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Chernobyl Accident 1986

(Updated June 2013)

The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel. The resulting steam explosion and fires released at least ! of the radioacti"e reactor core into the atmosphere and downwind # some $%% &'q ()*1+1 eq,. Two Chernobyl plant wor-ers died on the night of the accident. and a further $8 people died within a few wee-s as a result of acute radiation poisoning. /01C2A3 says that apart from increased thyroid cancers. 4there is no e"idence of a ma5or public health impact attributable to radiation exposure $% years after the accident.4 3esettlement of areas from which people were relocated is ongoing.

The April 1986 disaster at the Chernobyla nuclear power plant in Ukraine was the product of a flawed So iet reactor desi!n coupled with serious "istakes "ade by the plant operatorsb# $t was a direct conse%uence of Cold &ar isolation and the resultin! lack of any safety culture#

The accident destroyed the Chernobyl ' reactor( killin! )* operators and fire"en within three "onths and se eral further deaths later# +ne person was killed i""ediately and a second died in hospital soon after as a result of in,uries recei ed# Another person is reported to ha e died at the ti"e fro" a coronary thro"bosisc# Acute radiation syndro"e (A-S) was ori!inally dia!nosed in .)/ people on0site and in ol ed with the clean0up and it was later confir"ed in 1)' cases# +f these( .8 people died as a result of A-S within a few weeks of the accident# 1ineteen "ore subse%uently died between 198/ and .**' but their deaths cannot necessarily be attributed to radiation e2posured# 1obody off0site suffered fro" acute radiation effects

althou!h a lar!e proportion of childhood thyroid cancers dia!nosed since the accident is likely to be due to intake of radioacti e iodine falloutd# 3urther"ore( lar!e areas of 4elarus( Ukraine( -ussia and beyond were conta"inated in aryin! de!rees# See also sections below and Chernobyl Accident Appendi2 .5 6ealth $"pacts# The Chernobyl disaster was a uni%ue e ent and the only accident in the history of co""ercial nuclear power where radiation0related fatalities occurrede# 6owe er( the desi!n of the reactor is uni%ue and in that respect the accident is thus of little rele ance to the rest of the nuclear industry outside the then 7astern 4loc# 6owe er( it led to "a,or chan!es in safety culture and in industry cooperation( particularly between 7ast and &est before the end of the So iet Union#

The Chernobyl site and plant


The Chernobyl 8ower Co"ple2( lyin! about 1)* k" north of 9ie ( Ukraine( and about .* k" south of the border with 4elarus( consisted of four nuclear reactors of the -4:901*** desi!n (see infor"ation pa!e on -4:9 -eactors)( units 1 and . bein! constructed between 19/* and 19//( while units ) and ' of the sa"e desi!n were co"pleted in 198)# Two "ore -4:9 reactors were under construction at the site at the ti"e of the accident# To the southeast of the plant( an artificial lake of so"e .. s%uare kilo"etres( situated beside the ri er 8ripyat( a tributary of the ;niepr( was constructed to pro ide coolin! water for the reactors# This area of Ukraine is described as 4elarussian0type woodland with a low population density# About ) k" away fro" the reactor( in the new city( 8ripyat( there were '9(*** inhabitants# The old town of Chornobyl( which had a population of 1.(<**( is about 1< k" to the southeast of the co"ple2# &ithin a )* k" radius of the power plant( the total population was between 11<(*** and 1)<(***#

Source: OECD NEA

The -4:901*** is a So iet0desi!ned and built !raphite "oderated pressure tube type reactor( usin! sli!htly enriched (.= U0.)<) uraniu" dio2ide fuel# $t is a boilin! li!ht water reactor( with two loops feedin! stea" directly to the turbines( without an inter enin! heat e2chan!er# &ater pu"ped to the botto" of the fuel channels boils as it pro!resses up the pressure tubes( producin! stea" which feeds two <** :&e turbines# The water acts as a coolant and also pro ides the stea" used to dri e the turbines# The ertical pressure tubes contain the >irconiu" alloy clad uraniu" dio2ide fuel around which the coolin! water flows# The e2tensions of the fuel channels penetrate the lower plate and the co er plate of the core and are welded to each# A specially desi!ned refuellin! "achine allows fuel bundles to be chan!ed without shuttin! down the reactor# The "oderator( whose function is to slow down neutrons to "ake the" "ore efficient in producin! fission in the fuel( is !raphite( surroundin! the pressure tubes# A "i2ture of nitro!en and heliu" is circulated between the !raphite blocks to pre ent o2idation of the !raphite and to i"pro e the trans"ission of the heat produced by neutron interactions in the !raphite to the fuel channel# The core itself is about / " hi!h and about 1. " in dia"eter# $n each of the two loops( there are four "ain coolant circulatin! pu"ps( one of which is always on standby# The reacti ity or power of the reactor is controlled by raisin! or lowerin! .11 control rods( which( when lowered into the "oderator( absorb neutrons and reduce the fission rate# The power output of this reactor is ).** :& ther"al( or 1*** :&e# ?arious safety syste"s( such as an e"er!ency core coolin! syste"( were incorporated into the reactor desi!n# +ne of the "ost i"portant characteristics of the -4:9 reactor is that it it can possess a @positi e oid coefficient@( where an increase in stea" bubbles (@ oids@) is acco"panied by an increase in core reacti ity (see infor"ation pa!e on -4:9 -eactors)# As stea" production in the fuel channels increases( the neutrons that would ha e been absorbed by the denser water now produce increased fission in the fuel# There are other co"ponents that contribute to the o erall power coefficient of reacti ity( but the oid coefficient is the do"inant one in -4:9 reactors# The oid coefficient depends on the co"position of the core A a new -4:9 core will ha e a ne!ati e oid coefficient# 6owe er( at the ti"e of the accident at Chernobyl '( the reactor@s fuel burn0up( control rod confi!uration and power le el led to a positi e oid coefficient lar!e enou!h to o erwhel" all other influences on the power coefficient#

The 1986 Chernobyl accident


+n .< April( prior to a routine shutdown( the reactor crew at Chernobyl ' be!an preparin! for a test to deter"ine how lon! turbines would spin and supply power to the "ain circulatin! pu"ps followin! a loss of "ain electrical power supply# This test had been carried out at Chernobyl the pre ious year( but the power fro" the turbine ran down too rapidly( so new olta!e re!ulator desi!ns were to be tested# A series of operator actions( includin! the disablin! of auto"atic shutdown "echanis"s( preceded the atte"pted test early on .6 April# 4y the ti"e that the operator "o ed to shut down the reactor( the reactor was in an e2tre"ely unstable condition# A peculiarity of the desi!n of the control rods caused a dra"atic power sur!e as they were inserted into the reactor (see Chernobyl Accident Appendi2 15 Se%uence of 7 ents)#

The interaction of ery hot fuel with the coolin! water led to fuel fra!"entation alon! with rapid stea" production and an increase in pressure# The desi!n characteristics of the reactor were such that substantial da"a!e to e en three or four fuel asse"blies can A and did A result in the destruction of the reactor# The o erpressure caused the 1*** t co er plate of the reactor to beco"e partially detached( rupturin! the fuel channels and ,a""in! all the control rods( which by that ti"e were only halfway down# $ntense stea" !eneration then spread throu!hout the whole core (fed by water du"ped into the core due to the rupture of the e"er!ency coolin! circuit) causin! a stea" e2plosion and releasin! fission products to the at"osphere# About two to three seconds later( a second e2plosion threw out fra!"ents fro" the fuel channels and hot !raphite# There is so"e dispute a"on! e2perts about the character of this second e2plosion( but it is likely to ha e been caused by the production of hydro!en fro" >irconiu"0stea" reactions# Two workers died as a result of these e2plosions# The !raphite (about a %uarter of the 1.** tonnes of it was esti"ated to ha e been e,ected) and fuel beca"e incandescent and started a nu"ber of firesf( causin! the "ain release of radioacti ity into the en iron"ent# A total of about 1' 74% (1' 2 1*18 4%) of radioacti ity was released( o er half of it bein! fro" biolo!ically0inert noble !ases#B BThe fi!ure of <#. 74% is also %uoted( this bein! Ciodine01)1 e%ui alentC 0 1#8 74% iodine and 8< 84% Cs01)/ "ultiplied by
'* due its lon!e ity( and i!norin! the 6#< 74% 2enon0)) and so"e "inor or short0li ed nuclides#

About .**0)** tonnes of water per hour was in,ected into the intact half of the reactor usin! the au2iliary feedwater pu"ps but this was stopped after half a day owin! to the dan!er of it flowin! into and floodin! units 1 and .# 3ro" the second to tenth day after the accident( so"e <*** tonnes of boron( dolo"ite( sand( clay and lead were dropped on to the burnin! core by helicopter in an effort to e2tin!uish the bla>e and li"it the release of radioacti e particles#

The da"a!ed Chernobyl unit ' reactor buildin!

)mmediate impact of the Chernobyl accident


The accident caused the lar!est uncontrolled radioacti e release into the en iron"ent e er recorded for any ci ilian operation( and lar!e %uantities of radioacti e substances were released into the air for about 1* days# This caused serious social and econo"ic disruption for lar!e populations in 4elarus( -ussia and Ukraine# Two radionuclides( the short0li ed iodine01)1 and the lon!0li ed caesiu"01)/( were particularly si!nificant for the radiation dose they deli ered to "e"bers of the public# $t is esti"ated that all of the 2enon !as( about half of the iodine and caesiu"( and at least <= of the re"ainin! radioacti e "aterial in the Chernobyl ' reactor core (which had 19. tonnes of fuel) was released in the accident# :ost of the released "aterial was deposited close by as dust and debris( but the li!hter "aterial was carried by wind o er the Ukraine( 4elarus( -ussia and to so"e e2tent o er Scandina ia and 7urope# The casualties included firefi!hters who attended the initial fires on the roof of the turbine buildin!# All these were put out in a few hours( but radiation doses on the first day were esti"ated to ran!e up to .*(*** "illisie erts ("S )( causin! .8 deaths A si2 of which were fire"en A by the end of Duly 1986# The ne2t task was cleanin! up the radioacti ity at the site so that the re"ainin! three reactors could be restarted( and the da"a!ed reactor shielded "ore per"anently# About .**(*** people (@li%uidators@) fro" all o er the So iet Union were in ol ed in the reco ery and clean0up durin! 1986 and 198/# They recei ed hi!h doses of radiation( a era!in! around 1** "illisie erts# So"e .*(*** of the" recei ed about .<* "S and a few recei ed <** "S # Eater( the nu"ber of li%uidators swelled to o er 6**(*** but "ost of these recei ed only low radiation doses# The hi!hest doses were recei ed by about 1*** e"er!ency workers and on0site personnel durin! the first day of the accident#

$nitial radiation e2posure in conta"inated areas was due to short0li ed iodine01)1F later caesiu"0 1)/ was the "ain ha>ard# (4oth are fission products dispersed fro" the reactor core( with half li es of 8 days and )* years( respecti ely# 1#8 74% of $01)1 and *#*8< 74% of Cs01)/ were released#) About fi e "illion people li ed in areas of 4elarus( -ussia and Ukraine conta"inated (abo e )/ k4%G". Cs01)/ in soil) and about '**(*** li ed in "ore conta"inated areas of strict control by authorities (abo e <<< k4%G". Cs01)/)#

The effects of radiation exposure fall into two main classes: deterministic effects, where the effect is certain to occur under given conditions (e.g. individuals exposed to several grays over a short period of time will definitely suffer Acute Radiation Syndrome) and stochastic effects, where the effect may or may not occur (e.g. an increase in radiation exposure may or may not induce a cancer in a particular individual !ut if a sufficiently large population receive a radiation exposure a!ove a certain level, an increase in the incidence of cancer may !ecome detecta!le in that population). "#S$%AR, &'((.

B supposedly correlatin! with 1 "S Gyr dose with continuous e2posure# About .)= of 4elarus was conta"inated to this le el( with /= of Ukraine and 1#<= of 7uropean -ussia# The plant operators@ town of 8ripyat was e acuated on ./ April ('<(*** residents)# 4y 1' :ay( so"e 116(*** people that had been li in! within a )*0kilo"etre radius had been e acuated and later relocated# About 1*** of these returned unofficially to li e within the conta"inated >one# :ost of those e acuated recei ed radiation doses of less than <* "S ( althou!h a few recei ed 1** "S or "ore# $n the years followin! the accident( a further ..*(*** people were resettled into less conta"inated areas( and the initial )* k" radius e2clusion >one (.8** k".) was "odified and e2tended to co er ')** s%uare kilo"etres# This resettle"ent was due to application of a criterion of )<* "S pro,ected lifeti"e radiation dose( thou!h in fact radiation in "ost of the affected area (apart fro" half a s%uare kilo"etre) fell rapidly so that a era!e doses were less than <*= abo e nor"al back!round of .#< "S Gyr# See also followin! section on -esettle"ent#

2n"ironmental and health effects of the Chernobyl accident


Se eral or!anisations ha e reported on the i"pacts of the Chernobyl accident( but all ha e had proble"s assessin! the si!nificance of their obser ations because of the lack of reliable public health infor"ation before 1986# $n 1989( the &orld 6ealth +r!ani>ation (&6+) first raised concerns that local "edical scientists had incorrectly attributed arious biolo!ical and health effects to radiation e2posure!# 3ollowin! this( the Ho ern"ent of the USS- re%uested the $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency ($A7A) to coordinate an international e2perts@ assess"ent of accident@s radiolo!ical( en iron"ental and health conse%uences in selected towns of the "ost hea ily conta"inated areas in 4elarus( -ussia( and Ukraine# 4etween :arch 199* and Dune 1991( a total of <* field "issions were conducted by .** e2perts fro" .< countries (includin! the USS-)( se en or!anisations( and 11 laboratories) # $n the absence of pre01986 data( it co"pared a

control population with those e2posed to radiation# Si!nificant health disorders were e ident in both control and e2posed !roups( but( at that sta!e( none was radiation related#

8aths of radiation e2posureh Subse%uent studies in the Ukraine( -ussia and 4elarus were based on national re!isters of o er one "illion people possibly affected by radiation# 4y .***( about '*** cases of thyroid cancer had been dia!nosed in e2posed children# 6owe er( the rapid increase in thyroid cancers detected su!!ests that so"e of it at least is an artifact of the screenin! process# Thyroid cancer is usually not fatal if dia!nosed and treated early# $n 3ebruary .**)( the $A7A established the Chernobyl 3oru"( in cooperation with se en other U1 or!anisations as well as the co"petent authorities of 4elarus( the -ussian 3ederation and Ukraine# $n April .**<( the reports prepared by two e2pert !roups A C7n iron"entC( coordinated by the $A7A( and C6ealthC( coordinated by &6+ A were intensi ely discussed by the 3oru" and e entually appro ed by consensus# The conclusions of this .**< Chernobyl 3oru" study (re ised ersion published .**6i) are in line with earlier

e2pert studies( notably the U1SC7A- .*** report, which said that Capart fro" this Ithyroid cancerJ increase( there is no e idence of a "a,or public health i"pact attributable to radiation e2posure 1' years after the accident# There is no scientific e idence of increases in o erall cancer incidence or "ortality or in non0 "ali!nant disorders that could be related to radiation e2posure#C As yet there is little e idence of any increase in leukae"ia( e en a"on! clean0up workers where it "i!ht be "ost e2pected# 6owe er( these workers A where hi!h doses "ay ha e been recei ed A re"ain at increased risk of cancer in the lon! ter"# Apart fro" these( the United 1ations Scientific Co""ittee on the 7ffects of Ato"ic -adiation (U1SC7A-) says that Cthe !reat "a,ority of the population is not likely to e2perience serious health conse%uences as a result of radiation fro" the Chernobyl accident# :any other health proble"s ha e been noted in the populations that are not related to radiation e2posure#C The Chernobyl 3oru" report says that people in the area ha e suffered a paralysin! fatalis" due to "yths and "isperceptions about the threat of radiation( which has contributed to a culture of chronic dependency# So"e Ctook on the role of in alids#C :ental health coupled with s"okin! and alcohol abuse is a ery "uch !reater proble" than radiation( but worst of all at the ti"e was the underlyin! le el of health and nutrition# Apart fro" the initial 116(***( relocations of people were ery trau"atic and did little to reduce radiation e2posure( which was low anyway# 8sycho0social effects a"on! those affected by the accident are si"ilar to those arisin! fro" other "a,or disasters such as earth%uakes( floods and fires# Accordin! to the "ost up0to0date esti"ate of U1SC7A-( the a era!e radiation dose due to the accident recei ed by inhabitants of @strict radiation control@ areas (population .16(***) in the years 1986 to .**< was )1 "S (o er the .*0year period)( and in the @conta"inated@ areas (population 6#' "illion) it a era!ed 9 "S ( a "inor increase o er the dose due to back!round radiation o er the sa"e period (about <* "S )'# The nu"bers of deaths resultin! fro" the accident are co ered in the Report of the Chernobyl oru! E"pert #roup $%ealth$( and are su""arised in Chernobyl Accident Appendi2 .5 6ealth $"pacts# A fuller( and "ost the "ost recent( account of health effects is pro ided by an anne2 to the U1SC7A- .**8 report( released in .*11#< So"e e2a!!erated fi!ures ha e been published re!ardin! the death toll attributable to the Chernobyl disaster# A publication by the U1 +ffice for the Coordination of 6u"anitarian Affairs (+C6A)6 lent support to these# 6owe er( the Chair"an of U1SC7A- "ade it clear that Cthis report is full of unsubstantiated state"ents that ha e no support in scientific assess"entsCk( and the Chernobyl 3oru" report also repudiates the"# A particularly sad effect of the accident was that so"e physicians in 7urope ad ised pre!nant wo"en to under!o abortions on account of radiation e2posure( e en thou!h the le els concerned were astly below those likely to ha e terato!enic effects# The foetal death toll fro" this is likely ery "uch !reater than directly fro" the accident# U1SC7A- in .*11 concludes5 $n su""ary( the effects of the Chernobyl accident are "any and aried# 7arly deter"inistic effects can be attributed to radiation with a hi!h de!ree of certainty( while for other "edical conditions( radiation al"ost certainly was not the cause# $n between( there was a wide spectru" of

conditions# $t is necessary to e aluate carefully each specific condition and the surroundin! circu"stances before attributin! a cause#< A aluable paper by ;r Kbi!niew Daworowski( for"er Chair"an of U1SC7A-( on The Chernobyl ;isaster and how it has been Understood is a ailable fro" &1A# $t ar!ues that pre ailin! assu"ptions about the health effects of radiation led to a !reat deal of unnecessary sufferin! and har"#

&rogressi"e closure of the Chernobyl plant


$n the early 199*s( so"e USL'** "illion was spent on i"pro e"ents to the re"ainin! reactors at Chernobyl( considerably enhancin! their safety# 7ner!y shorta!es necessitated the continued operation of one of the" (unit )) until ;ece"ber .***# (Unit . was shut down after a turbine hall fire in 1991( and unit 1 at the end of 199/#) Al"ost 6*** people worked at the plant e ery day( and their radiation dose has been within internationally accepted li"its# A s"all tea" of scientists works within the wrecked reactor buildin! itself( inside the shelterl# &orkers and their fa"ilies now li e in a new town( Sla utich( )* k" fro" the plant# This was built followin! the e acuation of 8ripyat( which was ,ust ) k" away# Ukraine depends upon( and is deeply in debt to( -ussia for ener!y supplies( particularly oil and !as( but also nuclear fuel# Althou!h this dependence is !radually bein! reduced( continued operation of nuclear power stations( which supply half of total electricity( is now e en "ore i"portant than in 1986# &hen it was announced in 199< that the two operatin! reactors at Chernobyl would be closed by .***( a "e"orandu" of understandin! was si!ned by Ukraine and H/ nations to pro!ress this( but its i"ple"entation was conspicuously delayed# Alternati e !eneratin! capacity was needed( either !as0fired( which has on!oin! fuel cost and supply i"plications( or nuclear( by co"pletin! 9h"elnitski unit . and -o no unit ' (@9.-'@) in Ukraine# Construction of these was halted in 1989 but then resu"ed( and both reactors ca"e on line late in .**'( financed by Ukraine rather than international !rants as e2pected on the basis of Chernobyl@s closure#

Chernobyl today
Chernobyl unit ' is now enclosed in a lar!e concrete shelter which was erected %uickly (by +ctober 1986) to allow continuin! operation of the other reactors at the plant# 6owe er( the structure is neither stron! nor durable# The international Shelter $"ple"entation 8lan in the 199*s in ol ed raisin! "oney for re"edial work includin! re"o al of the fuel0containin! "aterials# So"e "a,or work on the shelter was carried out in 1998 and 1999# So"e .** tonnes of hi!hly radioacti e "aterial re"ains deep within it( and this poses an en iron"ental ha>ard until it is better contained# A 0ew 1afe Confinement structure is due to be co"pleted in .*16( bein! built ad,acent and then "o ed into place on rails# $t is to be a .*(*** tonne arch 1*8 "etres hi!h( 1<* "etres lon! and spannin! .</ "etres( to co er both unit ' and the hastily0built 1986 structure# The arch fra"e is a lattice construction of tubular steel "e"bers( e%uipped with internal cranes# The desi!n and construction contract for this was si!ned in .**/ with the 1o arka consortiu" and preparatory work on site was co"pleted in .*1*# Construction started in April .*1. and is e2pected to take four years# The her"etically sealed buildin! will allow en!ineers to re"otely dis"antle the 1986 structure that has shielded the re"ains of the reactor fro"

the weather since the weeks after the accident# $t will enable the e entual re"o al of "aterials containin! nuclear fuel and acco""odate their characterisation( co"paction and packin! for disposal# This task represents the "ost i"portant step in eli"inatin! nuclear ha>ard at the site 0 and the real start of deco""issionin!# The 1SC will facilitate re"ote handlin! of these dan!erous "aterials( usin! as few personnel as possible# The Chernobyl Shelter 3und( set up in 199/( had recei ed M86' "illion fro" international donors by early .*11 towards this pro,ect and pre ious work# $t and the 1uclear Safety Account( set up in 199)( are "ana!ed by the 7uropean 4ank for -econstruction and ;e elop"ent (74-;)# The 1SA had recei ed M).1 "illion by early .*11 for Chernobyl deco""issionin! and also for pro,ects in other e20So iet countries# The total cost of the new shelter is esti"ated by the Ukraine !o ern"ent to be M9)< "illion# $n April .*11 an e2tra M<<* "illion was pled!ed for the Shelter 3und( includin! M1.* "illion fro" 74-;( M11* fro" 7C( and N.8#< "illion fro" the U9# $n ;ece"ber .*1. the Ukraine !o ern"ent said that M9* "illion ,ust recei ed fro" 74-; would enable co"pletions of the 1SC pro,ect( brin!in! total contributions to 7U- /'* "illion( M<<* "illion of this fro" international sources# Used fuel fro" units 1 to ) is stored in each unit@s coolin! pond( in a s"all interi" spent fuel stora!e facility pond ($S301)( and in the reactor of unit )# $n 1999( a contract was si!ned with 3ra"ato"e (now Are a) for construction of a radioacti e waste "ana!e"ent facility to store .<(*** used fuel asse"blies fro" units 10) and other operational wastes( as well as "aterial fro" deco""issionin! units 10) (which are the first -4:9 units deco""issioned anywhere)# The contract included a processin! facility( able to cut the -4:9 fuel asse"blies and to put the "aterial in canisters( which would be filled with inert !as and welded shut# They would then be transported to dry stora!e aults in which the fuel containers would be enclosed for up to 1** years# This facility( treatin! .<** fuel asse"blies per year( would be the first of its kind for -4:9 fuel# 6owe er( after a si!nificant part of the $S301 dry stora!e facility had been built( technical deficiencies in the concept e"er!ed in .**)( and the contract was ter"inated a"icably in .**/# So"e further work on the structure has taken place since( but 74-; says that the licence for $S301 is unlikely to be renewed after .*16# $t currently holds "uch of the spent fuel fro" units 10)( and will apparently hold all of it by the end of .*1)# :ost of the fuel asse"blies are strai!htforward to handle( but about <* are da"a!ed and re%uire special handlin!# 6oltec $nternational beca"e the contractor in Septe"ber .**/ for new interi" spent fuel stora!e facility ($S30. or S13 S30.) now bein! co"pleted by "id0.*1' for the state0owned Chernobyl 188# ;esi!n appro al and fundin! fro" 74-;@s 1uclear Safety Account was confir"ed in +ctober .*1*# The facility will acco""odate .1(.1/ -4:9 fuel asse"blies in dry stora!e for a 1**0year ser ice life# $t was licensed in :arch .*1)( allowin! sta!e . to proceed to .*1<# $n April .**9( 1uke" handed o er a turnkey waste treat"ent centre for solid radioacti e waste ($CS-:( $ndustrial Co"ple2 for -adwaste :ana!e"ent)# $n :ay .*1*( the State 1uclear -e!ulatory Co""ittee licensed the co""issionin! of this facility( where solid low0 and inter"ediate0le el wastes accu"ulated fro" the power plant operations and the deco""issionin! of reactor blocks 1 to ) is conditioned# The wastes are

processed in three steps# 3irst( the solid radioacti e wastes te"porarily stored in bunkers is re"o ed for treat"ent# $n the ne2t step( these wastes( as well as those fro" deco""issionin! reactor blocks 10)( are processed into a for" suitable for per"anent safe disposal# Eow0 and inter"ediate0le el wastes are separated into co"bustible( co"pactable( and non0co"pactable cate!ories# These are then sub,ect to incineration( hi!h0force co"paction( and ce"entation respecti ely# $n addition( hi!hly radioacti e and lon!0 li ed solid waste is sorted out for te"porary separate stora!e# $n the third step( the conditioned solid waste "aterials are transferred to containers suitable for per"anent safe stora!e# As part of this pro,ect( at the end of .**/( 1uke" handed o er an 7n!ineered 1ear Surface ;isposal 3acility for stora!e of short0li ed radioacti e waste after prior conditionin!# $t is 1/ k" away fro" the power plant( at the ?ektor co"ple2 within the )*0k" >one# The stora!e area is desi!ned to hold <<(*** ") of treated waste which will be sub,ect to radiolo!ical "onitorin! for )** years( by when the radioacti ity will ha e decayed to such an e2tent that "onitorin! is no lon!er re%uired# Another contract has been let for a Ei%uid -adioacti e &aste Treat"ent 8lant( to handle so"e )<(*** cubic "etres of low0 and inter"ediate0le el li%uid wastes at the site# This will need to be solidified and e entually buried alon! with solid wastes on site# $n Danuary .**8( the Ukraine !o ern"ent announced a four0sta!e deco""issionin! plan which incorporates the abo e waste acti ities and pro!resses towards a cleared site# See also official web site#

3esettlement of contaminated areas


$n the last two decades there has been so"e resettle"ent of the areas e acuated in 1986 and subse%uently# -ecently the "ain resettle"ent pro,ect has been in 4elarus# $n Duly .*1*( the 4elarus !o ern"ent announced that it had decided to settle back thousands of people in the @conta"inated areas@ co ered by the Chernobyl fallout( fro" which .' years a!o they and their forbears were hastily relocated# Co"pared with the list of conta"inated areas in .**<( so"e .11 illa!es and ha"lets had been reclassified with fewer restrictions on resettle"ent# The decision by the 4elarus Council of :inisters resulted in a new national pro!ra" o er .*1101< and up to .*.* to alle iate the Chernobyl i"pact and return the areas to nor"al use with "ini"al restrictions# The focus of the pro,ect is on the de elop"ent of econo"ic and industrial potential of the Ho"el and :o!ile re!ions fro" which 1)/(*** people were relocated# The "ain priority is a!riculture and forestry( to!ether with attractin! %ualified people and housin! the"# $nitial infrastructure re%uire"ents will "ean the refurbish"ent of !as( potable water and power supplies( while the use of local wood will be banned# Schools and housin! will be pro ided for specialist workers and their fa"ilies ahead of wider socio0econo"ic de elop"ent# + erall( so"e .1('8' dwellin!s are slated for connection to !as networks in the period .*110.*1<( while about <6** conta"inated or broken down buildin!s are de"olished# + er 1)** kilo"etres of road will be laid( and ten new sewera!e works and 1< pu"pin! stations are planned# The cost of the work was put at 4O- 6#6 trillion (L.#. billion)( split fairly e enly across the years .*11 to .*1< inclusi e#

The feasibility of a!riculture will be e2a"ined in areas where the presence of caesiu"01)/ and strontiu"09* is low( Cto ac%uire new knowled!e in the fields of radiobiolo!y and radioecolo!y in order to clarify the principles of safe life in the conta"inated territories#C Eand found to ha e too hi!h a concentration of radionuclides will be reforested and "ana!ed# A suite of protecti e "easures is to be set up to allow a new forestry industry whose products would "eet national and international safety standards# $n April .**9( specialists in 4elarus stressed that it is safe to eat all foods culti ated in the conta"inated territories( thou!h intake of so"e wild food was restricted# 8rotecti e "easures will be put in place for '98 settle"ents in the conta"inated areas where a era!e radiation dose "ay e2ceed 1 "S per year# There are also 19*' illa!es with annual a era!e effecti e doses fro" the pollution between *#1 "S and 1 "S # The !oal for these areas is to allow their re0use with "ini"al restrictions( althou!h already radiation doses there fro" the caesiu" are lower than back!round le els anywhere in the world# The "ost affected settle"ents are to be tackled first( around .*110 .*1)( with the rest co"in! back in around .*1'0.*1<#

6hat has been learnt from the Chernobyl disaster7


Eea in! aside the erdict of history on its role in "eltin! the So iet @$ron Curtain@( so"e ery tan!ible practical benefits ha e resulted fro" the Chernobyl accident# The "ain ones concern reactor safety( notably in eastern 7urope# (The US Three :ile $sland accident in 19/9 had a si!nificant effect on &estern reactor desi!n and operatin! procedures# &hile that reactor was destroyed( all radioacti ity was contained A as desi!ned A and there were no deaths or in,uries#) &hile no0one in the &est was under any illusion about the safety of early So iet reactor desi!ns( so"e lessons learned ha e also been applicable to &estern plants# Certainly the safety of all So iet0desi!ned reactors has i"pro ed astly# This is due lar!ely to the de elop"ent of a culture of safety encoura!ed by increased collaboration between 7ast and &est( and substantial in est"ent in i"pro in! the reactors# :odifications ha e been "ade to o erco"e deficiencies in all the -4:9 reactors still operatin!# $n these( ori!inally the nuclear chain reaction and power output could increase if coolin! water were lost or turned to stea"( in contrast to "ost &estern desi!ns# $t was this effect which led to the uncontrolled power sur!e that led to the destruction of Chernobyl ' (see &o'(t()e )o(d coeff(c(ent section in the infor"ation pa!e on -4:9 -eactors)# All of the -4:9 reactors ha e now been "odified by chan!es in the control rods( addin! neutron absorbers and conse%uently increasin! the fuel enrich"ent fro" 1#8 to .#'= U0.)<( "akin! the" ery "uch "ore stable at low power (see &o't acc(dent chan*e' to the R+,- section in the infor"ation pa!e on -4:9 -eactors)# Auto"atic shut0down "echanis"s now operate faster( and other safety "echanis"s ha e been i"pro ed# Auto"ated inspection e%uip"ent has also been installed# A repetition of the 1986 Chernobyl accident is now irtually i"possible( accordin! to a Her"an nuclear safety a!ency report/# Since 1989( o er 1*** nuclear en!ineers fro" the for"er So iet Union ha e isited &estern nuclear power plants and there ha e been "any reciprocal isits# + er <* twinnin! arran!e"ents between 7ast and &est nuclear plants ha e been put in place# :ost of this has been under the auspices of the &orld Association of 1uclear +perators (&A1+)( a body for"ed in 1989 which links 1)* operators of nuclear power plants in "ore than )* countries (see also infor"ation pa!e on Cooperation in the 1uclear 8ower $ndustry)#

:any other international pro!ra""es were initiated followin! Chernobyl# The $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency ($A7A) safety re iew pro,ects for each particular type of So iet reactor are noteworthy( brin!in! to!ether operators and &estern en!ineers to focus on safety i"pro e"ents# These initiati es are backed by fundin! arran!e"ents# The 1uclear Safety Assistance Coordination Centre database lists &estern aid totallin! al"ost USL1 billion for "ore than /** safety0related pro,ects in for"er 7astern 4loc countries# The Con ention on 1uclear Safety adopted in ?ienna in Dune 199' is another outco"e# The Chernobyl 3oru" report said that so"e se en "illion people are now recei in! or eli!ible for benefits as @Chernobyl icti"s@( which "eans that resources are not tar!etin! the needy few percent of the"# -e"edyin! this presents dauntin! political proble"s howe er# 8urther )nformation 1otes a# Chernobyl is the well0known -ussian na"e for the siteF Chornobyl is preferred by Ukraine# I4ackJ b# :uch has been "ade of the role of the operators in the Chernobyl accident# The 1986 Su!!ary Report on the &o't.Acc(dent Re)(e/ ,eet(n* on the Chernobyl Acc(dent ($1SAH01) of the $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency@s ($A7A@s) $nternational 1uclear Safety Ad isory Hroup accepted the iew of the So iet e2perts that Cthe accident was caused by a re"arkable ran!e of hu"an errors and iolations of operatin! rules in co"bination with specific reactor features which co"pounded and a"plified the effects of the errors and led to the reacti ity e2cursion#C $n particular( accordin! to the $1SAH01 report5 CThe operators deliberately and in iolation of rules withdrew "ost control and safety rods fro" the core and switched off so"e i"portant safety syste"s#C 6owe er( the $A7A@s 199. $1SAH0/ report( 0he Chernobyl Acc(dent: Updat(n* of 1NSA#.1( was less critical of the operators( with the e"phasis shifted towards Cthe contributions of particular desi!n features( includin! the desi!n of the control rods and safety syste"s( and arran!e"ents for presentin! i"portant safety infor"ation to the operators# The accident is now seen to ha e been the result of the concurrence of the followin! "a,or factors5 specific physical characteristics of the reactorF specific desi!n features of the reactor control ele"entsF and the fact that the reactor was brou!ht to a state not specified by procedures or in esti!ated by an independent safety body# :ost i"portantly( the physical characteristics of the reactor "ade possible its unstable beha iour#C 4ut the report !oes on to say that the $nternational 1uclear Safety Ad isory Hroup Cre"ains of the opinion that critical actions of the operators were "ost ill ,ud!ed# As pointed out in $1SAH01( the hu"an factor has still to be considered as a "a,or ele"ent in causin! the accident#C $t is certainly true that the operators placed the reactor in a dan!erous condition( in particular by re"o in! too "any of the control rods( resultin! in the lowerin! of the reactor@s operatin! reacti ity "ar!in (+-:( see infor"ation pa!e on -4:9 -eactors)# 6owe er( the operatin! procedures did not e"phasise the ital safety si!nificance of the +-: but rather treated the +-: as a way of controllin! reactor power# $t could therefore be ar!ued that the actions of the operators were "ore a sy"pto" of the pre ailin! safety culture of the So iet era rather than the result of recklessness or a lack of co"petence on the part of the operators (see Appendi2 to infor"ation pa!e onNuclear &o/er (n Ru''(a( So iet 1uclear Culture)#

$n what is referred to as his 0e'ta!ent A which was published soon after his suicide two years after the accident A ?alery Ee!aso ( who had led the So iet dele!ation to the $A7A 8ost0Accident -e iew :eetin!( wrote5 CAfter $ had isited Chernobyl 188 $ ca"e to the conclusion that the accident was the ine itable apotheosis of the econo"ic syste" which had been de eloped in the USS- o er "any decades# 1e!lect by the scientific "ana!e"ent and the desi!ners was e erywhere with no attention bein! paid to the condition of instru"ents or of e%uip"ent### &hen one considers the chain of e ents leadin! up to the Chernobyl accident( why one person beha ed in such a way and why another person beha ed in another etc( it is i"possible to find a sin!le culprit( a sin!le initiator of e ents( because it was like a closed circle#C I4ackJ c# The initial death toll was officially !i en as two initial deaths plus .8 fro" acute radiation syndro"e# +ne further icti"( due to coronary thro"bosis( is widely reported( but does not appear on official lists of the initial deaths# The .**6 report of the U1 Chernobyl 3oru" 72pert Hroup C6ealthC( %ealth Effect' of the Chernobyl Acc(dent and Spec(al %ealth Care &ro*ra!!e'( states5 CThe Chernobyl accident caused the deaths of )* power plant e"ployees and fire"en within a few days or weeks (includin! .8 deaths that were due to radiation e2posure)#C I4ackJ d# Apart fro" the initial )1 deaths (two fro" the e2plosions( one reportedly fro" coronary thro"bosis A see 1ote c abo e A and .8 fire"en and plant personnel fro" acute radiation syndro"e)( the nu"ber of deaths resultin! fro" the accident is unclear and a sub,ect of considerable contro ersy# Accordin! to the .**6 report of the U1 Chernobyl 3oru"@s @6ealth@ 72pert Hroup15 CThe actual nu"ber of deaths caused by this accident is unlikely e er to be precisely known#C +n the nu"ber of deaths due to acute radiation syndro"e (A-S)( the 72pert Hroup report states5 CA"on! the 1)' e"er!ency workers in ol ed in the i""ediate "iti!ation of the Chernobyl accident( se erely e2posed workers and fire"an durin! the first days( .8 persons died in 1986 due to A-S( and 19 "ore persons died in 198/0.**' fro" different causes# A"on! the !eneral population affected by the Chernobyl radioacti e fallout( the "uch lower e2posures "eant that A-S cases did not occur#C Accordin! to the report5 C&ith the e2ception of thyroid cancer( direct radiation0epide"iolo!ical studies perfor"ed in 4elarus( -ussia and Ukraine since 1986 ha e not re ealed any statistically si!nificant increase in either cancer "orbidity or "ortality induced by radiation#C The report does howe er attribute a lar!e proportion of child thyroid cancer fatalities to radiation( with nine deaths bein! recorded durin! 19860.**. as a result of pro!ression of thyroid cancer# A su""ary of the esti"ates by the 72pert Hroup of the total nu"ber of deaths can be found in Chernobyl Accident Appendi2 .5 6ealth $"pacts# I4ackJ e# There ha e been fatalities in "ilitary and research reactor conte2ts( e2*2 Tokai0"ura# I4ackJ f# Althou!h "ost reports on the Chernobyl accident refer to a nu"ber of !raphite fires( it is hi!hly unlikely that the !raphite itself burned# Accordin! to the Heneral Ato"ics website (http5GG!t0"hr#!a#co"Gsafety#php)5 C$t is often incorrectly assu"ed that the co"bustion beha ior of !raphite is si"ilar to that of charcoal and coal# 1u"erous tests and calculations ha e shown that it is irtually i"possible to burn hi!h0purity( nuclear0 !rade !raphites#C +n Chernobyl( the sa"e source states5 CHraphite played little or no role in the pro!ression or conse%uences of the accident# The red !low obser ed durin! the Chernobyl accident was the e2pected

color of lu"inescence for !raphite at /**PC and not a lar!e0scale !raphite fire( as so"e ha e incorrectly assu"ed#C A .**6 7lectric 8ower -esearch $nstitute Technical -eport. states that the $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency@s $1SAH01 report is
222potent(ally !('lead(n* throu*h the u'e of (!prec('e /ord' (n relat(on to *raph(te beha)(our2 0he report d('cu''e' the f(re.f(*ht(n* act()(t(e' and repeatedly refer' to 3burn(n* *raph(te bloc4'5 and 3the *raph(te f(re52 ,o't of the actual f(re' (n)ol)(n* *raph(te /h(ch /ere approached by f(re.f(*hter' (n)ol)ed e6ected !ater(al on b(tu!en.co)ered roof'7 and the f(re' al'o (n)ol)ed the b(tu!en2 1t (' 'tated: 30he f(re tea!' e"per(enced no unu'ual proble!' (n u'(n* the(r f(re.f(*ht(n* techn(8ue'7 e"cept that (t too4 a con'(derable t(!e to e"t(n*u('h the *raph(te f(re25 0he'e de'cr(pt(on' are not con'('tent /(th the later con'(dered op(n(on' of 'en(or Ru''(an 'pec(al('t'222 0here (' ho/e)er no 8ue't(on that e"tre!ely hot *raph(te /a' e6ected fro! the core and at a te!perature 'uff(c(ent to (*n(te ad6acent co!bu't(ble !ater(al'2

There are also se eral referrals to a !raphite fire occurrin! durin! the +ctober 19</ accident at &indscale 8ile 1o# 1 in the U9# 6owe er( i"a!es obtained fro" inside the 8ile se eral decades after the accident showed that the !raphite was relati ely unda"a!ed# I4ackJ !# The $nternational Chernobyl 8ro,ect( 199*091 0 Assess"ent of -adiolo!ical Conse%uences and 7 aluation of 8rotecti e :easures( Su""ary 4rochure( published by the $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency( reports that( in Dune 1989( the &orld 6ealth +r!ani>ation (&6+) sent a tea" of e2perts to help address the health i"pacts of radioacti e conta"ination resultin! fro" the accident# +ne of the conclusions fro" this "ission was that Cscientists who are not well ersed in radiation effects ha e attributed arious biolo!ical and health effects to radiation e2posure# These chan!es cannot be attributed to radiation e2posure( especially when the nor"al incidence is unknown( and are "uch "ore likely to be due to psycholo!ical factors and stress# Attributin! these effects to radiation not only increases the psycholo!ical pressure in the population and pro okes additional stress0related health proble"s( it also under"ines confidence in the co"petence of the radiation specialists#C I4ackJ h# $"a!e taken fro" pa!e )1 of 0he 1nternat(onal Chernobyl &ro6ect 0echn(cal Report7 A''e''!ent of Rad(olo*(cal Con'e8uence' and E)aluat(on of &rotect()e ,ea'ure'7 Report by an 1nternat(onal Ad)('ory Co!!(ttee( $A7A( 1991 ($S415 9.*1.9191') I4ackJ i# A <<0pa!e su""ary ersion the re ised report( Chernobyl9' :e*acy: %ealth7 En)(ron!ental and Soc(o. Econo!(c 1!pact' and Reco!!endat(on' to the #o)ern!ent' of +elaru'7 the Ru''(an ederat(on and U4ra(ne7 0he Chernobyl oru!: 2003;200<7 Second re)('ed )er'(on( as well as the -eport of the U1 Chernobyl 3oru" 72pert Hroup Q7n iron"entR and the -eport of the U1 Chernobyl 3oru" 72pert Hroup Q6ealthR are a ailable fro" the $A7A@s webpa!e for the Chernobyl 3oru" (http5GGwww0 ns#iaea#or!G"eetin!sGrw0su""ariesGchernobylSforu"#ht") and the &orld 6ealth +r!ani>ation@s webpa!e on 1on(=(n* rad(at(on(http5GGwww#who#intGioni>in!SradiationGaSeGchernobylGenGinde21#ht"l) I4ackJ ,# The United 1ations Scientific Co""ission on the 7ffects of Ato"ic -adiation (U1SC7A-) is the U1 body with a "andate fro" the Heneral Asse"bly to assess and report le els and health effects of e2posure to ioni>in! radiation# 72posures and effects of the Chernobyl accident( Anne2 D to ?olu"e $$ of the .*** United 1ations Scientific Co""ittee on the 7ffects of Ato"ic -adiation -eport to the Heneral Asse"bly( is

a ailable at the U1SC7A- .*** -eport ?ol# $$ webpa!e (www#unscear#or!GunscearGenGpublicationsG.***S.#ht"l)# $t is also a ailable (alon! with other reports) on the webpa!e for U1SC7A-@s assess"ents of the radiation effects of The Chernobyl accident (www#unscear#or!GunscearGenGchernobyl#ht"l)# The conclusions fro" Anne2 D of the U1SC7A.*** report are in Chernobyl Accident Appendi2 .5 6ealth $"pacts I4ackJ k# The %uoted co""ent co"es fro" a 6 Dune .*** letter fro" Ears07rik 6ol"( Chair"an of U1SC7A- and ;irector0Heneral of the Swedish -adiation 8rotection $nstitute( to 9ofi Annan( Secretary0Heneral of the United 1ations# The letter is a ailable on the website of -adiation( Science( and 6ealth (www#radscihealth#or!GrshG) I4ackJ l# A reinforced concrete casin! was built around the ruined reactor buildin! o er the se en "onths followin! the accident# This shelter A often referred to as the'arcopha*u' A was intended to contain the re"ainin! fuel and act as a radiation shield# As it was desi!ned for a lifeti"e of around .* to )* years( as well as bein! hastily constructed( a second shelter A known as the 1ew Safe Confine"ent A with a 1**0year desi!n lifeti"e is planned to be placed o er the e2istin! structure# See also AS7 keeps the lid on Chernobyl( &orld 1uclear 1ews (19 Au!ust .**8)# I4ackJ -eferences 1# 6ealth 7ffects of the Chernobyl Accident and Special 6ealth Care 8ro!ra""es( -eport of the U1 Chernobyl 3oru"( 72pert Hroup C6ealthC( &orld 6ealth +r!ani>ation( .**6 ($S415 9/89.'1<9'1/.) I4ackJ .# Appendi2 ;( Hraphite ;eco""issionin!5 +ptions for Hraphite Treat"ent( -ecyclin!( or ;isposal( includin! a discussion of Safety0-elated $ssues( 78-$( 8alo Alto( CA( 1*1)*91 (:arch .**6) I4ackJ )# The $nternational Chernobyl 8ro,ect( 199*091 0 Assess"ent of -adiolo!ical Conse%uences and 7 aluation of 8rotecti e :easures( Su""ary 4rochure( $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency( $A7AG8$GA).7( 1991F 0he 1nternat(onal Chernobyl &ro6ect7 An O)er)(e/7 A''e''!ent of Rad(olo*(cal Con'e8uence' and E)aluat(on of &rotect()e ,ea'ure'7 Report by an 1nternat(onal Ad)('ory Co!!(ttee( $A7A( 1991 ($S415 9.*1.9*918)F 0he 1nternat(onal Chernobyl &ro6ect 0echn(cal Report7 A''e''!ent of Rad(olo*(cal Con'e8uence' and E)aluat(on of &rotect()e ,ea'ure'7 Report by an 1nternat(onal Ad)('ory Co!!(ttee( $A7A( 1991 ($S415 9.*1.9191') I4ackJ '# :ikhail 4alono ( :alcol" Crick and ;idier Eou at( Update of $"pacts of the Chernobyl Accident5 Assess"ents of the Chernobyl 3oru" (.**)0.**<) and U1SC7A- (.**<0.**8)( 8roceedin!s of the Third 7uropean $-8A ($nternational -adiation 8rotection Association) Con!ress held in 6elsinki( 3inland (1'018 Dune .*1*) I4ackJ <# U1SC7A-( .*11( 6ealth 7ffects due to -adiation fro" the Chernobyl Accident# U1SC7A- .**8 -eport( ol $$( anne2 ;# (the lead author is :#4alano ) 6# Chernobyl 0 A Continuin! Catastrophe( United 1ations +ffice for the Coordination of 6u"anitarian Affairs (+C6A)( .*** I4ackJ /# The Accident and the Safety of -4:90-eactors( Hesellschaft fTr Anla!en und -eaktorsicherheit (H-S) "b6( H-S01.1 (3ebruary 1996) I4ackJ Heneral sources

$1SAH0/( The Chernobyl Accident5 Updatin! of $1SAH01( A report by the $nternational 1uclear Safety Ad isory Hroup( $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency( Safety Series 1o# /<0$1SAH0/( 199.( ($S415 9.*1*'69.8) ChernobylUs Ee!acy5 6ealth( 7n iron"ental and Socio07cono"ic $"pacts and -eco""endations to the Ho ern"ents of 4elarus( the -ussian 3ederation and Ukraine( The Chernobyl 3oru"5 .**)A.**<( Second re ised ersion( $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency( $A7AG8$GA#8/ -e #.G*60*9181 (April .**6) 7n iron"ental Conse%uences of the Chernobyl Accident and their -e"ediation5 Twenty Oears of 72perience( -eport of the Chernobyl 3oru" 72pert Hroup V7n iron"entU( $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency( .**6 ($S41 9.*11'/*<8) 6ealth 7ffects of the Chernobyl Accident and Special 6ealth Care 8ro!ra""es( -eport of the U1 Chernobyl 3oru" 72pert Hroup C6ealthC( &orld 6ealth +r!ani>ation( .**6 ($S415 9/89.'1<9'1/.) The Chernobyl accident( U1SC7A-@s assess"ents of the radiation effects 72posures and effects of the Chernobyl accident( Anne2 D of Source' and Effect' of 1on(=(n* Rad(at(on( U1SC7A- .*** -eport to the Heneral Asse"bly ?ol# $$ Ten Oears after Chernobyl5 what do we really knowW (based on the proceedin!s of the $A7AG&6+G7C $nternational Conference( ?ienna( April 1996)( $nternational Ato"ic 7ner!y A!ency Chernobyl5 Assess"ent of -adiolo!ical and 6ealth $"pacts 0 .**. Update of Chernobyl5 Ten Oears +n( +7C; 1uclear 7ner!y A!ency (.**.)# This is also a ailable as an 6T:E ersion Kbi!niew Daworowski( :e''on' of Chernobyl /(th part(cular reference to thyro(d cancer( Australasian -adiation 8rotection Society 1ewsletter 1o# )* (April .**')# The sa"e article appeared in 72ecuti e $ntelli!ence -e iew (7$-)( ?olu"e )1( 1u"ber 18 (/ :ay .**')# An e2tended ersion of this paper was published as -adiation folly( Chapter ' of 7n iron"ent X 6ealth5 :yths X -ealities( 7dited by 9endra +konski and Dulian :orris( $nternational 8olicy 8ress (a di ision of $nternational 8olicy 1etwork)( Dune .**' ($S41 19*<*'1**')# See also Chernobyl Accident Appendi2 .5 6ealth $"pacts The chernobyl2(nfo website (www#chernobyl#info) Hreen3acts webpa!e on Scientific 3acts on the Chernobyl 1uclear Accident (www#!reenfacts#or!GenGchernobyl) 7uropean Centre of Technolo!ical Safety@s Chernobyl website (www#tesec0int#or!GChernobyl) and its webpa!e on Sarcopha!us and ;eco""issionin! of the Chernobyl 188 Chernobyl Ee!acy website (www#chernobylle!acy#co")
4lo! Y Hallery Y eShop Y 1uclear 7ner!y $nde2 Y Contact us Z .*1) &orld 1uclear Association( re!istered in 7n!land and &ales( nu"ber *1.1</'1# -e!istered office5 ..a St Da"es@s S%uare Eondon S&1O 'D6 United 9in!do"

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