GENERAL BIOLOGY

THE OBJECTS OF BIOLOGY

Disusun Oleh : M. Fajar Fathu Rhohman Inayatul Laili Gahar Ajeng Prawesti 13304241042 13304241044 13304241064

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN BIOLOGI C JURUSAN PENDIDIKAN BIOLOGI FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM UNIVERSITAS NEGERI YOGYAKARTA 2013

1 The Objects of Biology

CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGY
The basic things of biology is about Biology comes from bios, meaning life and logos, meaning science. Biology is the study of everything about living things. Biology has developed very rapidly and can help people solve problems faced in everyday life. Objects or the study of biology is a living thing. Living beings on this earth is vast and diverse, so as to facilitate the study, experts categorize / classify into groups (kingdom / empire). Biology as a science has certain traits. BSCS (Science Curriculum biological study) illustrates the structure of biological science simply as a cover up of 3-dimensional objects, the level of organization of life, a theme issue. Sebaga biological sciences have a certain object, the degree to which objects are studied and the theme is the issue of a particular object. The 3-dimensional picture up by BSCS biology scholarship are as follows:

The objects of the study subsequently growing in line with the progress of science and technology, so that the study of each of the objects more complex or complicated. The study includes a variety of themes, among others, according to the biological question of Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS), 1996 is as follows: Evolution: patterns and products of change Interactions and interdependence Maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium Growth, development, and differentiation Genetic continuity Energy, matter, and organization Science, technology, and society THE ORGANIZATION OF LIFE A HIERACY OF INCREASING COMPLEXITY The complexity of life at three levels: cellular, organismal, and population. 2 The Objects of Biology

A. Cellular Level: 1. Molecules. Atoms, the fundamental elements of matter, are joined together into complex clusters called Molecules. DNA, which stores the hereditary information in all living organism, is a complex biological molecule, called a macromolecule. 2. Organelles. Complex biological molecules are assembled into tin compartments within cells called organelles, within which cellular activities are organized. The nucleus is an organelle within which the cells DNA is stored. 3. Cells. Organelles and other elements are assembled in the membrane-bounded units we call cells. Cell are the smallest level of organization that can be considered alive. B. Organismal Level: 1. Tissue. The most basic level is that of tissues, which are groups of similar cells that act as a functional unit. Nerve tissue is one kind of tissue, composed of cell called neurons that are specialized to carry electrical signals from one place to another in the body. 2. Organs. Tissues, in turn, are grouped into organs, which are body structures composed of several different tissues grouped together in a structural and functional unit. 3. Organ system. At the third level of organization, organs are grouped into organ system. The nervous system, for example, consists of sensory organs, the brain and spinal cord, and neurons that convey signals to and from them. C. Population Level: 1. Population. The most basic of these is the population, which is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same place. A flock of geese living together on a pond is a population. 2. Species. All the population of a particular kind of organism together form a species. Its members similar in appearance and able to interbreed. All Canada geese, whether found in Canada, Minnesota, or Missouri, are basically the same, members of the species Branta canadenis . 3. Community. At the higher tier of biological organization, a community consist of all the populations of different species living together in one place. Geese, for example, may share their pound whit ducks, fish, grasses, and many kind of insects. All interact in a single pound community. 4. Ecosystem. At the highest tier of biological organization, a biological community and the soil and water within which it lives together constitute an ecological system, or ecosystem. 5. Biomes. Biomes has a bigger zone than an ecosystems. Its characteristics is based on each climate. The object of biome include almost the variety biomes in the world likes rainfall, moisturize, temperature, and wind. THE OBJECTS OF BIOLOGY A. Monera The smallest independently living things are prokaryotic organism that belong to the kingdom monera.many monerans are single-celled organism that are so small. Each one metabolizes food, produces wastes, grows, and reproduces.There are two major group of monerans, the bacteria and the cyanophytes.All of the cyanophytes are autotrophic, contain 3 The Objects of Biology

chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis in cyanophites is similiara to that in eukariots. The bacteria are heterotrophs that feed by secreting enzymes into their enviroment. Monerans do not reproduce sexually. They do not undergo meiosis, nor do they form gametes that fuse to form a zygote. The process of conjugation.

B. Protist Flosting near the surface of the seas are billions og tiny organisms called plankton. The word plankton comes from a greek word meaning wanderer. Planktonic organism are not attached anywhere. a. Plant like protist The protist are a diverse group. Some protist groups are primaily autotropic and are classified as plant-like protist. 1. Phylum Euglenophyta The Phylum Euglenophyta have choloplasts and are autotropic.ussualy bright green chloroplasts are distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Euglenas move by means of whiplike structure called flagella. Flagella are common in many eukoriotes.euglena does not have a cell wall.Euglenas live in fresh water. The cytoplasm of their cells is always more concentrated than fresh water. Autotroph 2. Phylum Pyrrophyta The most pyrrophytes are dinoflagellates.The chloroplasts of dinoflagellates contain chlorophyll. However, abundant red and yellow pigments. The nucleus of dinoflagellates is unusual. Recal that in most eukaryotes, chromosomes are visible only during mitosis.autotroph. Live in both fresh and salt water 3. Phylum Chrysophyta Their characteristic gold or brown color comes from the predominance of pigmen other than chlorophyll. Most of the 6500 spesies of chrysophytes are diatoms autotroph. Live in both fresh and salt water 4. Phylum Chlorophyta Chlorophyta is a division of green algae, informally called chlorophytes. The name is used in two very different senses, so care is needed to determine the use by a particular author. In older classification systems, it refers to a highly paraphyletic group of all the green algae within the green plants (Viridiplantae) and thus includes about 7,000 species of mostly aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Like the land plants (bryophytes and tracheophytes), green algae contain chlorophylls a and b and store food as starchin their plastids. 5. Phylum Rhodophyta These are called the red algae. They also are multicellular and marine -dwelling, but are more typically found in tropical zones and deeper in the ocean. They also go through alternation of generations, Many of these (such as the Nori used in sushi) are used by humans as food, and are also good sources of iodine. 6. Phylum Phaeophyta These organisms are commonly known as the brown algae. They are multicellular and live in marine, temperate zone, costal areas. They all have a form of sexual 4 The Objects of Biology

reproduction with alternation of generations. One member of this Division with which you may be familiar is Kelp, which actually can be any of several species of seaweed in the genera Fucus and/or Laminaria. Brown algae are used in many cultures as human food, and are good sources of iodine. We need iodine for our thyroid glands, and if a person doesnt enough iodine in his/her diet (most commonly in inland areas where iodine is not added to salt), the thyroid gland enlarges in an attempt to keep making enough thyroid hormone (which doesnt do any good because what its lacking is the iodine needed to make the hormone). This enlarged thyroid is called a goiter. Laminaria also has an interesting gynecological use. If a woman is scheduled for some medical procedure for which the doctor needs access to the inside of her uterus, often a day or so beforehand, rolled-up, dried pieces of Laminaria are inserted into the opening of the womans cervix. As the seaweed absorbs water from her body fluids, it gently and slowly expands, gradually stretching the cervix. Thus, by the time her surgery is scheduled, her cervix has been dilated slowly and gently rather than the doctor having to forcibly and quickly (thus painfully) stretch the cervix open minutes beforehand. 7. Phylum Bacillariophyta b. Animal-like protist The animal-like protist are single-celled eukaryotes with no obvious relationship to photosynthetic protists. 1. Phylum Mastigiphora / The Flagellates The phylum Mastigophora contains the animal-like protists that move by flagella.A few species live in fresh or salt water and some in bodies of other animals. One of the best-known flagellates is trypanosoma. 2. Phylum Sarcodina / Rhyzopode The phylum Sarcodina contains protists that move and take in food by pseudopods. All sarcodines feed by phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, an organism surrounds its prey with pseudopods, then forms a food vacuole.Probably the best-known sarcodine is Amoeba proteus.Amoebas reproduce asexually by mitosis and cell division. 3. Phylum Ciliophora / The Ciliates Protists in the phylum Ciliophora use cilia to move and capture food.The most commonly studied ciliate is paramecium. This slipper-shaped ciliate lives in ponds. These cilia function like the arm of a swimmer.Paramecia reproduce asexually by mitosis and cell division.These organisms undergo a kind of sexual reproduction called conjugation. Paramecia use their cilia to capture food. 4. Phylum Sporozoa All members of the phylum Sporozoa are parasitic, absorb food from the fluids of their host.The best-known sporozoans are those that cause malaria in humans. Malariacausing sporozoans belong to the genus Plasmodium. Plasmodium spores enter the blood stream of a human through the blood to the liver, where they reproduce asexually. c. Fungi-like protist The fungi-like protist are single-celled eukaryotes which has mucus, wet, and gelatin-like texture. Its also produce spore just like fungi 5 The Objects of Biology

1.

2.

Phylum Myxomycetes These organisms are called slime molds. They are fungus -like in their nutrition in that they absorb nutrients from their environment. Their body structure is unusual in that the nuclei undergo mitosis, but there is no cytokinesis--there are no individual cells with one nucleus each. Rather, the body is a giant, multinucleate mass of cytoplasm. Slime molds are mobile: they move by amoeboid movement, in other words, like a giant Amoeba with giant pseudopodia. They live in decayed wood and move around in between the fibers, ingesting bacteria, etc. by phagocytosis. Slime molds are often brightly-colored (yellow or orange). Phylum Oomycetes

C. Fungi Mushrooms are not known to grow on the beach itself. However, unusual species grow in the beach ridge, living off of the dead roots of marram grass. Examples are dune brittlestem, Melanoleuca cinereifolia and stinkhorn. You find lots of other mushrooms in dunes further away from the coast which are otherwise very rare in other biotopes. Examples are collared earthstars, the waxcap Hygrocybe acutoconica, butter waxcaps and morels. Since coastal regions take much longer to freeze than inland, mushrooms are often found in the dunes practically year round. Dune woods are renowned for their abundance of mushrooms. Fungi are classified into three subkingdom. a. Subkingdom Gymnomycota You have probaly never noticed a slime mold. Slime mold live in moist, decaying leaves or rotting logs. All slime molds have an amoebalike stage during their life cycle. Thisamoebalike stage feeds by creeping over the forest floor and engulfing bacteria or decaying matter by phagocytosis. The organism consists of independent single cells. b. Subkingdom Dimastigomycota Since many members og the subkingdom Dimastogomycotina are aquatic. 1. Phylum Zigomycetes Phylum Zigomycetes are terrestrial saprophytes. A few live in water, and some are parasites. The common bread mold, Rhizopus, is the best-known zygomycetes. 2. Phylum Ascomycetes All members of the ascomycetes, have a saclike reproductive strucure. Like the other true fungi, these organism have a mycelium made of hyphae with chitin walls. 3. Phylum Deuteromycetes : Imperfect Fungi The Fungi imperfecti or imperfect fungi, also known as Deuteromycota, are fungi which do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts or morphological characteristics of sexual structures because their sexual form of reproduction has never been observed; hence the name "imperfect fungi." Only their asexual form of reproduction is known, meaning that this group of fungi produces their spores asexually. 4. Phylum Basidiomycetes Basidiomycetes include mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs, rusts, and smuts. They are dispersed by spores borne at the tips of basidia (giving rise to the name for the group). 6 The Objects of Biology

Mushrooms are masses of interwoven hyphae growing up from the main mass of the mycelium growing underground. The basidia develop on the undersides and release their spores (four from each basidium) into the air. A single mycelium may expand outward year after year as its hyphae grow into new terrain. In some species, mushrooms are sent up once a year at the periphery producing a circle known since medieval times as a "fairy ring". D. Plantae The 250,000-380,000 currently-known plant species (2,7,8,11) , or members of the kingdom Plantae, are organisms that live on every continent and in nearly every habitat on Earth (10). Plants include some of the primarily water-dwelling organisms called green algae (specifically a group known as the charophyte algae(12)), and the embryophytes or land plants which evolved from green algae (1,12,14). A sometimes-used broader definition of plants also includes the rest of the green algae as well as red algae and glaucophyte algae (9,14). The subset of plants called land plants is divided into two main groups itself: nonvascular plants (those that lack specialized systems allowing them to transport water and nutrients internally; these include mosses, hornworts, and liverworts (5,7)); and vascular plants (those that do have vascular transport systems; these include ferns, lycophytes, gymnosperms, and the highly diverse flowering plants (14)). Plants have special cell walls around each of their cells built in large part out of a carbohydrate called cellulose (7) that makes them especially strong and firm (6). Unlike most other organisms, most plants produce their own food through a process called photosynthesis (9), in which they soak up sunlight, usually with their leaves, and deploy this sunlight within a complicated biochemical system to turn carbon dioxide combined with water into energy-rich sugars (3,15). Through this process, plants have a crucial effect on the global climate and the environmentthey remove carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes to global warming, from the air (13), and release oxygen, which is essential for animals, fungi, protists, many bacteria, and even plants themselves in order for them to extract energy from organic molecules (4,15). In addition, plants provide food and shelter for many kinds of organisms, and humans rely on them directly for grains, vegetables, fruits, wood, paper, clothing, and many medicines (8,11). In the future, they may be useful as sources for new medical drugs (8), emerging cleaner, renewable fuels, and other products (6). For all of these reasons and more, plant conservation is critically important (2,8,11). 1. The Pteridophyta The Pteridophyta Divsion contains ferns. Ferns are plants with leaves, roots, and stems; but they do not have flowers like most plants. Ferns have special stems, called rhizomes, which grow sideways at the surface or underground. Many leaves grow from rhizomes and make fern colonies 2. The Bryophyta This places the mosses as the third most diverse group of land plants, only after the angiosperms and ferns.The green leafy shoots (gametophytes) retain some features of the green algal ancestors (chlorophylls a and b, starch, sperm with two forward undulipodia), but the needle-like shoots that produce the spores (sporophytes) display key innovations for the life outside water, such as stomates, a simple strand of conductive cells [in an unbranched sporophyte], and airborne spores produced in a single apical capsule (sporangium). 3. Spermatophyta seed plants Comprises the Angiospermae (or Magnoliophyta) and Gymnospermae (or Gymnospermophyta). In general, the group is characterized by the marked development of the sporophyte, with great differentiation of its parts (root, stem, leaves, flowers, etc.); by the extreme reductionof the gametophyte;and by the development of seeds. 7 The Objects of Biology

a.

b.

Gymnosperms The gymnosperms the seeda develop on the surface or at the tip of anappendage. Structures of gymnosperms may occur in cones or strobili. In gymnosperms,the ovule doesnt increase much in size after fertization. Familiar examples include the pine, hemlock, Ginkgo biloba. Angiosperms The angiosperms exceed all other vascular plants in range of diversity of the plant body and habitat, and in their utility to humans. Examples of the reproductive organs of angiosperms (flowers, fruits, and seed) used as food are even more abundant. Many perennials are woody that is they have active cambium that add abundant secondary xylem The two groups of flowering plants differ inother respects as follow - Dicotyledons - Monocotyledons

E. Animalia The Kingdom Animalia (=Metazoa) is one of a handful of lineages rooted far back in the branching "tree" that represents the history of life on Earth. This lineage that is composed of those organisms we know as "animals" represents one of the three major origins of multicellularity (the other two large and diverse groups of multicellular organisms are the fungi and the green plants). It is difficult to list characteristics that apply to all animals, since various branches of the animal tree have undergone a range of significant modifications. However, most animals obtain energy from other organisms. They generally feed on them as predators (killing and eating a prey item); parasites, including herbivores feeding on plants (feeding on their "prey" without killing it, at least not immediately); or detritivores (ingesting tiny bits of decomposing organic material such as fallen leaves). In contrast to animals, most plants make their own food, through the extraordinary process of photosynthesis, using energy captured from the sun; most fungi break down decaying organic material (without ingesting it) into its chemical constituents and absorb released nutrients. Animal cells lack a rigid cell wall (some form of which is typical of plants and most fungi) and their cell biology and physiology differ in a variety of ways from other organisms. 1. Vertebrates The most prominent characteristic of vertebrates is a rigid, jointed skeleton inside the body. A. Mammals All mammals share at least three characteristics not found in other animals: three middle ear bones, hair, and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands.mammals have evolved to live in nearly all terrestrial and aquatic habitats on Earth. Mammals inhabit every terrestrial biome, from deserts to tropical rainforests to polar icecaps. B. Reptile Living species of the class Reptilia are placed in four orders. The order Testudines includes turtles, the order Squamata includes lizards and snakes, the order Crocodylia. reptiles have neither fur nor feathers, but scales. While the process of copulation and egg8 The Objects of Biology

laying differs slightly among reptiles, they share the ability to produce a large-yolked, shelled egg. C. Fish Fishes are animals that live and swim in the water, are cold-blooded, breathe using gills, have backbones, have a scaly skin, and have various fins instead of limbs. Lampreys and hagfish are a group of jawless fishes at the base of the vertebrate tree of life. Cartilaginous fishes are the chimeras, sharks, skates and rays.Ray-finned fishes are the most diverse of the major groups of fishes.Lobe-finned fishes are a very special group of bony fishes with limb-like fins. D. Birds Birds live in a wide range of environments, from tropical rainforests to the polar regions,Birds are ovivaporousthey reproduce by laying eggs rather than giving birth to live young.that have fixed wings, these birds have moveable wings powered by muscles. Some birds, soaring birds like the albatross, can fly using fixed wings and air currents as a source of power E. Amphibians For much of their lives, which may last a couple of months or several years depending on the species, larval amphibians bear little resemblance to their adult forms.Both amphibians and reptiles are derive heat from the environment, rather than producing it internally, they are cold-blooded. 2. Invertebrates Many invertebrates also live in habitats that people dont see very often, example under water in oceans, streams, and ponds, in the soil, in the canopies of trees, or as parasites inside other animals.The vast majority of animals are invertebrates, animals without backbones like bugs, worms, snails, corals, sponges A. Crustacean They belong to the phylum Arthropoda, as do insects, arachnids, and many other groups; all arthropods have hard exoskeletons or shells, segmented bodies, and jointed limbs.Crustaceans live in all kinds of habitats. B. Insects Insects account for a great majority of the species of animals on earth. They are a tremendously successful group. The general characteristics of uniramians, these include a body composed of three tagmata, a head, thorax, and abodmen. Insects are dioecious and fertilization is internal in most. C. Molusk They never settle for one function when an organ could serve two or six purposes at once. A good example of this is the mantle, a membranous projection of a mollusk body wall.Freshwater and marine mollusks have gills (called ctenidia) for respiration. D. Echinodermata Echinodermata is an entirely marine taxon, occurring throughout the worlds oceans and includes sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies. Characteristics though larvae are bilaterally symmetrical, hard endoskeleton.

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References Pujiyanto, Sri. 2008. Menjelajah Dunia Biologi 1. Solo : Platinum.

www.eol.org

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