377 Humiditition a.

d CooJing Towers

Chapter ten

Humidification and CoolingTowers

l r U F D o c e . , 1 g o ' m a . e r i d, i r . - o ' . e r n e c e . . a r - i . c . l o 1 , , e d - c l f e m o u n t o I v d D o u J Dre<cn' r d 8d -r'edm. dn op.rdrioa rnom a l-hidil.ddon, o, ,o reduce Jre vrr;ou, prtssFr_ a Drore\! rr!ne'r to d. dehm dili.lrion. tn trum djirdrion, lhe taDour cohLenr 'd ie nay Dc hcrFtued Dy pdnra ga- ov- r Liqr wh.h .t en e\ -oordLe. iirLo Lhe q". . r c ) m r t u . r J n l l F r n t o r h c n d j 5 , r c a mt d t a i p h c e b l d r t f u , i o n ,d o r r . h e i r t e r f c c e

E::il:'j?jH;5,FjJil::i:.:5T:iil;',li,l"i$hrtudiliGUon

pdrin,condea.d,on

We now turn our attentionto processes wherehearand massrransferoccur !1 unison. This is far from an rnusual event, but it raises rhe comDlxitv of lhe underl)ing rnodel. d ldct tl-aiper\uaded u- to dererrr. cor.iderarion to th final chapter. Simultaneous heat and masstransferoccd in a natural wav wheneverthe fran-porlof mds) is ac,ompa'ried b) lhe e\ olut o.l or corsr mpHonof heat. An important classof such opemtions,arld one rhar occupies;considerable portion of this chapter, involves the condensation of watd vapor from an arrsreamdnd rhe rpveFe pro.p\sor e!dporarion ot iiquid w;ter inLoair I heredrca hoslof iJnpondnL opordiion" in shir h Lhis fypeot trdnsfer o.curs. fte hum:di6cdtion .rd dehum,diric,rrion ot air, ofLenidenHried w rh .rir conditioning, is practicadwithin domesric,commercial,and industriat con_ le\l<.l-rocesc wdter th.l sds u\ed in.r ptdnl for cootingpurposes is often cyclcdthroLshd cootinS toq er whereiL:s .ontdL Ledin (ounl;rcurreninow v\ilh air and undergoes e\ dpo.ative coolint beforc beinSrFtumedtor rcuse. ,; ir- o$ n ri8hl.also The drvinS of .ouds,an imporlarl cld.sof oDerdtron5 draws on ihe pdnciples that underiie ihe rransport of water bet;een its liquid phas and air Indeed, the air-water sysiem al1d rhe rmperature and concent'alion chdrgeslhdtnrise indr watercontart dreot ru!h rmportjnce in the physical sciences that thay have led ro the consirucrionof rsv;lolrsfnc ot hunidiht,hortsThesc chdrr\summdrize in (onvenienr td.hron I ie rhefmdl and concentrationvariablesrelevantto operationsinvolvjng the air water \ys(em Tn lhe rllusrrdtions did prdcHcc probtem< ihdr touo; we userhe.e chats repeatedly io establishparamerersof interest in vadous operations basedon the air-water system.

378Chemical Engineering P.o@sses

Simultaneous heat ard mass transfer also occurs in exoihermic or endothemic heterogeneous rcacting systems alrd in the absorption or adsorption irom concentfated gas streams. Theseiopics aie addressed in separate itlustrations but we retain ihe air-$rater system as the central theme of this

10.1 The Air-Water System: Humidi{ication and Dehumidifi cation, Evaporative Cooling '10,'1.1 The Wet"Bulb Temprature We stafi oul deliberations by examinint the eventsthar occurwhen a flowing gas comesin contact with a liquid surface.Th reader will be aware from personalexperienc thai this processresulis in a drop in the remperatuieof the liquid, often feferred io as evaporaiive cooljng. The chill we experience when v\mo blows o\er oJr pFr.p.rhg bod,e. i. one rd"rireslat;o;of rh]: Let us assume that both the water and the air are inirially at the san1e temperature.During the first sta8eoI evaporatior! the eneryy re+lired for the process, i.e., the laient heat AH", wiu come from the liquid itself, which consequentlyxpeiences a drop in temperatule. Thar decline, once it is triggered,h'ilt causea correspondingamount of heaftransfer to rake place from the air to the water At this iniermediate stage, ihe latent heai of vaporizaiion is provided bofi by the liquid iiself and by heat transferfrom me warmer gas. As the liquid temperaiure continues io drop, the rate of heat rransfer accelerates until a stageis reachedwhere the entire energyload is supplied by the air itseu. A steaclystate is attaindin which the rate of evaporation is exacuy balancedby the rate at which hai is rransfefed from the sas ro l}le tiq, d. Ihe liqL.d i. rl-"n:drd ro oF ar irs wer-oulbrFn-pe-crrurej 7h,. and the corespondh8 air temperatureis referrdto as the "dry-bulb tem- ?*b) constitutes peratur," ?db. The difiercnc(?db the drivins force for rhe frnrslerred heatbeLnS lrom Ine gar to lhe .rcu'd.Thrs-- indr, "red Lr figure 10.1,wl1ich also shows the associated humidities of the air,y*bGg Hro/kg air), the saturation humidity prevailint at the surface of the liquid, and ydb, the humidity in the bulk ail The wet-bulb temperature and its associated saturation humidity play a central role in humidilication and dehumidiJicatio4 in waier cooling operafions,as wel as n1 drying pfocesses. Thesear taken rp in subsequent illustraiions. The relation among 7;b, Ywb, and the systemparametersis established by rha .dieor he.l lr,m>fe-Jrom {o w,rrer equalmS to t}e r.le of evnpordhor, ".. i.e., the mte at which moisture is transferred from the water surface to the air. Thus,

379 Humidifielion andCoo'ing ToweF

Effective Gas Film

Tcr
Humldity

FICURE,IO-1 Tcmperaturca.d humidiry dist.iburionarcund a warcr drop dposcd ro a flowing airstrem

Rat of evapomtion = Rate of heat hansfer _ T*b) ftr4(y*b - ydb)^H. = tu4(Tdb where fty is the mass bansfer coefficient in units of kg H,O/m, s dy. CanLelinglerms dnd real.ranSing we obtain (10.i)

krM,

(10.2)

where the difference 7,6 - T*b is referred ro as rh wet-bulb depression. W note tuomEqudfionl0.) thdt thp humidiryof rhe air vooian,in principl, be stablished ftom masured vatues of Tdb,T;b, and y_b" the tarter beinq obtained from the relation

(rJ..)", v"." n * =
-(P*)." M.",,

00.3)

where Prio is the vapor pressure of water, available Irom tables, and M = molar maas. ?dbis measured by exposinS a dry themomerer to th ftowins air, while T*u is obtdined in sinr;ldr tdsh;on usinq a Lhemometer covereJ with a moisLwick. More recenlde\i(es for medsuringVrely on c}anges in elchical properlies of the sensor elenlent v,/ith the moisture content ;f air. Both wet- and dry-bulb properties appear in the hulnidity charrs that arc taken uD sho.tlv.

380 ChemicalEng neeihg Proesses

'10.1.2

The Adiabatic SaturationTernperature and the PsychrometricRatio

Before addressing the properties and construction of the hlrmidity charts, we consider a small vadation on the simple contact of water wftlt flowing air, which led to the wet-bulb conditions. In this modiJied arranqement, shown:n Figure 10.2. a stredm of nir rshumidifiedin cont.ctwirh c;nstan(ly recirculated water. Both the water and the exiting gas sh.eamattain adiabatic saiuration temperature, 4, which is lower thaJ| the dry-bulb temperaturc ol lhe enleringdrr becau5e of evapof.fi\e coolint. ff care is takn to inhoduc the make-up water at the same adiabatic satumtion tempenture, and the datum temperatu is set at ?.,, a simple energy balance wilt yield Rate of nergy in - Rate of energy out = 0

- ?:,)+ ydb^4,1 tq(4, - 4,) + Y"r'H,l= 0 lc,(rdb

which on rearrangement leads to the expressron

(10.4)

4" v,,= q E,- 4, ^H,,

(10.s)

where C" is the specific heat of th ai!, also temed humid heaL in units of kIlkg dry air. Plots of ftis equation appear in the humidity charrs discussed in the nexi i]IustrationThe striking similadty between the adiabatic saturation and wet-bulb rclations, Equation10.s and Equation 10.2, Ied to a detailed exaininarion of the mtio of the two slopes, ll/ft{", also known as &e psychrometic ratio. These studies culminated in ihe finding ftai for the watepaft system, and only t'or ttdi sysfer,, its value is approrimately uniqa Thus, Psychromehic Ratio ft/kyq = 1 (10.6)

OuiletGas

FlcllRrl0.2 llow sheetshowinSthe attaimnt ol adiabaticsahration conditio.s.

381 Humldlncation andCooling ToweE

Ihis exprcssion, known as ihe Lewis relaiiorL when used to compare Iquation 10.2and Equationl0.s,leads to the conclusionthat the adiabatic satumtion arld wet-bulb temperatures are essentially identical. The l-ewis relation has other importarlt implications as rveli, as will become apparent in Ilustration 10.4dealing wiih the desiSnof watr-coolingto 'ers.It is seen there that $e underlying model equations can be enormously simplified by making use of the T-ewis relatlon. 10.1.3 The Hunidity Chart the psydlrometric or humidiiy chadsarc dispiayedin FiguJe10.3and Figure 10.4for the low and high temperatur ranges shown. To familiarize ourselves with the propefiies of these diagrams, we stari by defining and deriving a sei of variables, which appear implicitly or expliciily in the two figures. AbsabteH midity Y This quantity was aheady referrd to in connection with the wt-butb tmperaiure and is redefinedhere for convenience: YlksH-o/ ksdn rr)= lq PH'"

)o p -n

(10.7)

.rc
0.70 t72 0.74 0,76 0 78 0.80 Dry-Brtb Tmpefatuf e "C F I C U R1 E0 , 3 (F.o CanierCorporarioD. Huniiditychafr: low remperahre iange. Wi& temission,)

'6

382ChemilEngineering Processes

350

360

370

J30 390

400

:^

>'
o.o5 e
I
6

50

60

70

30

90

T00

110

Dry-Bu lbTempemture "C

FIGURE 10.4 Hrtuidity charr high temperarure range. (Ircn Carir Corporarion. With permission,)

where pH:o is the partial pressure of water vapor y appears as the dght-hand side ordinate jn the humidity charrs. Reldtioe Hmliditlt RH To obtain a sense of the relative degree of saturation o{ th air, we defhe

383 Humidiflion andCooling Towers

= !i!\oo E"RH

(10.8.)

where P4o is the saturationvapor pressureof water at [he tempemtur RtI varies over the mnge 0% (dry air) to 100% (tully saturated air) and appears in the humidity charts as a set of parametric cuNes fiat rise smoothly from left to righi. Deu Point Tdp This is the temperature at which moist air, cooled at constant Pr and Y, becomessaturated,i.e., attains 100%, relative humidity. Its value is established by moving from the initial delining point of a givm air-water mixture on the humidity chad along a horizontai line to tle eventual intersction with the curve or 100%relative humidiry Hunlid Vol ne \'/H The hmid volme oI moist air is the specific volurr-Ie in m3lkg dry air measued at Proi= 101.3kPa (1 atm) and L\e temperature7 of the mixture. Values of yH appear in the humidity chats as a set of lines of ngative slope. Humid Heat C, This quantity, which has already been encountered in connection with the adiabalic saturationtemperature,is the specifichat of moist air expressed in units of kj/kg dry air Humid hat does not usually appear expiicitly in the cha.ts but is containd in the nthalpies shown there. It can be calculated from the folowing equation:

q(kjlkg dry air) = 1.00s + 1.88Y

EnthalpV H

(10.9)

With the humid heat in hand, we are in a position to Iormulat the enthalpy oI an air water mixture- With ?'lchosen as the datum temperaturc for both componentsand addint sensibleand latent heatswe obtain

H(kllkc dry air) = q(? T1)+ YAiJ,I Sensible Latent heat heat

(10.10)

where the datum temperature is usually set equal to 01C for both liquid water and dry air

384ChemilEnsineeing Proesses

Values of the enthalpies of various air-water mixtures are read from the left-hand oblique ordinate. AdiabaticSaturatlan Tempenture T$ and Wet-Bulb Ttmperature Tdr Plots of the adiabatic saturation line, Equationlo.2b, appear in the humidity chads as lines xtending Iaom the abscissa to th 100% rclative humidity curve. The point oI intersection with that curve defines the wet-bulb temperatur Twb,which is also the adiabatic saturation temperaturc 4,. Example 14.1 This concrete example iltustrates the various uses to which the hurnidity chats may be putr We choos moist aii with a relative humidity of 25% and a (dry-bulb) tempemtur of 50]c and proceed to calculate various properties of interest using the chait shown in Figurc 10.4. Absol te HunliditV y. This value is read Irom the right side rcctangular ordinate, which yields

Y = 0.0195 kg H,O/kg dry air

(10.4a)

Dew Point TdD. We tollow the hodzontal line through the point Y = 0.0195, = T 50lC io its inte$ection with the 100% rlative hurniditv curv and obtain

(10.4b)
This corresponds to the temperature at which, on isoba c cooling of the moist air, the firsi condensationof water occurs. Wet Bulb tetnperature T",r.Here the procedure is to follow the adiabatic saturation line to its intersection wi& the 100% relative hu]nidity curve. We

(10.4c)
Note ihat the wet-bulb temperature is not identical to the dew po;nt. WaterPartialPrcssurcpts.o. This quantity canbe obtaineddirctly from ihe absolut humidity aJ|d Xquation 9.3a. Solving it for p!.o yields

'"r'

l 8 + 2 9r

29x 0.0195x 101.3 = 2.09 kPa l8+29x0.0195

(10.4d)

ToweE 385 Humidifcaljon andCooling

Humid Valnne VH. The plots for yr are shown as steep lines of negative 7 = 50 C is locatd bei\aeenthe lines slope.The poinr y = 0.1095, = for VH 0.90and 0.95.Linear interyolation yields ihe value VjJ = 0.94sm3lkg dry air (10.4e)

Enthaw H. This value is read from the oblique left-har|d ordinate oI Figure 10.4ar|d comesto

H = 103kJlkg dry air

(10.4f)

WaterRemo?aL S|uppoie the air mixture considered herc is to be cooled and dehumidiJied to T = 15lC and RH = 20%. The water to be removed can tien be calculatedas follows' (Y)ntur= 01095 Water to be rcmoved: - (4rr",' = 0 0i9s - 0.0021 = 0.0174 (1')'.,r"r kg H,o/kg air (10ah) ())h"r = 0.0021

(10.49)

Altemativelt the result may be expressed in volumetdc units by dividing by the humid volume oI the original mixt'lre.0.0174/0.945 = 0.0184kc H,o/m3 initial miature. Watet RemooalHeat Load. In addition to ihe arnount of rr'ater to be rcmoved, an impofiant parameter in the dsign of a dehumidification unit is d1eassociated heat load. That quantity carlbe computed from the relevant enihalpies read from the humidity chart. We have for ihe casecited (H)i"ld"l= 103 kj,/kg dry air, (I4[."r = 20 3 k]/kg dry air = 103- 20.3= 82.7kl/kg dty an ueat removed = (F,);u"l- (H)r,,.r Altematively, llsing volumetric units Heat removed = [(I,i",u - $I)t^]/v s = 8z.z/0.9as = 87.5kl / n3 (10.4k) {10.4i) (10.4j)

procsses Enginee.ing 386Chemical

'10.2CoolingTowers
Cooling towers alrd spray ponds are devicesfor the cooling of water by transler of cooling water fiom f'actoryplant facilities. Tle c.w. heat, lrom hot recirculated gains sensjble heat lrom various heai exchangeG;by exposing the sudace of hot the walerto inconing / sunounding air which coolslhe waler by padly evaporating hot water so as to rerrove the latent heat of water and also a part of sensibleheat of hot water is removed. This is due to difference in tenperanre between hot water and incoming/surounding air to the coolingtower systemor spraypond.The total heatthus removed to the air from the hot recirculated \rater in the coolingtower,or splay pond is the sum of latent heat of evaporation and sensible heat. The air temperaturemust be lower than the hot water temperature.The cooling of water in coolingtower or spraypondtakesplaceuptoand belowthe wet bulb temp.ofair in wamest summermonths.Coolingtowershavetwo typesofair flow: crossflowand counterflow. In crossflow towers, the air moves hodzontally acrossthe downward flow of water. ln counterflowtowers,dre af movesvertically upwardagainstthe downwardfall ofthe watef.Therearenany typesandsizesofcool;ng towersl (r) Induceddraft mechanical tower. (ii) Forceddraft mechanical tower. (ttt) Parabolic chimneytype coolingtower. (i, Spraypondsfor smallercoolingdul'draft coolingtowersonly Induceddrafl tower with Out oftwo rypesof mechanical of sho circuit of fan at the top of tower is widely usedbecause thereis no chance mojsthot humid air, as found in forceddrafl lower,with fan at the bottomoftower.r towersdepending on cooling I.D. coolingtowerscanbe grouped in a row ol several duty and water rate,per unit crosssection,is 2- 3 times more than that of natural is draft towers. In I.D. cooling fower lllaxinum approachto WB. temperature economicallypossible.Running cosl of nechanical draft C.T. is h;gher due to power cost offans. Hot watef is pui into lhe sump at the top of tower and it flows into C.T. d ough nozzles at the top deck.Splashbar fills insidethe tower givesthe increased area of contactof water with the air. Wind velociry below 4 kr r is upto 5 "F. of W. B. temperature ofair is suitablefor LD. tower; cooling approach, possibleduring summer months for design puryose.I.D. cooling towers have double entry of air through lowerc ai two sides and ail and water flo\rs counter cunently. In mecha.ical draft cooling towers, hot water from plant facilities is directlylakento the top and llows throughtwo flappervalvesinto top deck having plaslicnozzlesfor flow ofhot waterinto the basin.Coolingwater level in top deck is kept ai 3 -5"height. of compormds occLmingin circulatingwaier systens thai can The concentradon at a desirable level.This cause scalingor corrosion ofequipmentmustbe controlled quality of makeup concentralion level, developed on eachsystem,is basedon the water and the water treatingchemicalsusedto conhol corrosionor scaling,The cycLes andrefersto the numberof concentralion is usuallyrepoted asconcenhation in the biowdownwaterin the nakeup waterare concentrated timesthe compounds iflhe concentration in ihe makeupwaterwere 125ng,&g and the For example,

387Humidification andCoolingTowef

concentration of the blowdown were 500, the concentration cycles would be 500/125or 4 cycles.The conpoundsare concentrated by the lossof \rater through evaporalion and windage.The evaporation loss in a cooling tower is calculated iiom the ratio of specific heatto d]e heat ofvaporation. The specific heat of water is = 4.186kJ(kg .'C) and the heatof vapomtionis 2326 kl/ltg. The ratio 4.186/2326 0.0018/'C indicatesthat 0.18olo evaporadon occurs for every degreeof cooling taking place acrossthe tower.

Mechanical Draft Towers

Fans are used to move the air through the mechanicaldraft tower. The pedomance of the tower has a grealer stabiliry becauseit is affected by fewer psychrometric variables. The fans provide a means of regulating the air flow. Mechanical draft towen are characterizedas either forced draft or induced dmft. Forceddraft towers (Fig. 10-5)- The fan is located on the air streamentering the tower. This tower is characterized by ligh air entrance velocities a|ld low exit velocities, therefore, he towe6 are susceptible to recirculation thus havinga lower pedormance stability.The faos can alsobe subject to icing underconditions oflo\i, ambient tenperature and high humidity. Inducedclrafttowers (Fig. 10-6) The fan is locatedon the air stream leavingthe tower.This causes a;r exit velocities which arethreeto four timeshigherthantheir air entrance velociiies. This improvesthe heatdispersion and rcduces the potential for recirculation. Induceddraft towersrequireaboutone kw of input for every 18 000 m3A ofair.3 Coii shed towers (Fig. 10-8) This applicationexists in many older cooling towers.The ahnospheric cojls or sections are locatedin the basin of the cooling tower.The sections are cooledby floodingthe surface ofthe coils with cold water. Reasonsfor discontinued use were scaling prcblems, poor temperaturecontrol, and conshuction costs.Th;s rype tower can exist both as mechan;calof natural dmft.

l*l

Fig.(10.5) Mechanical forced draft counterrlowtower

388Chemical Engineering processes

Fig.('10.6) Mechanical Induced DraftCounterflow Towe..

Fig.{l0.7)Mechanical induced draft counre.flowtower

Fig. l0- Mechanicatdraft coitshedtower

389Flumidifkation .nd CooInETower

Natural DraftCoolingTowers
These are hyperbolic tall, usually concrete,towers with hot water spraying arangement at the top through wh;ch water falls thrcugh the enpty tower without any splash bars. Air enters at lhe bottom ofthe lower al1dflows upward by the &aft produced due to difference oftemperatue betweentop water zone and bottom zone ofcold water. Operation and maintenancecost is low but drift loss ftom iop is more and cooling approach is lower. Wind velocity, higher than 4 Km,ftr is suitable but precipitationloss is morc. Fjrst cost is higher.In naturaldmft cooling tower hot water pump, at the bottom of the C.T., booststhe pressurefor sending hot water to the top sprayen due to higher head required to lift the hot water. This increasesthe operalion cost. Cold water pump usually recirculates the cold water to the plant. Thermometersare used for measudng Hot and Cold tvater tempetature and pitot tube is used for measurement of cold \i,ater flow. Hot and cold water header presstue measulement ale usuallyprovided Atmospheric spraytowe.s (Tig. 10-9)- Coolingtowe$ of this typearc dependent upon atuospheric conditions. No mechanical devices areusedto movethe air. They are used when small sizesare required and when low performancecanbetolerated. Hyperbolic natural draft towers (-F;9. 10-10) - These towers are extremely dependable and predictable;n their thermaiperfomance.A chimney or stack is usedto induce air movement through the tower.

t,t{f

Fig. 10-9 Atnospheric spraytower

processes 390Chemjca I Engineerine

l 1'T."1

naturaldrafttower Fig. 10-10 Hyperbolic

10. 3. Spray pond pondand in coldwater Herehot water is sprayed through a series ofspraynozzles of water comesdown due to sensible heat hansferand evaporation temperature costis the least. which removes the latentheat.The heatduryis lessandoperafional to the plant facilitiesftom spraypond.In generalfor all Cold water is recirculated emergency cooling water circulationptmps with types of cooling rvatersystems power, requ;red to runthepunps/critical equipment stand by emergency areusually is usually A pit pumpprovision for draining of coldwaterbasjn on powerfailure. for cold wateroutletto cold waterpump, kept aswell as cold wateroutletstrainers areprovided. 10.4.Design criteria Cooling approach:It ;s the difference betweencold water and wet bulb approach du ng summer months temperature of water. A minimum of5'F cooling possible. point Tenperature at which air-water mixtue is is Dew temperature: hot water saturated with water vapour.Coolingrange:lt is the differencebetween It is the difference temperature and cold water temperature. Wet bulb depression: The following parameters are required between dry bulb andwet bulbtemperature. for designing a cooling system. (D Quantityof waterto becooled,m3/hr. (i,) Wetanddry bulbdesign temps. selection. (ij,) Air velocity m/sec. through thetowers. (ir) Maximum andminimum drybulbtemperature. (1,) Hot waterandcold watertempsrequired. (1,i) Height oftower,m andtowerfill volume, m'. (yi, psychrometric pressure. chart of air at atmospheric

391ChemilEngineerlrg Processes

10.2: Operation of a Watet-Cooling Tower As previously mentioned, warm process water that was used in a plant for cooling purposescan be restoredto its original temperatureby contacting it with an airsiream, which causes it to undergo evaporative cooling. The operation is generally carded out in cooling towers containing stacked packings of large size and voidage to minimize pressure drop. We prcpose herc to model the operation oI such a tower and, in the course of the model development, introduce the reader to some ingenious simplifications based on the Lwis relation (Equation10.2c). As in all packed-columnoperations,ihe fundamental model equations consist of differential balances taken over each phase, the principal novelty here is ttie simultaneoususe of massand energybalar'ces. Th pedinent variables and the differential elments arornd which the balancesare taken are d;splayed in Figure 10.5a. Water Balanceooet Gts Phase(kg H,OhnI s) This balaJ|ce is no different from similar massbalances used in packed-gas absorbers and distillation columns and iakes the fonn Rate of water vapor in - Rate of water vapor oui = 0

Ic""1.I -

1.""-l

= [c.v...] o

(10.11)

which upon iniroduction of the auxiliary mass transfer mte equation, division by Az, and letting Az J 0 yields tlte usual form of ODE applicable to

c.{wherc

r.

-vr "(vt

(10.12)

'\^ Y is the humidiry dnving force.

W er Balallceoxer Water Phase This balarlcis omitted sincethe watr lossesare usually less than 1%.

392 Humidification andCooling Towers

s) Gas PhaseEnergy Balance(kl/m'1 Here we must be carcful io include both sensible heat transfer as well as the latent heat brought inio the air by the water vapor. We obtain Rate of enerty in - Rate of energy out = 0

*c...1 , lc,q feal. +^4N""e

L I

l=o

(10.13

which, after applying t]rc same procedure as before, yields

_a
U]

slope (LcLlG)m n

peratu Waler Tem reTL

Variables a. Column
FICURE 10,5

b. OperatingDiagram

Vdiables and oPelahng diagid

for a Packed cooling tower

*-\=a ut,Kya(Y c"ff-uo1r,-r.1-

(10.14)

Here T. and Tc are the water and air tempemtures, rcspectivel, and H equals the enthalpy of the moist air at a Siven point in the tower. s) Liquid PhaseEnergy Balance(E/111'1 A completely analogousderivation to the gas?hase energy balanceyields

* -v) = o LCp,# -u,(r,-r.) - !,Ii,Kya(v

(10.1s)

Processes Engineering 393Chemlcal

(T1- ?r). The where we have replacedthe liquid enthalpyHl by Cp1 model is completed by adding the relevant equilibdum relation, which coincides wiih the 100%RH curve in the humidity charts and is also available in analytical form. Thus, for the equrlibrium relation

v. =f(r)

(10.16)

Equation 10.12, Equation10.14,Equation 10 15, and Equation 1016 H (Equation 10 10) with the previously given expression for y*, Tc, TL' and H of five equations in the five state variablesY, Althoueh a nume{ical solution of these equations is today easily accomolished, elrlv workers in the field had to cast about for altemative means of solving the mode1.To do this, they used the ingenious devhe of introducwhich has the effect inq the L;wis ielation into the gas-phaseenergy bataJrce, of-combining Tc and v into a single variable, the air enthalPy H We sketch inlert"Lial \ aluPsir Pla"e uf yt d].tdTl lo dc'ombelow, Lrsinr, LheDrocedure moiaLe the 6lin (oeffi.ienis 4 and /r, u,ed in the LFwr- relahon We u'e ihdt relation to replace ft by ftyc, and obiain in the first instance

L ',d dzH - k o l , . c l" ^ J l - ) ) L c . l . A H v ) | 0

(10.17)

where, as seen from Xquation 10-10,the bracketed terans ( ) represeni enthalpies of air-water mixtures. We thereforecan write G.=-k,alH,H)=0

(10.18)

where H, H can be considercd an enthalpy driving force, which rePlaces and combines the temPerature and humidity diiving folces in the orisinal We now assumethat the two-fiIm theory can be aPPliedto this system, wiih the resuit that Equation 10.18can be cast in L\e torm

c.*-x,,@.-n)=o

(10.1e)

where Kp is now the ovemll mass hansfei coeflicient ar'd H* the gas enthalPy I in eoldibrium wiii rhe bull waterremperdiurP Th'is equation is of ihe same fornis gas-phasedifferential balances encounteied in gas absorPtion and distillation, so ihat the design procedures usec{there can 6e replicated, provided an aPPropriate oPemting iine can be constructed.That line is obtained from an overall two-phaseintegral heat balance aid takes the form

394 Humidifietion andCooling Towers

G"@1-A = LCL(ru rL) for paft of the column, aJtdfor the efltne towr
Gs@1- H) = LCLQI rr2)

(10.20)

(10.2i)

The gas-phaseenergy balance (Equation10.19) can in tum be Jomully intgated to yield the familiar HTU-NTU relation:
c tE", )H

(10.221

The model is completed wift the addition oi the equilib uln rlation:

H. =I{,)

(10.23)

which is constructd from &e 100% RH culve oI the psychrometric charts. The original st of five equations, tlree o{ which are ODEs, have thus been reduced to the tlue relations (Equation 10.21, Equation 10.22 and Eq. 10.23). \,^lhat is mor, th set is now cast in the {amiliar form of an HTL}NTU expressior! joined to an opemting line and equitbnum relation. The graphical procedure used to solve this much simpler set is oudined in Fituie 10.5b and {ollows the usual routine oI drawing an operating line, this one of slope LCllG., ftrough the point (Hr, ?a), aJld evaluating the NTU integral using the erthalpy ddving force read from the operating diagram. Note that it is now GMh, not lMr., which consponds to an irJinitely hith towex

395 Processes ChemicalEngineering

Notation
A a Cs CrC* Gs H, HTU h k L M NTU T p" P1 p RH Y Z masstansfer area interfacial area specifrcheatofair specilrcheatofwater specificheatofwet air massflow: rateof vaporwater latentheatofvaporization heightoftransler unit heat transfer coefftcient masstransfercoefhcient nass flow rate liquid water molecularweight number of transler unit temperature vaporpressure of water total pressure partialpressure of water' humidity relat;ve humidity heightofcolurrn
-t

mt/m'

kJ,&gdry air K lJlkg dry air K kl&g wet iir K kg/s kJ/kg m
1(9m- .s Y

L(9s kg&mole m K atm atm atm kg wet air /kg dry air
nt

Subscript as adiabaticsatumtion db dry bulb G gas L liquid wb wet bulb

396 Humidifielion andcoolinq Towers

References
R.E. Treybal. Mass Tttflsfer Oryations. Mccraw-Hill, Seealso 3rd edition, 1979. F.M:Whi,te. HeatanAMas, Tn$/r. S. Middleman. lnffi Yotk, 1997. New York, 1952.

Addison Wesley, Readil& MA, 1988. New

ctio to Mass ana Hut rnnsftr. lohr.Wiley,

E.L. cussler. Dillltsion: Illars Tn sjbt in Fluid sJsisus. 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,New York, 197. H.D.Betu. Heatand MassTra,ger (translaied fromthe cerman). Springer, New York, 1998. A.F. MilIs. Btlsiclleat and Mass Transfd. 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Nj, 1999. J.D. Sader and EJ. Henley. New York, 2000. Sepfratio4 Plocess Pnnciples. loh\ Wtley,

AppendixA
MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES
A.1 CYLINDBICAL ANDSPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS (/, d. z) ate related to the rectangular coordinates For cylindrical coordinates, the variables (r, ),,.) asfollows: ,r:fcos0 ]: rsin0

t*
0 = arcIan(,/x)

(A.1-l) (A.1-2)

(r. d. z) are Theranges ofthe variables

0<r<oo

0<d<2r

-oo<z<oo

(r, d, d) arerelated to the rectangular coordinates For sphedcal coordinates, the variables (r, ), !) asfollows: /"(A.r-4) r=laz+yz+zz 1:rsindsind 0 : arctan(,J x2 * y2I z) Q=arct^n(J/x) (r, d,4) are Theranges ofthe variables 0(r(co 0(d-<z 0<d<2'r

(A.r-6)

Thecylindrical andspherical coordinate systems areshown in Figue A.l. Thedifferential volumes in these coordinate systems aregivenby ,,, cylindrical frdrd0dz Il slnedr d0 dO spl.letical (A.1-7)

the rateof a quantityrequires the integration Theapplication of Eq.(1.3-l) to determine quantity Tle differential arcas in the cylindrical and ofthe ux ofa overa differential area. given sphedcal coordinate systems a.e asfollows:

d0dz IR dAqti"aa,a: ldr dz lr dr d0

ux is in ther-direction ux is in thed-direction ux is in thez-direction

(A.1-8)

398Chemical Engineedng Processes

..-

-.

t_.-1..

FlgureA.1. Thecyl'ndical andspheical coodinalo sysioms.

t":,:::"'
A.2 MEANVALUE THEOREM

IR')s;n0dedO

ux is in the /-direction ux is in the 9-direction ux is in the d-direction

(A.1-e)

ff /(r) is continuousin tho intwal a < r < ,, thenthe valueofthe integrationof/(r) m intewal.r :4 to ,r : , is

over

- o1 , = rcto': ct o,: 1y11u l.' l"u

where(/) is the average valueof / in the intervala ( .r ( b.

(A.2-1)

Flgure4.2. The mean value ol lhe function f(J).

ln ilgure A.l nore rnar J, J (.r) d.I $ rne ilrea underthe culve betweenl} and ,. on the (/)(D a) is the areaunder otherhand, the rectangle of height(/) andwidth (, - a). The average value of /, (/), is de ned suchthat thesetwo areas arc equalto eachother. It is possible to extendthe de nition ofthe meanvalueto two- andthree-dimensional cases as

\f): !---'r-

o"o, | | r,,, r>

JJ dxdy
and (/):

I I I frx'Y,ztdxaYaz
(4.2-2)

llla'a*,

400ChemiqlEnsineedng Prccesses

A.3 SLOPES ON LOG-LOG ANDSEMI-LOG GRAPH PAPER A mathematicaltransformationthat convertsthe logarithm of a number to a length in the r-directionis givenby (A.3-1) wherelr is the distance in the r-directionand Lr is the cyclelengthfor the r-coordinale. Therefore, ifthe cyclelengthis takenas 10 cm, the distances in the j-directionfor vanous values ofr aregivenin Table A.1. Theslope ofa straight line,m, on log-loggraph paper is
m:

- loelr los11,r -' '' f o g1 2- l o g r |

:|

/(," - (,, \ L--::--------:! l--:(^tlL, \t,,

(4.3-2)

Ontheotherhand, theslope ofa straight line,m, on semi-log graph paper ()-axis is logarithmic) is
logl'2 logyl

Ittr-ttt\
\x2-icl

1
,/Lr

(A.3-3)

A.4 LEIBNITZ'S RULEFORDIFFERENTIATION OF INTEGRALS Let /(,r, t) becontinuous andhave a continuous derivative a//at in a domain ofthe rt plane, whichincludes therectangle a (.x ( b,4 < I < t2.Thenforrl < r < 12

ra'o*: ft1"" l."ao'

(A.4-1)

ln otherwords,differentiationand inte$ation canbe interchanged ifthe limits ofthe inlgation are x ed, Onthe otherhand,ifthe limitsofthe integral in Eq.(A.4-1)aredependent on time,then

rc,oo,= rt'ro,t1ff (4.4-2) ilwo.,lff * l,'i,' l"ou'uja'*

TableA.l. Dislances in ther-dictionJoratooartlhmic r-axis

rr

0.00

3.01

4.77

6.02

7_78

8.45

9.03

9-54

4.5 Nuneical Ditferentiation ot ExDeinental Data

If /:

to /(i) onty,thenEq.(A.4-2)reduces

f t,ta^: flartlff- flarr\ o!!!

A.5 NUMEBICAL DIFFERENTIATION DATA OF EXPERIIlIENTAL

(A.4-3)

Thedetemination ofa mte rcquires the differentiation ofthe odginalexperimental data. As (1966), given explained De Nevers a table data, the value d)/dr by ofr of can be ) calculated by: l. Plottingthe dataon graphpaper, drawing a smooth curvetilroughthe pointswith the helpofa French cu e, andthendrawing a tangent to this curve. 2. Fittingthe entiresetofdatawith anenpiricalequation, suchasa polynomial, andthen equation. differentiating theempirical by using arbitrary functions. 3. Fittingshol1 sections ofthe data i.e.,plottingthe diff'erences 4. Usingthe difference tablemethod, and smoothing them graphically. De Nevers alsopointsoutthefactthatalthough thevalueofl),/lr obtained by anyofthe above four methods is approxinately equalio each other. the value of12y/,"1.x2 is ertremely used. sensitive to themethod In the caseofthe graphical method, therearc an in nite number of waysof drawingthe curvethrough the datapoints.As a result, the slopeof the tangent will be affected by the nechanics of dlawiru the curved line andthetangent. programs Theavailability ofcomputer makes thesecond andthirdmethods veryattractive. Howevetsincethe choice ofthe functional form olthe equation is highlyarbitrary, the nal result is almostassubjective andbiased asthatoblained usinga French curve. (1933)and WhitakeFPigford (1960)methTwo melhods, namely the Douglass-Avakian Bothmethods require the values ods,arewodh nentioningas partofthe third apploach. of Ai. the independeDt variable, x,be equall| spacedby anamount A.5.1 Douglass-Avakian Method polynomial In this method, by tting a fourth-degree to the valueof dy/dx is detemlined seven consecutive datapoints, with thepointin questioD asthemid-point, by least squares. If thelnid-point is designated by 1., thenthevalueofd)/d,v at this particular location is given by
d) dx J9 t\.L,t)r | - 4e\LX'J I512Lr )

(A.s-l)

ctlEmRlff A.dg PjtrE',tu{'Effi tBSd

In this case, a parabola is tted to ve consecutive datapoints, with the point in question as themid-point, by least squares. Thevalueofd)/dr ati. is givenby

dr _Lxr
dx whereX is dened by Eq.(A.5-2). 104.r

(A.5-3)

ExampleA.1 Giventhe enthalpy of steam at P :0.01 MPa as a functionoftemperature asfollows,determine theheatcapacity pressure at constant at 500"C. T TH

cc)
100 200 300 400 500 600
Solution

(t/e)
2687.5 2879.5 3076.5 3279.6 3489.1 3705.4

fc)

'700

Q/e)
3928.7 4159.0 4396.4 4640.0 4891.2

800 900 1000 I 100

( P. lsde nedas{ii lt / d / )p. l herelore. Inenealcapacltl pressufe. al consEmt determrnation of Cp requiresnumericaldifferentiationof the F1versusthe f data. Graphical method Theplot of l/ versls I is givenin the gure below Theslope ofthe tangent to thecurveat I:500.C gives Cr = 2.t2 J/e.K.

4200

38oo

3000

t00

500

rcc)

700

900 1100

A.5 NumencalDifte@nliatbn at E\perinenlal Dala

Douglass-Avakianmethod Thevalues required to useEq.(A.5-1)aregivenin thetablebelow:

Xy 200 300 400 500 600 '700 800

28',79.5 - 3 30'76.5 -2 3279.6 - l 3489.1 0 3'105.4 I 3928.7 2 4l59.0 3 -8638.s -3279.6 3705.4 '7E57.4 12,47',7 77,746.5 -24,612 -3279.6 3705.4 31,429.6 112,293

I = s968.7 L = 4r,789.9
Therefore, pressue the heatcapacity at constant at 500'C is givenby ^P - 3 9 7 r t X r r - 4 9 { I X r y l ( l5l2ar Whitakr-Pi gfo.d method By takingX : f andl' : A theparameters in Eq.(A.5-3)aregivenin the followingtable: Xy -6153 -3279.6 3'.705.4 7857.4 r) 4q)r41.789.9 {J97r{5c08.7 ^,, r .r ,. =z J,/,g ^ (l5Dr\rcor

300 400 500 600 700

3076.5 3279.6 3489.1 3',705.4 3928.'7

-2 -l
l

L:2130.2
Therefore, the useofEq. (A.5-3)givestheheatcapacity pressure at constant as

IXt
I0Ai The difference table method

2130.2
(10)(100)

Theuseofthe dilference (l974). To smooth tablemethod is explained in detail by Churchill the databy usingthis method, the divideddiJferences AI1/AI shownin the tablebelow areplotted veNus temperahre in the gwe.

404 chemical Engineeing Prccesses

AT 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
268',7.s

AH

LH /^r
|.92 t.9'1 2.03L 2.095 2.t62

100
2879.5

t92 t97 203.r 209.5 216.3

100
3076.5

100
3279.6

r00
3489.1

100
3705.4

100
3928.7

100
4159.0

230.3 237.4 243.6 251,2

2.303 2.374 2.436 2.5t2

100
4396.4

100
4640.0

100
4891.2

loo

3oo

t*t""rtt

ton

ttt

Eachline represents the avera4e valueof r|fr ld.f overthe specied tempemtute range.The smoothcurve shouldbe dmwn so asto equalizethe arcaunderthe group ofba6. From the gure, theheatcapacity at constant pressue at 500"C is 2.15Vg.K.

4.6 Begrcssionand Coretation

AFDedixA 405

A.6 BEGRESSION ANDCORRELATION Toprcdict themechanism ofa process, we oftenneed to knowtherelationship ofone process variabie to another, pressllle. i.e.,howthereactoryield depelds on A relationship between the two variables r and), measured overa range ofvalues, canbe obtained by prcposing linear rclationships rst, because theyarethesimplest. Theanalyses we useforthis arecol/eldtor, whichindicates whether thereis indeed a linear relationship, andrcgzss;or,which nds the equation ofa straight linethatbest ts the observed r-]) data. A.6.1 SimpleLinearRegression Theequation desc binga straight lire is (A.6-1) where.rdenotes the slope ofthe line and, denotes the )-axis intercept. Mostofthe timethe variables .x and) do not have a linearrclationship. However, transfomation ofthe variables mayresultin a linearrelationship. Some examples oftansformation aregjvenin TableA.2. Thus,linearregression canbeapplied even to nonlinear data. 4.6.2 Sum ol SouaredDeviations Suppose we havea setof obseNations 11, .rz,13, ..., .!,v.The sumof the squares oftheir deviations ftom some meanvalue,.ru,is

s: l{ri
i=l

,.)2

(4.6-2)

Now suppose we wish to minimize.t with respect to themean value.ru, i.e., : u^ : s: _z ^. \ x i- x ^ ) : 2 ( N x ^ )

-i.,')
-/

(A.6-3)

\-".

(A.6-4)

Tlerefore,the meanvaluethat minimizes the sum of the squares of the deviationsis the arithmetic mean, t.
TableA.2. Transiormal on oi nonline equations to linear iorms

I rsr h lineo l I .

I ,, I :, rin"*

1og):alogx+loga

406Chemical Engineeing Processes

A.6.3 The Methodot LeastSquares Theparameters a and D in Eq. (A.6 l) areestimated by the method of leastsquares. These valueshaveto be chosensuchthat the sumof the squares of the deviations S: Llyt-(axi+b\l' (A.6-5)

is minimum. This is accomplished by differentiatingrhe function S with rcspectto a and ,, andsettingthesederivatives equalto zero:

I-n--_ AC

- Ltyi

,-

_ari

-bt^i

(4..66) (A.6-7)

\", -o

- -2Dry, - o,, - t,

(A.6-6)and(A.6-7)canb simplified Equations as

- \- "." . 'r/ \ 1^' ,." \/- . ?' z)^t)t

iii

(A.6-8) (A.6-9)

\-"..rv \-,,. .v | r, "

Lnt

L-r.

Simulraneous solution ofEqs.(A.6-8) gives and(A.6-9) - - -------::-t=--u N(I;x;y,) - (Iixi)(I;y,)

N r f , r r i . r f , x fr
| - (f,:ri ){L ri)i )

(A.6-10) (A.6-11)

lliri rLr:

N t f , x fr - t l , x ; r 2

Example A.2 Experimentalmeasurcments of the density of benzenevapor at 563 K are sivenasfollows:

(atm)

30.64 31.60 32.60 33.89 35.1'l 36.63 38.39

V (cm"/mor) 1164 1067 1013 956 900 842 771

(atn) 40.04 4t.79 43.59 45.48 47.07 48.07

V lcm-/morl

'7m
646 591 506 443 386

4.6 Regrcssiq an.t Conetatbn

Assume thatthedata obey thevirialequation of state, i.e-, PVBC

RTVi2 anddetermine thevirial coef cientsB andC. Solution The equatior of statecan be reananged as
/PV l*-r --

l\ _ /!r
Note that this equationhasthe form

1lv:B+_/

\-

C
V

Y=B+Cx

)=l--r
T:rking ?:
,i

lPV

)v andr:./v

\-

82.06crr3.atm/mol K) thercquired values arccalculated asfollows: ri x 103 0.859 o.937 0.987 1.046 1.llt L188 1.297 1.414 1.548 1.692 t.9'76 2.257 2.591
xtli

-265.4 -288.3 -288.9 -285.6 -283.4 -279.9 -273.8 -268.5 -261.4 -254 -243.1

0.2280 ,0.2'702 -0.2852 0.2987 -0.3149 -0.3324 -0.3593 -0.3873 -0.4151 -0.4424 -0.50r9 -0.548'7 -0.5984

I x 106 0.738 0.878 0.9'75 1.094 1.235 1.411 1.682 2.001 2.396 2.863 3.906 5.096 6.712 Ix,2:30.99^ t0 6

I)i=

3500.3

I.{r:0.0189

I1,}r:-4.qS3l

Thevalues of E andC arc

.
_

r l , r ; r r l , x , i r t l , . r 1 r ( l ; r ; y); ri!,xl) _ (l;;i),

( _ 1 5 0 0 . 3 ! J 0 . q ql x 0 6l_{o.0l8q)r_4.q831r 1r?"-l/-^r I |],,30.qs r l0 u)- (0.0189)2

408Chemical Enqineedlq Processes _

N(l;r,y1) - (lrr,)(lry;) N(Lixi) - (Lixi)' -) (0.018s)(-3500.1 )^ , ^ ^ ( r 3 ) t -4 . q 8 3 1 : ^ iU.l-2 {Cm /mol,( l l ) ( l 0 . q er l 0 - o ) ( 0 . 0 1 8 e )

The methodofleast squares canalsobe appliedto higherorderpolynomials.For example, pol)nomial consider a \econd-order y=urz+bx+c deviations To nd the constants a, ,, and c, the sum ofthe squared (,4.6-12)

s-LIv'-1"^l + t^,-,tl'
mustbe minimum. Hence,

(A6-13 )

as as a5
a": ,,b: a,:o
Partial differentiation ofEq. (A.6-13)gives

( A6 - 1 4 )

,l,l +af"l +.!ri -ljt,

o f" 4L
i

(A.6-i5)
't 6-16)

-r .\ -i ., 2 ' \ \ v1 ,. 1,^'

\-"
12^t)t

"l'l +tln+,N:lrt
for theconstants d, ,, andc. These equations maythenbesolved is ofthe form Ifthe equation y:ar(" +b r?. ,. andn canbedelermined as follons: lhenrhepammeters

(A.6-r 7)

(A.6-18)

values ofa andD canbefoundfor a se esofchosen values ofr. L Least squares andplotted versus r to 2. Thesumofthe squares ofthe deviations canthenbecalculated values ofd and, nd theminimumand,hence, thebestvalueofn. Thecorresponding versus n andinterpolating. values arereadilyfoundby plottingthecalculated Altematively, Eq.(,4.6-18) might rst bearranged as log(y - r) = n logr + logd (A.6-19)

for a sedes of chosen values ofr, andthe least squares values of r?andlogd aredetermined etc.

4.6 Begrcsslon and Conelalion AppedixA 409

Example A,3 I It is proposedto correlatethe datafor forced convectionheat transfrto a sphere in termsofthe eqDation N u= 2 + a R e , The followingvalueswereobtained from McAdams(1954)for heattransfer from air to spheres by forced convection:

Solution The equationcanbe rearranged as Iog(Nu-2): ,' logRe+logd Note that this equationhasthe fonn
y:nxIb

y : loS(Nu-2)

j = logRe

b:loga

'?
0.09691 0.63347 1.23045 67 Ol Lri : 1.,7
Thevalues of, and, are
I

2 3

-0.09691 r.26694 3.69t35

I 4 9

tr,), =4.86138 - (6X1.7670r) (3)(4.86138)

- (6)2 (3)(14)

Lrl:u

:0.66368 a =0.1827

- (6)(4.86138) (14)(r.76701) : -0.73835 + (3)(14) (O,

A.6.4 CorrelationCoetficient

If two variables, x and), arerelated in sucha waythatthepointsofa scattr plot tendto fall in a straight line,thenwe saythatthereis a[ association between thevariables andthatthey arelinearlycorrelated. Themostcomrronmeasure ofthe strength ofthe association between thevariables is thePearson correlation coefrcient, /. It is de nedby
1,\lt F*.\-,,. -

(A.6-20)

(r': $)(r,i-qd)
' r nrs proorem r sr a K efn om Lnurcrl (ryl41.

410Chemical Engineering Pro@sses

Thevalueofr canrange from -l to +1. A valueof -1 means a petfectnegatiye correlaliot.Aperfectnegativecorrelationimpliesthat!:at+bwherca<0.Apetfectpositire coftelation (r : + 1) ifiplies that ) : da +, wherea > 0. Whenr : 0, the vadablesare uncorelated. This, however,doesnot imply that the variablesarc unielated.It simply indicates that ifa relationshipexists,then it is not lineat A.7 THEROOT OF AN EQUATION problems, In elgineering we frequently encounter equations ofthe form l(.r):0 (A.7-l)

andwantto determine thevalues ofr satisfying Eq.(A.7-1). These values arecalled then otr of/(r) andmay be realor imaginary. Since imaginary rootsappeai as complex conjugates, the number ofimaginaryrootsmustalways beeven. fie function/(r) maybeapolynomial in i or itmay bea transcendental equation involving trigonometric and/or logadthmic terms. A.7.1 Roois ol a Polynomial If /(-r) is a polynomial, thenDescartes' rule of rign determines themaximum number ofreal roots: . Themaximumnumber of real positive rootsis equalto the number of signchanges in

/(x): o'
. Thema-ximum number of realnegative rootsis equalto thenumber ofsign changes in

/(-x) = o.

In applying the signrule,zerocoef cients areregarded aspositive. A.7.l.l equation Q adraticequation Therootsofa quadratic (4.7-2)

arcgrven as

-b+!'r'-4a;
2a

(A.7-3)

If4, ,, andc arerealandif A = 12 - 4dc is thediscriminant, then . A > 0; the roots arc ieal and unequal, . A = 0; therootsarerealandequal, . A < 0: therootsarecomplerconjugale.

4.7 The Raotal an Eguation

4.7.1.2 Cubicequatioa Consider thecubicequation x3+px2+qx+r:o Let us dene the tems M and N as ," ,, rq' p' (4.7-4)

(A.7-s)
(4.7-6)

9 p q - 2 7 r- 2 p t i4 is thediscriminant then

If p,q,andr arereal and if A=M3+N2

. A > 0l onefootis rcalandlwocompler conjugale. . A = 0; all roots are real and at leasttwo are equal, . A < 0; all rootsarerealandunequal. for A > 0 Case(i) Solutions In this case, the rootsare givenby
l

\:S+T-;p 111+liVSrS-I) )(S+T\- 1p llt. r-r: - - ( S + I ) - - a - - i a / 3 ( S- r ) 2 3' 2 x2:

(4.7-7) (A.7-8) (4.'7-e)

(A.7-10) (A.7-11) Case(ii) Solutions for A < 0 The rootsarc given by

/ A\ _l _r:+2/ Mcos|\rJ lP

(4.7-12)
i

rr:+2/

M c o s ( ;+ r 2 0 ' - e ) 1
/B \ l

/A

(A.7-13) (A.7-14)

xr: +2V-Mcos(i +240" - i p )

where

,=*""o"\m

(6 is in degrees)

(A.7-15)

412Chemical Engineering Prccesses

ln Eqs.(A.7-12)-(,{.7-14) the uppersignapplies if N is positive, andthe lowersignapplies if 1Vis negative. ExampleA.4 Cubicequations ofstatearefrequently usedin thermodynamics to describe thePyZ behavior ofliquids andvapors. These equations areexpressed in theform

RT V-b

a(r) Va+fv+y

(A.7-16)

where thetermso, P, /, andd(f) for dilTerent typesofequations ofstatearegivenby Eqn.ofState van der Waals 2 0 0 Redlich-Kwong2D0o/"8 Peng-Robinson 2 2b -b2 a (T) a aQ)

WhenEq.(A.7-16)hasthreerealroots, the largest andthe smallest rootscorrespond to the molarvolumes ofthe vaporand liquid phases, respectively. The intermediate root hasno physical meaning. Predictthe density ofsaturated methanolvapor at 10.84 atn and140'C usingthevander Waals equation ofstate.Thecoefcientsa and, aregivenas a:9.3424 m6.atm/kmolr and , : 0.0658 m3/kmol Theexperimental valueofthe density ofsaturated glcm3. methanol vaporis 0.01216 Solution Forthe vander Waals equation ofstate,Eq.(A.7-16) takes the form

it _(o*Rr\i,*Li
\ P/

_!! _o
P

(1)

Substitution ofthe values ofa, r, n, andP into Eq.(1) gives t - r - J .t 9 2 . l 7 2 + 0.86r87 0.0567:o

a)

Appiication of the sign rule indicates that the maximumnumber of real positiverootsis equalto three.The terms M and N are - (1.1923)2 (l)(0.8618) 3q p' ,,, ,,__=_:_0.84s 99 (3)

(0.861 9pq - 27 r - 2p3 _ (9)(-3. t923\ s)

54 Thediscriminant, A, is a:

(27 + (2)(3.1923)3 \ (- 0.0s67) =

0.775 (4)

Mr + N2: (-0.845)3 + (0.775)2:-0.003

(5)

A7

TheBaolal an Equahon Appedix A 413

Therefore, all therootsofEq. (2) arerealandunequal. Beforecalculating therootsby using Eqs.(A.7-l2)-(A.7 l4), d mustbe determined. FromEq.(,47-l5)

= arccosV : (oJ45p r'6)'

Hence, thercotsare

rerr* ^^-"

(6)

:t l, : rrr"ro* "".(T) *'.t?2 no,

v2: (2)J0.84scos{= + 120 1+-:0.109 - -s : l- + 2 , 0 ) . v,- r2rJ0.845co
\J ,/

(7)

/ ?.85

i.l92j J

(8) re)

\J /t 85

./

J.l92l
J

,-- -0.181

Themolarvolume ofsaturated vapor, 7r, conesponds to thelargest root,i.e.,2.902 m3/kmol. ps,is given Since themolecular weight, M, ofrnethanol is 32,thedensity ofsaturated vapor, by

o':E=
A.7.2 NumericalMethods

32 :0.01103 g/cmr (2.902)(l x 103)

(10)

Numerical metbods shouldbeused whentheequations to be solved arecomplex anddo not have directanalytical solutions. Various nuner'ical methods have beendeveloped for solving Eq.(A.7-l). Sorne ofthe mostconvenient problems techniques to solvechemical engineering (l982), GjumbirandOlujic (1984), aresummadzed by Serghides andTao(1988). problems Oneofthe mostimpodant in theapplication ofnumerical techniques is conyl, be promoted by nding a goodstafting value and,/or a suitable transformation of Sence.Itcan thevadable or theequation. Whenusingnumerical rnethods, it is always important to useengineering common seDse. given (1989) The followingadvice by Tao shouldalways be renrembered in the application of numerical techniques: . Toerris digiLal. lo .atchrheerror is di! ine. . An ounce oftheory is worth 100lb ofcomputer output. . Numerical political you wantto methods are like candidates: they'll tell you anything neat 4,7.2.1 Newton-Rdphsonmethod TheNet,,ton-Rdphson is oneofthe mostwidely method used techniques to solveanequation ofthe form /(.r) : 0. Ttis based ontheexpansion ofthe function by Taylor series around an estimate rr as I /(x)

1 f ( x ) : f ( x k r l + ( * - r i * r )a9 x

(x-xki2d2f -, L\r, ltL t

I ,,,-

(4.7-11)

414ChemilEnqineering Proesses

If we neglect higherthanthe rst orderandlet r :.r* be the valueofr that the derivatives = (A.7-17) makes 0, thenEq. becomes /(r)

f(xt i i T r) xt:1r, 1- -

;1.,,

(A.7-rE)

with ,t > 0. Itemtionsstartwith an initial estimate rd andthe rcquirednumberof iterationsto get.xt is dependent on the following error control methods: . Absoluteerror control: Convergence is achieved when lxk xk-r < e

(A.7-r9)

wheree is a small positive numberdetermined by the desiredaccuracy. . Relative error controlr Convergence is achieved when

'*'"" l*;.1"
u,= I toz-'

(4.'1-20)

where

(4.7-2r)

with n beingthe number of co.rectdigits.The result,rt, is correctto at least/, signi cant digits. A graphicalrcpresentation of the Newton-Raphson method is shownin FigureA.3. Note that the slopeof the tangentdmwn to the curveat ri l is givenby :,uno : { "rop" whichis identical to Eq. (A.7-18).

f (rr,-t)

-22) (4.7

FigureA.3. The Newton-Raphson melhod.

AoDedix A 415

TheNewton-Raphson methodhastwo main dmwbacks:(i) the rst dedvativeofthe function is not alwayseasyto evaluate,(il) the methodbreaksdgwn if (///d,r),r r : Oat some point. To circumventthesedisadvantages, the Ist derivativeof the function at r/. I is expressed by lhecentral difference approximation as

df

.f (xk 1+ L\
2L

-f(xr r - a)

(4.7-23)

^ = I!:l

100

(4.7-24)

Substitution ofEq.('4.7-23) hto Eq.(A.7-18) leads to

0.0Lxp-1f@p-1)

r) - /(0.99xr-r) /{1.01-{*

(4.725)

with t > 0. The main advantages ofEq. (,{.7-25) over the numedcaltechniques prcposed to replace theNeMon-Raphson method, i.e.,the secant method, are:(i) it requires only on initialguess,.r,, instead oftwo, (i;) theraleofconvergence is faster.

416Chemi@l Engineeins Pfosses

A.8 METHODS OF INTEGRATION Analytical evaluationof a de nite integral

t:

J" fE)dx

(A.8-1)

is impossible, thenthefollowing is possible onlyfor limitedcases. Whenanalytical evaluation to estimate thevalueofthe integral. techniques canbe used A.8,1 MeanVaiueTheorem in theinte ala<t<,,thenthevalueof.f As stated in Section A.2,if /(r) is continuous ls Ib

I=

J"

f?)d':\f)(b-a)

(A.8-2)

valueof / in the interval o -( x ^( b. where(/) is theavemge of 1 is bounded by /.in and/na! suchthat lf /(.r) is a monotonic function, thenthe value

increasin' runction ""i, l::tl,"uirl,!u {j_ /,,.., h ) = f Irono,on,"u,,,

^ l*"'.-It,,\b-al funcrion MonoLonicatt) decrea"ine _",, ='r r",;,,,'o l r]1._ I

(A.s_3)

to permit analytical integraln somecases, only part ofthe integand may be approximated tion.i.e..

t:

tb.
J"

fQ\s')ax =

l\hJ.|a'd'
| *, [' ,o,o'
tJ"'

(A8-4)

Example A,5 Evaluatethe integral

t:
Solution

/io

Jn

,2.6.t*+za,

and theresult is Analytical evaluation oftheintegalis possible t - ['o 76 t za, -2)!!!'-24^ o tos -J2t ' : ---- ''- n -'v(u lr l ll'lr-o =))14

"Jo.t, asfollows:Notethatthointegandis the Thesame integnl canbeevaluated approximately product canbewrtten as of two terms andtheintegral

t: folrDr@),,
J"

(l)

4.7 The Boat of an Equatian AppedixA 413

Therefoie, all therootsofEq. (2) arerealandunequal. Before calculating thercotsby using Eqs.(A.7-12)-(A.7l4), d mustbedetermined. FrolnEq.(A.7-15)

y' - a r c c o 'rc:rtP y' o - a ' c c o 'T :1*a' r ,rzt {0Ja5,.

Hence, therootsare

N'

(6)

71:rrr",o*"".(T)*"ltt:r.rot Vz:ra."t*"""(T*,ro)*f
\J '/

(j) (s)
te)

:o.'oe

/tR \ r r o-)-1 . -5 y . _ { 2 , J 0 . 8 4 5 c os | t -2 a 0} - : . _ 0 .t 8 t J

Themolarvolume ofsaturated vapor, 7", corresponds to thelargest root,i.e.,2.902 In3/kmol. Since themolecular weight, M, ofmethanol is 32,thedensity ps, is given ofsatumted vapor, by

,t:E:
A.7.2 NumericalMethocls

: 0.01 03 g/cmr (2.902)(l x 103)

32

(10)

Numerical methods shouldbeusedwhenthe equations to be solved arecomplex anddo not have directanalytical solutions. Various numericai methods have been developed for solving Eq.(A.7-1).Some ofthe mostcoDvenient techniques to solve chemical engineering problems arcsummarized (1982), by Selghides cjumbir andOlujic(1984), andTao(1988). Olteofthe mostimpoltant problems in theapplication ofnumerical tecluriques is cor?yer, gelrce. It canbepromoted by nding a goodstarting value aniVor a suitable hatNformation of fhevariable or theequation. Whenusingnumerical rnethods, it is always impoftant to useengiieerjng comnonsense. Thefbllowingadvicegivenby Tao(1989)shouldalways be remembered in the application of numerical techniques: . Toen is digiral. lo calch theerforrsdivine. . An ounce oftheory is worth l00 Ib ofcomputer ouFut. . Numerical methods are like politicalcandidates: they'll tell you anything you wantto hear 4.7.2.1 Newton-Raphson method TheNey)ton-Rdphson metho.l is oneofthe mostwidely used techniques to solveanequation ofthe form "/ (x) = 0. It is based on theexpansion ofthe function around anestirnate xr I as /(r) by Taylorseries

e - xk-t)zd2f I -f(;r): "f(r* r) + (, - 11-11{i -, ax ln t dr2t

(4.7-t1)

",_,-

414ChemicalEnsinee ns Prccesses

Ifwe neglectthe derivativeshigher than the rst order and let r : .Ik be the value of, that makes becomes /(r) : 0, thenEq. (A.7-17)
xt,=xt_1--jV]

fGr t)

*1.,,

(A.7-18)

with ,t > 0. Itemtionsstartwith an initial estimate ro andthe requirednumberof iterationsto get ri is dependent on the following error contrdl methods: . Absoluterror control: Convergence is achieved when
xk-xk 7 <

(A.7-1e)

wherc s is a small positivenumberdetemined by the desiredaccuracy. . Relative error conholi Convergence is achieved when

)xtl

,o-ro rlr, loo =r"

(4.7-20)

t^ es = - 10'-n

(4.7-2t)

with n beingthe numberof correct digits.The result, rt, is correct to at leastn signi cant digits. A graphicalrepresentation ofthe Newton-Raphson methodis shown in Figure A.3.Note that the slopeofthe tangentdmwn to the culve at it-l is givenby - Itx* tt . t o p .: ' r n o : { / | axbr 1 xk 1-xk whichis identical to Eq. (A.7-18).

(4.7-22)

FigureA.3. The Newion-Raphson melhod,

A.A Methodsaf lntegration

543
Appedix A 417

f(,): '2 ana so):Jo.|x+2

(2)

Thevafueofg(r) is l.'732andl.4l4 atx = l0 and.r : 0, respectively. Sincethevalueof g(.r) doesnot change dmstically overthe interval 0 < i < 10,Eq. (1) canbe expressed in the form

I: ls) dx .f (.x) lo

t10

(3)

As a roughapproximation, the average valueofthe functiong, {g), can be takenas the arithmetic average, i.e., , , k): Thereforc, Eq.(3) becornes
.10 | <"1

t.7]21 t.4t4 ,-:1.571

l0

(4)

I=1.573 I x2dx: Jrl with a percenterror of approximately 5o4. A.8.2 Graphical Inlegration

::::'xtl :524.3 , l,_o

l'

(5)

givenby Eq. (A.8-l) gaphically, Ist /(i) is plottedasa In orderto evaluate the integral function ofr. Thnthe areaunder thiscurvein theinterval [d, r] is detemined. A.8.3 Numerical lntegration or Quadrature Numerical integration or quatLrature2 is an altentative to graphical andanalytical integration. In this method,the integmndis rcplacedby a polynomialandthis polynomialis integated to givea summatior:

t = I Itrtdr- | ru,du-lw,rru;t
Ja J. :-;

rb

rd

(A.8-5)

Numerical integration is prefeffed for thefollowingcases: . The function/(i) is not knownbut the values of /(.x) arc knownat equallyspaced discretepoints. r Thefunction/(x) is known, but is too difcult to integateanalytically. 4.8,3,1 NumericaL inteqration with equall! spaced basepoirts Consider FigureA.4 in which/(;r) is knownonly at ve equally points. spaced base Thetwo rrost frequently used numerical integration methods for thiscase arethetrapezoidal ruk andSimpson's rule. Tiapezoidal rule ln thismethod, therequired area under the solidcurveis appfoximated by the area under the dotted line(theshaded straight trapezoid) asshownin FigureA.5.
2Theword d lot apprcxinate htegrdrbk. {ud.lrarele is use

418Chemical Engineering Pro@sses

poirls. FlgureA.4. ValJos ot lhe lulcl'on /( r I al liveqJally spacsd

The areaofthe trapezoidis then

Atea:

- rr) f/(rr) + /(rz)l(xz

2-

(A.8-6)

Ifthis procedureis repeated at four equallyspaced htervals given in Figure A.5, the value of the integral is lltat , t" r:Jt rtxtax-f(a 2 Ltll\t t l/td I Ar) + Ita | 2|xtl\x 2 (A.8-7)

, lf (a + 2Lx) + f (a+ 3Ax)lAx, [f (a + 3 Lx) + f (b)lLx

o!

t:

lb

J"

t(x\dx:Lxl;+Ih-

f ftat

a x \ ) f t u 1 2 a x \| I k l r ^ . r )

ltb\1

?l

(A.8-8)

This result canbegeneralized as

, : | r ro a,= o7lr +/(r)] r, * rf ,, *,o") "o

(A.8-e)

A.8 Melhodsot lntegtation

where (A.8-10) Simpson'srule Thetrapezoidal rule ts a straight line( Ist-orderpolynomial) between thetwo points. Simpson'srule,on the otherhand, ts a second-order polynomial between the two points. In this case, the genemlformula is

t=l

rb .t"

t-

n 1

t2 -

f $ t . t t : + /t{ a ) + a

).'-

Ita + t Axl+ z L

Jla+r Lx)+ J(b\

i=2.4,6

(A.8-rl)
(A.8-12)

b-a

Notethatthisfonnularequires thedivisionofthe interval ofintegmtion into aneven number ofsubdivisions. Example A.6 Determinethe heat requiredto increase the tempemtlre of benzenevapor fiom 300 K to 1000K at atmospheric pressure. Theheatcapacity of benzene vaporvaries asa function oftemperature asfollows:

300 400 ap (callmol.K) | O.eS Ze.ll

Solution

Z (K)

500

700

800

900

1000

32.80 3',7.74 41.75 45.06 47.83 50.16

Theamount of heatnecessary to incrcase the temperature ofbenzene vaporfrom 300K to 1000 K under pressure constant is calculated flom theformula

d: tfi:

eear Jroo

.r000

lhe vafialion ol ( p as a lunchonol lernperalure is shownin lhe gure below:

cp

7(X)

420Chemical En9ineering Processes

Since thefunctionis monotonically increasing, thebounding values are 0,i": - 300)= 13,755 (19.65)(1000 catlmol

0.*:
Tiapezoidalrule with '1= 8 From Eq.(A.8-10)

( s o . r O ( r o o3 o0 0:)3 5 , 1 1 c 2a l l m o l

- 100 1000 a/ =---:100 8-l The value oftheintegralcan becalculated fiomEq.(A.8-9) as 100. + 2 . 8-0 3 1 . 7 44 t . 7 5 + 4 5 . 0 6 T 4 7 . 8 3 ' + 5 0 . t 6 ] ? = - l l q 6 5+ 2 ' 2 6 . 7 4 3 :26.683 callrnol Simpson's rulewith n :4 From Eq.(A.8-l2) - J00 .-. t000 4-" Therefore, thevalues points ofip at veequally spaced aregiven in thefollowing table: 100 47s 650 825 1000 ap rcal/mol.Kr 1s.65 J1.50 Js.50 45.75 50.16
Thevalueofthe integral usingEq.(A.8-l l) is Q :;Lrg.6s = 26,706 + 4(3r.50 + 45.75) cal/mol + 2(39.s0) * 50.16]

A.8.4 Numedcal Integration whenthe Integrand ls a ContinuousFunction 4.8,4,1 Gauss-I*gentlre quadrature Tlrc evalsation ofan integnl givenby Eq. (A.8-1), where 1l and, arearbitrary but nite, usingthe Gauss-Legendre quadrature tequires thefollowingtransformation: /b_a\ \2,/ ThenEq. (A.8-1)becomes . a*b 2 (A.8-13)

t: I It)tdt="--!1 | rutdu-"-JT*,r'u,, z . rr
J | :6 where therootsandweightfactors for lt : 1,2, 3, and4 aregivenin TableA.3.

fb

h-n

tl

"

(A.8-14)

A,A Methads of lntegation TableA,3, Floors andweight factors forthe Gauss-Legendrs quadkiurc (Atamowitz and Srequn,1970)

I 2

+0.57735 02691 89626 0_00000 00000 00000 +0.77459 66692 4t483 +0.33998 10435 84856 :t0.861l3 63t1594053 0.00000 00000 00000 +0.53846 93101 05683 +0.90617 98459 38664

1.00000 00000 00000 0.88888 88888 88889 0.55555 55555 55556 0.652t451548 62546 0.34785 48451 37454 0.56888 88888 88889 0.47862 86704 99366 0.23692 68850 56189

Example A.7 Evaluate r:['1 d, J1 x +2 using the ve-point (, = 4) Causs-Legendre quadrature fomula and compareit with the analytical solution. Solution Since b :2 anda : 1,fromEq.(A.8-i3)

u+3

(T)',
The ve-pointquadrature is given by 1

u+7

12 ,-- 1 l :tr .irs,1 J . f t t^ a r - ! , Thevalues of uri andf (a;) aregivenin thetablebelow:

ui F (ui)

0 1 2 3
4

0.00000000 0.56888889 +0.538469310.4'7862861 -0.53846931 0.47862861 +0.906179850.23692689 0.906179850.23692689

u147 0.28571429 0.26530585 0.30952418 0.25296667 0.32820135

0.16253969 0.12698299 0.14814715 0.05993461 0.0',77',75973

L';-[ w; F (u;): 0 57536417

422Chemical Engineering Pfocesses

Therefore, 1 = (0.5X0.5753641 7) = 0.287 68209 Analytically,

I :tn(x + 2)1:=1

= "(i)

:0.28'768207

4.8.4.2 Gauss-Iaguerrequadrature The Gauss-Laguerre quadmture caobe usedto evaluateinteeralsofthe fonn I: I e-r f (x)h( (A.8-15)

wherea is arbitrary and nite. The transfomation x: reduces Eq.(A.8-15) to +a (A.8-16)

r=I"*"'rata':"" loe "l\uldu=e'>

where the rli andz1 aregivenin Table A.4.

w , f l u ;I

(A.8-17)

Table4.4. Roolsand weighlfacloBior the causs-Lagueiie quadlatur (Abramowiiz andSlesun, 1970) Roots("r)

0.58578 64376 27 3.41421 35623 73 0.41517 45567 83 2.29428 03602 79 6.28994 50829 37 0.32254 76896 19 1.745l 7l 6 0ll58 4.53662 02969 21 9.39507 09t23 01 0.26356 03197 l8 1.4r340 30591 07 3.59642577tA 4l ?.08581 00058 59 12.64080 08442 76

0.85355 33905 93 0.14644 66094 07 0.71109 30099 29 0.278s1 77335 69 0.01038 9565 02 0.60315 41043 42 0.3574t 86924 38 0.03888 79085 l5 0.00053 92947 06 0.52175 56105 83 0.39866 681r0 83 0.07594 2M9682 0.00361 17i8680 ',72 0.00002 33699

Example4.8 Thegamma function, f (r?), is de nedby

r("l=

o"'" aaf fo*

A.8 Methodsal lntegatbn AppedixA 423

p in the integrand where thevariable is thedummyvariabte ofintegration. Estimate f(L5) by usingthe quadraturc Gauss-Laguerre with , :3. Solution Sinced:0,then

p=u and F(u)= ^ttr

The four-point quadraturcis given by

f (l.t =,/- utie tap:lu1r6i1

Theval esofui andI(
! ui

i) aregivenin thetablebelow:
w1 F (ui\:1@

0 t 2 3

0.32254769 1.745',76110 4.53662030 9.39507091

0.60315410 0.35',741869 0.03888791 0.00053929

0.s6793282 1.32127253 2.t2993434 3.06s13799

w;F(ui\ 0.34255I01 0.472247 50 0.08282869 0.00165300

r(l.5)= ti:; ?,' F(,r)= 0.8ee2802

Theexacl \ alue of f(1.51is 0.88622b9255. 4.8,4.3 Gauss-Hermite quadratwe TheGauss-Hermite quadrature canbeused to evaluateintegralsofthe form (A.8-18) The weight factors and appropriateroots for the rst few quadmtureformulas are given in Table A.5.
Table A.5. Bools andweight taclors lortheGaussHariile quadiurc(Abramowitz and Slegun,1970)

I 2

+0.70710 67811 +1.22474 48714 0.00000 00000 +1.65068 01239 t0.5246476233 +2_02018 28705 :t0.95857 24646 0.00000 00000

0.88622 69255 0.29540 89752 l.l8l6359006 0.0813128354 0.8049140900 0.0199i 32421 0.39361 93232 0_94530 87205

424Chemical Engineenng Proesses

A.9 MATRICES A rectangular array ofelements or functionsis calleda twtrit.lf the arrayhasm rows and n columns,it is called an m x ,1matrix and exprcssed in the form

(A.e-r)
(A.9-1)is also aij are calledthe elements of a matrix Equation The numbers or functions expressed as

(4.92)
the row andthe column ofthe matd)Lrespectively. ill which the subscripts i and j represent (ot row vector),while a matrix having A maaix havingonly one row is calleda row matri-x onfyonecolumnis caileda column matrix(or column vector). Whenthenumber ofrows and : mahix is the numberof columnsare the same,i.e., m r, the called a squarematrLxor a matrixof orderrz. A.9.1 FundamentalAlgebraicOperations 1. Two matrices A:
bij.

(di7)andB:

(bi;) ofthe same orderareequalifand only if dij =

2. If A = (a;;) and B = (rii) havethe sameorder,the sum of A and B is de ned as A + B: ta,j + bijl

(A.e-3)

If A, B, andC arematrices ofthe same order, addition is commutative andassociative, (A.9-4) (A.9-5)

A * B: B *A A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C

3. If A = (ai;) and B = (Di;) have the sameorder, the differencebetweenA and B is de ned as
A -B= (aij - bij) (A.q-6)

Example4.9 If
A=

f7 t-

L]

I U 5

and B=

determineA+BandA-8.

t;il

Solution

f2+2 A+B=lr+3 L3+o f2-2 A-B=lr I L3 0

-t-4f [4 0+0 l:14 s+rl Lt r+41 f o 0-0 l:l_2 5-rl L3

(taij)

-5'l 0 | 6l il 0l 4l
(A.9_7)

4. lfA : (drj) and .1. is any number,the prcduct ofA by .1. is de ned as .lA: At:

5. The product oftwo mahices A andB, AB, is dened only if the number ofcolumns in A is equal to tbe number of rowsin B. In this case, the two matrices aresaidto be conformable n the otderstated. For example, ifA is oforder 4 x 2 andB is of order 2 x 3, then the productAB is

f a" a'.f 'zr a2, brt bp a3 A B : J a3t ll | a]1 | D2t b22 tDt I I , l o o , o oJ
aDbD a1ft3+apbpl f a1b1lay2b21 a1b12+ o , t b 1 a 2 2 b 2 1 a 1 1 b 1 2 a 2 2 b L ta ) t b t J a 2 2 b 1It | _l tA Y-ol o l ' b , , a J 2 b z t o J t b . 2 a I eb22 a1ft3 a,2b- | I aa1b1, I ar2b23 laa b1. t at2b4 aa b1,7 a42b22 ) general, In ifa matdx of order (m,r.) is muttipliedby a matrix of order (/,,?), the product is a matrixoforder (ra,n). Symbolicalltthismay bexpressed as (n,r) x (r, n) = (n, n) ExampleA.10 If (A.9_9)

A:l
detemine AB. Solution

[r

2 L-l

-]l 0l s l

Tr"l and B:l,l L-.r

^":Ii ;']fll s

L-r lL'r (1)(l)+( r)(2)l f -r I =if r2)(ri+(0)r2) l:l 2 I 1)(1)+r5){2rl L( Lel

426ChemielEnqineenng Processes

6. A matrixA canbe multiplied by itselfif andonly if it is a square matrix.Theproduct products AA canbe expressed as A2. Ifthe relevant arc dened, the multiplication of maftices is associative, i.e., A(BC) = (AB)C anddistdbutive, i.e., A(B + C) = AB +AC (B+C)A=BA+CA but, in general,not commutative. A,9,2 Delerminants quantity For eachsquare matrixA, it is possible to associate a scalar calledthe determinant ofA, Al.lfthe mahix A in Eq.(A.9-1)is a square matrix,thenthe determinant ofA is givn by
at7 .l27 ant 412 aB 422 423 an2 4 ... ... , ,, a1n A2n ann

(A.e-10)

(A.9-11) (A.9-12)

(A.e-r3)

Ifthe row and columncontaining an element arj in a square matrixA are deleted, th determinalt ofthe remainingsquarearray is called the minor of aij and denotedby Mil. The cofactor ofdij, denoted by Aij, is thendened by therolation
Aij : (t)t+r Mii

(A.9-14)

Thus,ifthe sum of the row and column indicesofan elementis even,the cofactor and ths minorofthatelement areidentical; othenvise theydifrerin sign. Thedeterminant ofa square matrixA canbe calculated by thefollowingformula:
A=) aiLA,r: > aL,AL)

(A.9-1s)

wherei and j may standfor any row and column,respectively. Thereforc,the determinants of2 x 2 and3 x 3 matricesare
atr a2r all 421 .j31 412 422 432 at2 422 Ltr3 423 433

(A.9-16)

= a)p22a! + aDaBqt + aBa2ta32 - a71a23a32 - ar2a2933 aBa22a3r (4.9-17)

ExampleA.11 Determine A if

A:l
Solution

f 1 o 1'l
3 2 1l L r I 0l

Expanding on the rst row,i.e.,i : I, gives 21 10

0 -t

3l

0 +1

32 tl

4.9,2.1 Some propertiesof determinants 1. Ifall elements in a row or colurffrarezero, thedeteminant is zerc,i.e.,
at a2 bt b2 c1 c2 0btct

000

0bzcz obca

= 0

(A.9-t 8)

2. Thevalueofa determinant is not altered whentherowsarechanged to columns or the columns to rows,i.e.,whentherowsandcolumns areinterchanged. 3. Theinterchange ofany two columns or anytwo rotvs ofa determinant changes thesign offhe determinant. 4. If two columns or two rowsofa determinant areidentical, the determinant is equalto
ZEIO.

5. lf each element in anycolumnor row ofa determinant is expressed as the sumoftwo quantities, the determinant canbe expressed asthe sumoftwo deteminantsofthe same order. i-..
a1ldy a2+d2 a31d3 b1 c1 b2 c2 b3 ca at a2 a3 bt b2 b3 cl c2 ca

dr bt cr d2 b2 c2 dt, bt ct

(A.e-19)

6. Addingthe samemultipleof eachelement of one row to the coffespond]ng element ofanother row doesnot changethe value ofthe determinant. The sameis touefor the columns.
at a3 bt b3

az b2 c2 l=
q |

ct )

| (at*nbt\

bt bt

ct

la2+nb,
) (at+nb)

b2 c2
,t

(A.9-20)

This result followsimmediately from Properties 4 and5. 7. Ifall theelements in anycolumn or row aremultiplied by anyfactor, thedeterminant ts multiplied by thatfactor, i.e.,
),ay b1 La2 b2 ).a3 b3 c1 c2 ca l ,.

ar b1 cr a2 bz c2 a3 b3 ca
ar a2 a3 b1 cl b2 c2 b3 ca

(4.9-2r)

(l lL)at bt cl (1/X)a2 b2 c2

(1/),)a3fu ca

(A.e-22)

Ensineens Prccesses 428Chemical

A.9.3 Typesof Matrices 'lhe rows and matn)^ obtainedfrom A by interchanging of a matrix A.9.3.1 Thetranspose by AT. the,Tdnspose ofA anddenoted columns i! called in theform AB is theproduct ofthe hansposes Thetranspose ofthe product

(AB)r = BrAr

(A.9-23)

L.9.3.2 Unit matrfu The unit matrix I of order,? is the square x n mahix havingonesln i.o., its principaldiagonaland zercselsewherc,

| | o ... o o r=l o I t..........

\
For any matrix

(A.9-24)

...

(4.9-25)
matrics A squarematrix A is said to be r)tlA.9.3.3 Slmmetric and skew'symmetric metic if
A: A.T ot aij : aii

(4.9-26)

(or antisymmetric) if A square matrix A is said to be skew-sJmmetric

A: -A,r ot aij = -t:Lji

(4.9-21)

matdxarcallzero(4..9-27) elements ofa skew-symmetric implies thatthediagonal Equation matrixA for whichthedeterminant matr,,r A squarc A.9.3.4 Singular lA ofits elements L is nonsingular. matrix, If Al+0, then zero is termed a rirS&Ial is mahix A does not vanish, A.,93.5 me in))erse mdtr,:' Ifth determinant lA ofa square an irverselor reciprom[)matrixA I suchthat matrix,it thenpossesses i.e.,a nonsingular
AA-I:A_IA=I fie inverseof a matrix A is de ned by

(A.9-28)

Adj A

tAl

(A.9-29)

whereAdj A is called the adjoint of L. It is obtainedfrom a squarematrix A by replacing rowsandcolumns. andtheninterchanging each element by its cofactor A.l l. ofthe matrixA givenin Example ExampleA,12 Findthe inverse

Solution The minor of A is given by 2I 10 3 -1 1 -t I 3 1 0

l U I 1

3 -l
I -l

2
I

01 l0 01 21
The cofactormahix is

0 1

=l-1 l-2

[-r

1 5l
I 1l -2 2)

til
'o -|

r a,,:l ''

_.t I L-

r'-rl

ol

ofthe cofactormatrix givesthe adjoint ofA as Thetranspose

-r F I AdjA: | -r

l l

il

of A in theform theinverse sincelAl = 4, the useofBq (A.9-29)gives

r _0.25 o.2s _0.51 A91 : | -o.rr o..tt o.s I o-' : lAt I r.:s _0.2s 0.5I
AlgebraicEquatlons A.9.4 Solutionof Simultaneous equations algebraic ofn non-homogeneous Consider thesystem a ] : t / '+ :t a2x2+ "'+ alnh:c1 a T r r + a 2 2 x 2 + . . + a 2 n x n :c 2

(A.9-30)
"'+ anflh: cn thti;r + an2x2+ oftl't2' ci are independent in whichthe coefcients arj andthe constants (A.9-30) as is expressed Eq otherwisearbihary.ln matrix notation, ,tn butarc

(A.9-31)

AX=C

(A..e-32)

EngimeingProces*s 430Chemical

Multiplication ofEq. (A.9-32) by the inverseofthe coef cient matrix A gives

x = A-rc

(A.9-33)

4,9.4,1 Cramer's rulE Cmmer'srule statestlrat, if the determinantofA is not equalto hasa solutiongiven by zero,the systemof linear algebmicequations

"'

lA;l lAl

(A.e-34)

maaices, wherelA and lAj arethe determinants ofthe coef cientandsulstituted rcspecjtlr m@t/ir, Aj , is obtained by replacing the column ofA bythecolumn fi,rely. Thesubstituted
ofc's. i.e..

(A.9-35)

AppendixB
AND FORMASS,MOMENTUM, FLUXEXPRESSIONS

ENERGY
Table8,1, Conpo.enlsoi l1e sfess nsor for New coordinales bnian auidsin rcctangular '

',.:-rl'P 1,".",l
.r,: -/ r;
f

Ldr lai

__L l

;rv.",1
) l

(B)

zi,= /lr;-;rv.vt
.,,:.r': l\t+;/
/iutr

aL

(c)
(D)
(E) (F) (G)

irr' \

.",:u,: u(P*P) dt) \d?

r.':r,,=
Ju,
dI

/i\

/iJo.

tu
Au"
nt

Ax'\

dz ./
d!,

(v.v):-+r+-

ol lhe eress le.sor ror New Table82. Coaponpnls lluidsin cylindrical coodinaies lonian

,.= ulr'!-1rr."t] tor)l

l^t t ItuB Dr\ 'ee:-!lt\; +; M )21 1'v'"t) (B)

',.:-plz*
+a:+,=
r a .= t z a :

ldzrl

lw.,tl

(c)
(D)

r,ru,I | | /d\ tf ;\i , )+ n )

/;tua . I Ar.\ tr\tjzrr) tu.\ I t7/

(D

/ h' t.r:1,.:-pl:+,
\dr

.v - .Yt: (

1116. Ju. -l t-, ( r u r l + :+ -

(G)

432Cheniel Engineedng Prccesses 430 Chemical Engineeing P.o@sses Table 8.3, Componenlsol tho slrsss lensor ior Newionianfluids in spherical

l^rq = -Itt z -\y

Lor r

2-

.9

.1
l
|

(A)

?,o. ..:-"frl]a" * ") rl "" r./ J L\'te l

I,a:16,:-|I|| | u. rFcorF\ 2 ',,0 -/f'\."i"d "d adr,r , )-t," I J/us\ laal d 0) )+; l sinea / Db \ u\; ]1lr 'l -.t ,v)l

tao:t,te:-pl

' 6 ,= ' , 6 = ufl , r , " a t'a.\;/l aO

N\,:_e)t,r^e MI a r r I 0 /ud\'l
(G)

j ?r",)t I ^ ^'^r,r,i"pl+-!l14 , o . r - ' ,rz J, rsin4 l0 t sil9 ao

Table 8.4. Flux expressions lor energylranspodin rectangular coordinales Total

Flux

aQCPT) rrr: -a ar

vepr)!,

qt:-* ,aT at

,r:-"7

a@epT) ,nT

@ePDnt

pT) a@e
"Az

@ePDxz

Appedix B 433

AppendixB. Flux Expressions for Mass,Momentun,and Enetw ior eneqy lEnspodin clindncalcoodinatos TableB.5.Fluxexpressions Total Flux Molecular Flu

Flux

Constraint

-aT q,= k il
S,= a

pr) a@e
U

(pcpT)ta

d ab. pr) ,1.= k; o@A pT) S,:-a U

be prJr,

roreneryy lansporlin sphericl coodinates TableB.6.Fluxexprsssions Total

."= -kaf pT) a@e S,--" A, be PDq'

kar
tAe
(pC pT)t6

kaT
(pCpT),tb

Note

a1tpr)

Pie = constant

Pocesses 434Chemical Engineedng tor Mass,Momatun, and Enetry Awendix B. Flux Expresstons Table 8.7. Flux expressions lor masslransporl in clngular caordinales Total

Flux

Flux

ie,=-pDeaY
JA,: -uAB i;

tt"--pueB-i
JA\: - UAB -

ti:

cots:a
car;

ti,=-DouY Ji,: .D^BT

JA " : " A B7 l

"erj

q,:-cDAB+ 4,= D*a#

"et

AppedirB 435 lor Mass,Monentum,and Enerw AppendixB, Flux Exprcssions for masslnspod in cylindrical cootdinates Table 8.8. Flux oxprcssions Toral

Flux

WA,

lAz: -P UAB U JAz:-uaB 0,

r" = cDaB+
JA,: - !AR x|

DAB AcA

r a1= cuaB J1 cAr: rA.:-u407;'

Enqineennq P@@sses 436Chemical

lor masstransporlln sphericalcoordinates Tabte 8.9. Flux exprcssions Total Flux MoleculaJ Flux

Flux None

wa.
JA,= uaBn;
ta0 Dts opt . .tet - - , M tto- - t siro ad Des opl taa:- r sne M

4,:-cDAs7
rA,= uABi

",ce=,*

ae

DaB |cA

"nui

"116
"A,:-ritno M

AppendixC
PROPERTIES PHYSICAL
mateials in the containsphysicalpropertiesof somefiequently encountered This appenalix either Pery's Chernical ffanspoftofmomentum,energy,andmass The readershouldrefer to (2001) for a more andPhysics (1997) of Chemisrry or CRCHandbook Handbook Engineers' properties. physical list of extensive Ta' andliquids,as takenfrom Reidet aL.(19'7'7). viscosities of gases Tabfe C.1 contains gas and liquid While liquids,and solids of gases, thermalconductivities ble C.2 contains valconductivity solidthermal from Reid?t al ( 1977), arecompiled themal conductivities (1997). of thediffusion Thevalues Handbook Engineers' Chemical aretaken fromPerry's ues 's Chemical (1977),Pe$y Engiftom F.eld et aL compiled given irr Table C.3 are coeffcients (1972). (1997), andGeankoplis neers' Handbook Table C.4 containsthe physical propertiesof dry air at standardallosphedc pressure. The valuesare takenfrom Kays and Crawford (1980) who obtainedthe dataftom the three liquidwatef given properties of saturated ef al. (i 970).Thephysical of Touloukian volumes (1996) adapted the dataftom Liley who and Dewitt in TabteC.5,aretakenfrom lncropera a1984).
ofvarious substances TableC.1. vscosilres

T K 273 373 303 373.5 383 423

Sulfur dioxide Liquids

tr, loa ks/m.s 0.9 1.31 1.51 l.8l l_lt 1.23 1.35 1.63 4.92 3_18 8.56 5.34 8.26 4.65

313 313 3r3 353 303 343

Ethdol

3t3 348

I
:

438 ChemicalEnqineednq P@cesses

AppendixC Physlcal Propefles Table C.2. Thormalconduclivilis ol varioussubslancs

T K 273 3',73 300 473 293 375 273 293 323 293
Ethnnol Solids Brick GlassFiber Steel

w/mK 0.u21 0.0320

0.0167

0.02!3 0.0150 0.0222 0.0083 0_148 0.137 0.103 0.165 0_152

Ethanol Sulfurdioide Ltquids

293 313 300 300 300 300 300

0.72 398 0.036 45

Table C.3. Exoerimenlal valuesot binarydiflusioncoetficients al 101.325kPa

T K
Air{O2

DAs

Air H2O N2 SO2 Liquids NH: HzO Benzoicacid-H2o CO2 H2O Ethdol-H2O Solids Bi Pb H2 Nickel

317.2 313 300 313 296 263 288 298 298 283 293 358 298

1.7? x 1.45x 0.62x 2.88x 4.24x 1.04x l;77 x l.2l x 1.92x 0.84x

l0 5 10-5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 ll-e l0 9 10-e lo-e

] l x 10-20 1 . 1 6 x1 0 - 1 2 0 . 2 1x l 0 Y

Appendixc. PllysicalPropeiie Table c . 4 . P r o p ei e so f a i r a lP : 1 0 1 . 3 2 5k P a

T K 100 150 200 250 263 2',73 275 280 283 285 288 290 293 295 298 300 303 305 308 3r0 313 3!5 320 323 325 330 333 343 350 353 363 373 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

ep
kg/.3 3.5985 2.3613 1.7690 1.4t19 t.3421 r.2930 1.2836 1.260',7 1.2473 1.2385 1.2256 |.2172 1.2047 1.1966 1.1845 1.1766 1.1650 i.1573 1.1460 1.1386 r.t277 1.1206 1.1031 1.0928 kj/kg K

txl03

r.0861
1.0696 1.0600 l.o29l 1.0085 r.0000 0.9'724 0.9463 0.8825 0.7844 0.7060 0.6418 0.5883 0.5431 0.5043

7.060 10.38 13.36 16.06 t6;t0 l7.20 17.30 17.54 11.69 17.19 17.93 18.03 18.17 14.27 18.41 18.53 l8_64 18.74 18.88 18.97 19.l1 19.20 t9.43 19.57 19.66 19.89 20.o2 20.47 20.81 20.91 21.34 2L71 22.94 24.93 26.82 28.64 30.30 31.93 33.49

|.962 4.385 '7.55? 1r.37 12.44 13.30 13.48 13.92 14.18 14.36 14.63 14.81 15.08 15.27 15.54 15.75 16.00 16.r9 16.4',7 t6.66 r6.95 t7.t1 t 7.62 t1.9r 18.10 18.59 18.89 19.89 20.63 20.91 21.95 23.01 26_00 31.78 37.99 44.56 51.50 58.80 66.41

1.028 l . 0 lI 1.006 r.003 t_003 l.004 L004 1.004 1.004 1.004 1.004 1.004 1.004 1.005 r.005 1.005 1.005 1.005 1_005 r.005 1.005 1.006 1.006 1.006 1.006 1.006 L00? 1.008 1_008 r.008 1.009 1.010 1.013 L020 |.029 1.039 1.051 1.063 i.075

9.220 13.75 18.10 22.26 23.24

u.o7
24.26 24.63 24.86 25.00 ?5.22 25.3',7 25.63 25.74 25.96 26.14 26.37 26.44 26.70 26.85 2',7.09 2',7.22 27.54 27_aO 27.95 28.32 28.51 29.21 29.70 29.89 30.58 3l-26 33.05 36.33 39.51 42.60 45.60 48.40 5r.30

0.787 0.763 o.'743 0.'121 0.720 0.11'7 o.7t6 0.7r5 0.714 0.714 0.714 0.'114 t2 0.'7 0.713 t2 0.'7 0.7|1 0.710 0.711 o.7tl 0.710 o.109 o.7w 0.709 0.708 0.708 0.'707 0.707 0.706 0.?06 0.705 0.704 0.703 o.703 0.700 0.699 0.698 0.699 0.701 0.'102

rangests the Antoi e corelation over limjted temperature A widely usedvaporpressure in the fbrm r atior exDressed

constants A, B, andC, Siven Kelvin.TheAntoine whereProtis in mmHgandf is in degrees from Reidet dl. (1977). substances, aretaken in Table C.6for vadous

Engineerins PrcctFrdx 440 Chemical

c' PrrysicatPropedies

liouid waler Tablec.5, Prooe ies of saturaied

7x 103 275 280 285 288 290 293 295 298 300 303 305 308 310 313 3r5 320 325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 365 370 373 375 380 385 390 400 0.00611 0.00697 0.00990 0.01387 0.01703 0-0191? 0.02336 o.026t7 0.03165 0.03531 0_04'240 1.000 1.000 r.000 1.000 1.001 1.001 1.00I 1.002 i.003 r.003 1.00,1 1.005 1.006 r.007 r.008 1.009 1.011 1.013 1.016 1.0i8 1.021 LOZ4 1.027 1.030 1.034 1.038 L041 1.U4 1.045 1.049 t.053 i.058 1.067 2502 249'l 24'85 2473 2466 2461 2454 2449 2447 2438 2430 2426 2418 241,4 2407 2102 2391J 2378 2366 2354 2342 2329 231'.7 2304 2291 2218 2265 2257 2252 2239 2225 2212 2183

Cp 4.217 4.211 4.198 4.189 4.186 4.184 4.182 4.181

lrx106

1x103

4.r80
4.179 4.t78 4.178 4.178 4.t7E 4.179 4.179 4.180 4.142 4.184 4.186 4.188 4.191 4.195 4.199 4.203 4.209 4.214 4.217 4.220 4.226 4.232 4.239 4.256

o.onp
0.05620 o_06221

o_u373
0_08132 0.1053 0.1351 0.1719 o.2167 o.27l3 o.33',72 0.4163 0.5100 0.62W 0.'7514 0.9040 1.0133 1.0815 1.2869 1.5233 |.794 2.455

1750 1652 1422 1225 1131 1080 1001 959 892 855 800 769 721 695 654 63t 577 528 489 453 420 389 365 343 324 306 289 n9 274 260 248 237 217

569 574 582 590 595 598 603 606 610 613 618 620 625 628 632 634 640 6+5 650 656 660 664 668 6',71 674 679 680 681 683 685 686 688

12.99 12.22 10.26 8-70 7.95 '7.56 6.94 6.62 6.1i 5.83 5.41 5.20 4.82 4.62 4.32 4.16 3.42 3.15 2.88 2.66 2.45 2.29 2.14 2.02 1.91 l 80 , t.'76 1.70 t.6l 1.53 1.47 1.34

&:Wm.K r - K: p",': bar: i = rn3/ksii: ktks; ap : kr/ksK;p = kglm.sr

Table C,6, Anloine equation conslanls

Rdge (K)

Elhaiol Methanol

24t 350 280 377 405 560 260-370 2:7V369 25',7-364 360525

16.65t3 15.9008 l7.1634 15.9732 18.9119 18.5875 16.1426

2940.46 2788.51 4190.70 2696.79 3803.98 3626.55 3992.01

-35_93 -52.36 -t25.2 -46.16 -41.68 -34.29 -71.29

Airl Properties of Saturated

-60 -59 53 57 56 55 54 53 -52 ,51 50 .19 -43 -4? -46 -45 -14 -13 42 41 40 -39 -33 37 36 35 31 -33 -32 31 -30 -29 23 27 -26 25 24 ,3 -22 -21 20 19 -13 r7 16 -15 14 13 -12 lr -10 9 + -? { 5 -.1 3 2 -1

"c

w.
0.0000067 0.602? 0.0000076 0.6056 0.000003? 0.6034 0.0000100 06113 0.0000114 0.6141 0.0000129 0.6170 0.000014? 0.6193 00000167 0.6226 0.0000rc0 06255 0.0000215 06233 0.00002,!3 06312 0.0000275 06340 0.0000311 0 6369 0.0000350 0 639? 0.0000395 0.6426 0.0000445 0.6454 0.0000500 0.6433 0.0000562 0.511 0.0000631 0.6540 0.0000?03 0 6563 0.0000?93 0.659? 0.0000337 0.6625 0 0000992 0.6653 0.0001103 0.6632 0.000123? 0.6?10 0.00013?9 0.6739 0.0001536 0.6767 0.0001710 0.ri796 0.0001902 06324 0000213 06353 0.000234 06331 0.0002602 0 6909 0.0002313 06933 0.0003193 0.6966 0.0003533 0.6095 0.0003905 0.7023 0.0004314 0.7052 0.0004?62 0.7030 0.0005251 0.?109 0.0005?3? 0.7rr7 0 0006373 0.?165 00007013 0.?194 00007711 0.7222 0 0003,1?3 07251 0.0009303 0.?2?9 0.0010107 0?303 00011191 0.?336 0.0012262 0?364 000r34r5 0?393 0.0014690 0.?421 0.0016062 0.7.150 0.00r?55r 0.?4?3 0.00r9m6 0.?50? 0.0020916 0.7535 0.0022311 0 7s63 0.0024362 0.7592 0 002?031 0.7620 0.0029430 0.76.19 0.00320?4 0.7677 0.0034374 0.7705

0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 00000 00000 0.0000 0.0000 0 0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0001 00001 00001

0.602? -.60.351 0.ri056 -59.344 53.333 0.6034 57.332 06113 0.6u1 0.6170 5r3r9 54.313 0.6191 0.6227 53.307 0.6255 52.301 51.295 50.230 0$r2 49233 0.6341 0.63119 -43.27? 0.6393 -17.2?1 0.6,126 .16.25 0.6,!55 15.259 r).84a3 14.253 a.Esr2 43.247 0.6540 ,12.2.11 0.6569 !1.235 40.225 0.6591 0.6626 -39 224 0.0001 0.6654 13213 31.212 0.0001 0.6633 0.0001 06?12 36.206 0.0001 0 6?40 -35,200 0.0002 06?69 -3.1195 0 0002 0 6793 33.139 00002 0.6326 -32.133 00002 0.6355 31.173 30.171 00003 29.166 0.0003 24.$0 0.0003 27.r34 0.0004 0.69?0 26.149 0.0001 0.6s99 25.113 00004 0.7023 0.0003 0.7a51 -24.137 23132 00005 0.7036 0.7rr5 22126 0 0006 0.0007 0.?1.14 21120 0.000? 0.?1?3 r9.r09 a.aaaa 0.72a2 r3.r03 0.0009 0.7%r 17.093 0.0010 0?261 16092 0.001 0.?290 0 0012 0.?320 ,r5.aa6 14.030 0.0013 0.?349 13.075 0.001,1 0?379 12.069 0.0016 0.?409 11.063 0.001? 0.?,!39 0.7469 -10.057 -9.052 0.0021 0.7490 -a.0,r6 0.0023 0.7530 ?.040 0.0025 00023 0.7t91 -5.029 0.0030 0.?622 0.0033 0.7653 0.0036 0.?63t -2011 0.0039 0.7?17 r.006 0.0043 0.771S

0.017 0.021 0.024 0.023 0.031 0.036 0.041 0.0,1 0.052 0.059 0.067 4.075 0.035 0095 0 103 A-r2r 0.137 0.153 0.1?2 0.192 0.216 02,11 0.270 0.302 0.336 0.375 0.46.! 0.517 0.571 0.636 a-107 a ft2 0.367 0.959 1.059 r.1?1 1125 r.570 1.?29 1.902 2.092 2.299 2.3u 2?69 3.036 3.327 3642 3.936 4.353 4.?64 5.202 5.6?7 6.751 7.353 3.?12

1i0.334 50326 3r? -5?.303

54.214 -53.26? 12.255 50230 -49.216 ,13.242 17.136 -.16170 -45.151 l3.t1r .12.033 -41.063 -40.03? 1000? l?.976 16.942 35,905 -3.1.364 -33.320

30.66r 29.591 2:.529 27 .454 26.372 25.132 -24.13,1 23.0?3 21.961 13.545 -15.006 -13.?93 72.562 11311 10.03S 4.742 -7.42r 6.0?2 -1.693 J.233 4.357 1.164 2,124 ,1.336 5.995 7.106

nepnnbd by lcrDnsion or tne Anedm socieiy ol H.aii4, Rer.i6ctuiins rd Ai. Fn larearats Condiijonilg Ensinees, Airmh, GA , trcn t\.199t As'lR.tE Eaa.lbnh

442ChemicalEnqine ns Processes

Propertiesot SaturatedAirl

0 I 2 3 5 6 ? 3 I 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 13 19 20 21 22 23 24 26

0.003739 0.0040?6 0.00431 0.004?07

0 7734 0.7762 0.7?91 0.7319

0.005.124 0 ?3?6 0005313 0.?90,1 0.00623? 0.?933 0.006633 0.796r 0.00?157 0.7990 0.007661 0.3013 0.003197 0.3046 0.003766 0.3075 0.0093?0 0.3103 0.010012 0.3132 0.010692 0.3160 0.01413 0.3133 0.0r2r?3 0.32r? 0012939 0.3245 0.01334 0.32?4 0.014753 0.3302 0.015721 0.3330 0.0167,11 0.3359 0.017321 0.333? 0.013S63 0.3.116 0.O24r70 0.4414

29 30 31 33 34 35 36 3? 33 40 41 .13 14 15 46 47 43 49 50 51 52 53 5.1 55 5E 57 53 59

0.025?35 0.3553 0.02?329 0.3536 0.029014 0.3614 0.03267,1 0.034660 0.036?56 0.033971 0.041309 0.0,137?3 0,36?r 0.3?00 0.3723 0.8?56 0.3?35 0,3313

0.049141 0.3370 0.052049 0.3393 0.053365 0.061791 0.065411 0.069239 00?3232 0.0?7556 00320?? 0.036353 0.09r9r3 0.097272 0.10:9.13 0.r0r954 0.rr ,l O.122An 0.1292,13 0.136351 01,!4942 0.3955 0.3933 09012 0.9040 0.9069 0.909? 0.9125 0.9154 0.9132 A.92r1 0.9239 0.926? 0 9296 A9%1 0.9353 0.9331 0.9409

0.1129

1.0226

0.2179

1.1533

9..173 9.473 1.006 10197 11.203 2.012 10.970 r2.9A2 3.013 rr.?93 1.021 12.612 5.029 13.610 6.036 14.603 20.644 ?.041 15.6?1 22.7t3 3.047 16.305 2A.A52 9.053 13.010 27,A64 10.069 19.293 29.352 11.065 20.653 31.121 D.A?r 22.rAA 34.179 13.477 23.619 36.726 t.!.034 25.236 39.3?0 15.090 2?.023 16.096 23.36? 4,1.963 17.102 34.424 11.926 13.103 32900 5r.003 19114 35.r0r 54.216 3?.43,1 57.555 2r.r27 39.903 61.035 42.527 64.660 45.301 63.,140 24.146 43.239 ?t.335 25.153 26.159 54.633 30?93 27.165 53.120 35.235 24.{2 61.304 39.976 29r19 65.699 94.3?3 30.135 69320 100.006 31.192 74.117 105.369 32.193 73.?30 110.979 33652 116.35? 33.?99 123.011 35.219 9.r.$6 129.455 36.226 99.983 136.209 3?.233 106.053 143.290 33.23S rr2.114 r5A.1B 39.246 rr9.253 153.504 10.253 126.430 166.633 13.1.005 175.265 j4.276 42.263 t42.AM 43.215 r50.4t5 193.7,1 44.242 r59.4r7 203.699 45.249 rff 3?4 214.16,r 46.296 114aa2 225.179 47.304 139.455 236.759 4311 200.64,1 243,955 ,19.319 212.435 261.303 50.326 225.019 275.345 51.33,1 233.290 239.624 52.341 252.344 304.$2 53.349 261.247 32A.596 54.357 233.031 337.333 55.365 299.772 366.137 511.3?3 3r7.5,1S 373.922 57.331 336.41? 393.?93 53.339 356.461 414350 59.337 377.?33 43?.135

Repnnbd by pemnsion of the mencm Socieiy ofHstidg, Ref.igcrating dd Air condiiionins E4inoerq Aila.ia, GA , froD ihe 1993/,saR{, Edrdbtuk-Fu dM

alr

ot SaiuraledAir' ProDerties

R4rinted by pernnEion df the Aseri@r Socieq of Heating, Refrige.aiin8 and Air' CondtiodnsEnsnreri Ailan t3. GA. Flnmthe 199s,{,gti,-{,

Pro@sse3 444Chemicl Engineering

AppendixD
FACTORS ANDCONVERSION CONSTANTS
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS ' :82.05 cm3.atm/mol K = 0.08205 m3.atm/kmol.K : 1.987 callmol.K - 8.1l4 K J/mol =g.Jl4\ t0 I l*pa.ml7mol.K :8.314 x 1O-5 bar.m3/mol.K 2 = 8.314 x 10 bar'.371'-olK :8.314 x 10-6MPa.m3/mol.K = q.8oo7 m/s2 = 12.t.740 nls2

I /<) uasconslanT

(8) Acceferatfon ol gmvrty

. - .to) . :5.67051 to-8w/m2.K4 stetan-Ijot um ann consmnt - 0 . 1 7 1\ 3 1 0 ' B t u / hf t ' R CONVERSION FACTORS Densiw - l0 I lgTL I ke/ml - I0 I gTcml , - '' .-', :0.06243 I kg/m' lbld

I m2/s: lOacm2/s Diffusivity (Kinematic, 5 x I 04ft2/h Mass, Therm a1) | m2I s : 10.7639N / s = 3.87 1J=1Ws:lNrn=10-3kJ I cal:4.184J I H :2j778 x l0 4 kW h:0.94783 Btu = 0.23q catleK I kJ/kg.K Bru/tb.'R t kJike K - 0.23q - l05gcm/s2{dyne) I N - I k gm / s 2 (poundals) lb R/s2 I N 0.2248 lbf= 7.23275

Energt Hea! work

Heat capacrt)

Faclorc D. ConstunEand C@vetsion AoDendix

Heat ux

lw/m2:1Jls.m2 0g Btu lh.# I w /rr? : 0.317 1 Wm2.K = 1 J/s m2.K 1\t'tlm2K:2.39x 10 5cal/scmzK 1 W/m2.K:0.1761Btu/hfP "R lm-l00cm-106tm Ii I m - lq.l7o in = J.2808

coefcient Heat transfer

ten$n

Mass Mass o w rate Mass ux coefcient Mass transfer

g 1 kg: 1000 tb I ke: 2.2046 lblh lbI s : 1936.6 1 kgls: 2.2046 :0.2048lb/r.d - z.lu..l tuTt' f, r kg/s.m'/
ft/s 1 m/s = 3.2808

lW=1Jls:10-3kW : 1.341 hp Btu/h I kw :3412.2

1Pa=1N/m2 Pa:10 3 MPa I kPa= 103 bar:760 mmHg kPa= 1.01325 I atm= 101.325 : lbf/in2 1 atfr 14.696 1K= 1.8.R r(oF):1.8ICC)+32 l0 I calls c mK |$/mK-IJ/smK=2lq 'F Btu/hn I wim K 0.5778 1 m/s:3.60 km/h ft I s = 2.237mi/h 1 mI s = 3.2808 Ikg/ms:IPas 1P(poise)=lglcm.s 1kg/ms:10P=103cP : 241.9 lblft.h I P (poise) 1m3=1000L 1 m3:6.1022 x w4 in3=35 38 ff =264.t? gal L/s I mr/s: 1000 ' lo'fl31h l m l / s = 3 5 . 3 1 3n . / s = 1 . 2 7 1 2,1

Pressure

Tempemture
( onouclrt rty lnermal

Velocity

Viscosity

Volume

v o f u m e r ro c\ r r a r e

446ChemielEnsineeiisPrccesses

AppendixE
DimensionlessNumbers

F..

R. = P,!!L

Ralio of inedal fo.cesto ljscousforces;Ratioof momenun fansilr by convecrion andby molecula. actlonof vis@slly or I " rransport Rorio ofconlecrile to noleule transpofi (of enerey or nass) Ralioof nomentumdifirsivity to them.l difrusivity Rrdo of momenbmdiffirsivity to na$ difflsivily Ratioof to1altrmsferto noleculd transfer (ofenersy o.nas) Ratio of convectivc timescale ro reaction timescale; nlio of conv.ctive1@spo.t ro raieof generation dft lo chenicalftaction Ratioof diftusiontime scale lo reaction tine scale; ntio ol diffusivetnnspor1 to raieof generation due ro chenrical @action

,.

,. = ""i"'''

,,
sc
N uo r S h

,t=+
sc- =
,:,

rn=#
LK.C',| '

Db

'J#

CppU

Uz,*"

Ratioof inredace transpod lo bulk tnnspon Ratio of psure focs !o inenial forces Ratioof ine'1ialforces to gnvnadonrl fo.ces Ratioof lhemal ditrusivily to mas diffirsivity Ratioof inenial to surface forces

(Lc) * ,rcrD

For moredhcu$ionon dimensionless numbers ielevant for iow process, and seeB'rd?,21.(1960) (1988). Brcdkey dd HeNhey

Roierences 447

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Matrices and lhen Applications, in ChenicalEngineering: N.R., 1966,MathenrticalMethods Amundson. Englwood Clila. NewJc6ey. P.enticellall, Cliffs'NewJersev 2ndEd.,P.enlicel lall. Englewood Methods ofAppliedMathenratics. HildebrandF.8..1965,