MakingGroupworkWork

MakingGroupworkWork

 ThisbookletisarevisedversionofanoriginalbookletpreparedbyColinNeville.Thefollowingstaffalso contributedtotherevision: ProfessorPeterHartley MarkDawson FrancesDowson CatherineGregory MartinSedgley BeckaCurrant Ifyouwantanyfurtherdetailsonourworkortomakeanycommentsaboutthisbooklet,pleasecontact MarkDawson. T: E: 01274233023 M.Dawson3@Bradford.ac.uk

ThisworkwascreatedbyindividualsfromtheLearnhigherCETLattheUniversityofBradfordandis licensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttributionNonCommercialShareAlike2.0licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/byncsa/2.0/uk/

1.TheImportanceofGroupwork
Duringyourdegreestudiesyouwillbeexpectedtoworkcollaborativelywithotherstudentsinsmallgroups. Youwill,forexample,workwithotherstudentsonjointprojectsthatwillbeassessed.Thiswillrequireall membersofthegrouptocontributetotheplanning,research,presentationoffindingsandtowritingthe finalreport.Youwillalsoworkinformallyingroupsduringseminars,tutorialsandpracticalwork. Groupsizecanbesmall,forexample,46students,butitcanalsobemuchlarger,withupto15ormore studentsinvolved.Thegroupsmaybeselfselecting,orthetutormayorganisethecompositionofthemto mixpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundstogether. Moststudentshavehadexperienceofbeingamemberofagroupbeforetheycometouniversity.Thisis likelytobeasamemberofasocialgroupingofsomesort:family,neighbourhoodorcommunitygroup,or memberofasmallorextendedgroupforaparticularinterest,vocationaloreducationalrelatedpurpose. Everygroupofpeoplewillbegintoformitsowngroundrulesandwaysofworkingtogether.Therolesof peopleinthesegroupscanbeformalisedandexplicitcompletewithtitlesorimplicitandinformal.For example,inthelattercase,thedominantroleofanolderfamilymembermaybeimplicitlyacknowledged andacceptedbyothers. Workinginagroupinuniversitywillbringwithitformoststudentsamixtureofthefamiliarwiththe unfamiliar.Familiar,inthesensethatitisanothersocialsituationinthelifeofthatpersonthathastobe negotiated,andnavigated.Butunfamiliartoo,inthatthe'rulesofthegame'areunknown,andthatthe student'sprioreducationexperiencemaynothaveincludedanypreviousopportunitytoworkcloselyina groupforassessmentpurposesandparticularlywithaculturallydiversegroupofunknownstrangers.

Opportunity
Whataretheadvantagesofgroupwork?Groupworkpresentsanopportunityto: Shareyourideasandfindsolutionstoproblems Workcloselywithstudentsfromarangeofdifferentculturalandsocial backgrounds Developyourkeyskills,e.g.teamworkingandtimemanagement, whichareessentialformostjobstoday Discoveryourspecificstrengthsingrouporteamworking Learnhowtodealwithchallengeandconflict Gainnew,additional,andevencreativeperspectivesonstudytopics Gettoknowasmallgroupofstudentssocially Makenewfriends Developyourcommunicationskills "Groupworkhashelped improvemyspoken English,andtime management,asweall needtoworktogether andcommunicatewith eachother." Postgraduatestudent fromVietnam

 Challenge
Groupworkinauniversitycontextandparticularlywhenassessmentisinvolvedpresentsachallengeto students. Formanystudents,particularlythosewhohavestudiedincountriesoutsideBritain,groupworkcanbea verynewexperience.Theymaynotknowwhatisexpectedofthemandsodonotgainfromthegroup,or contributetoit,asmuchastheycould. Workinagrouppresentsachallengetoallitsmembers:toworktogetherasagroupandtoovercomeasa groupanyproblemsthatoccur. Thistextlooksattherolesthatpeopleplayingroups,andincludesquestionnairestocomplete.Italsolooks atthestagesofgroupformation,andtheskillsneededtosucceedinanygrouptoday,whetheritisat university,atworkorinanyothersocialsituation. Likemostsignificanthumanendeavoursandencountersittakeseffort,andknowledge,togetitright,so readon...

 2.HowgroupsareusedwithstudentsinHE
SomeexamplesofworkbeingdonewithstudentgroupstakenfromJournals20002007:

1.TeachinginHEV11N1Jan06pp3346
Smith,Goldsmith&Strachan(SheffieldHallamUniversity)usedthe"BusinessStrategyGame"simulation forMastersstudentstodevelopskillsinteamworkandstudyatpostgradlevel.BSGisasimulationofthe athleticfootwearmarketanditwasrunwith2cohorts(includingdistancelearningstudents)over3days. Groupshadtosubmitbusinessplansandstrategies.Studentandtutorfeedbackwasusedtoevaluate (usingquestionnaires)withthemainfocusbeingpositive.Twostudentconcernswerehighlighted:the lengthoftimedevotedtosimulationandthecompositionofthegroups.

2.ActiveLearninginHEV6N1March05pp3245
Finlay&FaulknerdevelopedreadinggroupsattheUniversityofTorontotoencouragestudentstoengage inscholarlypractice.Groupsweresmall(35)andeachmemberhadatexttoread.Theyhadtowritea synopsisforotherseachweekandthiswasalsosenttothelecturer.Timewasalsoallocatedforgroupsto discussthereadingandprepareaclasspresentation(2groupsonly).Thequestionnairefoundthat studentsfeltthatintroductiontoawiderrangeofliteratureandimprovedcriticalabilitydidn'tnecessarily reduceworkload.Concernsfromstudentswerethattoomuchpreparationtimewasneededforthe presentation(thosegroupsnotdoingitfelttimewaswasted)andsomewantedmodelanswerstothe synopses.

3.JournalofFurtherandHE,V26,N4,Nov02pp327337
ChrisFrostfromLiverpoolJohnMooresUniversityused"TheReporter",ayearlongsimulationwiththird yearjournalismundergrads,topreparethemforemployment.Itmadeuphalfoftheassessmentforthe moduleandtheworkrepresentedathirdofthefinalyearworkload.Studentgroupshadtoproducea weeklynewspaperinrealtimesimulationtakingonaroleintheproductionprocessandtheywerealso involvedinthegradingprocess.Themodulewassupportedwithlectures.Observationandinterview foundthattheprojectwaswellreceivedbystudents,withsomeconcernsaboutthetutorfeedback sessionsnamelythetutorresponsiblewaschangedtoooften.Studentswereunhappyaboutrole selectiononthepaper,withpopularpostsusingrandomselectionmethodsduetothelargenumberof volunteersfortherole.Therewasalsoconcernthatstudentscouldpullawayfromtheteachingdelivered whichrelatedtotheworkdoneonthepaperthepaperusuallycontinuedbutprinciplesfromteaching werenotincluded.Studentsfeltamoredirectiveapproacharoundexpectedinputfromstudentswouldbe beneficial.

3.Whygroupsfail
ANightmareScenario
Imagineyouhavejoinedagroupofrelativestrangerstoworkonaprojectforyourcoursetogether.There aretenofyou.Fromthestartthingsgobadlywrongandgetworse!Groupmembersfailtogetonwith eachotherandfailtoworktogethersuccessfullyontheproject.Thisisanightmarescenario.So,whatdo youthinkwouldcausethistohappen? Tryandseparateoutthereasonsintotwotypes:processrelatedreasons(theproceduresforrunningthe groupdontwork)andpeoplerelatedreasons(thereareproblemsamongthegroupmembersthemselves). Writeinthespacesprovidedthereasonswhyagroupwouldfail?

Peoplerelated

Processrelated
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 WhyGroupsFail
Peopleproblems Thereisnoattempttogettoknoweachother aspeople. Oneortwopeopletrytodominatetheothers. Somegroupmemberstrytomonopolisethe discussion. Processproblems Therearenogroundrulesagreed,on,for example,when,whereandhowoftenthe groupwillmeet. Therearenoagreedagendasformeetings thereisalackofclarityonthepurposeofeach meeting. Specificrolesortasksarenotagreedand delegatedtogroupmembers. Nodeadlinesareagreedon. Thereisnochairpersonagreedorallocatedfor eachmeeting. Meetingsstartlateorrunonovertime. Norecordofthemeetingismade,e.g.who hasagreedtodowhatandbywhen.

Somegroupmembersdonotspeakatallthey justsitinsilence. Mostofthegroupwantstotalkandnot listen. Individualmembersideasareridiculedor dismissedbyothergroupmembers. Groupmembersarereluctanttotakethe initiativetostartadiscussion. Individualmembersideasareridiculedor dismissedbyothergroupmembers. Somegroupmembersmakeracistorsexist remarksthatarenotchallenged. Individualmembersprovetobeunreliable: theydonotdowhattheysaytheywilldo. Groupmembersareunpunctualorfailtoshow upformeetings. Twoorthreegroupmembersquarreland createabadatmosphere. Somegroupmembersaredeliberatelyisolated orignored.

Manyproblemsingroupsstemfromtheindividualmembersthemselves.Specificproblems,particularly talkingtoomuchornotatalloftenarisefromanxietyandmisunderstanding.Butweallhavestrengths tocontributetothesuccessofanygroupandweaknessesthatweneedtobeawareof.Trytheexercise thatfollowstolearnmoreaboutyourpotentialstrengthsandweaknessesinanygroup. Itcanbeagoodideaifallthemembersofyourgrouptrythisexerciseandthendiscusstheresult collectively.

4.Personalityandgrouproles
ThisexerciseintroducesyoutotheMYERSBRIGGSPERSONALITYTYPEINDICATORandwillpresentyou withasummaryofyourpersonalitytype.Itcanhelpyoutoclarifywhatyourstrengthsandweaknesses maybeinanygrouporteam. TheMBTIPersonalityTypeIndicatorisatesttomeasurepsychologicaltypebasedonthetheoreticalwork ofCarlJunganddevelopedintoapracticalapplication(questionnaire)byKatherineBriggsandherdaughter IsabelMyers. Thereare16differentpersonalitytypes.Itisimportanttoacknowledgethateachindividualisuniquee.g. genes,background,parents,experiencesandinterestsbutthattheywillalsohaveatremendousamountin commonwithotherpeoplewhosharethesametype. Therearesomebasicassumptionsthatunderlietypetheoryincludingthebeliefthatwhilstpreferencesare inbornenvironmentcanenhanceorimpedeexpressionoftype.Onethingthatisnotanassumptionisthat allofthetypesareequallyvaluable! TheMyersBriggstheoryisbasedonfourbasicaspectsofhumanpersonality: Howweinteractwiththeworldandwherewedirectourenergy Thekindofinformationwenaturallynotice Howwemakedecisions Andwhetherweprefertoliveinamorestructuredwayorinamorespontaneousway

MyersBriggsassertthateveryonewillinclinetooneendofaspectrumofresponsetoeachofthesefour basicaspectsofpersonality: Howweinteractwiththeworldandwherewedirectourenergy: (E)ExtroversionIntroversion(I) Thekindofinformationwenaturallynotice: (S)SensingIntuition(N) Howwemakedecisions: (T)ThinkingFeeling(F) Whetherweprefertoliveinamorestructuredway(makingdecisions)orinamorespontaneousway (takingininformation): (J)JudgingPerceiving(P) 6

 MyersBriggsarguethateveryonespreferenceofresponsewillfallononesideortheotherofthe midpointoneachofthesefourscales. Thiscanresultinaprofileforyourselfthatfallsintooneofsixteenpossiblecombinations: ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ Eachofthesesixteentypescanresultinapreferenceandpredispositiontorespondinaparticularwayto situations,althoughthesearenotcarvedinstonepeoplecananddobehaveinoftensurprisingand unexpectedwaystosituations. Theexercisethatfollowswillhelpyouidentifytowhichofthesesixteentypesyoubelong.When consideringyourresponsetothestatementsitisimportantthatyoudonotspendtoolongthinkingabout eachone.Generallyyourinitialreactionisthetrueone.Don'trespondtothestatementsbasedonhow youwouldliketobe,orhowyouthinkotherpeoplewouldlikeyoutobetryandaimforhowyouare whenyouarejustabletobeyourself. ISTP ISFP INFP INTP ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

Extroversion&Introversion
Where,primarily,doyoudirectyourenergy? Totheouterworldofactivityandspokenwords,ortotheinnerworldofthoughtsandemotions? Ifitistowardtheouterworldofactivityorwords,itiscalledExtroversion,denotedbytheletterE.Ifitis towardtheinnerworldofideas,information,orthoughts,itiscalledIntroversion,denotedbytheletterI. Extroisaprefixmeaning'without'andIntroisaprefixmeaning'within'. Mostpeoplethinkthatextrovertedmeanstalkativeandintrovertedmeansshyorreserved.Butthisis averysimplisticwayoflookingatthesetwodimensions.Duringeachdayyouwillundoubtedlyspendtime spontaneouslydoingorsayingthings,aswellasretreatingintotheinnerworldofcontemplationand thought.Ifyourworkingdayhasinvolvedmuchinteractionwiththeworld,eventheclearestExtrovertmay feelattheendofthedaythatheorshewantstobeleftalonewithhisthoughts.Conversely,ifanIntrovert hasbeenworkinginisolationallday,heorshemayfeeltheneedtosocialiseintheeveningtorestore somebalance. You,likeeveryotherindividual,needtofindaparticularbalanceofbothintroversionandextroversion. However,layingasidespecialcircumstanceslikethoseinthepreviousparagraph,generallyintrovertsenjoy spendingtimealonetorechargetheirbatteries,whilstthereverseistrueforextroverts. Somegeneralpointsaboutextrovertsandintroverts: Extroverttypes: Areenergizedbybeingwithothers. Introverttypes: Areenergizedbyspendingtimealone. 7

Oftenthinkoutloud. Sharepersonalfeelingseasily.

Areinclinedtothinkthingsthroughwithout speech. Aremoreprivatewiththeirfeelings.

Soonbalancedoyouthinkyouinclinemoreto: EorI?Writewhichletteryouinclinetointhisbox:

TheKindofInformationweNaturallyNotice
Howdoyouprefertoprocessinformation? Intheformofknownfactsandfamiliartermsorintheformofpossibilitiesornewpotential? Somepeoplefocusonwhatis,whilstothersfocusonwhatcouldbe. Ifitisintheformoffactsorfamiliarterms,itiscalledSensing,denotedbytheletterS.Ifitisintheformof possibilitiesornewpotential,itiscallediNtuition,denotedbytheletterN(NisusedratherthanI,toavoid confusionwithIntroversion). ThetermSensingisusedbecauseinformationistakeninprimarilybywayofthesenses(e.gtouch,sight, smell,taste).ThetermiNtuitionisusedbecauseinformationisperceivedprimarilyinanintuitivefashion. Sensingtypestendtobeinterestedintangiblereality,focusingonthepresent,andseeingwhatis,rather thanwhatmightbe.Atanextreme,Sensingtypescanhavetheirfeetsowellandtrulyonthegroundthat theymissoutonpossibilitiesforthefuture. ThepreferenceforiNtuitionsuggestsagreateremphasisoninsightandthefuture,focusingonwhatmight be,ratherthanwhatis.Atanextreme,iNtuitiontypescanfocussomuchonpossibilitiesthattheylose touchwithcurrentrealities. Sensingtypestendtocommunicateindirectways,whilstiNtuitiontypesprefertocommunicateincreative ways. Sensingtypes: iNtuitiontypes: Trustwhatiscertain&concrete. Trustinstinct,inspiration&inference. Likenewideasonlyiftheyarepractical. Likenewideasfortheirownsake. Valuerealism&commonsense. Valueimagination&innovation. Liketouseestablishedskills. Liketolearnnewskills. Presentinformationstepbystep. Getboredeasilyaftermasteringnewskills. Aregoodatnoting&rememberingfacts. Arebestatinterpretingfacts. Itcanbehardsometimestodecidewhichsideweareonwiththisparticularelementaspeopleareoften amixtureofthetwobutagain,itisaboutdecidingwhichsidegenerallyweareinclinedto. Soonbalancedoyouthinkyouinclinemoreto: SorN?Writewhichletteryouinclinetointhisbox: 8

Howwemakedecisions
Howdoyouprefertomakedecisions? Onthebasisoflogicandobjectiveconsiderationsoronthebasisofpersonalvalues? Ifitisonthebasisoflogicandobjectiveconsiderations,itiscalledThinking,denotedbytheletterT. Ifitisonthebasisofpersonalvalues,itiscalledFeeling,denotedbytheletterF. Thinkingtypespreferdecisionsthatmakesenselogically.Theypridethemselvesontheirabilitytobe objectiveandanalytical.Theymakedecisionsbyanalysingandweighingtheevidence,evenifitmeans comingtounpleasantconclusions. Feelingtypesmakedecisionsbasedonhowmuchtheycareorwhattheyfeelisright.Theypride themselvesontheirabilitytobecompassionateintheirjudgements. Thetermsthinkingandfeelingcarrycertainconnotations.InWesternculture,forexample,thereisa stronggenderbiastocertaintypesofbehaviour.Menmayfeeltheyshouldchoosethinking,eventhough theirinstinctsdrawthemtofeeling.Conversely,womenmaybemoreinclinedinstinctivelytothe thinkingtype,butsocialisedtofeeltheyshouldoptforthefeelingcategory. Thinkingtypes: Stepbackfromproblems&analysesthem. Soonbalancedoyouthinkyouinclinemoreto:TorF?Writewhichletteryouinclinetointhisbox: Believetruthismoreimportantthantact& cantakeahardlinewhennecessary. Havestrongmotivationtoachieve. Trustfeelingsonlyiftheyarelogical. Feelingtypes: Thinkhardabouteffectsofdecisionson individuals. Generallyliketosatisfyorpleaseothers. Willlookforcompromises. Believefeelingsareimportantindecision making.

TheWayWeOrganiseOurLives
Howdoyouprefertoorganiseyourlife? Inastructuredway,makingdecisionsandknowingwhereyoustandorinaflexibleway,discoveringlifeas yougoalong? Ifitisinastructuredway,makingdecisionsandknowingwhereyoustand,thenitiscalledJudgement(J).If itisinaflexibleway,discoveringlifeasyougoalongthisiscalledPerception(P).

SomeonewhosepreferenceisJudgementprefers,intheirlifestyle,tomakedecisions.Thismeansthatthey prefertomakedecisionsaboutwhattodo,wheretogo,whattosay,andsoon.Asaresultofthese decisions,theirlifestyleappearsorganised.Theyliketofeeltheyhavecontrolovertheirownbitoflife. SomeonewhosepreferenceisPerceptionprefers,intheirlifestyle,tolearnorexperiencenewthings.This meansthattheyprefertofindoutmore,ratherthanmakingdecisions,andaremorecomfortablewhen theykeeptheiroptionsopen.Asaresultofthisopennesstheycanappear,andfeeltobe,flexiblein outlookandbehaviour. AnimportantdistinctionbetweenJudgementandPerceptiontypesisintheissueofclosureofdecisions.J typepersonalitiesexperiencetensionuntilafinaldecisiononanissueismade.Ptypes,however, experiencetensionwhentheyareforcedtomakeadecision,astheyoftenprefertokeeptheiroptions open. Judgementtypes: Arehappiestafterdecisionsaremade. Haveastrongworkethicworkfirst,play later. Setgoals&workstowardthese. Gainsatisfactionfromfinishingprojects. Preferknowingexactlywhatsinvolved. Soonbalancedoyouthinkyouinclinemoreto: JorP?Writewhichletteryouinclinetointhisbox: Perceptiontypes: Prefertoleaveoptionsopen. Haveastrongplayethic. Enjoyadaptingtonewsituations. Enjoystartingnewprojects. Copewellwithambiguity.

WorkingOutYourOwnPreference
Everyone'spersonalitywillreflectallaspectsoftheMyersBriggsmodel.YouuseExtroversionaswellas Introversion,SensingaswellasiNtuition,ThinkingaswellasFeeling,andJudgementaswellasPerception. However,youarelikelytohavepreferencesofresponsetosituationsthatwillhelpyoutoarriveatyour MBTIprofile. Listthelettersyouhavechosenforeachofthefourdimensions. Yourchoiceofletters: ThecombinationoflettersyouhavearrivedatisourMBTIPersonalityType. Youcanobtainadescriptionofthepersonalitytraitsassociatedwitheachofthesixteenpersonalitytypes ontheinternetathttp://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/myersbriggs/myersbriggs.htm Howdothesetypesconnectwiththeroleorrolesyoumightplayinagrouporteam?Keepreading!

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GrouporTeamRolesAndMBTIType
ThistableshowstherelationshipbetweenteamrolesandMBTItype;thismeanstheroleyouarelikelyto playinanyteam. TeamRole Coach Crusader Explorer Innovator Sculptor Curator Conductor Scientist MBTIType ESFJ/ENFJ ISFP/INFP ENTP/ENFP INTJ/INFJ ESFP/ESTP ISFJ/ISTJ ESTJ/ENTJ ISTP/INTP

Coach
Coachestrytocreateharmonyintheworldaroundthem,bybuildingrapportwithpeople,creatinga positiveteamatmosphere,lookingafterpeople'swelfare,motivatingpeopleand/orprovidingaserviceto thesatisfactionofothers.Theyvaluepeople'scontributions,seektodeveloptherolethatothersplay,and investalotofeffortinbuildingpositiverelationships.Theytrytoovercomedifferencesofopinionandfind waysinwhichtheteamcanagree. However,theycanbeeasilyinfluencedandmaynotalwaysbeassertiveenoughtopromotetheirown ideas.Theycanalsobeeasilydiscouraged,particularlyiftheircontributionstothegroupareignoredor rejected.

Crusader
Crusadersgiveimportancetoparticularthoughts,ideas,orbeliefs. Theyarevaluedriven,andinateamdiscussiontheyoftenbringasenseofprioritythatisderivedfrom theirstrongconvictions.Theyseizeuponandemphasiseideasorthoughtsthathavethegreatestimport, bringingthemtotheforeandstressingtheirsignificance.Theyassesstheinherentvalueorimportanceof newideas,focusingonthoseaboutwhichtheyfeelmoststrongly. However,theirownstrongbeliefsorvaluesmayleadthemtodistancethemselvesfrom,orclashwith, othersinthegroupwhohavecontrarybeliefs.

Explorer
Explorerspromoteexplorationofnewandbetterwaysofdoingthings,touncoverhiddenpotentialin people,thingsorsituations.Theybreaknewground,andareoftenlookingonestepbeyondthecurrent situationtopursueunexploredavenues,untilallthepossibilitieshavebeenexhausted. Explorersoftenchallengethestatusquoandexperimentwiththeintroductionofchange,toseeifthe situationcanbeimprovedornewpotentialuncovered. 11

However,theycangetboredeasilyandmaynotpayattentiontodetail,orwanttogetinvolvedin discussiononsmalldetails.

Innovator
Innovatorsusetheirimaginationtocreatenewanddifferentideasandperspectives.Theyobservethe worldaroundthem,thenusetheirimaginationstoconsiderwhattheyhaveobservedfromanumberof differentperspectivesanddreamupnewideasandinsights.Innovatorsoftenproduceradicalsolutionsto problems,developlongtermvisionanddemonstrateanapparentunderstandingofwhatcannotbeclearly known. However,othersmayseethemasupinthecloudsandinclinedtodisregardpracticaldetailsofprotocol. Theycanalsoignoreprocedureandcanbetoopreoccupiedtocommunicateeffectivelywithothergroup members.

Sculptor
Sculptorsbringthingstofruitionbygettingthingsdone,andgettingthemdonenow!Theyareveryaction oriented,dealingwithwhatevertasksthecurrentsituationpresents,andspurringothersintoactionaswell. Theymakeuseoftheirexperienceandutilisetoolsorprocessesofwhichtheyalreadyhaveknowledge. Theytrytohaveanimmediateimpactonthings,injectingasenseofurgency,andaimingtoachieveclear goalsandtangibleresults. However,theymaybeinclinedtoshowtheirirritationwithothers,particularlythosetheyfeelarenot contributingortakingthegrouptaskseriouslyenough.

Curator
Curatorsbringclaritytotheinnerworldofinformation,ideasandunderstanding.Theylisten,askquestions andabsorbinformation,sothatintheirmind'seyetheycanachieveasclearapictureorunderstandingas ispossible.Theyexpandtheirknowledgeandcollectionofexperiences,andalsolooktothefutureby envisagingcleargoalsandclearpathwaystoachievementofthosegoals.Theirfocusonclarityalsobrings greaterattentiontodetail. However,theymaynotalwaysberesponsivetonewandunprovenideasandmaybeinclinedtobeover cautioustoideasoutsidetheirpreviousexperience.

Conductor
Conductorsintroduceorganisationandalogicalstructureintothewaythingsaredone.Theyorganiseand systematisetheworldaroundthem,byestablishingappropriateplans,identifyingandimplementingthe correctprocedures,andthenendeavouringtomakesuretheyarefollowed.Theytrytoensurethatroles andresponsibilitiesareproperlydefinedandthatappropriateresourcesorskillsareavailabletoundertake theworkassigned. However,othersmayperceivethemasmanipulativeoroverlybureaucratic,particularlyiftheytryto dominateanygrouporsteeritinaparticulardirectionwithoutproperdiscussion.

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Scientist
Scientistsprovideexplanationofhowandwhythingshappen.Theybringstructureandorganisationinto theinnerworldofideasandunderstanding.Theyanalysethings,formulatehypothesesandexplanationsof howtheyfunction,andgatherevidencetoassesshowtruethoseexplanationsare.Theyproducemental modelsthatreplicatehowparticularaspectsoftheworldworks,andtrytounderstandthefullcomplexity ofanysituation. However,theymaynotalwaysworkcollaborativelywithothers,preferringinsteadtoworkandpursue ideasindependently.

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HowYouSeeYourself
Itcanbehelpfultocompletethissectionindividually,andthendiscussitwithothergroupmembers. DoyoubroadlyagreeordisagreewiththeMBTIresult?Ifyoudisagree,pleasestatewhy. Whatstrengths&weaknessesdoyoufeelyouwillbringtothegroup?Pleasesummarisetheseinthespace below:

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5.Groupdevelopmentandchange
GroupLifeCycle?
Groupsmaypassthroughdifferentstagesofformationorgroupdevelopment.Itisworththinkingabout howyourgroupischanginganddevelopingtomakesurethatyouaregoingintherightdirectionandthat everyoneiscommittedtothetask.Ifthegroupisnotdevelopingasyouthinkitshouldthenyouneedto diagnosewhatisgoingwrongandtrytoputitright. Thereareanumberofdifferenttheoriesofthetypicalgrouplifecycle,includingBassandRyterband'sfour distinctstagesofgroupdevelopment: 1. Developingmutualacceptanceandmembership 2. Communicationanddecisionmaking 3. Motivationandproductivity 4. Controlandorganisation (Bass,B.,andRyterband,E.,OrganizationalPsychology,AllynandBacon,1979.) ThemostpopularhoweveristhatofBruceTuckman'sgroupdevelopmentmodel(1965).Tuckman identifiedfourstagesofgroupformation(andaddedafifthstage'adjourning'inthe1970's). WhenindividualscometogetheringroupstheyoftenexperiencethedifferentstagesofTuckman'sgroup 'lifecycle'.

1. Forming
Attheformingstage,thereislittlesenseofitbeingagroup;itisstillacollectionofindividuals. Peopleinthegrouparecautiousofeachotherandwhatisexpectedofthem.Manyindividuals prefertokeepquietratherthanspeakoutatthisstage,untiltheyaresureoftheirroleandposition inthegroup.Thegroupwillseekdirectionatthisstagefromahigherauthority,e.g.atutor.

2. Storming
Asthegroupbeginstoworktogether,peoplebecomebolder,andconflictsmayemergeopenly. Factionsmayform,andindividualsmayjostlefordominantpositionsinthegroup.Theremaybe mutteringsabout'otherpeoplesbehaviour'.Thiscanbeadifficultstageinthelifecycleofthe group.Thegroupneedstodiscussproblemsopenlyifitistomoveontothenextstage.

3. Norming
Opendiscussionofproblemsinthegroup,ortheurgencyofagrouptask,canleadtothegroup normingstage,whenitbeginstoworkcollectivelyatthetask.Informalorformalgroundruleshave beenestablished,andgroupmembersarebeginningtogettoknoweachotherandhavemore confidenceindividuallyandcollectively.Individualdifferencesaretolerated,providingallgroup membersareworkingattheirappointedtasks.

4. Performing
Atthisstage,thegroupisworkingwelltogether.Thegrouphasitsownunspokenrulesand membersareoftenverysupportiveofeachother.Thegroupmayassertitsownidentity;itbecomes ourgroup.Theremaybegroupritualsorritesofpassage,tocelebratethecompletionofthetask, e.g.amealoraparty. 15

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 Example:TheFourStagesofGroupFormation
Thesestagesofgroupformationcanhappenquitequickly.Belowisanexampleofgroupformationthat happenedinjustoneday.Thecommentsbelowaretheobservationsofatrainerleadingashorttraining sessionwithagroupofpeoplewhodidnotknoweachotheratthestartoftheday. (TakenfromAdultsLearningbyJennyRogers,1989) Firstsession quiet&cautious; notsureofeachother yet. Secondsession glancesofirritation exchangedatthe thingspeoplesay. Thirdsession thebreakinthe cloudstheyvetalked duringcoffeeandhave discoveredthatother peoplearenotso awfulafterall. Fourthsession purposeful:emergence ofjokes,senseof wherepeopleare going.Attheendof theday,peopleare exchangingaddresses andphonenumbers.

ButGroupsDontHAVEtoGoThroughTheseStages!
Yourgroupdoesnothavetogothroughsomeofthesestagesallgroupsaresubtlydifferent. Somegroupsmovequicklytonormingandperformingstageswithoutanystorming!Itdependsonthe mixofpersonalitiesinthegroups.Somegroupsworkbecausethemembersfitinwellwitheachotherfrom thestartandthegroupissoonfocusedonthetask. Somemoveevenmorerapidlyfromformingtoperformingbecausetheytargetaparticularoutcomeand workexpedientlytogethertodothetasksrequiredofthem.Theymaybeindifferentto,orevendislike, eachother.Buttheyputthistoonesideandgetonwiththetasksbecausetheyhaveto.Theyarenot interestedinnorming,becausethegroupwillbreakupwhenthejobisdone.Butthissituationtendsto applytogroupsthatformquicklyandhavetoperformaparticulartaskwithinatighttimeschedule,or groupswheremembersarearbitrarilygroupedtogetherforaparticularpurpose. However,itisclearthattheearlystagesofgroupformationcanbeveryimportant.Asapracticalhint, makesurethatyouusethefirstfewmeetingstoestablishagoodworkingrelationshipfromthestart. Therehavealsobeensomestudiesofstudentgroupswhichfoundthatcertaingroupsdidnotgothrough thesestagesatall.Inonestudy,thestudentgroupsgotstartedonthetaskalmostimmediatelywithoutany conflict.Theoriginalmomentumseemedtoflagafterawhileandtherewasacriticalpointabouthalfway throughwhenmanyofthegroupsseemedtoreassesstheirprogressandtheleadershipoftenchanged. Theoveralleffectivenessandperformanceofthegroupwasstronglyinfluencedbythis'halfwayreview' andsothismightbeausefulpracticalpoint:whenyouplanyourtimetableforagroupproject,makesure thatyouhaveameetinghalfwaythroughtoreviewprogressandmakesurethatyouareontherighttrack (forfurtherdiscussionofthesetheoriesofgroupdevelopmentandtheirpracticalimplications,seePeter Hartley,1997,GroupCommunication,Routledge).

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6.Culturaldifferencesingroupbehaviour
Formanyinternationalstudents,workinginagroupaspartofanassessedprojectisanentirelynew experienceanditcanraisetwoparticularissuesforthem:aboutprotocolandcommunication.

Protocol
Ineverycountrythereareacceptedprotocolsabouttherolesandbehaviourofindividualsingroups.In manycountries,forexample,individualslearnthattheyneedtoasserttheirviewstobeheard,andthat theirstatusinthegroupcandependontheextentandeaseoftheirabilitytodothiswithoutupsetting othergroupmembers.Sotheylearnthatthefrequency,pacing,pausing,intonation,anddirectnessoftheir communicationhasanimpactonthisprocess.Theylearntopresenttheirpersonalopinionsinawaythat encouragesothersinthesameculturalgroupingtogivedueattentiontothem. InBritainandtheUSA,forexample,theindividualisticnatureofthesecountriescanresultintheindividuals involvedseizingopportunitiesingroupstopresentapersonalviewpoint,andtoattempttodoitwith enoughconfidencetogaintheattentionofotherswithoutantagonisingthem.Thisisafinescience,andnot allgetitrightaswehaveseeninsection3ofthisguide.Nevertheless,thisformofindividualistic communicationhasbeenencouragedbytheirteachers,whotendtosupportandencouragetheideathat welearnthroughdebate,interactionandtheexpressionofpersonalopinion. However,studentsfrommoreconsensualandcollectivistculturesmayhavelearnedinaverydifferentway. Forexample,inpartsoftheFarEaststudentslearnthroughimitationandobservation.Theymayfeel, subsequently,thattheyneedtointernaliseandunderstandtheexistingknowledgebeforetheycontribute theirownideas.Toairone'sunformedopinionsonahalfunderstoodsubjectcanseemliketheheightof arrogancetoastudentfromsuchaneducationalbackground. Theymayalsobedeeplyuncomfortableinanysituation,suchasagroup,whereanargumentcanflare. AlanMacfarlane,ProfessorofAnthropologyatCambridgeUniversity,observedthis,forexample,of Japanesestudents: "Communicationshouldneverleadintodisagreement.Interpersonalharmonyisessential, andargumentordebateavoided...muchofBritisheducationisbasedonconfrontational exchanges,whereteachersandstudentsaretaughttothinkbywayofanintellectualgame orbattle...SuchanapproachispuzzlingtomyJapanesestudents"(TheTimesHigher, 10/08/2007,p.14). Mostinternationalstudentswithlittlepreviousexperienceofgroupworkineducationaredrivenhardby theirneedtosucceed,andmostwillmakeadeterminedefforttofitinwiththeculturalnormsofthehost countryandwiththeirallocatedgroup: "Groupworkwithotherinternationalstudentscanbeadifficultissue.Onceyouare tunedinoradjusttodifferentcommunicationstyles,itbecomeseasier"(postgraduate studentfromDubai,SchoolofManagement). Thisprocessofadjustmentcanbeeasedbyallstudentsbeingawarethattheirpeersmaysharevery differentexperiencesofgroupwork.Itshouldnot,therefore,beassumedthataquietmemberofagroup 18

hasnothingtosay,orisoptingoutofthediscussion.Itmaybethattheirpreviousexperiencehasnot preparedthemforthisnewsituationandtheyneedtimetoweighitup.Forthisreason,itisoftenauseful experienceforstudentstosharetheirculturalexperiencesofgroupworkatanearlystageofgroup formation. Thesecondimportantissueforinternationalstudentsisaboutcommunicationandovercominganxiety associatedwithspeakinginpublic. "Ifoundoutthattheproblemwasnotmylanguageskillitselfbuttheconfidencetospeakin English.SometimesIwasjustnotconfidentenoughtospeakoutmythoughts"(student fromChina). "Iwantedtojoindiscussionsliketheothersbutusedtogetsonervousthatmybodyshook. InmymindIwasfullyengagedintheclassroomandhadsomethingtosay,butfeared makingafoolofmyself(AfricanstudentquotedinRyan,2000,p.29) IfEnglishistheirsecondlanguage,thentheresponsesofinternationalstudentstodiscussionmaybe slowerthanothers,astheyseektherightwordsandmentallyframethemintocoherentsentences. Allgroupmembersneedtobeparticularlysensitivetothisissueandgivesupporttointernationalstudents whoneedtimeandencouragementtocontributetheirideaswhichthemajoritywillwanttodo. Formanyinternationalstudentsfacedwithgroupwork,theansweristobandwithotherstudentsifthey havethechanceinmonoculturalgroups.Thisisunderstandable,butoftenamistake,andalossof opportunity. Workinginagroupmakessynergyandyouworkfaster;butwhenthegroupconsistsof peoplefrommorethanoneculture,itsometimesmakesdoublesynergy,aseveryoneinthe groupthinksfromthedifferentangleandhasdistinctknowledge"(Postgraduatestudent fromPakistan,SchoolofManagement). Ithink,onbalance,itisgoodwhenstudentsfromdifferentculturesaremixedtogetherby thetutor.Iflefttotheirowndevicesstudentswillstayintheirowncomfortzonesandthis oftenmeansgroupingwithothersfromthesamecountry.Inthissituationyoumighthave internationalstudentsonthecourse,butitdoesntmakeitaninternationalcourse! (UndergraduatestudentfromKenya,SchoolofEngineering,DesignandTechnology). Thewayaroundthissituationinselfselectinggroupsisfortwoorthreestudentsfromonecountrytoform asmallsubgroup,butthentotryandintegrateintoamaingrouptoworkalongsidestudentsfromother countries.Inthiswaytheygainsupportandoftenthecouragetospeakupfromeachother,buthave takenanimportantsteptowardworkingacrossculturalboundaries.

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7.Makingdiscussionwork
GettheMostoutofGroupDiscussion
Thefollowingadvicewillhelpyourgrouptoconnectwelltogether. (Source:adaptedspecificallyfrom:Cottrell,S.(2003)TheStudySkillsHandbook.PalgraveStudyGuide.)

BeforeDiscussion
Ensureyouhavedoneanytasksagreedforthegroup Readaroundthesubject Whatquestionsdoyouwantanswered? Decidewhowillchairthemeetingthiscanbedoneonarotationbasistogiveeveryoneachance

DuringtheDiscussion
Checkeveryonecanseeandheareveryoneelse Beopentohearingsomethingnew Jotdownusefulinformation Jotdownquestionstoask Ifyoudontunderstandsomething,ask Linkwhatyouheartowhatyoualreadyknow Makecontributionstothediscussiontryandcontributesomethingtoeachmeeting.Thiscould taketheformofencouragingothersifyouhavenoideasofyourowntoaddtoanydiscussion

AftertheDiscussion
Gooveryournotes Checkthatyouknowexactlywhenyouhavetodoactivitiesarisingoutofthegroup. Aboveallelse:Dontletthegroupdowndowhatyousaidyouwoulddo.

ListeningtoOtherGroupMembersisaKeytoGroupSuccess:
TipsforBetterListening
Bodylanguage:noddingagreement,smiling,lookinginterested Encouraging:e.g.yes,thatsagoodidea;yes,Iagree 20

Askquestions:e.g.howdowedothat? Makesuggestions:thatbuildonthespeakersideas Disagreeingcreatively:ifyoudisagreewiththespeakerscomments,youcouldaskforelaboration, e.g.whatif?Howwillthatworkinpractice?Whenaskedtoelaborateonpointsmade, speakersmaybegintoseetheflawsintheirownarguments!

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8.Waysofgettingstarted
FormingaGroup
Atthefirstmeeting,youmaywanttoworkthroughthefollowingexercisesandchecklist.Youmayalso findthevideoclipsandinformationfoundonthiswebsiteuseful:http://www.learnhighergroupwork.com/.

1. ContactList
Youcouldstartbyallgroupmemberswritingtheirnames&contactdetails.Thisshouldbecirculatedtoall membersofthegroup. Name Email/TelephoneNumber

2. Introductions(http://www.learnhighergroupwork.com/episode1/) Groupmembersshouldintroducethemselvesandsayalittleabouttheirbackgrounds.Evenifgroup membersknoweachotheralready,itcanbeusefultodothis,asitgetseveryonespeaking. 3. ClarifyAimandPurposeoftheGroupTask(http://www.learnhighergroupwork.com/episode2/) Forthefirstmeeting,someoneshouldvolunteertoleadthediscussionandanothertotakenotes. However,itisagoodideafortheleadershipandrecordingofmeetingstoberotatedaroundgroup memberssoeveryonegetsthechancetodoit.Thiscouldfeatureinthegroundrulesdiscussion(see below). Thegroupshouldalsoclarifyaimandpurposeofthesettask.Thiscaninvolve,forexample,lookingclosely atthewordingofanyquestionorprojectandmakingsureeveryoneisclearonbroadlywhatisinvolved andwhenthetaskasawholemustbecompletedandwhoisgoingtodowhat.Itcanbehelpfulifawritten summaryismadeofthisdiscussion.Everyoneshouldthensignthisandcopiesshouldbemadeforall members(seeexamplebelow): 22

 GroupTask:ForourgroupprojectforthePDPmoduleweagreedthatwewould explorewhatproblemsweexperiencedwhenpreparingandwritingessays.We arestartingfromapositionthatmanystudentsfindessaywritingdifficult,butwe areseekingtoidentifythespecificreasonsforthis. Wehaveagreedthatweshouldsearchforpreviousresearchonthistopicand conductasmallscalefacetofacesurveyofotherstudentsonthemodule,usinga questionnaire.Wehaveagreedonwhodoeswhat,asshownbelow. Timescale:workmustbecompletedby30thNovember;ourpresentationison the8thDecember,whichwillleavetimetorehearsebeforethepresentationday. Method(agreedroles): Searchjournalarticlesforpreviousresearch(Zak) Searchbooksforpreviousresearch/opinion(Emma) Preparequestionnaire(Yusuf) Interviewstudents:(Waqas,Paul,Shu,Adel,Mary) Nextmeeting: 20thOctober:Zak&Emmatoreport;Yusuftopresentquestionnairefor discussion.Adelwillleadthismeeting. Signed&dated:(allgroupmemberssignanddatethis)

4. GroundRules
Groupsshouldformulatetheirowngroundrulesontheexpectedconductofmeetingsandmembers. Groundrulesaresimplewrittenstatementsonagreedconduct.Allgroupmembersshouldreceiveacopy ofthese. Groundrulescouldinclude: Punctuality Attendance Leadershipofmeetings(whodoesit) Recordingdiscussion(whodoesit) Commitment Contributiontothegroup(everyoneshouldcontributesomethingtoitssuccess,butindividuals needtocommitinwritingtothis) Confidentiality Mobilephones,e.g.switchoffatmeetings 23

Theimportanceoflisteningtoeachother Respect(e.g.notallowing,forexample,sexistorracistcomments,andnotacceptingabusiveor aggressiveremarksetc.) Decisionmakingprocedures

Thesheetonthefollowingpagecouldbeprintedofforphotocopiedandusedtoformulategroundrules.

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GROUNDRULES
Topic

GroundRules

Agreedon..bythefollowing[names&signatures]:

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9.Reviewingyourgroupprogress
Onceyourgrouphasformedandhasbeenrunningawhile,itisagoodideatoreviewitsprogress, particularlyifmembersfeelthereareproblemsinthegrouptoovercome. Theevaluationformbelowcanhelpyourgrouptoreviewitsprogress.Withregardstoyourstudygroup, rankyourstudygroupinthefollowingcategoriesonascalefrom110.Itcanbehelpfulifindividual membersofthegroupfirstcompletethequestionnaire,thenthegroupasawholecomparesanddiscusses individualresponses. PositivePoints Groupgoalsclearly defined Agreementreachedat mostmeetings Taskscompletedas agreed Everyoneparticipating Welistentoeachother Openandtrusting atmosphere Allabletoexpress opinions Opinionscouldbe questionedwithout resentment Respectshownforeach other Consensusdecisions Leadershipskills demonstrated Peoplepresentontimeor sendapologiesif unavailable Systematicapproachto discussion Timeusedefficiently Challenging,rewarding, enjoyingatmosphere Groupcommittedto tasks
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

NegativePoints Goalsunclear Disagreementafeatureof mostmeetings Agreedtasksnotcompleted Significantnumbernot participating Listeningskillsweak Distrustanddefensiveness Noopportunitytoexpress opinions Opinionsuntouchableand couldnoteasilybe challenged Noorlittlerespectshownby orforothergroupmembers Authoritariandecisions Driftingordominatingby individuals Unpunctualityasignificant feature Lackofsystematicapproach totasks Timewasted Flat,lifelessatmosphere Lackofcommitmentby significantnumberofgroup members

Source:NIMBAS2005:adaptedfromagroupevaluationquestionnaireproducedbyNIMBAS,Utrecht,Netherlands.

Score15:isanindicationthatyourgrouphassufferedproblemsinthisareaandneedstofindasolution. Score68:isanindicationthatyourgroupneedstomakesomeimprovementinthisarea. Score910:isanindicationthatyourgrouphasdonewellinthisarea.

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10.Dealingwithconflict
SurvivingtheStorm
Asmentionedearlier,yourgroupmayblendwellfromthestartandmovequicklyontothenormingand performingstages.Thisismuchmorelikelytohappenifyouworkthroughtheexercisesintheprevious section.Butifyourgroupdoeshitaproblemthegroupneedstodiscussit,andresolveitquickly. Herearesomeparticularproblemsthatcanoccur,andsomeadviceiftheydo:

Problem
Someonegetsupsetifhisorher ideasarechallengedorrejected.

Advice
Thisproblemusuallyarisesbecauseofthewayanideagets challengedinthegroup.Thepersonwhoputforwardtheideamay feelpersonallyrejectedorinsultediftheirsuggestionsarescorned orinsensitivelyrejected.Ifsomeoneputsforwardanidea,and othersdontacceptit,theobjectorsneedtomakeclearthatitisthe ideathattheywanttochallenge,andnottheintelligenceor integrityofthepersonproposingtheidea. Ifgroupmembersareexperiencingproblemsoutsidethegroup, theymayfinditdifficulttoignorethese.Worriesfromtheoutside cancausegroupmemberstobeangryoraggressivetoothers withouttoomuchobviousprovocation. Itcanbehelpfulifgroupmeetingsstartedwithmemberssaying whathashappenedtothemgenerallysincethelastmeeting.This maybringworryingissuesuptothesurface. Thegroupmayalsowanttobuildinagroundruleaboutnot acceptingabusiveoraggressivebehaviour. Iftheseissuesarecominguptothesurface,theyneedtobeopenly discussed,otherwiseresentmentwillstarttodestroygroup cohesion. Thechairpersonneedstoleaddiscussionontothetopicofgroup dynamicsbyinvitinggroupmemberstosayopenly,candidly,but notabusivelyoraggressively,howtheyfeelthegroupisworking. Thechairpersonshouldinvitesomeonetostartthediscussion,and oncesomeonehasraisedasensitiveissue,otherswillusuallyfollow withtheircomments.Thechairpersonshouldensureallgroup membersgetachancetosaywhattheythink. Thiscanleadtoadifficultandtensemeeting,particularlyifalotof resentmentisbelowthesurface.However,anhonestdiscussion cancleartheairandleadtoamuchmoreopenandcommitted group.Somegroupmembers,forexample,maybecompletely unawarethattheiropinionsandactionshavebeencausing problems. 27

Problemsfromoutsidebeing broughtintothegroup.

Groupimbalances,e.g.oneortwo peopletendtodominatethe discussion;afewpeopledoallthe work;somemembersoptoutof mostdiscussion/work.

Problem

Advice
Themeetingshouldtryandcloseonapositiveactionpointforthe future. Thiscanbeembarrassinginagroupsituation,andoftensomeone willjumpinwithasuperfluouscommentorjoketofillthesilence. However,silenceisoftenagoodthing,whenthegroupis consideringanimportantpoint.Thechairpersoncould,infact, encouragegroupmemberstositinsilenceforaminuteortwoto mentallyweighupimportantissuesbeforecommentingonthem. Thechairpersonorothermembersofthegroupcouldsuggest workinginpairstomakeiteasierforindividualgroupmembersto speakup. Theseshouldnotbeallowed,acceptedortoleratedinthegroup, andthereshouldbeagroundruletothiseffect.Itshouldnotbe lefttothechairpersontohavetochallengetheseremarks,because allmembershaveamoralresponsibilitytointervene. Itcantakealotofcourageandencouragementbeforesome membersvoicetheiropinionsinagroup.Iftheseopinionsarenot listenedto,thespeakermayretreatemotionallyfromfurthergroup discussion. Thegroupmaywishtoincludeagroundruleabouttheimportance oflisteningtoothersandpayingattentionwhenothersaretalking. Groupmembersshouldfindwaysofencouragingquietmembersto contributetothediscussion,andthechairpersonsroleinensuring everyonehasafairchancetospeakisvital. Thisisaproblembestavoidedinthefirstplacebythegroup discussingwhodoeswhatatanearlystageofgroupformation,and whatresultsareexpectedbythegroup(seeDelegation& Expectations). Individualgrouptasksshouldbe: (a)identified; (b)delegated;and (c)theexpectedoutcomeclarified. Ifallgroupmembershaveenteredintoacontractonexpectations, thegroupisthenjustifiedinaskingthegroupmemberconcernedto completehisorherpartofthecontractinthewaypreviously agreed. Itisalwaysworthcheckingifthegroupmemberisencountering difficultiesthats/hehasntmadeknowntoothermembersofthe team.Inextremeandirresolvablecases,however,groupmembers maywishtodiscussthiswiththemoduleleader,particularlyif marksorgradesareinvolved. 28

Silences:sometimesagroupwill nothavemuchifanythingtosayon aparticulartopicoroccasion.

Sexist,racistorotherstereotyping orabusiveremarks

Notlisteningtoothersinthegroup.

Someoneallocatedagrouptask doesnotcompleteitinawaythat satisfiesothergroupmembers,e.g. someinformationismissing.

Problem

Advice

Tutorsnowareincreasinglyaskinggroupmemberstoidentifyand summarisetheirroleandcontributioninagrouporusingpeer assessmenttodecidewhetherornotindividualmembersare entitledtoshareagroupmarkorgrade. Dealingwiththiskindofsituationcanbeaworthwhilelearning experienceifyoucandevelopstrategiestochannelyourangerand frustrationintopositiveaction.Agreeamongyourselveshowyou willdotheworkifitisnotforthcomingandhaveacontingencyplan toensurethatyoucanmeetyourdeadline. Theleaderorchairpersonofthe Itisunusualinanygroupfortheleaderorchairpersontobe groupisprovingtobeunsuitable completelyisolatedandwithoutsomepartialsupportfromoneor andunacceptabletothemajorityof twogroupmembers.Ifthereisconsensusamonggroupmembers thegroup.S/hemay,forexample, abouttheproblem,itisbestapproachedviathoseindividualswho betoodirective,dogmaticor aremostlikelytobelistenedtobytheleader. aggressive;orbecontrast,indecisive andineffective. Theleadershouldbegivenachancetodiscusstheissueswithall groupmembersandmakechangesifnecessary.Sometimesthe leadersimplydoesnotunderstandthatnegativeimpactofhisor herleadershipstyleonothers. Realproblemscanoccurifthegroupdividesintofactionsbecause ofleadershiprelatedissues.Ofteninthissituationthereal problemsarenotairedanddiscussedandageneralmoodof disagreement,hostilityandnoncooperationprevails.Theansweris todiscusstheproblem,notmatterhowpainful,awkwardordifficult itisforthegroup.Asstatedearlier,astormisnecessarytoclear theair. Inextremecases,theUniversitycounsellingservicewillhelpby providinganindependentmediatororfacilitatortoallow individuals,includingtheleader,tohavetheirsayandtomakea freshstart. Thegrouphasdiscussedasubject Therearelikelytobetwoormorepositionswithinthegroupand honestlyanddemocratically,butno theroleofthechairpersonistosummarisetheseandthenallow agreementordecisioncanbe groupmemberstovoteonwhichoptiontheyprefer. reached. Thiscanbedonepublicly,butisoftenbestdoneprivatelyandin writingasthevotingpreferencesofsomemembersmightbe influencedbythedominantpersonalitiesofothersinthegroup. Oneapproachwouldbetobrieflyadjournthemeetingtogive everyoneachancetothinktheissuesover,butthenaskgroup memberstoreturnafterabreakandtovotetoreachamajority view. Inthecaseofthreeoptions,aninitialvotecanidentifythetwo strongestpositions,whichcanthenbevotedon.Ifthethree optionsallreceiveequalvotes,thechairpersonmayhavetodecide whichtwooptionsshouldbevotedon.Thismaymakehimorher 29

Problem

Advice
temporarilyunpopularwithsome,butatleastnotforbeing indecisive!

11.Makinggroupdecisions
Makingdecisionsinagroupcansometimesbedifficult,especiallywhenindividualmembersholdstrong viewsonparticularissues.Thiscanleadtoconflictinthegroupandcanleadtoanoverhastydecision beingmade,asothergroupmembersattempttorapidlyhealthebreach.Whatcanhappeninthis situationisthatgroupfactionsformbehindthemainprotagonistsandarbitrarydecisionsaremadeon whichfactionhastheloudestvoice,orcarriesthemajorityvote.Thiscanleadtoa'decision'beingmade, butonethatleadstoresentmentamongthosewhoseideasarerejectedorignored.Thissituationalso resultsinalackofexplorationandanalysisoftheunderlyingissues,whichcanhaverepercussionslater. However,ifgroupmembersalwayshaveachancetoexpresstheirideasinademocraticway,these undercurrentscanbepreventedorreduced.Thereareanumberofeffectivetechniquesformakinggroup decisions,threeofwhichareexplainedhere.

SixThinkingHats
EdwardDeBonodevelopedthe'SixThinkingHats'techniquetohelpgroupsreachadecisionbyconsidering aproblemorissuefromsixdifferentperspectives.Toapplythetechnique,youneedtoconsideradecision wearingeachofthefollowingsixhats.Allgroupmemberscan'wear'thesehatsatthesametime,orhats canbeallocatedtoindividualmembersofthegroup.Itcanbeparticularlyhelpfulifagroupmemberwho holdsaparticularstrongviewwearsahatthatrepresentsanoppositeperspectivesotheyarerequiredto thinkaboutacounterviewtotheirown. Whitehat:theinformationhat.Lookatthedataandfactsyouhaveandconsiderpastexperiences.Make yourdecisionbasedonwhathaspreviouslyhappenedinsimilarsituations. Redhat:theintuitivehat.Whatisyourinstinctiveresponse?Makethedecisionbasedonyourhunches andemotionalresponsestotheissue.Notethatthismaydifferbetweengroupmembers. Blackhat:thepessimistichat.Thinkaboutallthebadpoints,flawsinarguments,andwhatcouldpossibly gowrong.Challengeallaspectsoftheissueandmakeyourdecisionbasedontheleastworstscenario. Evenifnotusingthehatstechniqueitisusefultothinkthiswayasyoumayspotaproblemwithyourplan thatwouldotherwisehavebeenoverlooked Yellowhat:theoptimistichat.Lookatallthepositiveissuesandbenefitsoftakingaparticulardecision. Yellowhatthinkingcanhelpthegroupkeepgoingwheneverythinglooksgloomyanddifficult. Greenhat:thecreativehat.Considereveryconceivableresponsenomatterhowludicrousorwackyit mayseemandexplorethepossibilities. Bluehat:thebigpicturehat.Thewearer(s)ofthebluehatis/areasortofrefereewhoshouldensure everyotherhathasbeenwornandthatthedecisionmakingprocesshasfullyexploredalltheissues.Use thebluehattomakesurethefinaldecisionmadehasbeenmadeaftertheotherfivehatsapproachhas beenproperlyapplied. Allgroupmemberscan'wear'thehatsatthesametime,orindividualmemberscanwearindividualhats. Itcanbehelpful,forexample,foragroupmemberwhoholdsaparticularlystrongviewtowearahatthat 30

representsanoppositevieworperspective.Thedrawbackofthistechniqueisthatitcantakealongtime toreachadecision,althoughtheresultcanbeacreativeandoriginalone.Ifyouneedtoreachadecision inahurry,theNominalDecisionmakingorBalanceSheetApproachtechniquesmaybetheanswer.

NominalDecisionMakingTechnique
Eachoftheoptionsshouldbelistedandtheneachindividualinthegroupshouldrankordertheoptions with1asthehighestpriorityand3asthelowest(youcanhaveseveraloptionsrated1,2or3).Each memberthensharestheirrankingforeachoptionandtheaveragerankingorderisthenworkedout.The consensusofthegroupshouldquicklybecomeapparent.

BalanceSheetApproach
AvariationontheNominalDecisionMakingTechnique(above)istheBalanceSheetApproach.Thisisa techniquetakenfromthebusinessworldwherebalancesheetsareusedtoweighuptheassets, advantagesanddisadvantagesofanyventure.Therearetwostagestotheprocess. First,youtaketwoormoreoptionsandlisttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachoptioninthespace below. Option1 For: Option2 For:

Against:

Against:

Next,yougobackovertheforsandagainstsandweighteachitemwithascoreoutof10accordingtoits importancetothegroup,orconsequencesforothers,andthenaddupthetotalscoresforeachcolumn.In thecaseofanequalscore,thegroupcantakeavoteontheoptions. ForotherusefulgroupdecisionmakingtechniquesvisittheMindToolswebsite: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_TED.htm

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Ifyourgroupstillcannotreachadecisionorconsensusyoucouldinviteanexternalandimpartialpersonto themeeting.Thismightbethemoduletutor,learnerdevelopmentadviseroreffectivelearningadviser fromeitherwithinyourSchoolorfromthecentralLearnerDevelopmentUnit.

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