Steel Structures 8 (2008) 205-214

www.ijoss.org

Second-order Inelastic Dynamic Analysis of Three-dimensional Cable-stayed Bridges

Huu-Tai Thai and Seung-Eock Kim1*
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Sejong University, 98 Kunja Dong Kwangjin Ku, Seoul 143-747, Korea

Abstract
This paper presents a second-order inelastic dynamic analysis of three-dimensional cable-stayed bridges including both geometric and material nonlinearities. Geometric nonlinearity is captured by using stability functions to minimize modeling and solution time, while material nonlinearity is considered by adopting the refined plastic hinge model. A computer program utilizing the Newmark -method with the assumption of average acceleration is developed to predict the nonlinear inelastic dynamic behavior of the cable-stayed bridges. The accuracy and efficiency of the proposed program are verified by comparing it with SAP2000 and ABAQUS. It can be concluded that the proposed program is capable of accurately and efficiently predicting the nonlinear inelastic dynamic response of cable-stayed bridges.

Keywords: Geometric nonlinearity, Material nonlinearity, Plastic hinge, Stability function, Cable-stayed bridge

1. Introduction
Cable-stayed bridges are widely used in bridge engineering because of the appealing aesthetics, the efficient utilization of structure materials, and the relatively small size of structure members. It is well known that the increase in the central span length of cable-stayed bridges makes the nonlinear analysis inevitable. Material nonlinearity comes from the nonlinear stress-strain behavior of the materials, while the geometric nonlinearities result from the cable sag effect, axial force-bending moment interaction, and large displacement. The static and dynamic behaviors of this highly nonlinear structure have been studied extensively in recent years. In general, these studies can be categorized into three main types: (1) linear elastic; (2) nonlinear elastic; and (3) nonlinear inelastic. In linear analysis, Wilson and Liu (1991) studied the dynamic behavior of a cable-stayed bridge by using a threedimensional finite element model. Their study was compared to the measured ambient vibration of the fullscale cable-stayed bridge. In the nonlinear elastic analysis, Fleming and Egeseli (1980) performed the seismic behavior of two-dimensional cable-stayed bridges, while the three-dimensional cable-stayed bridges were
Note.-Discussion open until February 1, 2009. This manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on August 1, 2008; approved on August 30, 2008 *Corresponding author Tel: +82-2-3408-3291; Fax: +82-2-3408-3332 E-mail sekim@sejong.ac.kr

analyzed by Nazmy and Abdel-Ghaffar (1990) as well as Abdel-Ghaffar and Nazmy (1991). In the nonlinear inelastic analysis, Ren and Obata (1997) performed the seismic response of a long span cable-stayed bridge. However, their study was limited to the two-dimensional problem. Cho and Song (2006) evaluated the global system response of a bridge using the finite element method. Now with the utilization of complex geometry for the towers and the cables, it is necessary to perform the nonlinear inelastic dynamic analysis for the threedimensional problem. The purpose of this paper is to extend the application of the stability functions and the refined plastic hinge model for the nonlinear inelastic dynamic analysis of threedimensional cable-stayed bridges. A computer program including all sources of nonlinearity is developed to predict the nonlinear inelastic dynamic response of cablestayed bridges. Two earthquake records of the El-Centro 1940 and Loma Prieta 1989 are used to verify the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed program with the SAP2000 and ABAQUS software.

2. Formulation
The cables are assumed to be perfectly flexible and to resist the tensile force only. The inclined cables of cablestayed bridges will sag into a catenary shape due to their self-weight. The tension stiffness of the cable, which varies depending on the sag, is modeled by using an equivalent straight truss element with an equivalent modulus of elasticity. This concept was first proposed by

2.1. Modeling of cable elements

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Huu-Tai Thai and Seung-Eock Kim

Ernst (1965) and has been verified by several researchers. The equivalent cable modulus of elasticity is given as follows E Eeq (1a) 2 (wL) AE T3 where Eeq is the equivalent modulus of cable; E is the Youngs modulus of cable; L is the horizontal projected length of cable; w is the weight per unit length of cable; A is the cross-sectional area of cable; and T is the cable tension. When the tension in the cable changes from Ti to Tf during the application of a load increment, the secant value of the equivalent modulus of elasticity over a load increment is given as E (1b) Eeq 2 (wL) (Ti Tf )AE 2 T2 i Tf
= 1+12 = + 1+24

constant of material; P', M'yA, M'yB, M'zA, M'zB, and T' are incremental axial force, end moments with respect to y and z axes, and torsion respectively. ', 'yA, 'yB, 'zA, 'zB, and ' are the incremental axial displacement, the joint rotations, and the angle of twist. S1n and S2n are the stability functions with respect to n axis (n = y,z) given in Chen et al. (2001). 2.2.2.1. CRC tangent modulus model associated with residual stresses The CRC tangent modulus concept is used to account for gradual yielding (due to residual stresses) along the length of axially loaded members between plastic hinges. From Chen and Lui (1987), the CRC tangent modulus Et is written as Et =1.0E for P Py (3a) P for P > P (3b) Et P E y Py P y
0.5 = 410.5

2.2.2. Refined plastic hinge model accounts for gradual yielding

The cross beam, tower, and girder members of the bridges are modeled as beam-column elements. The coupling between axial force and bending moment in these members can be accurately captured by employing the stability functions reported by Chen and Lui (1987). Then a refined plastic hinge model is adopted to account for gradual yielding. Details of the procedure are presented in the following sections.

2.2. Modeling of cross beam, tower, and girder members

where Py is the axial yield force. 2.2.2.2. Parabolic function for gradual yielding due to flexure The tangent modulus model is suitable for the member subjected to axial force, but inadequate for cases of both axial force and bending moment. A gradual stiffness degradation model for a plastic hinge is required to represent the partial plastification effects associated with bending. When gradually forming plastic hinges are active at both ends of an element, the incremental forcedisplacement equation can be expressed as
I M yA M yB M zA M zB T
' ' ' ' ' '

2.2.1. Stability functions account for second-order effect

From Chen et al. (2001), the incremental form of member force and deformation relationship of space beam-column element can be expressed as
EA L
I M yA M yB M zA M zB T
' ' ' ' ' ' 0 0 0 0 0 0

Et A L
0 0 = 0

S1 y

0 =

EIy EIy S L 2y L EI EI S2 y y S 1 y y L L
0 0

EI EI S1 z z S2 z z L L EIz EIz S2 z S1 z L L
0 0

yA yB zA zB
' ' ' ' ' '

yA kiiy kijy yB kiij kjjy kiiz kijz zA kijz kjjz zB GJ

0 0 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 0 -

(4)

(2)

'

where
kiiy AS1
= = -

Et Iy S2 2 ( B) S1 L
1 -

(5a) (5b)

GJ L

kijy ABS2
kjjy BS1
=

Et Iy L

where A, Iy, Iz, L are area, moment of inertia with respect to y and z axes, and length of beam-column element; E, G, and J are elastic modulus, shear modulus, and torsional

E I S2 2 ( A) t y S1 L
1

(5c)

Second-order Inelastic Dynamic Analysis of Three-dimensional Cable-stayed Bridges

207

kiiz kijz kjjz

S2 E I AS3 4( B) t z S 3 L Et Iz A B S 4 L S2 E I BS3 4( A) t z S 3 L
1 1

(5d) (5e) (5f)

where Ciiy, Cijy, Cjjy, Ciiz, Cijy, Cjjz are coefficients given in Chen et al. (2001). The end forces and displacements used in Eq. (8) are shown in Fig. 1(a). The sign convention for the positive directions of element end forces and displacements of a frame member is shown in Fig. 1(b). By comparing the two figures, we can express the equilibrium and kinematic relationships in symbolic form as
{f n } [ T ] T 6 12{f e } {d e} [T]6 12{d L}
' = ' ' = '

2.2.4. Element stiffness matrix

The terms A and B are scalar parameter allowing for gradual inelastic stiffness reduction of the element associated with plastification at end A and B. This term is equal to 1.0 when the element is elastic, and zero when a plastic hinge is formed. The parameter is assumed to vary according to the parabolic function: =1.0 for (6a) =4(1 ) for > (6b) where is a force-state parameter that measures the magnitude of axial force and bending moment at the element end. The term in this study is expressed in a modified version of Orbison full plastification surface of cross-section, presented by McGuire et al. (2000), as follows
0.5 0.5

(9a) (9b)

4 2 p2 m2 p2 m2 p2 m2 m4 (7) z my z y z my where p = P/Py, mz = Mz/Mpz (strong-axis), my = My/Mpy (weak-axis). If the force point moves beyond the fully yield surface, says >1, the member forces should be scaled down to return the fully yield surface with the application of the equilibrium iteration method.
= + + + 3.5 + 3.0 + 4.5

2.2.2.3. Strain reversal effect The strain reversal in the hinge is induced by the sequential loading in the static analysis, or the change of dynamic loading direction in the dynamic analysis. The strain reversal can be determined by investigating the stress state at the four corners of a section. In order to account for the strain reversal effect, the CRC tangent modulus Et and the stiffness reduction function should be modified based on the double modulus theory as presented in Kim et al. (2000). To account for transverse shear deformation effects in a beam-column element, the incremental force-displacement equation can be modified as
I M yA M yB M zA M zB T
' ' ' ' ' '

2.2.3. Shear deformation effect

Et A L
0 0 = 0

where {f'n} and {d'L} are the incremental end force and displacement vectors of a beam-column member expressed as {f'n}T={rn1 rn2 rn3 rn4 rn5 rn6 rn7 rn8 rn9 rn10 rn11 rn12} (10a) {d'L}T ={d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10 d11 d12} (10b) and {f'n} and {d'n} are the incremental end force and displacement vectors in Eq. (8). [T]612 is a transformation matrix given in Chen et al. (2001). Using the transformation matrix by equilibrium and kinematic relations, the force-displacement relationship of a beamcolumn member may be written as {f'n}=[Kn]{d'L} (11) [Kn] is the element stiffness matrix expressed as [Kn]1212 =[T]T612[Ke]66[T]612 (12) Eq. (11) is used to enforce no side-sway in the member. If the member is permitted to sway, additional axial and shear forces will be induced in the member. We can relate these additional axial and shear forces due to a member sway to the member end displacements as (13) {fs}=[Ks]{dL} where [Ks] is the element stiffness matrix given in Chen et al. (2001). By combining Eqs. (11) and (13), we obtain the general beam-column element force-displacement relationship as {fL}=[K]local{dL} (14) where {fL}={fn}{fs} (15) [K]local =[Kn]+[Ks] (16) The incremental form of the equation of motion is given by [M]{u''}+[C]{u'}+[K]{u}={F} (17) in which [K] is the stiffness matrix; [M] is the lump mass matrix; and [C]= a[M]= b[K0] is the viscous damping matrix, where a and b are mass- and stiffness-

yA Ciiy Cijy yB Ciij Cjjy Ciiz Cijz zA Cijz Cjjz zB GJ L

0 0 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0 ' ' 0 0 0 0 -

2.3. Seismic response analysis

(8)

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Huu-Tai Thai and Seung-Eock Kim

Figure 1.

Element end forces and displacements notations.

u u

proportional damping factors, respectively; {'' }, {' }, { }, and { } are the incremental acceleration, velocity, displacement, and exciting force vectors, respectively, over a time increment of . The Newmark -method with the assumption of average acceleration is adopted herein to solve, step-bystep, the numerical solution of the Eq. (17). The detailed algorithm of Newmark -method, as presented in Chopra (2001), can be summarized as the following equations:
u

{ {

+ t + t

u}
'

u}
'

(1 ) {

t u}
t
''

+ t
t

u}
'' '' +

(18a)
( ) {

(18b) in which { }, { }, and { } are the total acceleration, velocity, and displacement vectors at time . Here the integration parameters and are taken as 1/4 and 1/2, respectively, correspond to the assumption of the average acceleration method. By substituting Eq. (18) into Eq. (17), the final form of the incremental equation of motion can be expressed as
t

u}

{ }+ {
t

t u}
t
'

(0.5 )( ) {
t

t2 u}

t2

+ t

u}
''

u''

u'

1 -[ -[ ] + -[ ] + 2 ( )

tC

M ] { u }

1 -[ { } + -

t M]

+-

t 1 -[ [ ] { '} + - 2

M]

] + {t -1 [ 2

u}
''

Figure 2.

Flow chart of the proposed program.

(19) Eq. (19) is solved for each time step until the considered frame is collapsed or desired time duration ends.

3. Algorithm for Nonlinear Inelastic Dynamic Analysis

A computer program has been developed to perform the nonlinear inelastic dynamic analysis of the threedimensional cable-stayed bridges subjected to its own weight and earthquake loadings. A combination of incremental and iterative schemes is utilized in this algorithm. For static loading, the magnitude of the applied load is divided into increments, whereas in dynamic loading, the total time of the dynamic load is divided into small intervals. Within each increment, a

solution for the equilibrium equations is solved by iterative means, i.e., by updating the force-state parameter and stiffness of the elements until the solution converges and equilibrium requirements are satisfied. The flow chart of the procedure is presented in Fig. 2.

4. Verification Studies
The computer program, 3D-PAAP, was developed based on the aforementioned formulations to predict the second-order inelastic seismic response of cable-stayed bridges. It should be noted that SAP2000 provides the cable element and can predict the second-order elastic response, but it is incapable of investigating the secondorder inelastic response. ABAQUS, which does not provide cable element, is capable of considering the second-order inelastic response. Therefore, the proposed

Second-order Inelastic Dynamic Analysis of Three-dimensional Cable-stayed Bridges

209

Figure 3.

Earthquake records.

Peak ground acceleration and its corresponding time step of the earthquake records Earthquake PGA (g) Time step (s) El-Centro (1940) (Array, #9, USGS Station 117) 0.319 0.020 Loma Prieta (1989) (Capitola, 000, CDMG Station 47125) 0.529 0.005
T able 1.

program should be verified by comparing with SAP2000 in the elastic range by using a cable element, with ABAQUS in the inelastic range by using equivalent straight truss element for the cable. Two earthquake records of the El-Centro and Loma Prieta shown in Fig. 3 are used as ground motion input data in the longitudinal direction, which is considered to be the most destructive in cablestayed bridges. Their peak ground accelerations and time steps are listed in Table 1. For each example, the initial shapes and initial cable tensions, due to the weight of the bridges, are first determined by a nonlinear static analysis, and then the dynamic behavior, due to earthquake loading, is investigated. The mass- and stiffness-proportional damping factors are chosen based on the first two modes of the bridge so that the equivalent viscous damping ratio is equal to 5%. The three-dimensional modeling of the cable-stayed bridges taken from Song and Kim (2007) is shown in Fig. 4. The girders with the central span length of 122 m are supported by a series of cables aligned in fan, semi-harp, and harp type bridges. The stress-strain curve for the cross beam, girder, and tower members is assumed to be elastic-perfectly plastic with an initial elastic modulus of 207 GPa and a yield stress of 248 MPa. The cable members should be valid in the elastic limit of the material, with an elastic modulus of 158.6 GPa and a yield stress of 1103 MPa. In the inelastic seismic analysis, only the inelastic behavior of the girder members is considered. The weight per unit volume of the cable and beam-column members is 60.5 kN/m3 and 76.82 kN/m3, respectively. The masses lumped at the bridge nodes are calculated from the self weight of the bridges. The cable is modeled by an equivalent straight truss element using an equivalent elastic modulus. The cross beam, girder, and tower members are modeled by using only one element in the proposed program and ten elements in both SAP2000 and ABAQUS.

The vibration analysis of the cable-stayed bridges is first performed to verify the accuracy of the proposed program in predicting the natural periods of the bridges. The first two natural periods along the applied earthquake direction of fan, semi-harp, and harp bridges obtained by ABAQUS, SAP2000, and proposed program are presented in Tables 2 and 3. It is observed that a strong agreement of natural periods of the bridges predicted by ABAQUS, SAP2000, and proposed program is obtained with the maximum difference of 0.20%. This section is focused on the verification of the proposed program with SAP2000 in predicting the nonlinear elastic seismic behavior of the cable-stayed bridges. The cross beam, girder, and tower members of the bridges are modeled using the frame element in SAP2000 and the beam-column element in the proposed program. The cables are modeled by using the cable elements in both SAP2000 and proposed program. The vertical displacement responses at the middle point of the central span of the bridges subjected to two different earthquake loadings of the El-Centro and Loma Prieta are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. The displacement responses obtained by SAP2000 and proposed program in all cases of analysis are almost identical. The peak vertical displacements at the middle point of the central span of the bridges with three different cable layouts of fan, semi-harp, and harp type are also presented in Table 4. The difference of displacement response of nonlinear elastic seismic analysis in each case is very small, with a maximum difference of 2.11% in all cases. All results obtained by SAP2000 and the proposed program are nearly the same, which prove the accuracy of the proposed program in predicting the second-order effect.

4.1. Natural vibration

4.2. Verification of nonlinear elastic seismic behavior

210

Huu-Tai Thai and Seung-Eock Kim

Figure 4.

Cable-stayed bridges (unit: m).

Comparison of first two natural periods (sec) of the bridges using truss element for cable Bridge type Mode ABAQUS 3D-PAAP (proposed) Error (%) First 1.870 1.868 0.09 Fan type Second 1.232 1.231 0.10 First 1.868 1.866 0.10 Semi-Hard type Second 1.242 1.241 0.12 First 1.897 1.895 0.13 Harp type Second 1.333 1.330 0.20
Table 2. T able 3.

Bridge type Fan type Semi-Hard type Harp type

Comparison of first two natural periods (sec) of the bridges using cable element Mode SAP2000 3D-PAAP (proposed) Error (%) First 1.867 1.868 0.05 Second 1.230 1.231 0.08 First 1.865 1.866 0.05 Second 1.240 1.241 0.08 First 1.894 1.895 0.05 Second 1.330 1.330 0.01

Second-order Inelastic Dynamic Analysis of Three-dimensional Cable-stayed Bridges

211

Vertical displacement responses at the middle point of the central span of the bridges subjected to ElCentro earthquake for nonlinear elastic seismic response.
Figure 5.

Vertical displacement responses at the middle point of the central span of the bridges subjected to Loma Prieta earthquake for nonlinear elastic seismic response.
Figure 6.

4.3. Verification of nonlinear inelastic seismic behavior

The accuracy of the proposed program in predicting the nonlinear inelastic seismic behavior of the cable-stayed bridge is verified herein by comparing with ABAQUS. The same structure, as presented in the previous example, is used for verification. The cross beam, girder, and tower members of the bridges are modeled using beam-column elements in the proposed program and B33 beam elements in ABAQUS. The B33 beam element of ABAQUS, as presented in Fig. 7, has three numerical integration points on element and sixteen numerical integration points on cross-section. The cable members are modeled using

equivalent straight truss elements in both the proposed program and ABAQUS since ABAQUS does not provide a cable element. Figures 8 and 9 show the vertical displacement responses at the middle point of the central span obtained by ABAQUS and proposed program for two earthquake loadings of the El-Centro and Loma Prieta, respectively. The peak vertical displacements at the middle point of the central span of the bridges with three different cable layouts of fan, semi-harp, and harp type are presented in Table 5 with the maximum difference of 3.9%. A good correlation of nonlinear inelastic seismic behavior in all cases generated by ABAQUS and the proposed programs

212
T able 4.

Huu-Tai Thai and Seung-Eock Kim

Comparison of vertical displacement response (mm) at the middle point of the central span of the bridges for elastic analysis Earthquake type Max/min Cable layouts SAP2000 3D-PAAP (proposed) Error (%) Fan type 44.58 44.13 1.01 Semi-Harp type 52.33 51.65 1.31 Max Harp type 60.05 58.99 1.76 El-Centro Fan type -41.30 -41.78 1.16 Semi-Harp type -44.16 -44.95 1.78 Min Harp type -45.22 -46.18 2.11 Fan type 66.57 66.42 0.23 Semi-Harp type 74.72 75.94 1.62 Max Harp type 81.44 80.91 0.66 Loma Prieta Fan type -63.18 -62.28 1.43 Semi-Harp type -77.36 -76.01 1.74 Min Harp type -95.99 -96.88 0.93

Figure 7.

Integration point of B33 beam element.

is obtained including the slight permanent shifts in displacement due to inelastic behavior under the Loma Prieta earthquake. In the case of the El-Centro earthquake, having the smallest PGA, the displacement responses of the elastic analysis (Fig. 5) and inelastic analysis (Fig. 8) are almost the same because the seismic behavior of the
T able 5.

bridges is almost in the elastic range in this case. As in the previous example, this one also indicates that the proposed program is able to accurately predict displacements, which is an important index for a performance-based seismic design. Using the same personal computer configuration (Pentium IV 3.2GHz), the computational

Comparison of vertical displacement response (mm) at the middle point of the central span of the bridges for inelastic analysis Earthquake type Max/min Cable layouts ABAQUS 3D-PAAP (proposed) Error (%) Fan type 49.82 49.01 1.62 Semi-Harp type 57.43 56.80 1.10 Max Harp type 66.52 65.54 1.48 El-Centro Fan type -49.26 -49.92 1.34 Semi-Harp type -52.10 -52.74 1.24 Min Harp type -51.56 -51.80 0.46 Fan type 58.57 58.68 0.19 Semi-Harp type 68.00 70.07 3.04 Max Harp type 73.92 73.39 0.72 Loma Prieta Fan type -65.46 -65.42 0.07 Semi-Harp type -73.10 -70.25 3.90 Min Harp type -94.07 -91.56 2.67

Second-order Inelastic Dynamic Analysis of Three-dimensional Cable-stayed Bridges

213

Vertical displacement responses at the middle point of the central span of the bridges subjected to ElCentro earthquake for nonlinear inelastic seismic response.
Figure 8.

Vertical displacement responses at the middle point of the central span of the bridges subjected to Loma Prieta earthquake for nonlinear inelastic seismic response.
Figure 9.

times of ABAQUS and proposed program are 9.7 h and 1.3 h, respectively, for the harp type bridge subjected to the Loma Prieta earthquake. This result proves the high computational efficiency of the proposed program.
5. Conclusions

A computer program considering both geometric and material nonlinearities in predicting the nonlinear inelastic seismic response of the three-dimensional cable-stayed bridges subjected to their own weight and earthquake loadings has been developed. The conclusions of this

study are as follows: (1) The proposed program which provides a cable element can accurately predict the dynamic properties of the three-dimensional cable stayed-bridges with three different types of cable layouts. (2) Using a nonlinear cable element, the proposed program compares well with SAP2000 in capturing the nonlinear elastic seismic behavior of the bridges. (3) The proposed program can appropriately trace the nonlinear inelastic seismic responses in comparison with ABAQUS by using a minimum number of elements. (4) The longest analysis times among several analysis

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Huu-Tai Thai and Seung-Eock Kim

cases are 9.7 h and 1.3 h by ABAQUS and the proposed program, respectively. It shows that the proposed method is more practical than finite element method, and the proposed program can be effectively used as a powerful tool for use in daily design.

References
Abdel-Ghaffar, A. M. and Nazmy, A. S. (1991). 3-D nonlinear seismic behavior of cable-stayed bridges. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 117 (11), pp. 3456-3476. Chen, W. F. and Lui, E. M. (1987). Structural stability: Theory and implementation, Elsevier, New York. Chen, W. F., Kim, S. E. and Choi, S. H. (2001). Practical second-order inelastic analysis for three-dimensional steel frames. Steel Structures 1 (3), pp. 213-223. Cho, T. and Song, M. K. (2006). Structural reliability of a suspension bridge affected by environmentally assisted cracking. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 10 (1), pp. 21-31. Chopra, A. K. (2001). Dynamics of structures: Theory and applications to earthquake engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Ernst, J. H. (1965). Der E-modul von seilen unter

berucksienhtigung des durchanges. Der Bauingenieur 40 (2), pp. 52-55. Fleming, J. F. and Egeseli, E. A. (1980). Dynamic behavior of a cable-stayed bridge. Earthquate Engineering & Structural Dynamics 8 (1), pp. 1-16. Kim, S. E., Kim, K. M. and Chen, W. F. (2000). Improved refined plastic hinge analysis accounting for strain reversal. Engineering Structures 22 (1), pp. 15-25. McGuire, W., Gallagher, R. H. and Ziemian, R. D. (2000). Matrix Structural Analysis, John Wiley & Son, Inc, New York. Nazmy, A. S. and Abdel-Ghaffar, A. M. (1990). Threedimensional nonlinear static analysis of cable-stayed bridges. Computers & Structures 34 (2), pp. 257-271. Ren, W. X. and Obata, M. (1997). Elastic-plastic seismic behavior of long-span cable-stayed bridges. Journal of Bridge Engineering, ASCE, 4 (3), pp. 194-203. Song, W. K. and Kim, S. E. (2007). Analysis of the overall collapse mechanism of cable-stayed bridges with different cable layouts. Engineering Structures 29 (9), pp. 2133-2142. Wilson, J. C. and Lui, T. (1991). Modeling of a cablestayed bridge for dynamic analysis. Earthquate Engineering & Structural Dynamics 20 (8), pp. 707-721.