Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares
D De ef fi in ni i o o e e p pr ro op pr ri ie ed da ad de es s
x x Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre .
Chama-se aplicao linear ou transformao linear ou homomorfismo de
E em E' a toda a aplicao M : E | E' que satisfaz as duas condies,
(i) u, v E , M(u + v) = M(u) + M(v)
(ii) u E , O , M(Ou) = O M(u)
x x Para u = (x
1
, ..., x
n
), em vez de M((x
1
, ..., x
n
)) utilizamos a notao
simplificada M(x
1
, ..., x
n
).
x x Por exemplo a aplicao,
M :
3
|
2
(x, y, z) M(x, y, z) = (x+y, z)
uma aplicao linear de
3
em
2
, pois,
(i) Para quaisquer (x, y, z), (a, b, c)
3
,
provemos que,
M( (x, y, z) + (a, b, c) ) = M(x, y, z) + M(a, b, c)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 2
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
M((x, y, z) + (a, b, c)) = M(x+a, y+b, z+c)
( por definio de adio em
3
)
= ( (x+a) + (y+b), z+c )
( pela definio da aplicao M)
= ( (x+y) + (a+b), z+c )
( por propriedades da adio em )
= (x+y, z) + (a+b, c)
( por definio de adio em
2
)
= M(x, y, z) + M(a, b, c)
( pela definio da aplicao M)
(ii) Para quaisquer (x, y, z)
3
e O ,
provemos que, M( O (x, y, z) ) = O M(x, y, z)
M( O (x, y, z) ) = M(Ox, Oy, Oz)
( por definio de multiplicao por um escalar em
3
)
= ( Ox + Oy, Oz )
( pela definio da aplicao M)
= ( O(x + y), Oz )
( pela distributividade em )
= O ( x + y, z )
( por definio de multiplicao por um escalar em
2
)
= O M(x, y, z) ( pela definio da aplicao M)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 3
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Verifique que a aplicao,
M :
2
|
3
(x, y) M(x, y) = (x + 2 y, x - y, -2 x + 3 y)
uma aplicao linear de
2
em
3
.
x x Verifique que a aplicao,
M :
2
|
3
(x, y) M(x, y) = (x
2
, y
2
, x y)
no uma aplicao linear de
2
em
3
.
x x A aplicao,
no uma aplicao linear. Basta verificar por exemplo que,
e portanto,
enquanto que,
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 4
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x O conjunto -() das funes reais de uma varivel real, munido das
operaes soma de funes e produto de uma funo por um nmero real,
um espao vectorial, por vezes denotado por (-(), +, . ).
x x So subespaos vectoriais de -(), o conjunto das funes diferenciveis,
o conjunto das funes integrveis, ...
x x Sendo tambm um espao vectorial, certas operaes podem ser formuladas
em termos de aplicaes lineares, como por exemplo:
A diferenciao uma aplicao linear entre o subespao das funes
diferenciveis e o espao vectorial -().
A integrao uma aplicao linear entre o subespao das funes
integrveis e um intervalo de .
x x Para um dado ponto x
0
a aplicao,
uma aplicao linear de -() em , pois,
(i) Para qualquer par de funes f, g -()
(ii) Para qualquer funo f -() e qualquer nmero O
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 5
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre
e seja uma M aplicao linear de E em E'.
Ento, (a) M(0
E
) = 0
E'
(b) M(-u) = - M(u) para todo u E
(c) M(u - v) = M(u) - M(v) para todo u, v E
Demonstrao:
(a) M(0
E
) = 0
E'
Como 0
E
o elemento neutro para a adio em E,
temos, 0
E
= 0
E
+ 0
E
e ento, M (0
E
) = M (0
E
+ 0
E
)
mas como M uma aplicao linear,
M (0
E
) = M (0
E
) + M (0
E
)
Ora M (0
E
), sendo um elemento do espao vectorial E',
tem o seu simtrico, - M (0
E
).
Somando este simtrico a ambos os membros da equao anterior,
M (0
E
) + (- M (0
E
)) = M (0
E
) + M (0
E
) + (- M (0
E
))
0
E'
0
E'
ou seja, 0
E'
= M (0
E
) + 0
E'
que uma soma em E', cujo elemento neutro 0
E'
e portanto 0
E'
= M (0
E
)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 6
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
(b) M(-u) = - M(u) para todo u E
Para provar que M(-u) o simtrico de M(u) em E',
basta mostrar que, M(-u) + M(u) = 0
E'
Ora se M uma aplicao linear,
M(-u) + M(u) = M(-u + u)
mas como -u o simtrico de u em E,
M(-u) + M(u) = M(0
E
)
e pela condio (a),
M(-u) + M(u) = 0
E'
(b) M(-u) = - M(u) para todo u E
Como alternativa, podemos partir da igualdade,
- u = ( -1
) u
e nesse caso,
M(- u) = M( ( -1
) M(u) )
e como M uma aplicao linear,
M(- u) = ( -1
) M(u)
= - M(u)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 7
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
(c) M(u - v) = M(u) - M(v) para todo u, v E
M(u - v) = M(u + ( - v))
= M(u) + M( -v) porque M uma aplicao linear
= M(u) + (- M(v)) pela condio (b)
= M(u) - M(v)
x x As duas condies que constituem a definio de aplicao linear podem ser
condensadas numa s, estabelecendo uma condio necessria e suficiente
que, como tal, pode tambm ser usada como definio.
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre e seja Muma
aplicao de E em E'.
Ento M uma aplicao linear se e s se,
M(D u + E v) = D M(u) + E M(v)
u, v E , D, E
x x Sendo E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre , representamos por,
3(E, E')
o conjunto das aplicaes lineares de E em E'.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 8
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x No conjunto 3(E, E') das aplicaes lineares de E em E' tambm podem ser
definidas operaes, tais como,
x Adio de aplicaes lineares:
Para duas M, \ 3(E, E') e qualquer u E definimos,
(M + \) (u) = M(u) + \(u)
x Multiplicao de uma aplicao linear por um escalar:
Para uma M 3(E, E') um O e qualquer u E definimos,
(O M) (u) = O ( M(u) )
x Composio de aplicaes lineares,
Para uma M 3(E, E') e uma \ 3(E', E'') e qualquer u E
definimos,
(\ M) (u) = \(M(u))
x ...
x x Resta provar que o resultado destas operaes ainda uma aplicao linear.
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre
e sejam M, \ 3(E, E') e O
Ento M + \ e O M so aplicaes lineares.
O conjunto 3(E, E'), munido destas duas operaes,
um espao vectorial sobre .
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 9
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Demonstrao:
Para quaisquer u, v E e D, E, O , provemos que a soma M + \
uma aplicao linear, utilizando a condio necessria e suficiente na pgina 7.
(M + \) (D u + E v) = M(D u + E v) + \(D u + E v)
( definio de adio em 3(E, E') )
= D M(u) + E M(v) + D \(u) + E \(v)
( M e \ so aplicaes lineares )
= D (M(u) + \(u)) + E (M(v) + \(v))
( axiomas de espao vectorial )
= D ((M + \)(u)) + E ((M + \)(v))
( definio de adio em 3(E, E') )
Analogamente, para quaisquer u, v E e D, E, O , provemos que o
produto por um escalar O M uma aplicao linear.
(O M) (D u + E v) = O ( M(D u + E v))
( definio de multiplicao por um escalar em 3(E, E') )
= O ( D M(u) + E M(v) )
( M uma aplicao linear )
= ( OD ) M(u) + ( OE ) M(v)
( axiomas de espao vectorial )
= ( DO ) M(u) + ( EO ) M(v)
( comutatividade em )
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 10
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
= D ( O ( M(u))) + E ( O ( M(v)))
( axiomas de espao vectorial )
= D ( O M)(u) + E ( O M)(v)
( definio de multiplicao por um escalar em 3(E, E') )
Restaria agora provar que 3(E, E') obedece aos axiomas de espao vectorial,
com estas duas operaes (...).
x x O vector nulo do espao vectorial 3(E, E') a aplicao 0
3(E, E')
que a
todo o vector de Efaz corresponder o vector nulo de E',
Mostre que este vector nulo de 3(E, E') efectivamente o elemento neutro
da soma de aplicaes lineares em 3(E, E'), ou seja que,
para todo o \ 3(E, E') se tem,
0
3(E, E')
+ \ = \
x x A toda a aplicao \ 3(E, E') corresponde a respectiva aplicao
simtrica - \definida por,
Mostre que efectivamente,
\ + ( - \ ) = 0
3(E, E')
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 11
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Sejam E, E' e E'' trs espaos vectoriais sobre
Para as aplicaes M 3(E, E') e \ 3(E', E''), a aplicao
composta \ M definida por,
Mostre que \ M uma aplicao linear.
> C Cl la as ss si if fi ic ca a o o d da as s a ap pl li ic ca a e es s l li in ne ea ar re es s
Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre e seja M 3(E, E')
A aplicao linear ou homomorfismo M um:
x monomorfismo se for injectiva, ou seja,
M(u) = M(v) u = v, u, v E
x epimorfismo se for sobrejectiva, ou seja,
se o contradomnio de M E'
x isomorfismo se for bijectiva, ou seja,
se M for injectiva e sobrejectiva
x endomorfismo se E = E'
x automorfismo se M for um endomorfismo e um isomorfismo
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 12
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Por exemplo, a aplicao linear I :
3
| definida por,
um epimorfismo.
x x Por exemplo, a aplicao linear \ : P
3
[x] |
4
definida por,
um isomorfismo.
x x Por exemplo, a aplicao linear M : P
2
[x] | P
2
[x] definida por,
um automorfismo.
x x Por exemplo, a aplicao linear M : -(
+
) |-(
+
) definida por,
M ( log (xy) ) = log (x) + log (y) x, y
+
um automorfismo.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 13
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
P Pr ro op pr ri ie ed da ad de es s d da as s A Ap pl li ic ca a e es s L Li in ne ea ar re es s
x x Sendo uma aplicao linear definida entre espaos vectoriais, uma questo
vital a de conhecer o comportamento dessa aplicao em relao
dependncia ou independncia lineares de vectores.
A proposio seguinte garante que:
x Uma aplicao linear transforma vectores linearmente dependentes em
vectores linearmente dependentes.
x Para que uma aplicao linear transforme vectores linearmente
independentes em vectores linearmente independentes necessrio e
suficiente que esta aplicao seja injectiva.
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre
e seja M 3(E, E') .
(i) Se os vectores v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
so linearmente dependentes
em E, ento os vectores M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
) so
linearmente dependentes em E'.
(ii) A aplicao linear M um monomorfismo se e s se,
a independncia linear dos vectores v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
implicar a
independncia linear dos vectores M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
).
Demonstrao:
(i) Sejam v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
E vectores linearmente dependentes.
Mostremos que M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
) E' tambm so vectores
linearmente dependentes.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 14
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Se v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
so vectores linearmente dependentes
ento existem escalares D
1
, D
2
,..., D
k
no todos nulos,
tais que,
D
1
v
1
+ D
2
v
2
+ ...+ D
k
v
k
= 0
E
e aplicando M,
M ( D
1
v
1
+ D
2
v
2
+ ...+ D
k
v
k
) = M ( 0
E
)
mas como M uma aplicao linear,
D
1
M (v
1
) + D
2
M (v
2
) + ...+ D
k
M (v
k
) = 0
E'
E deste modo obtivemos uma combinao linear nula em E' cujos escalares
no so todos nulos.
Os vectores M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
) E' so portanto linearmente
dependentes.
(ii) ()
Seja M um monomorfismo (aplicao linear injectiva).
Mostremos que, nesse caso,
se os vectores v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
E so linearmente independentes,
ento os vectores M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
) E' tambm so
linearmente independentes.
Partindo da combinao linear nula em E',
D
1
M (v
1
) + D
2
M (v
2
) + ...+ D
k
M (v
k
) = 0
E'
como M uma aplicao linear,
M ( D
1
v
1
+ D
2
v
2
+ ...+ D
k
v
k
) = M ( 0
E
)
mas porque M injectiva,
D
1
v
1
+ D
2
v
2
+ ...+ D
k
v
k
= 0
E
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 15
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Se os v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
forem linearmente independentes, isto significa que,
D
1
= D
2
= ...= D
k
= 0
ento tambm os M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
) so linearmente independentes.
(ii) ()
Assumindo que,
se os vectores v
1
, v
2
,..., v
k
E so linearmente independentes,
ento os vectores M(v
1
), M(v
2
),..., M(v
k
) E' tambm so
linearmente independentes.
mostremos que M tem de ser um monomorfismo (aplicao linear injectiva).
Suponhamos, por absurdo, que no era injectiva.
Nesse caso existiriam u, v E com u z v mas M(u) = M(v).
e poderamos definir, w = u - v z 0
E
e aplicar M, M(w) = M(u - v) = M(u) - M(v)
= 0
E'
Significa isto que teramos o vector w z 0
E
com a imagem M(w) = 0
E'
Ora este facto contraria a hiptese pois,
sendo w z 0
E
ento linearmente independente e, por hiptese, a sua
imagem tambm linearmente independente e portanto M(w) z 0
E'
.
Portanto a aplicao linear que preserva a independncia linear s pode ser
injectiva.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 16
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Por exemplo a aplicao, que j provmos ser uma aplicao linear,
M :
3
|
2
(x, y, z) M(x, y, z) = (x+y, z)
Consideremos trs vectores que so linearmente dependentes,
u = (1, 1, -1)
v = (-1, -3, 2)
w = (-1, -5, 3)
simples verificar que os trs vectores imagem,
M(u) = (2, -1)
M(v) = (-4, 2)
M(w) = (-6, 3)
tambm so linearmente dependentes,
pois (-6, 3) + (2, -1) = (-4, 2)
Tambm simples verificar que no um monomorfismo pois,
por exemplo, M(3, 2, -1) = (5, -1)
M(4, 1, -1) = (5, -1)
Consideremos agora trs vectores que so linearmente independentes,
x = (1, -1, 0)
y = (0, -3, 2)
z = (-1, 0, 3)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 17
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
e calculando os trs vectores imagem,
M(x) = (0, 0)
M(y) = (-3, 2)
M(z) = (-1, 3)
que obviamente so linearmente dependentes, por conterem o vector nulo.
x x Por exemplo, a aplicao linear M : P
1
[x] |
2
definida por,
M(a x + b) = (a, b)
um monomorfismo (e at um isomorfismo).
Considerando trs polinmios p(x), q(x), r(x) P
1
[x]
p(x) = x - 1
q(x) = - 3
r(x) = 3 x + 3
que so linearmente dependentes, pois r(x) = 3 p(x) - 2 q(x)
e calculando os trs vectores imagem,
M(p(x)) = (1, -1)
M(q(x)) = (0, -3)
M(r(x)) = (3, 3)
simples verificar que tambm so linearmente dependentes.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 18
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Por outro lado os dois polinmios s(x), t(x) P
1
[x]
s(x) = 4 x - 3
t(x) = x + 5
so linearmente independentes. Porqu?
Como M injectiva, esta independncia preservada nas imagens,
M(s(x)) = (4, -3)
M(t(x)) = (1, 5)
que so tambm linearmente independentes.
x x O prximo resultado mostra que uma aplicao linear cujo domnio um
espao vectorial de dimenso finita fica perfeitamente definida quando se
conhecem as imagens dos vectores de uma qualquer base desse espao.
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' dois espaos vectoriais sobre sendo E de
dimenso finita.
Seja ) = (e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
) uma base de E
e sejam u
1
, u
2
,..., u
n
E'
Ento, existe uma nica aplicao linear M : E | E'
tal que M(e
i
) = u
i
para todo o i = 1, 2, ..., n
Alm disso,
para qualquer v = D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
ento M(v) = D
1
u
1
+ D
2
u
2
+ ...+ D
n
u
n
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 19
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Demonstrao:
Como conhecemos uma base de E, ) = (e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
)
ento, para qualquer vector v E, existem n escalares D
1
, D
2
, ..., D
n
tais que,
v = D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
Sendo tambm conhecidos n vectores u
1
, u
2
,..., u
n
E'
definimos a aplicao M : E | E' por,
M(D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
) = D
1
u
1
+ D
2
u
2
+ ...+ D
n
u
n
Comecemos por verificar que, com esta definio,
para todo o i = 1, 2, ..., n se tem M(e
i
) = u
i
Para cada i = 1, 2, ..., n
podemos escrever e
i
como uma combinao linear
onde D
i
= 1
e
1
+ 0
e
2
+ ... 1
e
i
+ ...+ 0
e
n
aplicando M,
M(e
i
) = M(0
e
1
+ 0
e
2
+ ... 1
e
i
+ ...+ 0
e
n
)
que, pelo modo com definimos M,
M(e
i
) = 0
u
1
+ 0
u
2
+ ... 1
u
i
+ ...+ 0
u
n
= u
i
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 20
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Pelo modo como foi definida, a aplicao M uma aplicao linear pois,
M(D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
)
= D
1
u
1
+ D
2
u
2
+ ...+ D
n
u
n
= D
1
M(e
1
) + D
2
M(e
2
) + ...+ D
n
M(e
n
)
Falta apenas demonstrar que a aplicao linear M nica.
Suponhamos que existia outra, \ : E | E'
tal que \(e
i
) = u
i
, para todo o i = 1, 2, ..., n
Nesse caso, para qualquer v E,
v = D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
aplicando \,
\(v) = \(D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
)
que sendo tambm uma aplicao linear,
= D
1
\(e
1
) + D
2
\(e
2
) + ...+ D
n
\(e
n
)
e pela condio imposta,
= D
1
u
1
+ D
2
u
2
+ ...+ D
n
u
n
mas pela definio de M,
= D
1
M(e
1
) + D
2
M(e
2
) + ...+ D
n
M(e
n
)
e sendo M uma aplicao linear,
= M(D
1
e
1
+ D
2
e
2
+ ...+ D
n
e
n
)
= M(v)
ou seja, \(v) = M(v) para todo o v E.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 21
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Consideremos a aplicao linear M :
2
|
3
da qual conhecemos,
M(1, 1) = (1, 0, -1)
M(1, 0) = (0, 2, 1)
Como determinar a sua expresso geral ?
Em primeiro lugar, necessrio provar que ( (1, 1), (1, 0) )
uma base ordenada de
2
.
Para determinar a expresso geral de M, tomemos um vector arbitrrio
(x, y)
2
e determinemos as suas coordenadas naquela base,
(x, y) = D(1, 1) + E(1, 0)
= (D + E, D)
donde,
x = D + E ou E = x - y
y = D D = y
Identificadas a coordenadas podemos escrever,
(x, y) = y (1, 1) + (x - y) (1, 0)
Aplicando M a esta igualdade,
M(x, y) = M( y (1, 1) + (x - y) (1, 0) )
e porque M uma aplicao linear,
= y M(1, 1) + (x - y) M(1, 0)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 22
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
mas pelos dados do problema sabemos que,
= y (1, 0, -1) + (x - y) (0, 2, 1)
= (y, 0, -y) + (0, 2 x - 2 y, x - y)
= (y, 2 x - 2 y, x - 2 y)
Podemos ento concluir que,
M(x, y) = (y, 2 x - 2 y, x - 2 y)
para todo o (x, y)
2
.
x x Por exemplo, para a aplicao linear M :
2
|
2
da qual conhecemos,
M(1, 0) = (0, 1)
M(0, 1) = (1, 0)
determinemos a sua expresso geral.
Neste caso conhecemos )
2, )
3).
Determinando as coordenadas das imagens dos vectores da base )
2 na
base )
3,
M(1, 0) = (2, 1, 0)
= 2 (1, 0, 0) + 1 (0, 1, 0) + 0 (0, 0, 1)
= (2, 1, 0)
)
3
M(0, 1) = (0, -1, 3)
= 0 (1, 0, 0) + (-1) (0, 1, 0) + 3 (0, 0, 1)
= (0, -1, 3)
)
3
e portanto,
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 53
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Para a mesma aplicao linear M :
2
|
3
definida por,
M(x, y) = (2 x, x - y, 3 y), para todo o (x, y)
2
consideremos agora as bases,
) = ( (1, 1), (-1, 2) ) de
2
) = ( (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0) ) de
3
e calculemos a respectiva matriz M(M; ), )).
Determinando as coordenadas das imagens dos vectores de ) em ),
M(1, 1) = (2, 0, 3)
= ...
= 3 (1, 1, 1) + (-3) (1, 1, 0) + 2 (1, 0, 0)
= (3, -3, 2)
)
M(-1, 2) = (-2, -3, 6)
= ...
= 6 (1, 1, 1) + (-9) (1, 1, 0) + 1 (1, 0, 0)
= (6, -9, 1)
)
e portanto,
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 54
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Por exemplo para a aplicao linear I :
3
|
2
definida por,
I(a, b, c) = (2 a + b, -c), para todo o (a, b, c)
3
em relao s bases,
) = ( (1, 1, 2), (0, 2, 6), (0, 0, -4) ) de
3
) = ( (1, 0), (0, 2) ) de
2
calculemos a respectiva M(I; ), )), matriz da aplicao linear I em
relao s bases ) e )'
Determinando as coordenadas das imagens por I, dos vectores de ) em ),
I(1, 1, 2) = (3, -2)
= 3 (1, 0) + (-1) (0, 2)
= (3, -1)
)
I(0, 2, 6) = (2, -6)
= 2 (1, 0) + (-3) (0, 2)
= (2, -3)
)
I(0, 0, -4) = (0, -4)
= 0 (1, 0) + 2 (0, 2)
= (0, 2)
)
e portanto,
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 55
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Por exemplo para a aplicao linear \ : P
2
[x] |
3
definida por,
\(a x
2
+ b x + c) = ( 2 b , b - 3 a, a )
para todo o (a x
2
+ b x + c) P
2
[x].
em relao s bases,
)
P
2
[x]
= ( 1, x, x
2
) base cannica de P
2
[x]
) = ( (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) ) de
3
calculemos a respectiva M(\; )
P
2
[x]
, )), matriz da aplicao linear \ em
relao s bases )
P
2
[x]
e )
Determinando as coordenadas das imagens por \, dos polinmios de )
P
2
[x]
na base ),
\(1) = (0, 0, 0)
= 0 (1, 0, 1) + 0 (1, 1, 0) + 0 (0, 0, 1)
= (0, 0, 0)
)
\(x) = (2, 1, 0)
= 1 (1, 0, 1) + 1 (1, 1, 0) + (-1) (0, 0, 1)
= (1, 1, -1)
)
\(x
2
) = (0, -3, 1)
= 3 (1, 0, 1) + (-3) (1, 1, 0) + (-3) (0, 0, 1)
= (3, -3, -3)
)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 56
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
e portanto,
x x Dada a aplicao linear T : P
2
[x] | P
1
[x] definida por,
T(a x
2
+ b x + c) = (a - b) x + 2 c
para todo o (a x
2
+ b x + c) P
2
[x].
e as bases,
) = ( 3, 2 + x, x
2
- 1 ) de P
2
[x]
) = ( x - 2, x ) de P
1
[x]
calcule a respectiva M(T; ), )), matriz da aplicao linear T em
relao s bases ) e )
x x Sendo dadas uma aplicao linear M : E | E' e duas bases (uma de
cada espao vectorial) sabemos como construir uma nica matriz, que
caracteriza essa aplicao.
x x Deste modo, a aplicao linear fica completamente definida se for conhecida
apenas a matriz e respectivas bases.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 57
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' espaos vectoriais sobre e sejam )
1
e )
2
bases ordenadas de E e de E' respectivamente.
e seja M : E | E' uma aplicao linear tal que,
A = M(M; )
1
, )
2
)
Se as coordenadas de um qualquer vector u E,
relativamente base )
1
formarem a matriz coluna X,
ento a matriz coluna produto A X formada pelas
coordenadas de M(u) E' relativamente base )
2
.
x x Retomemos o exemplo da pgina 54.
Mas desta vez a aplicao linear M :
3
|
2
definida pela matriz,
em relao s bases,
) = ( (1, 1, 2), (0, 2, 6), (0, 0, -4) ) de
3
) = ( (1, 0), (0, 2) ) de
2
Pretendemos determinar M(u), a imagem do vector u = (1, -3, -6).
Comecemos por calcular as coordenadas do vector na base ).
(1, -3, -6) = a (1, 1, 2) + b (0, 2, 6) + c (0, 0, -4)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 58
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
ou seja, a = 1 ( ... ) a = 1
a + 2 b = -3 b = -2
2 a + 6 b - 4 c = -6 c = -1
e assim,
(1, -3, -6) = 1 (1, 1, 2) + (-2) (0, 2, 6) + (-1) (0, 0, -4)
= (1, -2, -1)
)
= X
T
Pela proposio anterior, para determinar as coordenadas de M(u) na base ),
basta calcular o produto AX,
Portanto, M(1, -3, -6) = (-1, 3)
)
Por fim, podemos calcular as coordenadas de M(u) na base cannica de
2
,
M(1, -3, -6) = (-1) (1, 0) + 3 (0, 2)
= (-1, 6)
)
2
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 59
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Retomemos o exemplo da pgina 53,
com a aplicao linear M :
2
|
3
definida pela matriz,
2
3
em relao s bases,
) = ( (1, 1), (-1, 2) ) de
2
) = ( (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0) ) de
3
Determinemos M(1, 0) e tambm a expresso geral de M(x, y),
para todo o (x, y)
2
Calculando as coordenadas do vector (1, 0) na base ).
(1, 0) = a (1, 1) + b (-1, 2)
ou seja, a - b = 1 ( ... ) a = 2/3
a + 2 b = 0 b = - 1/3
e assim, (1, 0) = (2/3, - 1/3)
)
= X
T
o que nos permite determinar as coordenadas de M(1, 0) na base ),
calculando o produto AX,
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 60
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
e portanto, M(1, 0) = (0, 1, 1)
)
= 0 (1, 1, 1) + 1 (1, 1, 0) + 1 (1, 0, 0)
= (2, 1, 0)
)
3
Para encontrar a expresso geral de M(x, y), para todo o (x, y)
2
o mtodo anlogo. Comeamos por,
calcular as coordenadas do vector arbitrrio (x, y) na base ).
(x, y) = a (1, 1) + b (-1, 2)
ou seja, a - b = x ( ... ) a = (y + 2 x) / 3
a + 2 b = y b = (y - x) / 3
e assim, (x, y) = ((y + 2 x) / 3, + (y - x) / 3)
)
= X
T
Para determinar as coordenadas de M(x, y) na base ),
basta calcular o produto AX,
Portanto,
M(x, y) = (3 y, x - 4 y, x + y)
)
que na base cannica de
3
,
= (3 y) (1, 1, 1) + (x - 4 y) (1, 1, 0) + (x + y) (1, 0, 0)
= (2 x, x - y, 3 y)
)
3
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 61
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
Est assim encontrada a expresso geral,
M(x, y) = (2 x, x - y, 3 y) para todo o (x, y)
2
Como alternativa, partido das coordenadas de (x, y) na base ),
(x, y) = ((y + 2 x) / 3, + (y - x) / 3)
)
e conhecendo a base ) = ( (1, 1), (-1, 2) ), podemos escrever,
(x, y) = ((y + 2 x) / 3) (1, 1) + ((y - x) / 3) (-1, 2)
e, como M uma aplicao linear,
M(x, y) = ((y + 2 x) / 3) M(1, 1) + ((y - x) / 3) M(-1, 2)
Para calcular M(1, 1) e M(-1, 2),
recorremos prpria definio da matriz M(M; ), )).
M(1, 1) = 3 (1, 1, 1) + ( -3) (1, 1, 0) + 2 (1, 0, 0)
= (2, 0, 3)
M(-1, 2) = 6 (1, 1, 1) + ( -9) (1, 1, 0) + 1 (1, 0, 0)
= (-2, -3, 6)
Portanto,
M(x, y) = ((y + 2 x) / 3) (2, 0, 3) + ((y - x) / 3) (-2, -3, 6)
= (2 x, x - y, 3 y)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 62
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
l ls so om mo or rf fi is sm mo o e en nt tr re e 4 4( (E E, , E E' ') ) e e M M
p pl ln n
( ( ) )
x x Sejam E e E' espaos vectoriais sobre tais que dim E = n e dim E' = p.
4(E, E') o conjunto das aplicaes lineares de E em E'
M
pln
() o conjunto das matrizes do tipo pn com elementos de
x x Sabemos que,
4(E, E') munido das operaes usuais de adio de aplicaes e
multiplicao por um escalar, um espao vectorial sobre
M
pln
() munido das operaes usuais de adio de matrizes e
multiplicao por um escalar, um espao vectorial sobre
x x J vimos que, a partir da expresso geral de uma aplicao linear podemos
construir a respectiva matriz, bem como obter a aplicao linear a partir da
matriz.
x x O resultado seguinte garante-nos que, 4(E, E') ! M
pln
()
x x Proposio: Sejam E e E' espaos vectoriais sobre
tais que dim E = n e dim E' = p
sejam )
1
e )
2
bases ordenadas de E e de E' respectivamente
e seja T : 4(E, E') | M
pln
()
M T(M) = M(M; )
1
, )
2
)
Prova-se que T um isomorfismo.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 63
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
E Ex xe em mp pl lo os s d de e a ap pl li ic ca a e es s l li in ne ea ar re es s e em m
2 2
x x Comecemos por considerar o quadrado unitrio,
delimitado por,
(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)
2
x x Consideremos tambm uma aplicao linear M :
2
|
2
definida por uma matriz A = M(M; )
2, )
2),
x x Calculando as imagens por M dos quatro pontos que delimitam o quadrado
unitrio,
obtemos um quadriltero, delimitado por,
M(0, 0) = (0, 0)
M(1, 0) = (a, c)
M(0, 1) = (b, d)
M(1, 1) = (a + b, c + d)
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 64
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Tratando-se de uma apIicao Iinear, obviamente que M(0, 0) = (0, 0).
x x As duas imagens, M(1, 0) = (a, c)
M(0, 1) = (b, d)
so as coordenadas das imagens dos elementos da base cannica de
2
,
portanto as duas colunas da matriz A.
x x O clculo da imagem M(1, 1) = (a + b, c + d)
equivale soma, (a, c) + (b, d) = (a + b, c + d)
x x A imagem por M do quadrado unitrio portanto um paralelogramo,
x x Calculando o determinante da matriz A que caracteriza a aplicao linear,
no difcil verificar que |A| = a d - b c a rea do paralelogramo.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 65
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x Analisemos alguns casos particulares de transformaes lineares em
2
, com
diversas aplicaes prticas.
x x A rotao por um ngulo T, no sentido directo definida pela matriz,
Por exemplo, para T = S / 4,
M(1, 0) = (2 / 2, 2 / 2)
M(0, 1) = (-2 / 2, 2 / 2)
M(1, 1) = (0, 2 )
Naturalmente que a rea do quadrado no se altera pois,
x x Para alterar a rea do quadrado, utilizamos a matriz de ampliao / reduo
por um factor k,
sendo a rea resultante dada por |A| = k
2
.
CaptuIo 5 - ApIicaes Lineares 66
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Igebra Linear (2010/2011) RosIia Rodrigues
x x A matriz de compresso por um factor k definida por,
Por exemplo para k = 2,
M(1, 0) = (2, 0)
M(0, 1) = (0, 1/2)
M(1, 1) = (2, 1/2)
o quadrado unitrio comprimido numa das direces, mantendo a rea.
x x A matriz de cisalhamento por um factor k definida por,
Verifique que, M(1, 0) = (1, 0)
M(0, 1) = (k, 1)
M(1, 1) = (k+1, 1)
Por exemplo para k = 1,
x x e muitas mais ...