Evaluation of the loads and load combinations

According Limit state design method (LSDM- in the EU) or - load and resistance factor design method (LRFDM in the USA)
Limit state design requires the structure to satisfy two principal criteria: the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS). A limit state is a set of performance criteria (e.g. vibration levels, deflection, strength), stability (buckling, twisting, collapse) that must be met when the structure is subject to loads. Any design process involves a number of assumptions. The loads to which a structure will be subjected must be estimated, sizes of members to check must be chosen and design criteria must be selected. All engineering design criteria have a common goal: that of ensuring a safe and functional structure.

Ultimate Limit State

To satisfy the ultimate limit state, the structure must not collapse when subjected to the peak design load for which it was designed. A structure is deemed to satisfy the ultimate limit state criteria if all factored bending, shear and tensile or compressive stresses are below the factored resistance calculated for the section under consideration. The limit state criteria can also be set in terms of stress rather than load. Thus the structural element being analysed (e.g. a beam or a column or other load bearing element, such as walls) is shown to be safe when the factored loads are less than their factored resistance.

Serviceability Limit State

To satisfy the serviceability limit state criteria, a structure must remain functional for its intended use subject to routine (read: everyday) loading, and as such the structure must not cause occupant discomfort under routine conditions. A structure is deemed to satisfy the serviceability limit state when the constituent elements do not deflect by

more than certain limits laid down in the building codes, the floors fall within predetermined vibration criteria, in addition to other possible requirements as required by the applicable building code. Examples of further serviceability limit requirements may include crack widths in concrete, which typically must be kept below specified dimensions. A structure where the serviceability requirements are not met, e.g. the beams deflect by more than the SLS limit, will not necessarily fail structurally. The purpose of SLS requirements is to ensure that people in the structure are not unnerved by large deflections of the floor, vibration caused by walking, sickened by excessive swaying of the building during high winds, or by a bridge swaying from side to side and to keep beam deflections low enough to ensure that brittle finishes on the ceiling above do not crack, affecting the appearance and longevity of the structure. Many of these limits depend on the finish materials (sheetrock, acoustical tile) selected by the architect, as such, the limits in the building codes on deflections are generally descriptive and leave the choice to the engineer of record (this may not be as true outside the U.S.)

Loading Effects Combination / Groupings for Ultimate Limit State

1st Combination / Grouping

1.35 Gk , j + 1.5Qk ,1 + 1.50,i Qk ,i

Design Dead Load Partial Safety Coefficient for Dead Load for unfavorable exception Design Dominant Variable Load Partial Safety Coefficient for Variable Load for unfavorable exception Design Variable Load Concomitance (Reduction) Factor for combination value of a variable action

With: 1.35 Gk, j f=1.35 1.5 Qk,1 f=1.5 1.5 0,i Qk,i 0,i=0,7

Symbols: The notation used is based on ISO 3898:1987.

Fk F d= ( f ) (F k) characteristic value of a load (force) design value of a load

f =1.35 (1.40 in USA, Canada, Japan, Australia etc) for Gk and =1.50 (1.60 in USA, Canada, Japan, Australia etc) for Qk partial safety coefficients for loads Dead (Permanent) Loads Gk or Wk or SWk - concentrated permanent load, or weight, or self-weight load, in N or daN or kN g k or wk - weight per unit area in N .m -2, or weight per unit length in N .m -1 = () (g) - unit weight in N.m-3 or kN.m-3 = m .V-1 - unit mass or density of material in kg.m-3 g =9.81(~10) m.s-2 gravitational acceleration Densities (Unit Masses) of building materials and stored materials: Definitions. Tables. Unit Weights of building materials Permanent (Dead) Load by the old Romanian Load type Standard 10101-1 G c = nG n - concentrated design dead load
G n = V in [N ] g n = A in N .m 1 or - load per unit length
2 g n = d m 3 = V F = ma = V g = V 3

by EC1Part 2.1 as G or W or SW Gd = f Gk G k = V in [N ] g k = A in N .m -1 or
-2

[ ] in [N .m ] in [kg .m ] ]

- (nominal) characteristic load

- load per unit area or load(ing) g k = d per squared meter m -material unit mass (density) - force

= g in [N .m

n = 1 . 1; 1 . 2; 1 . 3 or n = 0 .9; 0 .8

= g in [N .m -3 ] f = 1.35 f = 1.40 - (overloading) partial safety

- material unit weight factor for dead load

V F = ma = V g = V

[ ] in [N .m ] in [kg .m ]
-3

f = 0 .9
2

Dead Load Acting on Building Element

for Outer Garret Roof Last Floor with Thermal Insulation Floors including Staircase First Floor above Basement Outer Walls; Inner Walls Basement Walls for Inner Garret Roof with Thermal Insulation Last Floor Floors including Staircase First Floor above Basement Outer Walls; Inner Walls Basement Walls charact eristic value gd= N.m-2

No

layer d

thickness =g m

unit weight gk=d N.m-3

ultimate value F
-

gk =1.35gk N.m-2

Roof Load Estimation (and example)

Gable roof dead load

Snow Load on roof

Sd= FSk=1.50 Sk (N.m-2)

SNOW LOAD (according STAS CR1-1-3/2005 )

sk = facturated intensity of the load given by the snow i = shape coefficient of the surface exposed the snow

sk = i ce ct s0,k

ce = exposure coefficient ce =1,0 for the normal exposed buildings with flat roofs. Ct = thermal factor c7 =1,0 S0.k = weight of the snow layer: (kN/m2) for recovering period of 50 years .

values of s0,k in (kN/m2)

Steps for the snow computation:

Loads Computation by SR EC1 CR -1.1.3:2005, Design Code. Snow Load Evaluation on Constructions, Romnia, published in

Monitorul Oficial al Romniei, 1st part, year 174(XVIII), no.148 encore, February, the 16th, 2006. Example: Two slopes pitched roof with iron sheet covering having the slope of p%=tg180 and the length of half roof in horizontal projection L 0=6000 mm, with timber support (king post truss) as structure, will be designed to support a snow variable load (Sk) as uncrowded (neaglomerat) load for a partial exposure of placement in Iai (Suceava). Dwelling functional solution has 2 floors level (ground floor and the1st floor) and the outer garret. In the assumptions of: snow density () of 235...350...400 kg.m-3 function of breaking state (starea de afnare) and unfavorable snow falling (depunerii nefavorabile de zpad), gravitational constant (g) of 10 [m.s-2], snow depth at the earth level (t0) of 600 mm, friction coefficient between snow and the iron sheet covering (cfr) of 0.05, shape coefficient () of 2 slopes pitched roof is 0,8 for , exposure coefficient of placement (Ce) is 1 for a partial exposure, thermal coefficient (Ct) is 1 for thermal insulation applied on last floor plate, characteristic value of snow load on earth level (s0,k) is 2,0 (2,5) kN.m-2 for Iai (Suceava), coefficient function of unsteady (depunerea neregulat) snow falling (k) of 2,5, partial safety coefficient for Dead Load is F=1,35 in EU and 1,40 in the USA, partial safety coefficient for Variable Load is F= 1,50 in EU and 1,60 in the USA, concomitance coefficient for variable loads is 0=0,7 in EU and in the USA, possible variable loads Qk are: snow load Sk, wind load Wk, and live load Lk. 1

Sk Fk Se L0
(a) Compute the snow weight in the defavorable situation (=g) in kN.m-3. (b) Draw the loading patterns. (c) Compute the snow characteristic value on roof horizontal projection (sk=CeCts0,k) in kN.m-2. Use Snow Load Eq. and input data. (d) Compute the snow characteristic value on roof horizontal projection (sk) in kN.m-2. Use the Dead Load Eq. for a snow layer having the known dimensions at the earth level (s0,k=t0g) and input data. Compare the results. (e) Compute the characteristic value of snow pushing force (forei de mpingere) (Fk=Sk,L,X - cfrSk,L,Y) in kN.m-1 on the eaves gutters (asupra opritorilor de zpad dispui n vecintatea jgheabului). (f) Compute snow load hanged down at roof eaves and distributed on roof length run (atrnat de marginea acoperiului i distribuit pe lungimea acoperiului) (Se=kSk2/) in kN.m-1. (g) Show the Loads Grouping with snow dominant variable load for the check-up of roof structure at ultimate limit state of strength (pentru verificarea structurii acoperiului la starea limit ultim de rezisten) (FGk+FQk,1+F0Qk). Example: (a) =g=(235)(10)=2350kg.m-3m.s-2=2350 N.m-3 =2.35 kN.m-3 (b) snow loading patterns: 2

S0,k

 (c) (d)

A: sk=0.8x1x1x2.5 =2.00 kN.m-2 so,k=tg=t =0.60x235x10x10-3 =1.41 kN/m2 =0.60x350x10x10-3 =2.10 kN/m2 =0.60x400x10x10-3 =2.40 kN/m2 sk=0.8x1x1x2.10=1.68 kN/m2 Comentary: sk=1.68 kN/m2 suits to the placement in Iasi. skL0=sk,LL where L0/L=cos where L=L0x1/cos sk,L=sk cos =2.00x0.95 =1.90 kN/m2 Sk,L=sk,LL =1.90x6x1/0.95 =12 kN/m-1 Sk,L,Y=Sk,Lcos =12x0.95 =11.4 KN/m Sk,L,X=Sk,Lsin =12x0.30 =3.60 KN/m Fk=Sk,L,X - cfrSk,L,Y =3.60 - 0.05x11.4 =3.03 KN/m 2=0.8+0.8/30 =0.8+0.8x18/30 =1.28

(e)

(f)

sk=2CeCts0,k =1.28x1x1x2.5 =3.2 kN/m2 Se=2.5x3,22/2.35 =10.9 KN/m (g) 1.35Gk+1.50Sk+1.05Lk Comentary: W=0. 3

II - Design of a Timber Rafter by LSDM-ULS of Strength ( according EC5 ) (i) Rafter cross section:

(ii) Loading alternatives :

Dead Load: (in N/m) for outer garret tiles covering: gkg/1issue10m/s2 noof issues/m2dr battens : bb hb timber dr n oof battens / L rafter : br . hr . timber gk Dead Load: (in N.m-1) for inner garret

shingle covering: g kg/m2 10m/s2dr boarding : hb timberdr 4

thermal insulation: d insulation dr vapor barrier: g kg/m210m/s2 dr rafter: br hr timber ceiling if any: gk (iii) Patterns:

(iv) Static Analysis of beam AB subjected to an uniformly load w and a single concentrated load P acting at mid-span (at point C)

(v) Material Properties: Structural Timber Strength Classes: conifer & deciduous species classes: C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30 C35

C40 D30 D35 D40 D50 D60 D70

Stiffness properties (kN/mm2) Mean modulus of elasticity parallel to grain E0, mean 10

(vi) Sizing i.e. estimation of a suitable section using timber of strength class C22 subjected to a bi-axial bending

m ,d = m ,d =

Mx My f m ,d Wz Wy 1 ( M x k m M y ) f m ,d Wz M x km M f m ,d
y

km =

Wz Wy

W z , req

In which, W (Z by EC5) : section modulus (in mm3); Wz=bh2/ 6 and Wy=hb2/6 ; M z (y) : design bending moments (in N. m) m,,d : design normal bending stress (in N.mm-2) fm,d : design bending strength (in N.mm-2), km=0.7(1.0) : bending factor for rectangular (other) section. From Table, b (in mm) x h (in mm) would be suitable Wz=xxx. 103 mm3, Iz =xx.x .106mm4, A =xx .103 mm2, since h>150 mm & kh=1 as assumed. (vii) Checking If members are not fail in bending, the following condition should be satisfied:

m,d , z
f m ,d , z

km

m,d , y
f m,d , y

Load Estimation (for walls and floor) Walls Load Estimation (example)
1. DEAD LOADS for each building element (we recommend to organize the estimation on tables for each building element).

a)WARM FLOOR PLATE No.

0.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Layer Type
1
Parquet (50x30x3.5): (Parchet L.U. stejar, 22 cm gros.,) Wood board Sand Reiforced Concrete Floor Plaster

d
(m)

g
3
900 600 160 2500 1900

Gk
4=2x3

g
5
1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35

Gd
(daN/m2)

(daN/m3) (daN/m2)

2
0.022 0.02 0.035 0.12 0.02

6=4x5

Sgk=

Sgd=

b) COLD FLOOR
0 1. 2. 3. 4. Cement Mortar Reinf. Concrete Floor Plaster 1 Mosaic Mortar ( or clay plates) 0.02 0.03 0.12 0.02 2 3 2100 2100 2500 1900 Sg =
k

5 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35

Sgd=

c) EXTERNAL WALLS TYPE - I

0 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 Internal Cement / lime plaster Brick-work masonry Polystyrene External plaster 2 0.02 0.25 0.10 0.015 3 1800 1700 20 1800 4 5 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 6

Sgk=

Sgd=

d) BEARING INTERNAL WALLS OF 20 cm

0
1. 2. 3.

1
M 100 Plaster Brick-work masonry M 100 Plaster

2
0.015 0.25 0.015

3
2100 1700 2100

5
1.35 1.35 1.35

Sgk=

Sgd=

e) NON BEARING WALLS OF CERAMIC STRIPS (300 X 300 X 75) mm

No. 1. 2. 3. 1 2 M 100 Plaster 0.015 Ceramic Strips Masonry 0.075 300 x 300 x 75 M 100 Plaster 0.015 3 1800 1300 1800 Sg =
k

5
1,35 1,35 1,35

6 35.1 1.7 35.1 Sgd=

f) STAIRS ROOM FLOOR

0 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 M100 Plaster Reinforced Platform Mosaic Mortar Cement Mortar 2 0.015 Concrete 0.150 0.020 0.030 3 1800 2500 2100 2100 Sgk= 4 5
1,35 1,35 1,35 1,35

Sgd=

Partitions Load on the Floors

The internal dividing walls will be assimilated with uniform distributed loads over the floor surface of the room where there are constructed. The uniform distributed load will be considered with the following intensity : The wall weight on the 1m length The intensity of the equivalent of the wall measured in ( N/m) uniform distributed loads 2 measured in ( N/m ) Gk 1500 gk,e= 500 1500< Gk 3000 gk,e= 1000 3000< Gk 5000 gk,e= 1500 5000< Gh gk,e=(Vnet ) / (L1L2) ge,d=Fgk,e =(1.50)gk,e (N/m2)

LIVE LOADS on the floor :

1

qd=F0 qk=(1.50)(0.7)qk

a) At the current floor qf=1500 N/m2 and pc=1500 x 1.5x0.7 =. N/m2 b) Stairs pf=3000 N/m2 and c) Balcony pn=5000 N/m2 and pc=3000 x 1.5x0.7 =. N/m2 pc=5000 x 1.5x0.7 =. N/m2