of the ions. The accumulation of the charge on the particle is given by

+
=
t t
q q
o
sati i
1
1
(84)
where
NeK
t
o
o
4
= (85)
where N is the ion concentration, e = 1.61 x10
-5
Coulombs and K is the ion mobility.
However as the charges acummulate on the particle surface, the electric field flux lines
are repelled until no more ions collide with the particle. Charging stops and the particle is
said to have a saturated charged. The saturated charge is given by

2
2
3
pi o o sati
d E q

+
= (86)

Diffusion charging

As long as the particle is within the corona, ions near the particle surface diffuse
randomly towards it due to thermal energy of the ions. The collisions of these ions with
the particles surface induce a charge of the same polarity on the particle surface as those
of the ions. The charge accumulates without becoming saturated. The charge
accumulation is given by

+ =
mKI
t d Ne
e
kTd
q
o
pi pi o
i
2 2
1 ln
2
2

(87)
where m is the molecular weight of the ion, and k is the Boltzmann constant.

Combined charging

For particles larger than 1 m, field charging is more dominant whereas for particles less
than 0.4 m diffusion charging is larger. The combined charged is given by
[ ]
pi pi pi i
ctd bd ad q + + = 1 ln
2
(88)
2
2
3
pi sati o o
d q E a =

+
=

(89)
e
kT
b
o
2
= (90)

2
2 2
o
Ne
c
mkT
= (92)
15
The particle trajectory in the electric field is given by
( )

t
f
p p i
e
t
d E q
z

= 1
54
2
(93)
After t 5

f pi
i
i ES
d
E q
w u
3
= = (94)

For very fine particles, the velocity is corrected by the Cunningham correction factor C,

f pi
i
i
d
EC q
w
3
= (95)

Collection Efficiency

Charged particle neutral target interaction

The collection efficiency for spherical targets in inviscid flow is then given by

2 1
58 . 1
EM E
K (73)
and for viscous flow

353 . 0
8 . 2
EM E
K (74)
where K
EM
is given by

2 2
2
3 D u d
Cq
K
o o p f
EM

= (75)
For cylindrical targets, the collection efficiency in inviscid flow is given by
( )
3 1 3 1
6
EM E
K = (76)
and for viscous flow

( )
2 1
2 1
Re ln 2
2
EM E
K

= (77)
where K
EM
is given by

( )
( )
2
2
3 1
1
D u d
Cq
K
o o p f D
D
EM

= (78)

Neutral particle charged target interaction

The collection efficiency for spherical targets is then given by

4 . 0
8
15

=
EI E
K

(81)
where
( )
( ) D u
q Cd
K
o o f
p
D
D
EI

3
2
2
1
2 2
+

= (82)
For cylindrical targets
16

3 1
3 1
2
3
EI E
K

=

(96)
for 2r/D >> 1 and

( )
( )
3
2 2
3
4
2
1
D u
q Cd
K
o o f
p
D
D
EI

= (97)

Charged particle charged target interaction
The collection efficiency for spherical targets is given by

EC E
K 4 = (98)
where
o o p f
EC
u d
CqQ
K
3
= (99)
For cylindrical targets, then

EC E
K = (100)
where

o o p f
EC
Du d
CqQ
K
3
4
= (101)


5. Particulate Control Equipment

5.1 Wet Scrubber

One of the most important equipment used to control particle emission from power
stations is the wet scrubber. In this equipment, water droplets are sprayed into a particle
laden gas stream and the resulting impaction of particles on droplets removes the
particles from the gas

5.1.1 Gravity Spray Chamber Scrubber

Liquid is sprayed at the top of the chamber through an atomiser and the liquid droplets
free fall at their settling velocity. Particle laden gas flows in at the bottom of the chamber
and then flows up counter currently against the droplets. Particles are captured by the
droplets.










dz
u
u, Q
l
u
o
A
Gas
u
o
= Q
g
/A
Droplets
Particles n
i
+ dn
i

17


Figure 10 Counter-current gravity spray chamber

The droplet relative velocity is given by

o D
u u u = (102)
The particle relative velocity

ti o p
u u u = (103)
The amount of particle collected by every droplet is given by
( )
4
2
D
n u u n
i ti D Ti c

= (104)
The time for the droplet to drop by dz is given by

( )
o D
u u
dz
u
dz
dt

= = (105)
Total collection in dz
( )
u
dz n
u u
D
A D
Q
A
Q
dn
i
ti D Ti
l
g
i
=
4
6
2
3

(106)

Rearranging and integrating

( )
( )

=
H
Ti
g
l
o D
ti D
n
n i
i
dz
Q
Q
u u
u u
n
dn
i
io
0
2
3
(107)
then
( )
( )

=
Ti
g
l
o D
ti D
i
D
H
Q
Q
u u
u u

2
3
exp 1 (108)

( )
2
2
35 . 0 Stk
Stk
+
=
i
i
Ti
(109)

( )
D
u u d
f
ti D pi f
i

18
Stk
2

= (110)

For small droplets, the droplet velocity, u
D
is proportional to D
2
. The efficiency increases
when the diameter increases. For medium size droplets the efficiency is constant. For
larger droplets, the efficiency decreases as droplet size increases. If similar analysis is
doe for a cross flow gravity spray chamber, the grade efficiency is given

( )

=
Ti
g
l
D
ti D
i
D
H
Q
Q
u
u u

2
3
exp 1 (111)

If u
ti
<< u
D
, then

=
Ti
g
l
i
D
H
Q
Q

2
3
exp 1 (112)


Particles n
i
, d
pi

18
5.1.2 Venturi Scrubber

Venturi scrubber has a throat section where gas flows at high speed. Droplets sprayed at
the front end of the venturi is accelerated by the high speed gas.














Figure 11 A venturi scrubber

For z < z
2
tan 1
2

+ =
t
t
r
z z
A A (113)
For z < z
3
tan 1
3

+ =
tr
tr
r
z z
A A (114)
where
2
tr tr
r A = at the cylindrical section for type 1 venturis and W r A
tr tr
2 = at the
rectangular section for type 2 venturis.
Droplet is sprayed at point 1. The velocity of the gas for z < z
2


( ) ( ) tan 1
2 tr
tr
f
g
g
r z z
u
A
F
u
+
= = (115)

dx
z = 0 z = z
1
z = z
2
z = z
3
z = z
4

2r
t
l
t


x
1 2 3 4
19
The velocity of the gas for z > z
3


( ) ( ) tan 1
3 tr
tr
f
g
g
r z z
u
A
F
u
+
= = (116)
Acceleration force on droplets

( )
2 4 6
2
2 3
D f
f DA
D
D D
u u
D
C
dt
du D
F

= =

(117)
or
( )
D u
u u
C
dx
du
D
D f
D
f
DA
D
2
4
3

=

(118)

This equation could be integrated by suppressing C
DA
in terms of C
D
at z
1


5 . 0
1 1
1
5 . 0
1
1
Re
Re

=
D f
D f
D
D
D
D DA
u u
u u
C C C (119)
then
( )
( )
5 . 0
1 1 1
5 . 1
4
3
D f D
D
D f
D
f
D
u u C
D u
u u
dx
du

(120)

If droplets are sprayed at the beginning of the throat section then z
1
=
z
2
, u
D1
= 0 at x = 0 and x < l
tr
. Also

tr
tr
f
f f
u
A
Q
u u = = =
1
(121)
then ( ) 1 1 2
2 2
+ = X X X
u
u
tr
D
(122)
where 1
16
3
1
+ = x
D
C
X
D
f D

(123)
The collection efficiency of venturi scrubbers is determined by a differential mass
balance on dx downstream of droplet formation
( ) Adx n n u u D Adn u
D i D f Ti i g

=
2
4

(124)
Both droplets and particles are uniformly distributed and each droplet collects particles
independently. Assume no agglomeration, fragmentation or loss. Then
3 3
6 6
D u Q
u Q
u
F
D u
F
n
D f
f l
f f
f
D D
l
D

= = (125)
Combining

( )
dx
u
u u
Q
Q
D n
dn
D
D f
f
l Ti
i
i

=

2
3
(126)
It is difficult to integrate this equation. It has to be simplified before integration.

D
DA
C
Re
55
= (127)
20

( )
dx
u
u u
D
du
D
D f
D
f
D

=
2
4
165

(128)
and

( )
D
D
D f
f
l
f
D
Ti
i
i
du
u
u u
Q
Q D
n
dn

=

55
2
(129)

The spherical target collection efficiency is given by

( )
2
2
35 . 0 Stk
Stk
+
=
i
i
Ti
(130)


( )
D
u u d
C
f
D tr pi p
Di i

18
Stk
2

= (131)
or

( )
( ) u K
D
u u d
C
i
f
tr pi Di
Di i
=

= 1
18
1
Stk
2

(132)

tr D
u u u = (133)
then
( )
( ) [ ]
D
i
i tr
f
l
f
D
Ti
i
i
du
u K
u K u
Q
Q D
n
dn
2
2 2
35 . 0 1
1
55
2
+

(134)
Integrating the above equation, then
( )

= f K F u
Q
Q D
P
pti tr
f
l
f
D
Ti i
,
55
2
exp

(135)
where
u D
u d
K
i
f
tr pai
pti

= =
1
Stk
2
9
2

(136)

2 2
pi fi Di pai
d C d = (137)
( )
( )

+
+
+
=
f K
f K
f K
K
f K F
pti
pti
pti
pti
pti
7 . 0
49 . 0
7 . 0
7 . 0
4 . 1 7 . 0
1
, (138)
f 0.25 if the particles are hydrophobic and f 0.4 if the particles are hydrophilic.

5.1.3 Liquid droplet formation

Gas atomisation

In gas atomisation, high pressure air is often used to atomise a liquid to form the target
droplets. Most venturi scrubbers used this method of droplet formation. The droplet size
depends on the Weber number We given by

l t g
D u
2
We = (139)
The critical Weber number is between 5.0 to 11.0. The Sauter mean diameter is
calculated using the Boll equation given by
21
( ) [ ]
602 . 1 932 . 1 4
10 x 1871 . 1 04218 . 0
g g l S
u Q Q D

+ = (140)

Pressure nozzle

Droplets are formed by forcing high pressure liquid tangentially through a spiral chamber
in a hollow cone or directly through a hole in a full cone. The volume median diameter is
given by Nelson and Stevens
C BZ AZ Y + + =
2
(141)
where ( )
n v
D D Y log = (142)
( ) ( ) [ ]
o t
a
o o o
u u Z Re We Re log = (143)

n l o
A Q u = (144)
2 tan
o t
u u = (145)

l o o l
D u =
o
Re (146)

l o g
D u
2
o
We = (147)
where D
o
is the nozzle diameter, u
a
is the liquid nozzle velocity and is the maximum
spray cone angle. For water a = 0.2, b = 1.2, A = -0.144, B = 0.702 and C = -1.260. For
organic liquid a = 0.55, b = 1.2, A = -0.0811, B = 0.124 and C = -0.186.

Pneumatic nozzle

Droplets are formed by a liquid core that is surrounded by a cocentric air nozzle. The
Nukiyama and Tanasawa correlation could be used to determine the mean diameter

5 . 1
1000 597 . 0
585 . 0

+ =
g
l
D
D
D r
S
Q
Q
u
D

(148)

5.2 Cyclones

Another important particle control equipment is the cyclone. It uses centrifugal force to
fling the particle onto the cyclones wall. Particle laden gas flows in tangentially and
spirals downwards until the bottom of the central outlet tube is reached. The central outlet
tube is also known as the tube guard or vortex dissolution. The centrifugal force
generated by the spiral motion flings the particles on to the walls of the cyclone. The gas
continues its spiral motion up the tube guard and flows out of the top of the tube. The
particles impacting the cyclones wall slide down and drop out through the bottom
funnel.
5.2.1 Collection Efficiency of Cyclones

The number of rotation, N
e
in the gas spiral flow is given by
( ) [ ] a H a h H h N
e
+ = 2 (149)
where 0.3 < N
e
< 10. The natural length of the cyclone is given by
( )
3 1
2
3 . 2 ab D D l
e
= (150)
The outer zone tangential velocity is given by
22

n
T
Ar u

= (152)
where ( )
14 . 0
67 . 0 1 0.00353 1 D T n =






















Figure 13 A Cyclone

Particles move towards the wall by turbulent diffusion. Particles on the wall move down
in spiral dunes of height ( )
2
1 D h a , width ( ) ( ) a h
1
cos

and cross-sectional area

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a h h a h
1 2
cos 1

. The volumetric flow rate of particles is then given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a h h a h u Q
pb T p
1 2
cos 1

= (153)
where is the distance between rotation and
pb
is the volumetric fraction of particles.
This must be equal to particles collected at depth z i.e. after rotating N
e
turns,
e o T
N z b u . Therefore the collection efficiency is given by
( ) ( ) ( ) a h h a
zb
DN
o
pb e 1 2
2
cos 1
8

=


(154)
where
o
is the solid loading. However this expression is not good enough because it
does not take into account back mixing of the particles.
Assume that in time dt, only particles in the distance dR from the cyclone wall that will
move towards the wall and get collected. The number of particles removed dn is given
by
( ) [ ]ndL dR R R
d
dn
2
2
2
2
2
' =

(155)
The actual total particles
D
D
e

S
h
H
a x b
B
Gas in
Gas
out
Particle out
23
ndL R
d
n
2
2
2
'

= (156)
The fraction of particles collected

( )
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
'
'
R
dR
R
dR dR R
n
dn

= (157)
The time for particle motion in the vortex is given by

( )
(
(

]
]

\
|

]
]

\
|
+
=
+ + 2 2
2
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1 2
n n
T
R
R
R
R
u n
R
t

(158)
Solving for R, substituting R
1
= 0, and differentiating the result with respect to t.
( )
( ) ( ) 2 2 1 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 2
+ +
1
1
]
1

|
|

\
|
+ =
n n
T T
t
R
u
n
R
u
dt
dR

(159)
Combining and integrating the result with respect to t
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+ +
+ +
1
1
]
1

|
|

\
|
+ =
t
n n
n n
T T
n
n
dt t t
R
u
n
R
u
n
dn
o
0
2 2 1 2
2 2 1 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
'
'
1 2
2
'
'

(160)
Efficiency in then given
( )
( ) 2 2 1
2
2
2
1 2 exp 1
+
1
1
]
1

|
|

\
|
+ =
n
T
o
t
R
u
n (161)
Collection efficiency is then given
( )
( ) 2 2 1
2 2 3
8 1
2 exp 1
+

]
]

\
| +
=
n
b a
c i
i
K K
K
D
Q n
(162)
or [ ] { }
( ) 2 2 1
' Stk 2 exp 1
+
=
n
ci i
K (163)
where
2 2
8
b a
c
K K
K
K = (164)
and ( ) ( )
c b a i ci
K K n
D
Q
n Stk 1 1 Stk'
3
+ = + = (165)
This is equivalent to
( )
N
pi i
Md = exp 1 (166)
where ( )
2
3
1
18
2
N
f
p
n
D
KQ
M

+ =

(167)
and
( ) 1 1 + = n N (168)

Table 3: Cyclone design configurations

High efficiency General purpose Experimental
24
Parameter Description Stairmand Swift Lapple Swift Dingo &
Leith
Peterson &
Whitby
D body diameter 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
a inlet height 0.5 0.44 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.583
b inlet width 0.2 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.3 0.208
S outlet length 0.5 0.5 0.625 0.6 0.558 0.583
D
e
outlet diameter 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.333 0.5
h cylinder height 1.5 1.4 2 1.75 3.5 1.333
H overall height 4 3.9 4 3.75 6 3.17
B dust outlet
diameter
0.375 0.4 0.25 0.4 0.25 0.4
l natural length 2.48 2.04 2.3 2.3 1.44 2.32
K 551.3 699.2 402.9 381.8 167 323.3
N 5.14 7.1 6.16 6.16 23.5 6
K/N 107.2 98.5 65.4 62 7.1 54.1
Surf 3.67 3.57 3.78 3.65 5.64 3.2
K/NSurf 29.2 29.6 17.3 17 1.26 16.9

5.3 Electrostatic precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators collect particles by channeling the particle laden gas into an
electric field between by two plate electrodes, charging the particles with electric charges
and then letting them impact on one of the plates. In most applications, it is used as the
last stage particle removal.

5.3.1 Grade Efficiency of Electrostatic Precipitation

When particle laden gas flows across an electric field of cross sectional area A at a
particle cross velocity of u
o
, the field immediately induces charges q
i
on the particles of
size d
pi
that acquire a velocity w
i
, along the field due to the induced charges.
















v
o

L

A
b
w

S
v
o
dl
dl

Figure 14 Particle collection by electrostatic precipitation
In an incremental time dt, a fraction of the charged particles in a collection region of
thickness near the collecting electrode move towards it and are collected there after
traveling the distance at the velocity
w
i
=
At the same time, the particles have moved a distance of
u dl
o
=
Combining both equations, then

u
w
o
i
=
If the width of the collecting plate is
d N dN
i i i
= =
The total particles of size d
pi

Adl n N
i i
=
Combining all three equations, then

u
w
A
S d
o
i
i
i
=

If the above equation is integrated from

is subsituted, then the grade efficiency is given by
[
i
= exp 1

5.3.2 Specific Collector Area

The specific collector area, SCA

For parallel plate precipitator
For tubular precipitator
where D is diameter of outer plate.
25
Particle collection by electrostatic precipitation
a fraction of the charged particles in a collection region of
near the collecting electrode move towards it and are collected there after
at the velocity w
i
. Hence
dt
At the same time, the particles have moved a distance of dl in the gas flow direction
dt
o

Combining both equations, then
dl
o
i

If the width of the collecting plate is S, then the number of particles collected is given by
dldl
u
w
S n dl S n
o
i
i i i i
= =
in the volume Adl is given by

Combining all three equations, then
dl
If the above equation is integrated from l = 0 and
i
= 0 to l = L and
i
=
i
and
is subsituted, then the grade efficiency is given by
]
g i
Q L Sw
5.3.2 Specific Collector Area
, SCA is defined in ft
2
/1000 scfm as
SCA
g
SL Q =
or parallel plate precipitators
A SL =
2
4 A D =
is diameter of outer plate.

a fraction of the charged particles in a collection region of
near the collecting electrode move towards it and are collected there after
(169)
in the gas flow direction
(170)
(171)
particles collected is given by
(172)
(173)
(174)
and Q = Au
o

(175)
(176)
(177)
(178)
26
Figure 15 Electrostatic precipitator