Received 08 April 2008; accepted 22 June 2008

Projects 1212010733809 and 1212010534601 supported by the National Geological Prospecting Foundation of China
Corresponding author. Tel: +86-29-87856034; E-mail address: tan-kl@163.com
Prospecting for coal in China with remote sensing
TAN Ke-long
1,2
, WAN Yu-qing
1
, SUN Sun-xin
1
, BAO Gui-bao
1
, KUANG Jing-shui
1
1
Aerophotogrammetry and Remote Sensing Center of China Coal, Xian, Shaanxi 710054, China
2
Remote Sensing Research Center, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China
Abstract: With the rapid development of Chinas economy, coal resources are increasingly in great demand. As a result, the re-
maining coal reserves diminish gradually with large-scale exploitation of coal resources. Easily-found mines which used to be iden-
tified from outcrops or were buried under shallow overburden are decreasing, especially in the prosperous eastern regions of China,
which experience coal shortages. Currently the main targets of coal prospecting are concealed and unidentified underground coal
bodies, making it more and more difficult for coal prospecting. It is therefore important to explore coal prospecting by taking ad-
vantage of modern remote sensing and geographic information system technologies. Given a theoretical basis for coal prospecting
by remote sensing, we demonstrate the methodologies and existing problems systematically by summarizing past practices of coal
prospecting with remote sensing. We propose a new theory of coal prospecting with remote sensing. In uncovered areas, coal re-
sources can be prospected for by direct interpretation. In coal bearing strata of developed areas covered by thin Quaternary strata or
vegetation, prospecting for coal can be carried out by indirect interpretation of geomorphology and vegetation. For deeply buried
underground deposits, coal prospecting can rely on tectonic structures, interpretation and analysis of new tectonic clues and regular-
ity of coal formation and preservation controlled by tectonic structures. By applying newly hyper-spectral, multi-polarization,
multi-angle, multi-temporal and multi-resolution remote sensing data and carrying out integrated analysis of geographic attributes,
ground attributes, geophysical exploration results, geochemical exploration results, geological drilling results and remote sensing
data by GIS tools, coal geology resources and mineralogical regularities can be explored and coal resource information can be ac-
quired with some confidence.
Key words: remote sensing; coal prospecting; coal field prediction; coal prospecting for deeply buried coal seams
1 Introduction
Coal is the main energy source in China and ac-
counts for over 75% of our entire energy consump-
tion. Because of its safety and economy, coal re-
sources have played a leading position in energy
consumption for a long time
[1]
. With the economy
developing rapidly in China, the demand of coal re-
sources increases as well. But the remaining reserves
are gradually diminishing because of their large-scale
exploitation, especially the easily found sources at
outcrops and those just below the surface in the de-
veloped areas of China
[2]
. However, in order to pro-
tect the fragile ecology in western China, it is neces-
sary to find and explore coal with low ash and low
sulfur contents as a substitute for firewood. Therefore
it is an urgent problem to be resolved for resources
investigation to prospect accurately, rapidly and effi-
ciently for coal resources by using the latest tech-
nologies. Remote sensing is one of the most efficient
ways for coal prospecting, but there are many factors
which interfere with this technology. The absence of
any correlation in abnormal information existing in
remote sensing anomalies and the lack of direct in-
terpretation for concealed coal deposits are currently
the major problems.
Based on theoretical research and practical appli-
cations of prospecting for coal in northwestern areas
at often difficult accessible deserts and plateaus, shal-
low areas in the southwest and heavily covered areas
in central and eastern China, we pose the questions
that need to be raised for the development of the next
steps in coal prospecting with the aid of remote sens-
ing in China.
2 Theoretical basis of coal prospecting by
remote sensing
Remote sensing is a technology that acquires the
physical parameters of the objectives through spatial
sensors by receiving electromagnetic waves reflected
and dispersed from objects or electromagnetic waves
emitted by targets. Instead of the traditional ground
surveys of geosciences, remote sensing technology
obtains ground information by pixels which eventu-
ally lead to 3D images. The changes in methods of
J China Univ Mining & Technol 18 (2008) 05370545
JOURNAL OF CHINA UNIVERSITY OF
MINING &
TECHNOLOGY
www.elsevier.com/locate/jcumt
Journal of China University of Mining & Technology Vol.18 No.4 538
information acquisition greatly expand the process of
geological prospecting. Remote sensing for coal
prospecting is the process that extracts information on
the incidents of coal deposits by studying indications
of prospective, coal deposits, factors which control
coal seams and distribution rules of coalfields on the
basis of remote sensing theory and coal formation
theory.
Coal bearing strata are darker in hue, usually 5% to
30% lower in reflectance than that of adjacent strata
along a standard strata profile and have a unique
spectrum. The thermal emission properties of coal are
distinct. The thermal inertia of coal beds, compared
with other rocks, is lower. Since coal absorbs more
energy, its surface temperature, emission rate and
radiant temperature are higher during the daytime. In
general the highest thermal anomaly appears between
13:00 and 15:00. Lower thermal conductivity and
diffusion of coal controls its thermal radiant charac-
teristics during the night. It releases almost all its so-
lar energy absorbed during the daytime before mid-
night, after which it emanates thermal radiation
mainly from the interior of the earth crust, so that it
shows lower thermal anomalies after midnight be-
cause of its lower thermal conductivity.
Exposed coal seams and coal-bearing strata take on
particular characteristics of dark hue and layered tex-
ture in the visible bands of the images, which show
stronger anomalies during the daytime and lower
thermal anomalies during the nighttime in thermal,
infrared images. Therefore, a combination of visible
bands and thermal infrared bands will be an effective
method for detecting coal prospects over exposed
coal seams.
Coal bearing strata are often interbedded with
mudstone, shale and sandstone, whose mechanical
strength is generally low. They are easily extruded,
demolished, weathered and exposed in crust move-
ments and therefore vegetation is more abundant in
areas of coal-bearing strata. In covered areas, vegeta-
tion and geomorphological shapes may be indirect
indicators of coal prospects. When mechanical
strength varies in coal bearing strata, sandstone strata
will become mountain ridges and mudstone, shale
and coal seams will be concentrated in the foot hills
and form valleys. Vegetation will preferentially grow
along soft rock layers. Under these circumstances, we
would predict and investigate coal deposits by ana-
lyzing regional topography, vegetation growth and
geological characteristics.
3 Remote sensing applications: research
into coal prospecting
Remote sensing for coal prospecting normally
takes large areas as research targets. The objective of
the research is to find regional coal basins and tec-
tonics associated with or controlling coal seams dis-
tribution, often with a low requirement of investiga-
tion accuracy. Therefore, TM, ETM, ASTER, SPOT
and IRS-1C images can be used in the investigations
at scales of 1:200000, 1:100000 or 1:50000. Image
interpretation combined with field investigations
should be carried out at first to extract anomalies as-
sociated with prospective coal areas and then to ver-
ify the anomalies with geophysical and chemical ex-
plorations and drilling. As is demonstrated in practice,
the procedure shown in Fig. 1 is an economical and
highly efficient way for coal prospecting with remote
sensing in areas where coal bearing strata are exposed
to the surface or with a shallow cover.
P
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Drilling
veriIication
Integrated
analyses
Designing paper draIting
Image making
Filed surveys Data analyses Preliminary interpretation
Data collection
Geological data Topographic data Image data
VeriIication by
Iield surveys
Integrated analyses
Thematic image
processing
Delineat ion oI prospect coal bearing area
Image inosculation and making ProIile measurement Remote sensing interpretations at scale oI 1:50000
1:50000 geological mapping Trench exploration Sampling and test
1:100000 remote sensing
interpretations
Compilation oI 1:50000 geological maps
Calculation oI coal reserves
Integrate d analyses
Drilling Geophysical well logging
Fig. 1 Flow chart of prospecting for coal with remote sensing
TAN Ke-long et al Prospecting for coal in China with remote sensing 539
3.1 Coal prospecting with remote sensing in un-
covered areas
Due to the harsh geographic conditions and incon-
venient transportation, little geological exploration
has been carried out in the past in the desolate, high
and cold areas of Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai and Gansu,
especially for coal. In most of these regions this has
never been done. In the desolate wastelands and pla-
teaus, where coal-bearing strata form outcrops and
the structural deformation is not very severe, remote
sensing images are very distinct and highly interpret-
able. When carrying out coal prospecting with remote
sensing in these regions, we can analyze and study
the correlations of the geological entities and remote
sensing images and establish directly interpretative
indicators for coal-bearing strata and geological tec-
tonics through sketchy interpretation, exploration and
geological profile measurement. Coal prospecting
with remote sensing in these areas depends mainly on
direct interpretation, as well as analysis of regional
structural background and evolutionary history of the
geological basins. Interpretation of remote sensing
images should be a major undertaking with assistance
from field verification and surveys. Coal prospecting
by remote sensing can be combined with coal geol-
ogy mapping at scales of 1:50000 and 1:25000.
From 1998 to 2005, ARSC, the Xinjiang Coal Ge-
ology and Qinghai Coal Geology Bureaus discovered
26 prospective coalfields in Xinjiang, Qinghai and
Tibet by remote sensing technology combined with
geophysical exploration and drilling. The volumes of
the new found coal resources amount to about 404.41
million tons in total (see Table 1).
Table 1 Exploration for coal with remote sensing in northwestern China
Region
Area
(km
2
)
Images
and scales
Delineation of prospective coal
bearing areas
Successive verifications
New gained coal
resources (in millions
of tons)
Hetian-Mingfeng
Region, Xinjiang
8000
TM
1:100000
Six areaswith a, total area of 88
km
2
. One in Duwa, two in
Buya, two in Nuer and one in
Wulukesai
In Duwa and Buya prospective
coal bearing areas, 1:50000 geo-
logical mapping and drilling had
been carried out
333+3341:148.60
Wuqia Region,
Xinjiang
1000
TM
1:100000
Three areas, with a total area of
13 km
2
1:50000 geological mapping and
drilling had been carried out
333+3341:14.55
Southern Qinghai 4500
TM
1:100000
Sixteen areas, with a total area
of 818 km
2
.Three in Dawu,nine
in Zaduo, Jiezhaand Nanqian,
and fourin Wulikaixinling
1:50000 geological mapping and
drilling had been carried out in
Dawu and Zaduo prospective coal
bearing areas
333+3341:31.76
Mangya Region,
Qinghai
4000
ETM
1:100000
Six areas, with a total area of
53 km
2
Four areas: 1:50000 geological
mapping and drilling had been
carried out
333+3341:72.13
Changdu Region,
Tibet
150800
TM
1:250000
Seven areas, with a total area
of 20000 km
2
Three areas: 1:50000 geological
mapping and drilling had been
carried out
333+3341:84.92
333:8.60
Tumen Region,
Tibet
5000
ETM, SPOT2
1:100000
Four areas, with a total area
of 600 km
2
Three areas: 1:50000 geological
mapping and drilling had been
carried out
3341:43.85
3.2 Coal prospecting with remote sensing in
shallow covered areas
In southwestern China, such as in Sichuan,
Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, coal-bearing strata
are buried in a shallow fashion and are totally over-
laid by Tertiary and Quaternary strata or vegetation.
In spite of these rich coal resources, the geological
and physiognomic conditions of the region are com-
plex and the coal usually covered by lush vegetation.
The principle of from the known to the unknown
and from simple to complex should be followed for
coal prospecting within these regions. First, we
should realize the characteristics of the strata, struc-
ture, coal bearing strata, coal seams and other mineral
resources through field investigations and geological
profile measurement. As well, we should establish
direct or indirect remote sensing interpretative indi-
cators for coal-bearing strata, coal-bearing basins and
tectonics. Next we should, interpret the strata; geo-
logical tectonics, physiognomy and plant cover in
these areas, identify the framework for remote sens-
ing of geological tectonics of the coal fields and di-
vide the structural units. As a third step, we should
analyze coal control mechanisms through geological
structures, especially the property and scale of geo-
logical structures which control the basins and coal
seams, the distribution areas and causes for the for-
mation of coal accumulation basins, investigate an-
cient geography, synchronized depositional environ-
ment and geological synchronized depositional tec-
tonics and coal accumulation regularities. Finally
possible prospective coal areas and coal-bearing sec-
tions should be delineated. In general, prospecting for
coal with remote sensing in these areas is carried out
mainly by indirect interpretation of geomorphology
and vegetation and by analysis of geological struc-
tures.
From 1998 to 2006, Aero-photogrammetry and
Journal of China University of Mining & Technology Vol.18 No.4 540
Remote Sensing of China Coal (ARSC), the Yunnan
and Sichuan Coal Geology Bureaus had completed
successful coal prospecting work with remote sensing
in southwestern China (see Table 2).
Table 2 Exploration for coal with remote sensing in southwestern China
Region
Area
(km
2
)
Images and
scales
Delineation of prospective coal
bearing areas
Successive verification
New gained coal
resources (in millions
of tons)
Sanjiang Region,
Yunnan
6000
TM
1:100000
11 areas, with a total area of 273
km
2
. Two in Mangbang, five in
Zhongdian and Four in Yong-
sheng
1:50000 geological mapping and
drilling had been carried out in two
prospective coal bearing areas
333+3341:75.59
Xiangyun-Ejia
Region, Yunnan
4000
TM, RADARSAT
1:100000
Seven areas, with a total area of
380 km
2
1:50000 geological mapping and
drilling had been carried out in three
prospective coal bearing areas
333+3341:125.00
Zhaotong Re-
gion, Yunnan
3000
ETM, SPOT-2
1:100000
Twelve areas, with a total area of
740 km
2
1:50000 geological mapping and
drilling had been carried out in
Luowang, Miaoba and Xinglong
prospective coal bearing areas
333+3341:358.00
Panzhihua-
Huidong Region,
Sichuan
4000
ETM
1:100000
Five areas, with a total area of
145 km
2
1:50000 geological mapping and
drilling had been carried out
333+3341:46.39
3.3 Coal prospecting in deeply buried areas
Relatively, more previous geological surveys have
been carried out in the central and eastern regions of
China, where coal deposits are commonly covered by
thick overlying Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata, with a
general thickness between 200 m and 600 m, or even
over 2000 m in some parts of these regions. Pros-
pecting for coal can hardly be effective with tradi-
tional methods and theories. The upsurge in interna-
tional studies of thrust and nappe tectonics occurred
in the mid-1970s and research of extensional tecton-
ics (slipping nappe structure) in the 1980s are re-
garded as symbols of successful applications of plate
tectonic theory in continental geology
[35]
. In practical
aspects, research on detachment structures has
opened up new areas and present new ideas in the
search for such energy resources as coal, oil and gas
as well as for other minerals. In China, the detach-
ment structure theory is widely applied in studies of
coalfield tectonics and coal exploration work, be-
cause of the important status of coal in our energy
structure and the structural complexity of coalfields.
Given the impetus of new theories of coalfield ge-
ology, prospecting for coal in central and eastern re-
gions of China should be a combination of integrated
methods that include the use of remote sensing in
geology for interpreting and analyzing target regions
and discovering profitable coal-bearing areas and
blocks. These methods should also include geophysi-
cal exploration of potentially profitable coalfields and
coal-bearing sections by arranging survey lines in
profitable coal-bearing areas and blocks and carry out
seismic exploration, core drilling for verification and
other means of exploration
[6]
. Of these means, re-
search is of great importance to strengthen our under-
standing of coalfield structures and coal-controlling
structures. We should identify the incidence of coal
resources by applying new theories, new methods and
new technologies for coal prospecting, starting with
coal- controlling structures (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Flow chart of coal prospecting with remote
sensing in deeply
3.3.1 Method and content of remote sensing inter-
pretation for coal field geology
By integrating the analysis and study of the geol-
ogy and tectonics, particularly the concealed structure
of the base of the working area by applying remote
TAN Ke-long et al Prospecting for coal in China with remote sensing 541
sensing techniques and studying the geological and
geophysical data, we can reveal the distribution of the
structures that control the coal-bearing basin, which
makes prospecting for coal more effective in con-
cealed and half-concealed areas.
Using remote sensing in geological interpretation
of known coal-bearing sections, combined with the
integrated analysis of geological and geophysical data,
we can more objectively reveal rules about coal ac-
cumulation in the study area, which will assist us in
the discovery of new coal-bearing sections. The in-
terpretation of remote sensing methods in coalfields
improves with interpreting and analyzing series of
remote sensing images at different scales and multi-
ple platforms. Interpretation of remote sensing of
coalfields gradually developed in the direction of
enlarging the scale and narrowing the target area. The
interpretation requirement of geological surveys for
coal resources, with remote sensing at different scales,
is shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Main application of remote sensing interpretation in coal field geology
Scale Image Purpose Image processing Explanation
1:500000
MSS
Regional linear structures and
tectonics zones
Extraction of tectonics information
from single band and pseudo color
images
Regional linear structure interpretation is to find
large-scale concealed structures and coal-bearing
basins
1:200000 TM
Geotectonic regions, tectonic
blocks coal-bearing basins
Color composition enhancement,
convolution, transformation
Focused on boundary structures of coal-bearing
blocks, and mainly based on image information
extraction of planar objectives
1:50000 SPOT
Boundary tectonics of coal bear-
ing regions and inner structures
Principal component transformation,
band math
Interpretation of thrust tectonics and analysis of
occurrence conditions of coal-bearing strata
When evaluating and applying remote sensing
technology in the central and eastern part of Chinas
concealed and half-concealed areas, we strongly urge
that the following interpretative work should be car-
ried out when conducting coal prospecting and coal
prospecting prediction.
1) Interpretation of main linear structures
The structural deformations of the earth crust dis-
played in space-borne remote sensing images are of-
ten in the form of abundant structural landscapes and
linear structural information. Deep structural infor-
mation may also be reflected on the surface through
dynamic deformation of the crust and deep geo-
chemical reactions
[7]
. In recent years, deep structural
information revealed by the large linear structures
from remote sensing images has become the subject
of great interest both in China and abroad. Interpreta-
tion and analysis of linear structures is one of the ef-
fective ways on studying regional geological struc-
tures
[8]
. Linear information is a concrete manifesta-
tion of the traces left behind by surface geological
structures, in which associated characteristics and a
regional structural framework have some linkages
with coal controlling structures. Linear structural in-
terpretation includes:
a) A redefinition of known fault structures, identi-
fied by former geological work.
b) A reinterpretation and investigation of the char-
acteristics of known faults in remote sensing images,
particularly those of intermittent, small linear struc-
tures, in order to ensure that they belong to a
large-scale fault, a single fault or a group of parallel
faults.
c) A summary of the image regulations of fault
structures, interpreting and tracing their development
in the direction of the strike of known fault structures,
given the identity of the features of the images.
d) Fitting and comparing newly discovered linear
structures with regional geological maps and geo-
physical exploration maps in order to determine their
geological significance.
e) An analysis of the distribution characteristics,
changes in direction, trends in distribution, extending
length and continuity of the main linear structure and
conduct associative characteristic studies by dividing
different planar imaging systems.
Interpretation of the main linear structures reveals
the overall process from the known to the unknown
and from image characteristics to real geological enti-
ties. The interpretation maps of the major linear
structures compiled with these methods can clearly
reveal the general framework of regional tectonics
[9]
.
This can also provide a certain structural geological
basis for the division of secondary structural units of
the region and provide basic information for improv-
ing the compilation and survey of the coalfield geo-
logical map and analyzing coal controlling structures.
2) Interpretation of thrust nappe structure
In the past, the interpretation and analysis for coal
prospecting with remote sensing largely focused on
interpreting prospective areas of coal prospecting
within coal-bearing basins. The study of thrust nappe
structure in recent years shows that strata of different
eras are often involved in thrust faults, some of which
even become rootless strata. Coal-bearing strata are
sometimes covered by series of foreign rock sheets.
Therefore, the interpretation of thrust nappe structure
is also an important part of interpretation by remote
sensing in those areas where thrust structures de-
velop.
As the hanging wall of the thrust nappe, the struc-
tures generally consist of coal bearing strata and basal
strata. It is pushed up from great depth to form a
shallow crust, or even crop up at the surface, which is
Journal of China University of Mining & Technology Vol.18 No.4 542
easily identified in remote sensing images. In the
northeastern part of China, sporadically exposed in
Archaeozoic rocks, Lower Paleozoic rocks and Per-
mian and Carboniferous coal-bearing strata, often
parts of thrust faults or nappes are found. The Car-
boniferous and Permian coal bearing strata are possi-
bly concealed under the thrust faults.
In interpretation, thrust faults are indicated by main
linear structures located in high positions. The linear
structures, in the background of positive relief, gen-
erally coincide with or are parallel to ridgelines and
there are distinct differences in planar image features
on both sides of the linear structures.
a) Image features of hanging walls of thrust faults:
the hanging walls of thrust faults are largely made up
of Archean metamorphic rocks and coal bearing for-
mations or the basal strata of coal bearing formations
such as the sedimentary rocks which originated from
the medium and upper Proterozoic and Paleozoic eras.
These rocks have strong weathering resistance, which
usually form positive landscapes of watersheds or
ridges.
b) Image features of the bottom walls of thrust
faults: the bottom walls of thrust faults are commonly
made up of volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks of
the Jurassic and Cretaceous eras and are mainly dis-
played as image features of a structural basin. In gen-
eral, image features of typical volcanic rocks are
clearly visible at the rims of the basins. The image
features of the banded volcanic rocks of the medium
Jurassic Lanqi formation are the most obvious.
c) Linear image features of thrust faults: continu-
ous linear structures are distinct boundary lines of
different planar zones of images, which usually show
some undulation and coincide with watersheds or
ridgelines; they are genetically related to structural,
geomorphologic feature lines such as the front of low
hill tops. Non-continuous linear structure: the hang-
ing wall is usually a chain-like image belt, composed
of independent hills, the bottom line of an intermit-
tent scarp, an, insignificant linear structure or even an
arc-like stretch of line.
d) Dip-angle interpretation of the thrust fault: a
gently inclined nappe and volcanic rocks along the
basin edges show parallel banded image textures,
although nappes generally show images of obvious
uplifts. Indented textures of fault lines are clearly
visible, where steep scarps usually develop as well.
Medium inclined thrust bodies of rocks show the im-
age features of platy sheets or perfectly round rocks,
showing simple linear contacts with the nappes, with
which they form low mountains or high hills.
Greatly inclined thrust faults occur in groups and
control a complex belt of thrust faults together. The
images of the fan-shaped uplift made up of several
arc-shaped structures are typical images of an imbri-
cate fan, controlled by the thrust faults that incline in
the same direction, also accompanied by several par-
allel narrow banded imaging belt features. This
arc-shaped structure, as well as the linear structures
among the parallel image belts, can be viewed as in-
dications of a high angle thrust fault.
The Huainan coalfield is one of the most important
bases of coal resources in eastern China. Originally,
the generally accepted southern boundary of the
Huainan coalfield was always considered to be the Fu
Feng normal fault, of which the southern wall goes
up while the northern wall goes down. The interpreta-
tion of TM (Thematic Mapper) remote sensing im-
ages and a survey of the Huainan region show that the
series of hills at the southern margin of the Huainan
coalfield are formed by the Fu Feng-fault and the
Shanjinjia high-angle thrust fault. It is still possible
that considerable Permian coal-bearing strata exist
under the nappe. As was verified later by the geo-
logical team NO.147 of the Anhui Coal Geological
Bureau by drilling, there are real coal seams under the
overthrust nappe structure and a total of 1.1 billion
tons of newly discovered prospective reserves of coal
resources was gained (Fig. 3).
3.3.2 Geophysical exploration, verification and
analysis
1) Gravity and aeromagnetic data
On the basis of appropriate computer processing of
gravity and aeromagnetic data and through the pro-
cedure of reinterpretation and re-understanding, re-
gional tectonic settings, especially the abundance of
information that reflects deep structures, will be ob-
tained
[10]
.
Generally, the magnetic data can provide us with
three-dimensional, overlaying and detailed informa-
tion about the integrated magnetic bodies to a depth
of 20~30 km from the surface, which can directly
reflect the distribution characteristics of deep mag-
netic bodies and clearly reveal the geotectonic traces
that were eventually retained after repeated crustal
movements. Magnetic axial images can reflect the
real characteristics of crystalline basements.
High values of gravitational anomalies often reflect
uplift zones, anticline belts, raised fault blocks, horst
structures or salient of crystal basements of the old
strata below the Paleozoic strata. Low values of
gravitational anomalies reflect sedimentary basins,
depressions, fault depressions or graben structure
zones.
2) Verifications by seismic exploration and drilling
The results of remote sensing interpretation and
geophysical analyses offer us coal-bearing blocks or
sections of interest for seismic exploration and drill-
ing. By making use of seismic data, we can trace the
main coal seams and delineate their distribution and
range, obtain the exact locations of concealed coal
seams and the textural characteristics of coal meas-
ures such as mergers, ramification, fouls, and erosion
and so on. Studying the rules of changes in thickness
of the major minable coal seams and interpreting the
TAN Ke-long et al Prospecting for coal in China with remote sensing 543
distribution characteristics of coal seams provide
conditions for the calculation of coal resources with
the most direct and reliable data and geological basis.
H
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Shou county
Jiaogang lake
Fuleng reverse
Huainan coalIield
T
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(a) Remote sensing geological map

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(
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(b) B-B section
Fig. 3 Remote sensing geological maps in eastern section of south wing of the Huainan coalfield
3.3.3 Complex processing of multiple source geo-
science information
Multiple source information in the geosciences
covers a wide range, including data obtained by sur-
veys, geological explorations, geography, geophysics,
remote sensing both from the earth surface and from
the air. Because of a lack of adequate geological data
and geological knowledge, impersonal knowledge of
the geology of coalfields of the study area relies
mainly on complex analyses of geophysical informa-
tion and remote sensing information, when prospect-
ing for coal in concealed regions.
Complex processing of multiple source informa-
tion in geosciences is a new technology in informa-
tion processing that integrates computer, processing
of digital signals, multivariate statistical analyses,
remote sensing and mathematics. This integrated
process includes such treatment measures as com-
posing (fitting) and superimposing (overlay) and can
establish strong relations among a large number of
maps, images and data through human intervention,
learn from peoples strong points to offset weak-
nesses elsewhere and complement each other, en-
hancing the effectiveness of comprehensive analysis
of information.
Aero-photogrammetry and the Remote Sensing
Bureau of China Coal carried out coal prospecting in
concealed areas of the southwestern Shandong plain
in 1990. We had found several groups of linear struc-
tures in the directions of northeast, northwest, near
NS (North-South) and near EW (East-West), as well
as a series of single-ring structures and complex
ring-shape structures in southwestern Shandong
province. The abovementioned achievements had
Journal of China University of Mining & Technology Vol.18 No.4 544
been gained by making use of 1:500000 MSS
(Multi-Spectral Scanner) images and 1/200000 TM
(Thematic Mapper) images. Under the guidelines of
from the whole to the details, from the known uplift
tectonics areas of central Shandong to the unknown
tectonics of concealed areas of southwestern Shan-
dong, from easiness to hardness, the task had been
fulfilled on the basis of the analysis of the known
geological data, through the interpretation of con-
cealed structures with such indicators as vegetation,
water system and soil moisture content anomalies of
the earths surface, as well as the computer process-
ing of gravity, aeromagnetic data and complex proc-
essing of multi-source geosciences information.
Linear structures interpreted from gravitational
anomalies and remote sensing images can confirm
each others results, Except for unclear interpretations
of several places, or a small positional deviation from
the linear structures interpreted by remote sensing
image, the overall structural framework and the three
levels of faults interpreted by aeromagnetic data
basically agree with the interpretation by remote
sensing images. Regional aeromagnetic anomalies
can clearly reflect fluctuations of the depth of crystal
basements, large uplifts and depressions and deep
faults, which can also somewhat reflect the linear
structures in the directions of the northeast and
northwest that are interpreted by remote sensing im-
ages. With tectonic unit division of structural levels 1,
2 and 3 and their analyses of coal controlling struc-
tural types and coal bed occurrence status, 13 pre-
dicted reliable coal-bearing zones, 9 possible
coal-bearing zones and 15 inferred coal-bearing zones
were identified (Fig. 4).
Liang shan
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Buried structrue
First order tectonic units
and unmber
Second order tectonic units
and unmber
Third order tectonic units
Canal
Dam
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Fig. 4 Interpretation map of tectonic units from remote sensing images in southwestern Shandong Province
4 Conclusions and discussion
As investigators, we believe that remote sensing is
one of the most important means of coal prospecting
in large areas. In uncovered regions, prospective
coal-bearing areas can be delineated by the direct use
of low-medium resolution satellite images, followed
by large-scale coalfield geological mapping with
high-resolution images and drilling. Coal-bearing
basins and their characteristics are mainly predicted
according to feature images of landscapes and vege-
tation cover in the areas with well developed coal
bearing strata, thin overburden or vegetation cover.
The coal-bearing structures delineated by the images
are generally credible and high-resolution images can
be further used to interpret and delineate concealed
TAN Ke-long et al Prospecting for coal in China with remote sensing 545
coal bearing basins and coal bearing synclines under
the overburden of concealed areas and semi-con-
cealed areas. Coal prospecting in thickly covered ar-
eas such as the peripheries of old coal diggings in
central and eastern China is mainly achieved by tec-
tonic interpretation, discovery of new geological tec-
tonics and new knowledge of the rules of coal con-
trolling structures.
With the development of remote sensing technol-
ogy and its tight combination with new theories or
methods such as geology, geography, coal petrology,
digital geology, geophysics, structural geology, ge-
omechanics and modern sedimentology, remote
sensing methods for coal prospecting possess obvious
advantages with good prospects of further develop-
ment, compared with traditional methods. Currently,
China's remote sensing method for coal prospecting
shows the following aspects of a developing field:
1) Applications of new types of remote sensing
technology
Since the beginning of the 21st century, remote
sensing has entered an era of revealing much infor-
mation of the surface of the earth. Both spatial reso-
lution and spectral resolution of images have im-
proved markedly. As a surface information acquisi-
tion tool, remote sensing consists presently of the
following six techniques: a) multi-band remote sens-
ing, b) multi-polarization remote sensing, c)
phase-difference remote sensing, d) multi-angle re-
mote sensing, e) multi-temporal remote sensing, f)
multi-pixel information integrated remote sensing.
In the beginning, remote sensing for coal pros-
pecting in China was carried out in too much simpli-
fication with limited results which usually obtained
from almost only vertically multi-band images such
as TM images, with as consequence that much useful
information was suppressed. Multi-temporal,
multi-polarization and multi-resolution synthetic ap-
erture radar images can be widely applied in struc-
tural analysis, topographic analysis, division of
lithology and stratigraphy and exploration of con-
cealed geological phenomena, which are somewhat
difficult to be distinguished if done only by intensity
images of radar. Therefore, we should explore appli-
cations of multi-angle remote sensing, radar remote
sensing and the integrated remote sensing with radar
and optical images in coal prospecting.
Secondly, multiple resolutions and high-spectral
images provide plenty of sources of information for
the study of regional tectonic settings and characteris-
tics of surface strata at different scales, while MODIS
and ASTER possess several thermal infrared bands,
which can reflect the differences of surface tempera-
ture, which is helpful in the analysis of concealed
structures. Suitable applications of new satellite re-
mote sensing data cannot only achieve mutual com-
plementarity and mutual verification, but also offer
more useful information.
Finally, methods of remote sensing in prospecting
for coal should be carried out by comparative analy-
ses and interpretation analyses with a series of dif-
ferent scales, with the applications of multi-platform
remote sensing information.
2) Organic integration of RS and GIS
As the spatial analysis platform of various geo-
graphical attributes, surface attributes, geophysical
exploration data, geochemical exploration data, geo-
logical exploration results and remote sensing image
data, GIS has helped to eliminate inefficient tradi-
tional analytical methods, and greatly enhanced the
accuracy and efficiency of comprehensive analysis
and made the expression way of achievements more
colorful. Most of the regions of China have abundant
data of geological surveys, geophysical exploration
and geochemical exploration. New types of data such
as 3-D seismic and other geological exploration are
also increasingly being collected in some areas. Only
with comprehensive studies of various geological
advances, can we improve inferences and identify the
existence of concealed coal deposits or blind
coal-deposits and enhance prospecting for coal
[11]
.
Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of all kinds of
information with the combination of remote sensing
and GIS technology is a key process in extracting
deep-level information of coalfields. The interdisci-
plinary research of branches of geoscience obtained
from making use of GIS technology will gradually
become a new fruitful endeavor.
3) Integrated coal prospecting with remote sensing
technology
As one of the means of coal prospecting, remote
sensing technology can improve the probability of
coal resource discovery by combination with other
methods such as geological methods, geochemical
methods, geophysical methods, engineering and tech-
nical methods
[12]
, through careful and thorough
analysis, analogy, induction and scientific reasoning
on the basis of known regional coal-forming back-
ground and coal-forming laws.
Acknowledgements
During our research, Professor Cao Daiyong and
Mr Lin Liang of the China University of Mining and
Technology have provided us with much help and
assistance in the area of prospecting deeply buried
coal. Thanks to their valuable guidance, we have
successfully completed the research. We would also
like to express our sincere gratitude to all of our
friends for their help.
(Continued on page 550)
Journal of China University of Mining & Technology Vol.18 No.4 550
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