Course Title

Agricultural Extension, Administration and Supervision

Course Code

AEM 611

Course Developer/Writer

Mr.A olumate Samuel !ational "pen #niversit$ o% !igeria, !igeria. Sc&ool "% Science and Tec&nolog$ Dept. "% Agricultural Extension and Management.

e.mail' a olumatesam($a&oo.com

Course Editor

Dr !. E Mundi

)rogramme *eader

Dr. ! .E Mundi

Course Coordinator

Mr. E .A Adams

Course Guide Contents: +ntroduction W&at $ou ill learn in t&is Course Course Aims Course ",-ectives Wor.ing t&roug& t&is Course T&e Course Material Stud$ #nits )resentation Sc&edule Assessment Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment 0inal Examination and 1rading Course Mar.ing Sc&eme Summar$

Introduction Agricultural extension is ta.ing a ne dimension ,ecause o% a glo,al movement %or re%orming t&e national extension s$stems in developing countries t&at started late in t&e t entiet& centur$. Agricultural extension, administration and supervision is a special %ield o% general agricultural extension o% agricultural t&at ill &elp $ou situate t&e su,-ect among ot&er developmental e%%orts and to appreciate t&e educational and scienti%ic nature o% t&e discipline. 0or extension practice to ,e e%%ective and goal/oriented, extension practitioners must al a$s .eep in mind certain underl$ing principles o% administration, supervision t&at must ,e carried out %or e%%ective extension or.. Agricultural extension, administration and supervision is a t o 234 unit credit degree course in t&e %irst semester course. +t is availa,le to all students o%%ering post graduate diploma in Agricultural Extension and Management 2AEM4. +n Agricultural extension, administration and supervision, e stud$ t&e concepts, principles and p&ilosop&$ o% Agricultural Extension, )lanning Extension )rograms and Tec&nolog$ Trans%er in Agricultural Extension are also taug&t. T&ere are also studies o% t&e concept o% monitoring o% agricultural extension programmes5 principles, guidelines and t&eories o% extension organi6ation and ,asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation. +t is in agricultural extension, administration and supervision t&at Management, guidelines o% extension organi6ation and e learn a,out )ersonnel criteria %or

management,

departmentali6ation in extension organi6ation, uses o% extension organi6ation structure and models o% agricultural extension organi6ation. #sing t&e .no ledge ac7uired in t&is course ill lead to improved e%%ective extension or., s$stematic administration and supervision t&at leads to ac&ievement o% organi6ational goals What you will learn in this course T&e course consists o% units and a course guide. T&is course guide tells $ou ,rie%l$ &at t&e course is a,out, &at course materials $ou ill ,e using and &o $ou can or. it& t&ese materials. +n addition, it advocates some general guidelines %or t&e amount o% time $ou are li.el$ to spend on eac& unit o% t&e course in order to complete it success%ull$.

ii +t gives $ou guidance in respect o% $our Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment &ic& ill ,e made availa,le in t&e assignment %ile. T&ere ill ,e regular tutorial classes t&at are related to t&e course. +t is advisa,le %or $ou to attend t&ese tutorial sessions. T&e course ill prepare $ou %or t&e c&allenges $ou ill meet in t&e %ield o% agricultural extension, administration and supervision Course Aims T&e aim o% t&is course is not complex. T&e course aims to provide $ou it& an understanding o% agricultural extension, administration and supervision. +t also aims to provide $ou extension and administrative principle personnel management t&at aids in accomplis&ments o% agricultural extension organi6ational o,-ectives. Course Objectives To ac&ieve t&e aims set out, t&e course &as a lot o% o,-ectives. Eac& unit &as speci%ic o,-ectives &ic& are included at t&e ,eginning o% t&e unit. 8ou s&ould read t&ese o,-ectives ,e%ore $ou stud$ t&e unit. 8ou ma$ is& to re%er to t&em during $our stud$ to c&ec. on $our progress. 8ou s&ould al a$s loo. at t&e unit o,-ectives a%ter completion o% eac& unit. 9$ doing so, $ou ould &ave %ollo ed t&e instructions in t&e unit. 9elo are t&e compre&ensive o,-ectives o% t&e course as a &ole. 9$ meeting t&ese o,-ectives, $ou s&ould &ave ac&ieved t&e aims o% t&e course as a &ole. +n addition to t&e aims a,ove, t&is course sets to ac&ieve some o,-ectives. T&us, a%ter going t&roug& t&e course, $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' i. ii. iii. iv. *ist %ive principles o% agricultural extension, pointing out t&eir implications and applications %or e%%ective extension or.. State t&e policies t&at can ,e adopted to resolve t&e various constraints %or extension organisations. Explain t&e various steps t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme: Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel:

v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.

Explain t&e meaning o% extension training and development: Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel: Explain t&e meaning o% training and development: Enumerate t&e t&ree ,asic elements o% s$stem approac& o% modern understandings o% t&e organi6ation: De%ine t&e concept o% "rgani6ational structure and t&e role o% t&e su,/s$stems o% organisational structure W&at are t&e guidelines %or designing "rgani6ational structure:

Working through the Course To complete t&is course $ou are re7uired to read eac& stud$ unit, read t&e text,oo.s and read ot&er materials &ic& ma$ ,e provided ,$ t&e !ational "pen #niversit$ o% !igeria. Eac& unit contains sel%/assessment exercise2s4 and at certain points in t&e course $ou ould ,e re7uired to su,mit assignments %or assessment purposes. At t&e end o% t&e course t&ere is a %inal examination. T&e course s&ould ta.e $ou a,out a total o% 1; ee.s to complete. 9elo $ou ill %ind listed all t&e components o% t&e course, &at $ou &ave to do and &o $ou s&ould allocate $our time to eac& unit in order to complete t&e course on time and success%ull$. T&is course entails t&at $ou spend a lot o% time to read. + ould advise t&at $ou avail $oursel% t&e opportunit$ o% attending t&e tutorial sessions &ere $ou &ave t&e opportunit$ o% comparing $our .no ledge it& t&at o% ot&er people. The Study nit T&e stud$ units in t&is course are as %ollo s !O" #$ % &ASIC CO'C$(TS O) AG*IC #T *A# $+T$'SIO' #nit 1 #nit 3 #nit < Concepts, )rinciples and )&ilosop&$ o% Agricultural Extension Extension )rogrammes )lanning Concept o% Monitoring o% Agricultural Extension )rogrammes

!O" #$ , (*I'CI(#$ O) A"!I'IST*ATIO' A'" S ($*-ISIO' #nit 1 Concept o% Administration #nit 3 Tas.s and *evels o% Agricultural Administration #nit < Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension !O" #$ . (*I'CI(#$S/ G I"$#I'$S A'" T0$O*I$S O) $+T$'SIO' O*GA'I1ATIO' #nit 1 9asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation #nit 3 "rganisational Structure #nit < T&eories o% Agricultural Extension "rganisation !O" #$ 2 ($*SO''$# !A'AG$!$'T I' AG*IC #T *A# $+T$'SIO' #nit 1 Extension )ersonnel =ecruitment, Training, and Development #nit 3 Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension #nit < Sta%% )er%ormance Appraisals and )romotion (resentation Schedule 8our course materials &ave important dates %or t&e earl$ and timel$ completion and su,mission o% $our Tutor/Mar.ed Assignments and attending tutorials. 8ou s&ould remem,er t&at $ou are re7uired to su,mit all $our assignments ,$ t&e stipulated time and date. 8ou s&ould guard against %alling ,e&ind in $our or.. Assessment T&ere are t&ree aspects to t&e assessment o% t&e course. 0irst is made up o% sel%/assessment exercises, second consists o% t&e tutor/mar.ed assignments and t&ird is t&e ritten examination/end o% course examination.

8ou are advised to do t&e exercises. +n tac.ling t&e assignments, $ou are expected to appl$ in%ormation, .no ledge and tec&ni7ues $ou gat&ered during t&e course. T&e assignments must ,e su,mitted to $our %acilitator %or %ormal assessment in accordance it& t&e deadlines stated in t&e presentation sc&edule and t&e assignment %ile. T&e or. $ou su,mit to $our tutor %or assessment ill count %or <>? o% $our total course or.. At t&e end o% t&e course $ou ill need to sit %or a %inal or end o% course examination o% a,out t&ree &ours duration. T&is examination ill count %or ;>? o% $our total course mar.. Tutor3!arked Assignment T&e TMA is a continuous assessment component o% $our course. +t accounts %or <>? o% t&e total score. 8ou ill ,e given %our 2@4 TMAs to ans er. T&ree o% t&ese must ,e ans ered ,e%ore $ou are allo ed to sit %or t&e end o% course examination. T&e TMAs ould ,e given to $ou ,$ $our %acilitator and returned a%ter $ou &ave done t&e assignment. Assignment 7uestions %or t&e units in t&is course are contained in t&e assignment %ile. 8ou ill ,e a,le to complete $our assignment %rom t&e in%ormation and material contained in $our reading, re%erences and stud$ units. Ao ever, it is desira,le in all degree level o% education to demonstrate t&at $ou &ave read and researc&ed more into $our re%erences, &ic& ill give $ou a ider vie point and ma$ provide $ou it& a deeper understanding o% t&e su,-ect. Ma.e sure t&at eac& assignment reac&es $our %acilitator on or ,e%ore t&e deadline given in t&e presentation sc&edule and assignment %ile. +% %or an$ reason $ou can not complete $our or. on time, contact $our %acilitator ,e%ore t&e assignment is due to discuss t&e possi,ilit$ o% an extension. Extension circumstances. )inal $4amination and Grading T&e end o% course examination %or Agricultural extension administration and supervision ill ,e %or a,out < &ours and it &as a value o% ;>? o% t&e total course or.. T&e examination consist o% 7uestions, assessed. &ic& mar.ed assignment pro,lems $ou &ave previousl$ encountered. All areas o% t&e course ill ,e ill ill re%lect t&e t$pe o% sel%/testing, practice exercise and tutor/ ill not ,e granted a%ter t&e due date unless t&ere are exceptional

#se t&e time ,et een %inis&ing t&e last unit and sitting %or t&e examination to revise t&e &ole course. 8ou mig&t %ind it use%ul to revie $our sel%/test, TMAs and comments on t&em ,e%ore t&e examination. T&e end o% course examination covers in%ormation %rom all parts o% t&e course. Course !arking Scheme Assignment Assignments 1 B @ !arks 0our assignments, ,est t&ree mar.s o% t&e %our count at 1>? eac& B <>? o% course mar.s End o% course examination Total ;>? o% overall course mar.s. 1>>? o% course materials

)acilitators5Tutors and Tutorials T&ere are 16 &ours o% tutorials provided in support o% t&is course. 8ou ill ,e noti%ied o% t&e dates, times and location o% t&ese tutorials as ell as t&e name and p&one num,er o% $our %acilitator, as soon as $ou are allocated a tutorial group. 8our %acilitator ill mar. and comment on $our assignments, .eep a close atc& on $our

progress and an$ di%%iculties $ou mig&t %ace and provide assistance to $ou during t&e course. 8ou are expected to mail $our Tutor Mar.ed Assignment to $our %acilitator ,e%ore t&e sc&edule date 2at least t o or.ing da$s are re7uired4. T&e$ ill ,e mar.ed ,$ $our tutor and returned to $ou as soon as possi,le. Do not dela$ to contact $our %acilitator ,$ telep&one or e/mail i% $ou need assistance. T&e %ollo ing mig&t ,e circumstances in &ic& $ou ould %ind assistance necessar$, &ence $ou ould &ave to contact $our %acilitator i%' 8ou do not understand an$ part o% t&e stud$ or t&e assigned readings. 8ou &ave di%%icult$ it& t&e sel%/tests. 8ou &ave a 7uestion or pro,lem it& an assignment or it& t&e grading o% an assignment

8ou s&ould endeavor to attend t&e tutorials. T&is is t&e onl$ c&ance to &ave %ace to %ace contact it& $our course %acilitator and to as. 7uestions &ic& ma$ ,e ans ered instantl$. 8ou can raise an$ pro,lem encountered in t&e course o% $our stud$. To gain muc& ,ene%it %rom course tutorials prepare a 7uestion list ,e%ore attending t&em. 8ou ill learn a lot %rom participating activel$ in discussions. Summary Agricultural extension, administration and supervision is a course t&at intends to expose $ou to underl$ing principles o% administration, supervision t&at must ,e carried out %or e%%ective extension or.. T&ese expose $ou to t&e use o% administrative and personnel management principles t&at are needed in da$ to da$ running o% an agricultural enterprises. #pon completion o% t&is course, $ou ill ,e a,le to ans er 7uestions suc& as k De%ine t&e concept and principle o% Agricultural extension and administration k *ist %ive principles o% agricultural extension, pointing out t&eir implications and applications %or e%%ective extension or.. k State t&e policies t&at can ,e adopted to resolve t&e various constraints %or extension organisations. k Explain t&e various steps t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme: k Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel: k Explain t&e meaning o% extension training and development: k Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel: k Explain t&e meaning o% training and development: k Enumerate t&e t&ree ,asic elements o% s$stem approac& o% modern understandings o% t&e organi6ation: k De%ine t&e concept o% "rgani6ational structure and t&e role o% t&e su,/s$stems o% organisational structure k W&at are t&e guidelines %or designing "rgani6ational structure: "% course, t&e 7uestions $ou ill ,e a,le to ans er are not limited to t&e a,ove list. Wis&ing $ou t&e ver$ ,est luc..

CO'T$'T !odule % &asic Conce6ts o7 Agricultural $4tension #nit 1 Concepts, )rinciples and )&ilosop&$ o% Agricultural Extension #nit 3 )lanning Extension )rogrammes #nit < Concept o% Monitoring o% Agricultural Extension )rogrammes #nit @ Agricultural Extension )olic$ 0ormulation !odule , (rinci6le o7 Administration and Su6ervision #nit 1 Concept o% Administration #nit 3 Tas.s and *evels o% Agricultural Administration #nit < Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension !odule . (rinci6les/ Guidelines and Theories o7 $4tension Organi8ation #nit 1 9asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation #nit 3 "rganisational Structure o% Extension #nit < T&eories o% Agricultural Extension "rganisation !odule 2 (ersonnel !anagement in Agricultural $4tension #nit 1 Extension )ersonnel =ecruitment, Training, and Development #nit 3 Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension #nit < Sta%% )er%ormance Appraisals and )romotion

!odule % &asic Conce6ts o7 Agricultural $4tension #nit 1 Concepts, )rinciples and )&ilosop&$ o% Agricultural Extension #nit 3 )lanning Extension )rogrammes #nit < Concept o% Monitoring o% Agricultural Extension )rogrammes #nit @ Agricultural Extension )olic$ 0ormulation

'IT %

CO'C$(TS/ (*I'CI(#$S A'" (0I#OSO(09 O) AG*IC #T *A#

$+T$'SIO' CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 9asic concepts o% Agricultural Extension <.3 9asic Agricultural Extension )rinciples <.< Concept o% Tec&nolog$ Trans%er in Agricultural Extension

@.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eading

%:; I'T*O" CTIO' T&e concept o% agricultural extension ill &elp $ou situate t&e su,-ect among ot&er developmental e%%orts and to appreciate t&e educational and scienti%ic nature o% t&e discipline. 0or extension practice to ,e e%%ective and goal/oriented, extension practitioners must al a$s .eep in mind certain underl$ing principles %or e%%ective extension or.. T&is unit is also devoted to issues on t&e concept o% tec&nolog$ trans%er and t&e various constraints %or extension organisations ,:; O&<$CTI-$S 9$ t&e end o% t&is unit, $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' D D D de%ine t&e concepts o% agricultural extension state t&e ,asic principles agricultural extension explain t&e di%%erent constraints o% tec&nolog$ trans%er in agricultural extension

.:; !AI' CO'T$'T .:% &asic Conce6ts o7 Agricultural $4tension T&e term extension as %irst used in t&e #nited States o% America in t&e %irst decade o% t&is centur$ to connote t&e extension o% .no ledge %rom t&e *and 1rant Colleges to t&e %armers t&roug& t&e process o% in%ormal education Extension is a %unction o% providing need/ and demand/,ased .no ledge and s.ills to rural men, omen and $out& in a non/%ormal, participator$ manner, it& t&e o,-ective o% improving t&eir 7ualit$ o% li%e. Maunder21E;<4 de%ined Extension as a service or s$stem &ic& assists %arm people, t&roug& educational procedures, in improving %arming met&ods and tec&ni7ues, increasing production e%%icienc$ and income, elevating t&eir levels o% living and li%ting t&eir social and educational standards.

T&e %unction o% extension ma$ ,e applied to several su,-ects, ,ot& agricultural and non/ agricultural, suc& as &ealt&. W&en it is applied to agriculture, it is called agricultural extension. Adams 21EF34 de%ined Agricultural Extension as assistance to %armers to &elp t&em identi%$ and anal$se t&eir production pro,lems and ,ecome a are o% t&e opportunities %or improvement. Agricultural extension is primaril$ concerned it& t&e %ollo ing main aims' i. t&e dissemination o% use%ul and practical in%ormation relating to agriculture, including improved seeds, %ertili6ers , implements, pesticides, improved cultural practices, dair$ing, poultr$, nutrition, etc.5 ii. t&e practical application o% use%ul .no ledge to %arm and &ome5 and iii. ultimatel$ to improve all aspects o% t&e li%e o% t&e rural people it&in t&e %rame or. o% t&e national, economic and social policies involving t&e population as a &ole. S$#) ASS$SS!$'T $+$*CIS$ i. De%ine agricultural extension: ii. State t&e main aims o% Agricultural Extension: .:, &asic Agricultural $4tension (rinci6les T&e extension or. is ,ased upon some or.ing principles and t&e .no ledge o% t&ese principles is necessar$ %or an extension or.er. T&e$ s&ould ad&ere to certain procedures t&at experience and empirical studies &ave s&o n to li.el$ $ield result. T&ese are principles underl$ing e%%ective extension or. and t&e$ serve as pointer to &et&er a developmental e%%ort is an extension programme or not. Some o% t&ese principles, as related to agricultural extension, are mentioned ,elo . i: (rinci6le o7 interest and need: Extension or. must ,e ,ased on t&e needs and interests o% t&e people. T&ese needs and interests di%%er %rom individual to individual, %rom village to village, %rom ,loc. to ,loc., and %rom state to state and t&ere%ore, t&ere cannot ,e one programme %or all people. ii: (rinci6le o7 cultural di77erence. Extension or. is ,ased on t&e cultural ,ac.ground o% t&e people it& &om t&e or. is done. +mprovement can onl$ ,egin %rom t&e level o% t&e people &ere t&e$ are. T&is means t&at t&e extension or.er &as to .no t&e level o% t&eir .no ledge, t&e s.ills o% t&e people, t&e met&ods

and tools used ,$ t&em, t&eir customs, traditions, ,elie%s, values, etc. ,e%ore starting t&e extension programme. iii: (rinci6le o7 6artici6ation: Extension &elps people to &elp t&emselves. 1ood extension or. is directed to ards assisting rural %amilies to or. out t&eir o n pro,lems rat&er t&an giving t&em read$/made solutions. Actual participation and experience o% people in t&ese programmes create sel%/con%idence in t&em. iv: (rinci6le o7 ada6tability: )eople di%%er %rom eac& ot&er, one group di%%ers %rom anot&er group and conditions also di%%er %rom place to place. An extension programme s&ould ,e %lexi,le, so t&at necessar$ c&anges can ,e made &enever needed, to meet t&e var$ing conditions. v: The grass roots 6rinci6le o7 organisation: A group o% rural people in local communit$ s&ould sponsor extension or.. T&e programme s&ould %it in it& t&e local conditions. T&e aim o% organising t&e local group is to demonstrate t&e value o% t&e ne practices or programmes so t&at more and more people ould participate. vi: The leadershi6 6rinci6le: Extension or. is ,ased on t&e %ull utilisation o% local leaders&ip. T&e selection and training o% local leaders to ena,le t&em &elp to carr$ out extension or. is essential to t&e success o% t&e programme. )eople &ave more %ait& in local leaders and t&e$ s&ould ,e used to put across a ne idea so t&at it is accepted it& t&e least resistance. vii: The whole37amily 6rinci6le: Extension or. ill &ave a ,etter c&ance o% success i% t&e extension or.ers &ave a &ole/ %amil$ approac& instead o% a piecemeal approac&. Extension or. is, t&ere%ore, %or t&e &ole %amil$ i.e. %or male, %emale and t&e $out&. viii: (rinci6le o7 co3o6eration. Extension is a co/operative venture. +t is a -oint democratic enterprise in &ic& rural people co/ operate it& t&eir village, ,loc. and state o%%icials to pursue a common cause. i4: (rinci6le o7 satis7action. T&e end/product o% t&e e%%ort o% extension teac&ing is t&e satis%action t&at comes to t&e %armer, &is i%e or $ounger ones as t&e result o% solving a pro,lem, meeting a need, ac7uiring a ne s.ill or some ot&er c&anges in ,e&aviour. Satis%action is t&e .e$ to success in extension or.. GA

satis%ied customer is t&e ,est advertisement.G x. The evaluation 6rinci6le. Extension is ,ased upon t&e met&ods o% science and it needs constant evaluation. T&e e%%ectiveness o% t&e or. is measured in terms o% t&e c&anges ,roug&t a,out in t&e .no ledge, s.ill, and attitude and adoption ,e&aviour o% t&e people ,ut not merel$ in terms o% ac&ievement o% p&$sical targets.

SE*0 ASSESSME!T EHE=C+SE Descri,e %ive ,asic agricultural extension principles .:. Technology Trans7er in Agricultural $4tension T&e .no ledge o% agricultural s$stem consists o% %our components' T&e tec&nolog$ generation, tec&nolog$ trans%er 2.no ledge and input trans%er4, tec&nolog$ utilisation, and agricultural polic$ 2S anson, Sands, I )eterson, 1EE>4. T&e organisations t&at constitute t&e components, as ell as ot&ers in t&e s$stem environment in%luence eac& ot&er in complex a$s. Suc& pu,licl$ %unded s$stems are esta,lis&ed ,$ governments to improve t&e conditions o% li%e and ell/,eing o% rural and ur,an populations and to increase agricultural productivit$. i. Technology generation consists o% planning, administration, and implementation o% researc& activities t&at develop, assess, adapt, and test improved agricultural tec&nolog$ %or %armers and ot&er users. +n t&e pu,lic sector, t&ese tas.s, as ell as some dissemination or.s, are carried out ,$ agricultural researc& organisations. ii. Technology trans7er %urt&er evaluates and adapts researc& outputs %or users and t&en idel$ disseminates t&e .no ledge and inputs to di%%erent target %armers o% di%%erent categories, private companies, and so on. +n man$ countries, government extension does ,ot& t$pes o% trans%er, alt&oug& t&e emp&asis is on .no ledge. )rivate organisations are also involved in ,ot& t$pes o% trans%er, alt&oug& %armer coverage is more limited and input trans%er ma$ pla$ a ,igger role.

iii.

T&e technology utilisation component encompasses t&e users o% t&e agricultural tec&nolog$, mainl$ %armers. #sers a areness, adaptation, and adoption o% improved tec&nolog$ %rom various sources a%%ect %arm/level productivit$ and pro%ita,ilit$ and ultimatel$, economic gro t& at t&e national level. +nteraction and %eed,ac. ,et een users and researc& and trans%er organisations improve cooperation and t&e relevance o% tec&nolog$.

iv.

T&e policy component relates to government development goals and strategies, mar.et and price policies, and t&e levels o% resource investments in t&e s$stem. +t descri,es a set o% la s relating to domestic agriculture and imports o% %oreign agricultural products. 1overnments usuall$ implement agricultural policies it& t&e goal o% ac&ieving a speci%ic outcome in t&e domestic agricultural product mar.ets. "utcomes can involve, %or example, a guaranteed suppl$ level, price sta,ilit$, product 7ualit$, product selection, land use or emplo$ment.Jarious government ,odies pla$ a role in setting development polic$. Tec&nolog$ development and trans%er organi6ations are a%%ected ,$ t&e polic$ in %undamental a$s. T&e division o% generation and trans%er tas.s organi6ations and sectors di%%ers %rom countr$ to countr$, as does t&e nature o% t&e polic$ and utili6ation components. Ao ever, t&e %lo o% tec&nolog$ can ,e mapped as it moves ,et een or is in%luenced ,$ organi6ations constituting t&e agricultural tec&nolog$ s$stem.

Agricultural extension, &et&er pu,lic or private, operates in a context or an environment t&at in%luences t&e organisation, %orm, and content o% trans%er activities 2Morris, 1EE14. T&e agricultural tec&nolog$ s$stem context, in &ic& government extension organisations operate, can ,e descri,ed under t o &eadings' T&e macro/context %actors and institutional %actors. A. The macro3conte4t 7actors: i: Agro ecological: !atural environment strongl$ in%luences extension planning and operations, Extension s&ould respond to t&e tec&nological needs o% %armers in di%%erent agro/ecological 6ones. T&e variation represented ,$ agro/ecological 6ones in a given countr$ can ,e su,stantial. Di%%erences in temperatures, rain%all, soil t$pes, evapotranspiration, and so %ort& are re%lected in t&e diversit$ o% %arming conditions and production s$stems. Extension planners %ace some di%%icult c&oices ,ecause o% t&e need to respond to t&e diverse tec&nolog$ and in%ormation needs o% %armers %rom man$ di%%erent 6ones and, at t&e same time, to satis%$ a re7uirement %or

extensive countr$ ide coverage o% t&e rural population. 0or example, extension resource investments can ,e determined ,$ %armer population concentrations, potential productivit$ o% selected agro ecological 6ones, or a com,ination o% ,ot&. ii: (olitical3$conomic: T&e political and economic environment a%%ects extension in man$ a$s. +t is one o% t&e most signi%icant %actors is a countr$Ks stage o% economic development. Anot&er is t&e level o% government investment in pu,lic sector extension. T&is is in%luenced ,$ t&e presence or a,sence o% a structural ad-ustment programme, t&e degree o% economic dependence on agriculture, and t&e proportion o% t&e population economicall$ active in agriculture as opposed to industr$. T&e percentage o% resource/poor small&older %armers in%luences t&e t$pe o% tec&nolog$ to ,e trans%erred, particularl$ i% government is concerned it& t&e e7uita,le coverage o% all categories o% %armers. )olitics &as anot&er in%re7uentl$ identi%ied impact on pu,lic extension organisations. )olitical s&i%ts at t&e national level o%ten result in c&anges in extension personnel, management, and programmes. Aig& turnover o% top managers undermines management experience and continuit$ in leaders&ip. +n addition, political unrest and ar o%ten ma.e extension e%%orts impossi,le 21usta%son, 1EE@4. iii: Sociocultural: +n man$ countries, sociocultural %actors are leading constraints to t&e e%%ectiveness o% extension. *anguage di%%erences and illiterac$ can impede t&e communication o% improved tec&nolog$ unless t&e$ are ta.en into account. T&e division o% la,our ,et een t&e sexes can di%%er along cultural lines and in%luences t&e nature o% %arming s$stems in di%%erent regions. +n man$ countries, t&e men are emplo$ed o%%/%arm, leaving t&e %arm operations to omen. +n extension organisations, under representation o% omen on t&e extension %orce means t&at t&e production responsi,ilities and needs o% omen at t&e %arm level ma$ not ,e ade7uatel$ addressed. Cultural di%%erences among %armers, as ell as di%%erences in t&eir resource endo ments, also need to ,e ta.en into account. +n particular, t&ese are re%lected in land/use strategies. )astoral &erders, %or example, ill re7uire di%%erent t$pes o% su,-ect/matter expertise, and extension or.ers ill need to use di%%erent strategies to trans%er tec&nolog$ to t&em t&an to permanent %ield agriculturalists. T&e resource endo ments o% di%%erent categories o% %armers also a%%ect tec&nolog$ adoption levels. Su,sistence %armers adopt mainl$ lo /cost tec&nologies. 0or t&is reason, extension or.

t&at %ocuses on cultural practices and a%%orda,le tec&nologies ma$ ,e more appropriate in countries it& large num,ers o% resource/poor %armers. iv: (olicy: T&e polic$ component o% an agricultural tec&nolog$ s$stem can ena,le or limit extension in a$s ,e$ond t&e reac& o% extension managers. T&e principal areas o% in%luence are price signals to %armers and decisions ,$ government t&at a%%ect pu,lic agricultural development organisations. D Agricultural "evelo6ment: )olic$/ma.ing ,odies o% government set development goals and o,-ectives suc& as ac&ieving %ood securit$ or surplus agricultural production to stimulate economic gro t&, or providing &ealt& care and education %or rural development. +t is t&e tas. o% government extension organisations to &elp meet t&ese goals ,$ %ormulating su,ordinate o,-ectives and strategies to ac&ieve t&em. D !arket Intervention: 1overnments set policies on consumer and producer commodit$ prices, su,sidies %or inputs, credit availa,ilit$, import su,stitution, export earnings, %ood sel%/su%%icienc$, and natural resource management. T&ese send direct and indirect price signals to %armers and in%luence t&eir production decisions. Aig& %ertili6er prices, %or example, cause %armers to use less o% t&is input. Extension organisations s&ould ,e a are o% mar.et signals to ensure t&at t&e$ are recommending tec&nologies t&at meet %armersK current needs. T&e$ also re7uire %eed,ac. %rom %armers to ensure t&e continued relevance o% t&eir activities. v: In7rastructure' +n%rastructure, particularl$ transportation, communication, and mar.et %acilities, a%%ects ,ot& %armers and extension. T&e capacit$ to move people, inputs, and produce and to send and receive in%ormation in%luences extension activities and capacit$. Mar.et in%rastructure itsel% can ,e lac.ing or inade7uate. D Trans6ortation. T&ere ma$ ,e man$ areas t&at cannot ,e reac&ed ,$ road, or transport ve&icles ma$ ,e in s&ort suppl$. +n eit&er case, %armers under t&ese conditions are di%%icult to reac& it& improved tec&nolog$, and t&e$ ill &ave pro,lems transporting inputs and %arm produce. 0or example, input suppl$ outlets can ,e %ar apart, and excessive transport distances can ma.e it di%%icult or impossi,le %or traditional %armers to adopt improved tec&nolog$.

Communication. Communication in%rastructure can impose additional constraints %or extension organisations. 0armer access to mass media suc& as pu,lications, radios, or television ma$ ,e limited, t&us reducing t&e options availa,le to extension %or communicating its messages. At t&e same time, extension itsel% ma$ &ave little or no access to telep&one and radio services %or long/range communications. T&is can severel$ &amper its a,ilit$ to organise and carr$ out %ield operations.

T o aspects o% a countr$Ks media organisations, ,ot& print and audio/visual, a%%ect t&e %lo o% extension messages to %armers 2Mat&ur I Sin&a, 1EE14. "ne is t&e attitudes and su,-ect interests o% media managers responsi,le %or programming %or rural audiences. T&e ot&er is t&e organisational climate, especiall$ morale. +t is crucial t&at extension or.ers consider t&e capacit$ o% mass media organisations 2ne spapers, maga6ines, radio, and television4 as part o% t&eir strategies and plans %or communicating it& %armers. &: Institutional 7actors' T&e institutional context i.e. ot&er institutional %actors involved in activities related to agricultural extension are researc& and trans%er, education and training, input suppl$, and credit. )u,lic agricultural extension organisations in most countries &ave t&e tas. o% providing a t o/ a$ %lo o% improved tec&nolog$ and in%ormation ,et een researc& and users, primaril$ %armers. T&e$ operate in an institutional environment t&at includes ot&er pu,lic and private organisations active in agriculture. +n particular, t&ose ot&er actors involved in generating and trans%erring agricultural tec&nolog$ must ,e examined and understood to improve extensionKs e%%ectiveness and e%%icienc$. i: *esearch' Agricultural researc& organisations are extensionKs closest institutional partners in tec&nolog$ generation and trans%er. W&ile t&ese %unctions are also underta.en ,$ private organisations, pu,lic sector organisations &ave t&e tas. o% generating tec&nolog$ relevant %or all categories o% producers and agro ecological 6ones. T&e a$ researc& is structured and organised, and t&e planning and management o% researc&/extension lin.ages, can limit or en&ance extensionKs e%%ectiveness. Agricultural researc& organisations in developing countries con%ront man$ pro,lems 2"ram I 9indlis&, 1EF@5 +dac&a,a, 1EF;4. T&ese include lac. o% %inancial resources, acute s&ortages o% ell/trained scientists, lac. o% %armer %eed,ac. to ensure relevance o% researc& results, lac. o%

access to external sources o% .no ledge, inade7uate researc& %acilities and e7uipment, lo sta%% morale, and inade7uate operating ,udgets, sta%% incentives, and remuneration. 0e o% t&ese can ,e addressed ,$ extension managers, ,ut t&e$ can impede t&e generation o% tec&nolog$, resulting in %e er researc& outputs %or extension to trans%er. An understanding o% researc&Ks pro,lems is an important step in planning extension activities and coordinating t&em it& researc&. )oor lin.ages ,et een researc& and extension are ma-or constraints in tec&nolog$ %lo in man$ countries 2Laimo it6, Sn$der, I Engel, 1EE>5 Eponou, 1EE<4. T&e lin.age pro,lems are o% t o ,asic t$pes' t&ose a%%ecting %eed,ac. %rom %armers to researc& and extension and t&ose relating to coordination and cooperation ,et een researc& and extension. +n ,ot& cases, extension managers can improve t&e situation ,$ developing a lin.age strateg$ and allocating responsi,ilities and ade7uate resources %or lin.age tas.s. ii: $ducation and Training' Educational organisations t&at train extension or.ers are important elements in t&e institutional context %or extension. T&e or. o% universities and training institutes in particular &as a signi%icant impact on extension organisations. T&e content o% t&eir curricula as ell as t&e num,ers and 7uali%ications o% t&eir graduates are limiting or ena,ling %actors in an$ countr$. +n man$ cases, communication ,et een extension and education organisations is poor. As a result, extension commonl$ &as sta%%ing pro,lems. +t is not unusual %or extension organisations to &ave posts t&at are eit&er vacant or %illed ,$ personnel t&at are not 7uali%ied. +nade7uate num,ers and 7uali%ications o% sta%% remain a di%%icult pro,lem %or pu,lic sector extension organisations. Salaries and ,ene%its are rarel$ competitive it& t&ose o% compara,le private and pu,lic enterprises, resulting in lo morale and &ig& sta%% turnover. Education levels ma$ ,e 7uite lo , especiall$ %or %armer contact sta%%. T&e a,ilit$ to attract and retain 7uali%ied extension sta%% is limited in most countries ,$ civil service salar$ scales esta,lis&ed ,$ ot&er agencies o% government. T&e situation can ,e improved ,$ esta,lis&ing sta%%ing and training plans. T&e sta%%ing plan s&ould &ave t&e record o% current &uman resources, identi%ies sta%%ing gaps, and pro-ects sta%%ing needs over a speci%ied time. T&e training plan identi%ies speci%ic t$pes o% training 2in/service and %ormal4 re7uired to %ill s.ill gaps in &uman resources and to cover sta%%ing needs %or planned

operations. T&e additional step o% coordinating training needs it& t&e educational organisations is needed. iii: In6ut Su66ly' 0armers need inputs to increase production, ,ut access to t&ese is o%ten poor in less developed countries. W&ile inade7uate transport and mar.eting in%rastructure are o%ten at t&e root o% t&e pro,lem, t&ere are certain aspects t&at can ,e addressed ,$ extension. D Genetic Technology: Among t&e ma-or outputs o% t&e tec&nolog$ generation su,s$stem is improved genetic material. !e plant and animal varieties it& &ig&er $ields or resistance to pests or diseases ,ecome availa,le. Ao ever, %armers need to .no &en t&e variet$ is released, &o it per%orms under %arm conditions, and &ere to o,tain seeds or ,reeding materials. Extension is responsi,le %or disseminating t&is in%ormation t&roug& appropriate mass media and contact met&ods. 9ut a common constraint on t&e %lo o% tec&nolog$ is t&e non availa,ilit$ o% genetic materials. +n some countries, extension is also involved in t&e multiplication and distri,ution o% seeds. Esta,lis&ing e%%ective lin.ages it& ot&ers involved in t&e process can also &elp ensure t&at genetic materials are availa,le to %armers. D Agrochemicals and Other In6uts' T&e per%ormance o% ne varieties is o%ten improved ,$, or even dependent on, t&e availa,ilit$ o% agroc&emical and ot&er inputs at t&e %arm level. =ecommendations %or %ertili6er t$pes and amounts suited to local soil conditions, %or animal %eed mixtures and practices, and %or t&e control o% plant and animal pests and diseases constitute an indispensa,le part o% extension messages. *ac. o% access to t&is in%ormation and materials prevents $ield maximisation, so extension organisations need to ensure t&at %armers are in%ormed on availa,ilit$ and use. +% access is limited ,ecause o% external %actors, extension s&ould plan its campaigns accordingl$, it& attention given to lo /input recommendations. )rivate companies and non/pro%it organisations also provide advice to %armers on agroc&emical and ot&er input use. Extension organisations need to develop communication and coordination lin.ages it& t&ese actors ,ecause excessive use o% agroc&emicals can &arm &uman &ealt& and t&e environment. Conservative recommendations and alternative approac&es, suc& as integrated pest management, are in t&e interests o% t&e pu,lic and can ,e promoted ,$ extension t&roug& its %armer contacts and ot&er lin.ages.

Credit iv: M00AJJ W= 0#A1*W *J =NA ODP W= *)S#=8A +D#)A#JQ D00AJJ W= NAO S#=1H0W*=N WA0LN="=RP and increase productivit$. 0armersK a,ilit$ to purc&ase inputs suc& as improved seed and %ertili6er is particularl$ important. +% appropriate tec&nolog$ is availa,le ,ut not ,eing used ,$ %armers, t&en t&e a$ credit is &andled ,$ government ma$ ,e part o% t&e pro,lem. #nderstanding t&e credit context / government and ,an. policies, availa,ilit$ o% credit, and t&e institutional relations&ips involved in its deliver$ / is important %or extension. At a minimum, t&e existing credit situation s&ould ,e examined so t&at %actors a%%ecting t&e adoption and use o% tec&nolog$ can ,e identi%ied. T&ese include ine7uita,le access to credit, insu%%icient amounts o% it, and overlap o% trans%er activities due to credit institution involvement in extension or.. T&e .no ledge is use%ul %or extension managers in targeting %armers and in coordinating extension o,-ectives it& credit institutions.

2:; CO'C# SIO' +n t&is unit, $ou &ave ,een exposed to t&e concepts and t&e principles o% agricultural extension, as ell as t&e concept o% tec&nolog$ trans%er and t&e various constraints %or extension organisations =:; S !!A*9 +n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at in t&e context o% agriculture, extension is t&e dissemination o% use%ul and practical in%ormation relating to agriculture to improve all aspects o% t&e li%e o% t&e rural people it&in t&e %rame or. o% t&e national, economic and social policies involving t&e population as a &ole. Extension organisation must ad&ere to certain underl$ing principles %or e%%ective extension or.. T&e understanding o% t&e components o% tec&nolog$ trans%er, t&e principles o% agricultural extension and t&e various constraints %or extension organisations are important %or t&e extension or.ers to colla,orate it& agricultural researc& organisations and government to provide policies %or tec&nolog$ generation, trans%er o% .no ledge, and utilisation

>:; T TO*3!A*?$" ASSIG'!$'T 1. *ist %ive principles o% agricultural extension, pointing out t&eir implications and applications %or e%%ective extension or.. 3. Enumerate t&e %our components o% tec&nolog$ trans%er <. State t&e policies t&at can ,e adopted to resolve t&e various constraints %or extension organisations

@:; *$)$*$'C$S5) *T0$* *$A"I'G Adams, M.E. 21EF34. Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries. *ondon' 9urnt Mill *ongman. 1usta%son, D. R. 21EE@4. Developing Sustaina,le +nstitutions' *essons %rom Cross/case Anal$sis o% 3@ Agricultural Extension )rogrammes. Public Administration and Development. +dac&a,a, 0. 21EF;4. Agricultural =esearc& in !igeria' "rganisation and )olic$. +n J. W. =uttan I C. )ra$ 2Eds.4, Policy for Agricultural Research. 9oulder, C"' Westvie )ress. Laimo it6, D., Sn$der, M., I Engel, ). 21EE>4. A Conceptual Frame or! for "tudying the #in!s bet een Agricultural Research and $echnology $ransfer in Developing Countries. +n Laimo it6, D., Sn$der, M., I Engel, ). 21EE>4. A conceptual %rame or. %or stud$ing t&e lin.s ,et een agricultural researc& and tec&nolog$ trans%er in developing countries. +n D. Laimo it6 2Ed.4, %a!ing the lin!: Agricultural research and technology transfer in developing countries. *ondon' Westvie )ress Mat&ur, ). !., I Sin&a, 9. ). 21EE14. Extension and Communication Strategies %or =ain%ed Agriculture / +ndian experience. +n C. )rasad I ). Das 2Eds.4, Extension "trategies for Rainfed Agriculture. !e Del&i' +ndian Societ$ o% Extension Education Maunder, A.A. 21E;<4. Agricultural Extension' A =e%erence Manual 2A,ridged Ed4, =ome' 0A". Moris, R. 21EE14. Extension Alternatives in $ropical Agriculture. *ondon' "D+.

S anson, 9. E., I )eterson, W. E. 21EE14. Strengt&ening researc&/extension lin.ages to address t&e needs o% resource/poor %armers in rain%ed agriculture. +n C. )rasad I ). Das 2Eds.4, Extension strategies for rainfed agriculture. !e Del&i' +ndian Societ$ o% Extension Education.

'IT , $+T$'SIO' (*OG*A!!$S (#A''I'G CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 Concept o% )lanning in Extension <.3 Ma-or Steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings

%:; Introduction An extension programme is a ritten, annual or.ing plan it& speci%ic o,-ectives to ,e

ac&ieved %or improved activities o% a communit$ it&in a speci%ied time and place. Evaluation o% t&e programme is carried out periodicall$ t&roug&out t&e period o% its development, as ell as convenient times &en results can ,e assessed 2monitoring4, progress to ard attaining or.ers, programme o,-ectives measured, and an appraised made o% t&e e%%orts o% extension %armers and local leaders.

,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' D D explain t&e Concept o% )lanning in Extension Explain t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme

.:; !ain content .:% The Conce6t o7 6lanning $4tension (rogramme According to Williams et al 21EF@4, )lainning is a statement o% situation, needs, pro,lems, solutions 2o,-ectives4, priorities and &o is to do &at, &ere and &o t&e programme is developed ,$ putting t&e or. plan into e%%ect. )lanning &elps extension or.ers to determine priorities o% t&e various tas.s i.e. to put t&e %irst t&ings %irst. +t ,ecomes eas$ to evaluate progress &en as a result o% planning5 t&ere is a de%inite statement o% extension aims and intentions. )lanning %urt&er encourages ade7uate preparation o% extension activities/ or.. )roper planning ena,les t&e extension or.er to determine &is needs it& respect to ade7uate sta%% e7uipment and %unds to carr$ out its tas.s. T&e planning o% an extension programme is done on t&e ,asis o% certain ell recogni6ed principles &ic& s&ould ,e clearl$ understood I %ollo ed ,$ extension or.ers. T&e main principles are' i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. T&e programme/planning s&ould ,e ,ased upon a care%ul anal$sis o% a %actual situation. +n a good programme/planning, pro,lems %or action are selected on t&e ,asis o% recogni6ed needs. A good programme/planning determines o,-ectives I solutions &ic& are %easi,le I o%%er satis%action. T&e programme s&ould ,e permanent I %lexi,le to meet a long/term situation, s&ort/time c&anges, I emergencies. A sound programme s&ould &ave ,ot& ,alance I emp&asis. A good programme &as a de%inite plan o% or.. )rogramme/planning is a continuous process.

viii. ix.

)rogramme/planning is a co/coordinating process. )rogramme/planning s&ould ,e educational I directed to ards ,ringing a,out improvement in t&e a,ilit$ o% t&e people to solve t&eir o n pro,lems individuall$ and collectivel$.

x.

A good programme/planning provides %or t&e evaluation o% results.

.:, !ajor Ste6s in (lanning $4tension (rogramme T&e .no ledge o% t&e steps in planning via,le extension programme is t&ere%ore important %or an extension or.er. T&e ma-or steps include' 1. Collecting )acts: T&is %irst steps is to collect and stud$ use%ul %act a,out t&e areas. T&e

%act could ,e in t&e %orms o%' a4 'atural things e.g. soil, rivers, streams, general ater supplies and ot&er p&$sical %actors relating to %is&ing. T&e extension or.er ma$ o,tain t&ese %acts ,$ as.ing 7uestions %rom t&e %armer %ol.s and ma.ing re%erence to agro/geological surve$s as ell as land classi%ication and usage plans. Suc& in%ormation ena,les t&e extension or.er to determine &o productive t&e area could ,ecome i% utili6ed to t&e maximum o% its potentials and to recommend appropriate %arming s$stems. ,4 The 6eo6le: T&e extension or.er needs in%ormation a,out t&e num,er o% people &e &as to plan %or. Ae also needs to .no ' +% t&e people are concentrated along ater courses/road or evenl$ distri,uted over t&e &ole area. +% t&ere are areas o% dense settlement and areas it& a lo densit$ o% population and &at are t&e reasons %or uneven distri,ution. T&e extension or.er s&ould %urt&er %ind out' D T&e social and cultural %actors or more tri,es. &ic& are li.el$ to a%%ect extension programmes. Ae s&ould tr$ to .no i% t&e communit$ is composed o% one

T&e %ollo ing 7uestions s&ould %urt&er ,e addressed' D D D D D D W&at is t&e social structure: W&at t&ings do people consider most important to t&em: W&o are t&e decision ma.ers: W&at social and culture/,ased ,arriers to %is&er$ progress are o,vious: Are t&ere an$ ta,oos %is&eries: W&at is t&e attitude o% t&e people to existing extension programme in terms o% current tec&nical advice. T&e extension personnel collecting %acts %or programme planning s&ould as. people &o li.e to learn a,out improved %arming met&ods. T&is ill assist t&e extension t&e$ or.ers to &ic& could &inder an extension programme in

determine t&e ,est approac& to adopt in &is teac&ing process. =ural people &ave expressed pre%erences %or certain extension met&ods suc& as demonstrations. T&e %armer %ol.s s&ould also ,e as.ed &at sort o% in%ormation t&e$ ant. T&is s&ould &elp to expose particular pro,lems t&at %is&er/%ol.s &ave a,out &ic& t&e$ need advice. C: Technical in7ormation and e4tension services: All t&e tec&nical in%ormation s&ould ,e gat&ered, and t&e su,-ect/matter programmes prepared ,$ t&e specialists and t&e guides %or programme planning prepared ,$ t&e extension o%%icer studied. studied. +t is also necessar$ %or t&e extension or.er to .no &at ot&er programmes, pro-ects or activities are ,eing carried out ,$ t&e government or ot&er organi6ations in t&e area and &at e%%ect t&e$ ma$ &ave on &is o n programme. +n particular, local programmes o% communit$ development or co/operative departments as ell as development planned ,$ local governments s&ould ,e %ull$ understood: !ethods o7 Collecting )acts: 0ormal surve$s ma$ ,e necessar$ to %ind out %acts a,out people and t&eir attitudes. Suc& surve$s %re7uentl$ provide use%ul in%ormation a,out t&e economics o% %is& %arm management, t&e use o% %amil$ la,or and capital. T&e purpose o% collecting in%ormation %rom people is to &elp t&e Tec&nical in%ormation ,ulletins relating to local %armer and to experiments and %ield trials s&ould ,e

extension service to ,e o% greater ,ene%it to t&em. 0or t&e in%ormation to ,e a value it must ,e trut&%ull$ and accuratel$ reported and personal opinions s&ould not in%luence o,-ective reporting. Speculations and guess or. s&ould not ,e a su,stitute %or s$stematic surve$s. Sel73Assessment $4ercise 1. Enumerate t&e %acts needed ,$ extension or.er at t&e stage o% %act collection:

3.

Analyse )acts and "e7ine the (roblem'

T&e next stage in t&e programme planning process a%ter collecting %acts is to properl$ anal$se t&e %acts collected. 9$ anal$sing t&e %acts collected, t&e pro,lems could t&en ,e easil$ identi%ied.An important a$ o% determining pro,lems is to consider national aims in production in relation to state and local government o,-ectives and identi%$ t&e ,arriers to attaining t&e aims and o,-ectives. )olicies goals and o,-ectives ,roadl$ put at t&e national level s&ould address improved 7ualit$ o% li%e, improved economic and income levels, improved literac$ rates, improvement in attitudes, s.ills and .no ledge and sel% improvement %or t&e %armers. All t&ese s&ould ,e considered in relation to communit$ values and goals. desired e%%ects on t&e people. +n summar$, at t&is stage, programme s&ould meet t&ree re7uirements' D D D !ational aims, usuall$ expressed in terms o% increased productivit$. 0armer needs social and economic advancement t&roug& more e%%icient and productive activities and %or improved &ealt& and ell/,eing o% t&e or.ers. Tec&nical support &ic& s&ould ,e loo.ed at as t&e ise utili6ation o% resources in t&e area and appropriateness o% t&e tec&ni7ues involved must ,e re%lected in %ul%illing t&e needs o% t&e people. %: (ro6ose Solution: T&e t&ird stage in programme planning %or e%%icient s$stem is to propose solutions to identi%ied pro,lems. T&is implies carr$ing out or.a,le %easi,ilit$ stud$ ,$ care%ull$ anal$6ing t&e situation arising %rom pro,lems identi%ied. T&e activities at t&is stage s&ould include' T&is implies citi6en involvement and participation in pro,lem identi%ication so t&at planned programmes could &ave

D D D D D D D

=esource and inventor$ studies +n%ormation on production ,ase +nput suppl$, credit and mar.eting services E%%ectiveness o% Extension service and training Socio/economic %actors =esearc&, in%rastructures, organi6ational and management issues Evaluation o% economic and %inancial resources.

At t&is stage, considering t&e a,ove points, t&e extension programme planner s&ould' i. ii. Consider all possi,le solutions to t&e pro,lem it&out stic.ing to onl$ t&e solution &e alread$ &as in mind. Discard solutions &ic& are outside t&e capacit$ or sp&ere o% operations o% extension or.ers e.g. su,sides, credit operations or ma-or land reorgani6ation and development sc&emes. +% t&ere is .een local demand %or action ,e$ond t&e scope o% t&e extension or.er, t&is %act s&ould ,e reported to superior o%%icers. iii. Determine t&e pro,a,le result o% alternatives. Eac& solution and its pro,a,le results s&ould ,e considered and t&e most desira,le course c&osen ,earing in mind t&e %ollo ing' 2a4 Complexit$ o% t&e solution' Simple solutions are li.el$ accepted more readil$ t&an complex advice. 2,4 1eneral accepta,ilit$' Tec&nicall$ s&ould solutions ,ut &ic& are not li.el$ to ,e

accepted s&ould ,e discarded. 2c4 )ractica,ilit$' +t is necessar$ to consider' D D Cost o% t&e solution in terms o% mone$ and time. )ersonnel and supervision %acilities availa,le. %or ard. D D Availa,ilit$ o% e7uipment and materials. Capacit$ and .no ledge o% t&e %armers' Solutions to pro,lems mHJW EA EDJA1 =N +D#)A#JQ DE*"*WP DN1 MJ )AN !N=O"A1RA DN1 Solutions t&at re7uire specialists s&ould ,e care%ull$ considered ,e%ore ,eing put

omen do not &ave unlimited resources o% la,our, time and mone$. Solution must ,e suggested &ic& %all it&in t&eir &ere t&e resources. Extension programmes must t&ere%ore start

people are. +t s&ould ,e noted t&at it ma$ not ,e possi,le to %ind solutions to all pro,lems. T&e most urgent pro,lems t&at are li.el$ to ,e solved success%ull$ s&ould t&ere%ore ,e given priorit$.

@. (lan (rogramme5(roject:

A%ter selecting t&e most desira,le solutions, t&e next stage

involves planning sc&edule o% or. and developing suita,le programme/programme. ",-ectives s&ould ,e stated in order o% priorit$. T&e o,-ectives s&ould ,e ritten in clear, concise and direct language suc& t&at ever$,od$ concerned appl$. T&e general o,-ective ma$ ,e %ollo ed ,$ several speci%ic or.ing o,-ectives. T&is involves ,rea.ing do n t&e general steps &ic& all concerned it& t&e programme can easil$ compre&end. )lans at t&is stage s&ould ,e to ards' D D D D D D D D D D D 9road %arming and rural development +ntegrated development Sound land use plans Sound plans Service administration +n%rastructure development and man/po er training "rgani6ation and supervision *ocal participation E%%ective extension strategies Mar.eting Monitoring and evaluation. it& t&e proposed programme can understand and

+n t&e process o% stating t&e o,-ectives, t&e extension or.ers could also give a ver$ s&ort outline o% &o it is proposed to or. to ard ac&ieving stated o,-ectives.

C.

(lan o7 work/ work calendar ADeveloping programme at t&e implementation stage4

+t is necessar$ at t&is stage to plan in detail &o to or. to ards determined o,-ectives. T&e annual plan o% or. states t&e o,-ectives and t&en s&o s t&e means o% attaining t&em. +t is usual to prepare an outline plan o% or. %or t&e $ear %ollo ed up mont&l$. Wor. plans and calendars s&ould ,e prepared ,$ t&e extension or.er in cooperation it& it& a or. calendar prepared

superior extension sta%%, specialists, local leaders and ot&er relevant agencies, and ministries 2Williams et al 1EF@, 9rad%ield, 1E;;4. T&is consultation &elps to gain support, necessar$ assistance and cooperation. At t&is stage activities s&ould ,e ell sc&eduled it& speci%ic division o% responsi,ilities. T&e annual pan o% or. s&ould ,e %lexi,le and s&ould give room %or unexpected activities suc& as control o% pests and diseases and environmental &a6ards. T&e extension or.er s&ould also plan %or unexpected success arising %rom adoption o% innovation. Activities to ,e planned %or at t&is stage include' D D D D D D D Sta%% recruitment and development +n%rastructure coordination and development Movement o% inputs Contact and training )u,lic enlig&tenment and general in%ormation s$stem 1eneral coordination and supervision "ver all administrative management and accounta,ilit$.

All t&ese activities re7uire -udicious use o% time and e%%orts. Jalua,le time and e%%orts s&ould not ,e asted unnecessaril$.

2:; Conclusion +n t&is unit $ou &ave ,een introduced to t&e concept o% planning in Extension progrmme. 8ou also .no t&e %orms and met&ods o% collecting %acts during planning process. 8ou &ave also learnt t&e ma-or steps in Extension )rogramme )lanning. =:; Summary +n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at proper planning ena,les t&e extension or.er to determine &is needs it& respect to ade7uate sta%% e7uipment and %unds to carr$ out its tas.s. 8ou also learnt t&at t&e .no ledge o% t&e steps in planning via,le extension programme is t&ere%ore important %or an extension or.er. T&e ma-or steps are %acts collection, anal$6e %acts and de%ine pro,lems, propose situation and plan programme/pro-ect. >:; Tutor !arked Assignment D D D Explain t&e various steps t&e ma-or steps in )lanning Extension )rogramme: Enumerate t&e %orms and met&ods o% collecting %acts during planning process: State t&e activities re7uired at t&e di%%erent stage Extension planning:

@:; *e7erences5)urther *eadings 9rad%ield, D.R. 21E;;4. &uide to Extension $raining FA' Economic and "ocial Development "ervices. !o.6. =ome' 0A". Tai o, S. L. T.5 0enle$ and Williams, E. E. 21EF@4. A %anual for Agricultural Extension (or!ers in )igeria* *es S&$rader, +,adan, !igeria

'IT . CO'C$(T O) AG*IC #T *A# $+T$'SIO' !O'ITO*I'G CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.>Main content <.1 De%inition o% monitoring

<.3 Approac&es to extension monitoring <.< )rinciples o% monitoring

@.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings

%:; I'T*O" CTIO' T&e 1lo,al Consultation on Agricultural Extension o,served t&at monitoring and evaluation are important $et %re7uentl$ neglected %unctions in most organi6ations 20A", 1EE>4.+t is o,served t&at in man$ cases t&e Monitoring and Evaluation units are ea. and are limited to ad &oc studies. 0re7uentl$, t&ese Monitoring and Evaluation units are a,andoned &en pro-ect %unding terminates. Also, and evaluation o%ten concentrate on pro,lems, exposing ea.nesses and %ailures o% organi6ations rat&er ,een used in a positive manner to improve extensionKs per%ormance and increase its e%%icienc$. T&ere%ore, it is o%ten recommended t&at national extension s$stems s&ould ,e strongl$ encouraged to esta,lis& and use monitoring procedures and

evaluation studies ,ot& to improve extension per%ormance and to communicate t&e results o% extension programmes to polic$ ma.ers and clientele ,eing served. )rogramme monitoring e%%orts com,ined it& in%ormation %rom t&e accounting s$stem ill provide in%ormation a,out e%%icienc$. ,:; O&<$CTI-$S 9$ t&e end o% t&is unit, $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' D D D explain t&e concepts o% monitoring and evaluation in Agricultural extension state all t&e ,asic agricultural extension monitoring principles state extension monitoring and evaluation indicators

.:; !AI' CO'T$'T .:% &asic Conce6ts o7 !onitoring and $valuation in Agricultural $4tension T&e ord GmonitorG is derived %rom t&e *atin ord meaning to arn, and GevaluateG stems %rom t&e ord value. Concepts o% Monitoring' Monitoring is a speciali6ed, d$namic, semiautonomous, and institutionali6ed management resource. Monitoring &elps to ensure t&e implementation o% extension programmes in accordance it& t&eir design and ta.es into account t&e interests o% various sta.e&olders. T&e de%inition o% monitoring can ,e operationali6ed ,$ esta,lis&ing principles to %ollo 5 setting up a data collection s$stem5 esta,lis&ing relations&ips among t&e monitoring unit, management, t&e extension sta%%, and extensionKs clients 2%armers45 and ma.ing appropriate use o% nongovernmental organi6ations 2!1"s4 Concepts o% Evaluation' Evaluation is carried out in extension or. to determine i% t&e expected result in extension programme measures t&e e%%ectiveness o% personnel involved, met&ods used, and t&e extension programme as a &ole. T&e evaluation o% personnel is normall$ carried out ,$ t&e -o, rating process. Evaluation is made possi,le ,$ accurate recording and group reporting o% extension activities. Evaluation o% extension programmes is made possi,le and easier &en t&e o,-ectives o% t&e programme &ave ,een clearl$ and concisel$ stated. Stating t&e o,-ective in terms o% t&e c&anges to ,e ,roug&t a,out in people as a result o% t&e extension programme s&ould

also ,e evaluated in terms o% people reac&ed, in terms o% num,er and adoption level. According to Macdonald and Aearle 21EF@4, evaluation s&ould ,e carried out in t&ree stages' D )re/evaluation' T&is is done ,e%ore t&e programme starts in ot&er to provide ,aseline data and guide t&e programme. T&e extension or.er must consider &at t&e programme is to ac&ieve and &at its o,-ectives are. D "n/going evaluation' At t&e planning stage, t&e extension or.er consider &o regular t&e on/going evaluation. T&e ,aseline data is compared it& t&e result to see &et&er t&e programme is succeeding or %ailing. )rogramme s&ould ,e %lexi,le %or ease o% amendment o% plans i% certain aspects are not or.ing. D )ost/evaluation' T&is is carried out at t&e end o% t&e programme. Evaluation at t&is stage is o% greater dept& t&an t&e on/going evaluation. Rudgements o% t&e e%%ect on t&e people materiall$ and in t&eir ,e&aviour are evaluated. Also at t&is stage, t&e overall e%%ectiveness o% t&e personnel involved, met&od used and t&e programme as a &ole is evaluated. T&is ensures proper planning o% %uture extension programme. )undamentals conce6ts o7 monitoring and evaluation T&ere are %our concepts t&at are ,asic to monitoring and evaluation namel$' Capa,ilit$, e%%ectiveness, e%%icienc$, and impact. T&e$ correspond, respectivel$, to operational investment 2e.g., investment in agricultural extension per %arm %amil$4, operational e%%icienc$ 2e.g., t&e num,er o% visits, meetings, demonstrations, and trials, per extension or.er4, tec&nical e%%icienc$ 2e.g., t&e num,er o% adopters, &ectorage, output, and value added4, and extension/ induced c&anges 2e.g., production, productivit$, income, and income distri,ution4 2=ut&en,urg, 1EFC4. Capa,ilit$, e%%ectiveness, and e%%icienc$ %all in t&e monitoring domain. +mpact %alls in t&e evaluation domain. D Capa,ilit$ is t&e command t&at extension &as over p&$sical, %inancial, and &uman resources, ena,ling it to serve its clients 2t&e %armers4. +t is re%lected ,$ extensionKs outreac&, intensit$, tec&nical competence, and p&$sical and %inancial resources. Extension per%ormance depends directl$ upon its capa,ilit$.

E%%ectiveness is de%ined ,$ a &and,oo. on productivit$ management as Gt&e degree to &ic& goals are attainedG 2)ro.open.o, 1EF;4. Agricultural extension &as man$ goals suc& as social goals 2e.g., %armer el%are4 and economic goals 2e.g., increased income4.

E%%icienc$ in extension is usuall$ measured ,$ t&e rates at &ic& %armers adopt recommended practices. Adoption rates o% var$ing degrees o% complexit$ can ,e conceived 2Casle$ I *ur$, 1EF34.

+mpact in extension can ,e measured ,$ a simple indicator, li.e $ield o% a crop per &ectare or ,$ constructing simple productivit$ indices. Suc& indicators provide ultimate tests %or t&e success o% extension programmes.

S$#) ASS$SS!$'T $+$*CIS$ D D de%ine t&e concepts o% monitoring and evaluation in Agricultural extension: explain t&e t&ree levels o% evaluation according to Macdonald and Aearle 21EF@4.

.:, &asic Agricultural $4tension !onitoring (rinci6les T&ere are some principles spelt out ,$ Misra 21EE;4 necessar$ %or proper monitoring o% extension programmes. T&ese principles include' D Simplicit$' Monitoring must ,e simple. A multi%aceted or complicated monitoring s$stem is sel%/de%eating. T&e ,asic tas. o% monitoring is to simpli%$ t&e %ield/level complexit$, si%ting t&e more important concerns %rom t&e less signi%icant. D Timeliness' Monitoring must ,e ell/timed. Timeliness is t&e %undamental nature in monitoring. Management re7uires input %rom t&e monitoring s$stem so t&at timel$ action ma$ ,e ta.en. Also, timeliness is closel$ related to t&e relia,ilit$ o% monitoring itsel%. D =elevance: Monitoring must ,e appropriate. +t must concern itsel% onl$ it& parameters &ic& are relevant to programme o,-ectives. T&is also ensures t&at monitoring does not generate in%ormation t&at is not used or is not usa,le ,$ management. D =elia,ilit$' +n%ormation provided t&roug& monitoring s&ould ,e dependa,le. Management ill rel$ on monitoring %indings onl$ i% t&e in%ormation is ,elieved to ,e reasona,l$ accurate.

)articipator$ E%%ort' Monitoring e%%orts s&ould ,e contri,utor$. E%%ort s&ould ,e made to ensure participation ,$ all concerned it& extension, ,e t&e$ %ield/level personnel, su,-ect/matter specialists, or extensionKs clients 2t&e %armers4.

D D

0lexi,ilit$' Monitoring must ,e ,enda,le. +t is reoccurrence in nature and gets &a,itual it& t&e passage o% time. T&ese t o c&aracteristics s&ould not, &o ever, lead to rigidit$. Action/ 'riented: Monitoring s&ould ,e action oriented. Monitoring o%ten leads to action. Conse7uentl$, it s&ould %ollo pragmatic approac&es, .eeping t&e re7uirements o% extensionKs clients uppermost in vie . 1enerating in%ormation %or &ic& t&ere is no intended use s&ould ,e diligentl$ avoided.

Cost/e%%ectiveness' Monitoring must ,e cost/e%%ective. Monitoring e%%orts cost mone$ and time. +t is t&ere%ore essential to ma.e it cost/e%%ective. W&ile principles o% simplicit$, time/lines, relevance, and accurac$ ill lead to cost/e%%ectiveness, computeri6ation also can &elp to ma.e monitoring more cost/e%%ective ,$ reducing sta%% &ours in data processing.

Top management oriented' Monitoring units s&ould .eep in mind t&e re7uisites o% top management &en designing and operating a monitoring s$stem. 8et at t&e same time, monitoring must ta.e into account t&e %act t&at t&ose &o provide in%ormation to t&e s$stem also must ,ene%it or t&e 7ualit$ o% t&e in%ormation provided ill decline.

)ro,lem/Solving "riented' Monitoring units represent %ocused activities. Monitoring is not merel$ concerned it& t&e collection and anal$sis o% data, ,ut it& diagnosing pro,lems and suggesting alternative practical solutions.

S$#) ASS$SS!$'T $+$*CIS$ D Descri,e ten ,asic principles necessar$ %or proper monitoring o% extension programmes: <.< $4tension !onitoring and $valuation Indicators +ndicators are varia,les t&at &elp to appraise c&anges in a given situation. T&e$ are apparatus %or monitoring and evaluating t&e e%%ects o% an activit$ and t&e principal means ,$ &ic& a monitoring unit .eeps trac. o% extensionKs capa,ilit$, e%%ectiveness, and e%%icienc$. +n extension monitoring, ,ot& t&e inductive and t&e deductive approac&es are %ollo ed. +n t&e inductive approac&, a s$stem o% social, economic, and demograp&ic statistics is created and a

ide range o% indicators is developed on t&e ,asis o% t&e statistics availa,le. +n t&e deductive approac&, t&e areas o% interest are %irst identi%ied, and t&en re7uisite indicators are developed. Extension monitoring indicators can also ,e grouped into t o categories' 214 Extension capa,ilit$ indicators, and 234 Extension per%ormance indicators. 9ot& s&ould ,e generated ,$ t&e monitoring unit D $4tension Ca6ability Indicators Extension capa,ilit$ indicators must ,e monitored regularl$ not onl$ to .no t&e status o% extensionKs capa,ilit$ at a certain point in time, ,ut also to determine c&anges in it over time. T&ese indicators s&ould ,e calculated annuall$. T&e$ involve onl$ des. or. ,ecause t&e$ are ,ased on in/&ouse data. Example, Extension capa,ilit$ indicators test %or example Competence, +ntensit$, and E7uit$ D $4tension (er7ormance Indicators Extension per%ormance indicators re%lect extensionKs operational and tec&nical e%%icienc$. T&e$ can ,e grouped into t o categories namel$ extension e%%ectiveness indicators and extension e%%icienc$ indicators. T&ere are di%%erent t$pes o% indicators, %or example, development indicators, socioeconomic indicators, agricultural development indicators, and extension indicators. T&e$ range %rom general to speci%ic concerns .T&e criteria %or selecting indicators depend upon t&e purpose, resources, and time availa,le. T&e %ollo ing decisive %actor is usuall$ suggested' D D D Simplicit$' T&e indicator s&ould ,e simple enoug& to ,e understood ,$ non/specialists 20A", 1EFF4. #nam,iguous de%inition' +t s&ould ,e clearl$ de%ined 2Casle$ I *ur$, 1EF3,5 Casle$ I Lumar, 1EF;4. =ead$ determination' T&e data can ,e o,tained it&out undue di%%icult$ 2WA", 1EFE4. T&is is also re%erred to as Gtimel$G 2ACC, 1EF@4 and G%easi,leG 20A", 1EFF, p. F51&a, Aop.ins, I Mc1rana&an, 1EFF4. D Accurate measurement: T&e indicator s&ould ,e measured accuratel$, &ic& is o%ten di%%icult &en dealing it& %arming communities 2Casle$ I *ur$, 1EF34.

D D D

Jalidit$: T&e indicator s&ould actuall$ measure &at it is supposed to measure 2ACC, 1EF@5 0A", 1EFF5 see also 1&a et al., 1EFF4. =elevance: +t s&ould ,e geared to t&e speci%ic needs o% decision ma.ers 2)etr$, 1EF<4 and ,e relevant to pro-ect o,-ectives 2ACC, 1EF@4. Speci%$: +t s&ould re%lect c&anges onl$ in t&e situation concerned 2WA", 1EFE4 and s&ould measure speci%ic conditions t&at t&e pro-ect aims to c&ange 2Casle$ I Lumar, 1EF;4.

Consistenc$: T&e value o% indicators s&ould sta$ constant so long as t&e$ are collected in identical conditions, no matter &o does t&e collecting 2Casle$ I Lumar, 1EF;4. +ndicators s&ould ,e o,-ective and veri%ia,le 20A", 1EFF4.

D D

Sensitivit$: +ndicators s&ould ,e sensitive to c&anges in t&e situation ,eing o,served 2ACC, 1EF@4. T&e$ s&ould ,e sensitive enoug& to re%lect c&anges in t&e p&enomenon )rioriti6ation: +ndicators s&ould ,e prioriti6ed and a minimum %easi,le list prepared 21&a et al., 1EFF4.

2:; CO'C# SIO' +n t&is unit, $ou &ave ,een exposed to t&e concepts and t&e principles o% monitoring and evaluation in agricultural extension. 8ou are also open to aspects to Extension monitoring and evaluation indicators.

=:; S !!A*9 +n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at an e%%ective agriculture extension s$stem ill need to esta,lis& and use monitoring procedures and evaluation ,ot& to improve extension per%ormance and to communicate t&e results o% extension programmes to polic$ ma.ers and clientele ,eing served. Evaluation s&ould ,e carried out in t&ree stages it& t&e correct principles. T&e criteria %or selecting indicators t&at &elp to appraise c&anges in a given situation depend upon t&e purpose, resources, and time availa,le. Monitoring and evaluating t&e e%%ects o% an activit$ and t&e principal means ,$ &ic& a monitoring unit .eeps trac. o% extensionKs capa,ilit$, e%%ectiveness, and e%%icienc$.

>:; T TO*3!A*?$" ASSIG'!$'T 1. Enumerate t&e %our concepts t&at are ,asic to monitoring and evaluation. 3. W&at are t&e decisive %actors %or t&e selection indicators %or an Agriculture Extension pro-ect: <. Explain seven ,ene%its an extension organisation ill ac&ieve in carr$ing proper monitoring.

@:; *$)$*$'C$S5) *T0$* *$A"I'GS

Administrative Committee on Coordination 2ACC4, #nited !ations 21EF@4. &uiding principles for the design and of monitoring and evaluation in rural development pro+ects and programmes. =ome' +nternational 0und %or Agricultural Development 2+0AD4. Casle$, D. R., I Lumar, L. 21EF;4. Pro+ect monitoring and evaluation in agriculture. 9altimore and *ondon' Ro&ns Aop.ins #niversit$ )ress 2pu,lis&ed %or t&e World 9an.4. Casle$, D. R., I *ur$, D. A. 21EF34. %onitoring and evaluation of agriculture and rural development pro+ects. 9altimore and *ondon' Ro&ns Aop.ins #niversit$ )ress 2pu,lis&ed %or t&e World 9an.4. 0A" 21EFF4. "ocio,economic indicators for monitoring and evaluating agrarian reform and rural development. WCA==D' Ten $ears o% %ollo /up 21E;E/1EFE4. =ome' Aut&or. 0A" 21EE>4. Report of the global consultation on agriculture extension. =ome' Aut&or. 1&a, D., Aop.ins, M., I Mc1rana&an, D. 21EFF4. "ome reflections on human and social indicators for development. Discussion )aper !o. 6. 1eneva' #nited !ations =esearc& +nstitute %or Social Development 2#!=+SD4. Lumar, L. 2Ed.4. 21EE<4. An overvie o% rapid appraisal met&ods 2p. 1/334. +n L. Lumar 2Ed.4, Rapid appraisal methods. Was&ington, DC' World 9an.. Misra, D. C. 21EE@4. Agricultural extension effectiveness in -ndia 2mimeo4. #niversit$ o% "x%ord, Nueen Eli6a,et& Aouse, +nternational Development Centre. )Str$, 0. 21EF<4. Designing a monitoring and evaluation s$stem 2p. 3>/@E4. +n E. Cla$ton I 0. )ro.open.o, R. 21EF;4. Productivity management: A practical handboo!. 1eneva' +nternational *a,our "%%ice 2+*"4.

=ut&en,erg, +. 21EFC4. -nnovation policy for small farmers in the tropics: $he economics of technical innovations for agricultural development. "x%ord' "x%ord #niversit$ )ress WA" 2World Aealt& "rgani6ation4 21EFE4. Evaluation of programmes to ensure food safety.

'IT 2 $+T$'SIO' (O#IC9 )O*! #ATIO' CO'T$'TS ;:; +ntroduction %:; ",-ectives ,:; Main content ,:% 9asic concepts o% Extension )olic$ ,:, T&e Scope and 0orms o% extension polic$ ,:. )rincipal +ssues t&at extension polic$ s&ould address ,:2 Extension polic$ %ormulation .:; Conclusion 2:; Summar$ =:; Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment >:; =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings %:; Introduction A polic$ is t$picall$ descri,ed as a principle or rule to guide decisions and ac&ieve rational outcome2s4. T&e term is not normall$ used to denote &at is actuall$ done5 t&is is normall$ re%erred to as eit&er procedure or protocol. W&ereas a polic$ ill contain t&e K &atK and t&e K &$K, procedures or protocols contain t&e K &atK, t&e K&o K, t&e K &ereK, and t&e K &enK. )olicies are generall$ adopted ,$ t&e 9oard o% or senior governance ,od$ it&in an organi6ation &ereas

procedures or protocols ould ,e developed and adopted ,$ senior executive o%%icers. A polic$ can ,e considered as a GStatement o% +ntentG or a GCommitmentG. 0or t&at reason at least, e can ,e &eld accounta,le %or our G)olic$G. )olicies are t$picall$ promulgated t&roug& o%%icial ritten documents. )olic$ documents o%ten come it& t&e endorsement or signature o% t&e executive po ers it&in an organi6ation to legitimi6e t&e polic$ and demonstrate t&at it is considered in %orce. Suc& documents o%ten &ave standard %ormats t&at are particular to t&e organi6ation issuing t&e polic$. W&ile suc& %ormats di%%er in %orm, polic$ documents usuall$ contain certain standard components including' D A purpose statement, outlining &$ t&e organi6ation is issuing t&e polic$, and &at its desired e%%ect or outcome o% t&e polic$ s&ould ,e. D An applica,ilit$ and scope statement, descri,ing &o t&e polic$ a%%ects and &ic& actions are impacted ,$ t&e polic$. T&e applica,ilit$ and scope ma$ expressl$ exclude certain people, organi6ations, or actions %rom t&e polic$ re7uirements. Applica,ilit$ and scope is used to %ocus t&e polic$ on onl$ t&e desired targets, and avoid unintended conse7uences &ere possi,le. D An e%%ective date &ic& indicates &en t&e polic$ comes into %orce. =etroactive policies are rare, ,ut can ,e %ound. D A responsi,ilities section, indicating &ic& parties and organi6ations are responsi,le %or carr$ing out individual polic$ statements. Man$ policies ma$ re7uire t&e esta,lis&ment o% some ongoing %unction or action. 0or example, a purc&asing polic$ mig&t speci%$ t&at a purc&asing o%%ice ,e created to process purc&ase re7uests, and t&at t&is o%%ice ould ,e responsi,le %or ongoing actions. =esponsi,ilities o%ten include identi%ication o% an$ relevant oversig&t and/or governance structures. D )olic$ statements indicating t&e speci%ic regulations, re7uirements, or modi%ications to organi6ational ,e&avior t&at t&e polic$ is creating. )olic$ statements are extremel$ diverse depending on t&e organi6ation and intent, and ma$ ta.e almost an$ %orm.

,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to5 D D D D Explain t&e concepts o% extension polic$ state t&e scope and %orms o% extension polic$ enumerate t&e principal +ssues t&at extension polic$ s&ould address explain &o extension polic$ s&ould ,e %ormulated

.:; !ain Content .:%The Conce6t $4tension (olicy T&e importance o% extension polic$ as recogni6ed ,$ t&e 0A"Ks 1lo,al Consultation on Agricultural Extension &en it recommended t&at Gall national governments s&ould develop and periodicall$ revie t&eir agricultural extension polic$. T&is polic$ s&ould include t&e goals o% agricultural extension, t&e responsi,le agencies and personnel, t&e clientele to ,e served, t&e ,road programmatic areas to ,e addressed, and ot&er relevant guidelines.G T&e consultation %urt&er recommended t&at Gt&e 0A", in cooperation it& t&e donor communit$, s&ould engage in polic$ dialogue it& national governments to stress t&e importance o% agricultural extension in national agricultural development and t&e need to &ave an explicit, %ormall$ enacted, agricultural extension polic$G 2S anson, 1EE>4. )olic$ ma.ers in man$ developing countries vie extension as a polic$ instrument to increase agricultural production, to ac&ieve national %ood securit$, and, at t&e same time, &elp alleviate rural povert$. +n addition, some economists vie extension as a polic$ instrument t&at ill contri,ute to &uman capital development and economic gro t&5 t&ere%ore, resources allocated to extension are vie ed as an economic investment &ic& must produce competitive economic returns. To t&e practitioner, agricultural extension en&ances and accelerates t&e spread o% use%ul .no /&o and tec&nologies to rural people. T&ese activities are expected to lead to increased and sustained productivit$, increased income and ell/,eing o% %arm people, and to t&e promotion o% national %ood securit$ and economic gro t&. T&ese o,-ectives are to ,e ac&ieved t&roug& non/%ormal education and training programmes and t o/ a$ tec&nolog$ trans%er and

%eed,ac. s$stems &ere extension &as an important contri,ution to ma.e to agricultural and rural development. .:, Sco6e and )orms o7 e4tension 6olicy The Sco6e o7 e4tension 6olicy: Agricultural extension polic$ is a part o% national development polic$ in general and o% agricultural and rural development polic$ in particular. Aence, agricultural extension is one o% t&e polic$ instruments &ic& governments can use to stimulate agricultural development 2Jan Den Jan in Rones, 1EF64. Extension is ver$ muc& a part o% &at =Tling re%ers to as t&e agricultural development mix. Ae notes t&at extension is a ea. instrument &en it stands alone, ,ut t&at it ,ecomes po er%ul &en com,ined it& price incentives, input suppl$, credit, seed multiplication, and so %ort& 2=Tling in Rones, 1EF64. T&e 1lo,al Consultation on Agricultural Extension concluded t&at agricultural extension polic$ s&ould ,e consistent it& and supportive o% national agricultural development polic$ and goals 2S anson, 1EE>4. Eac& countr$ s&ould &ave a compre&ensive agricultural extension polic$ &ic& provides %or coordination it& researc&, education, input suppl$, and credit and mar.eting s$stems, as ell as some %lexi,ilit$ to re%lect t&e d$namic nature o% t&e agricultural sector. T&e polic$ s&ould include t&e mission and goals %or agricultural extension, t&e responsi,le agencies and personnel, t&e clientele to ,e served, t&e ,road programmatic areas to ,e addressed, and ot&er relevant guidelines. +n developing national agricultural extension policies, representatives o% all ma-or groups o% %armers s&ould ,e directl$ involved and ot&er relevant agricultural organi6ations s&ould ,e consulted. G9$ pursuing a compre&ensive polic$,G t&e 1lo,al Consultation noted, Gcountries can expect t&e extension s$stem to contri,ute to increasing agricultural productivit$ and %arm income, and to improving t&e 7ualit$ o% li%e o% most rural %arm &ouse&olds in pursuit o% t&e general goal o% gro t& it& e7uit$. +n addition, suc& a polic$ s&ould &elp maintain and conserve t&e natural resource ,ase %or sustained agricultural development and en&ance %ood securit$G 2S anson, 1EE>4. )orms o7 e4tension 6olicy' researc& is needed in classi%$ing extension policies ,ot& in developed and developing countries, as ell as in t&ose countries in transition. T&ere are t&ree %orms o% extension policies D (rovisional $4tension (olicies

T&is is t&e most common %orm o% extension polic$ in most developing countries. +n t&e a,sence o% more %ormali6ed extension policies, or at t&e time &en t&e %ormall$ enacted polic$ &as ,een suspended, a provisional or ad &oc polic$ comes into pla$. 0or example, Mo6am,i7ue in t&e earl$ 1EF>s did not &ave a national polic$ %or agricultural extension. W&en t&e agricultural development polic$ s&i%ted %rom a reliance on state %arms to t&e involvement o% small %amil$ %arms, a provisional extension polic$ as %ormulated to provide %armers and t&e cooperative sector it& improved training and tec&nolog$. To develop and test t&is provisional polic$, a #!D)/0A"/supported pro-ect assisted t&e government in de%ining a national agricultural extension polic$ and developing a programme o% implementation. D "ecrees and (roclamations

Decrees and proclamations are policies issued ,$ t&e &ead o% state or ,$ t&e executive o%%icer o% government. 1enerall$, t&is approac& does not go t&roug& t&e process o% consultation and de,ate involving various sta.e&olders and ,ene%iciaries. An example o% t&is %orm o% polic$ as t&e 9ra6ilian government decree a,olis&ing t&e national agricultural extension aut&orit$ and trans%erring some o% its %unctions and sta%% to t&e national agricultural researc& aut&orit$. Also, it empo ered t&e state/level rural extension aut&orities to continue t&eir respective programmes

.:. )actors 7or )ormulating $4tension (olicy 0actors t&at polic$ ma.ers and support service agencies must address in %ormulating and implementing agricultural and rural development polic$ include population and environmental concerns D The (o6ulation )actor

An important concern is t&e rapid population gro t& in man$ developing countries. T&is %actor &as a direct impact on t&e demand %or %ood and ot&er agricultural products, and it results in increased pressure on t&e land and ot&er natural resources .T&ese pro,lems point to t&e need %or more education and tec&nical support to %arm &ouse&olds, ,ot& to increase productivit$ and to preserve natural resources.

'atural *esources and $nvironmental )actors

)opulation pressure and t&e demand %or increasing %ood output are no commonl$ associated it& t&e degradation, depletion, and pollution o% soil, ater, and ot&er natural resources 2Alexandratos, 1EEC4. !umerous actions are re7uired %or a societ$ to conserve, protect, re&a,ilitate, and manage its land, ater, and ot&er natural resources5 t&ere%ore, extension &as a central role to pla$ in disseminating sustaina,le agricultural tec&nolog$.

.:2 $4tension 6olicy 7ormulation T&ere is no standard %ormula to ,e used in %ormulating agricultural extension policies. +t s&ould ,e noted, &o ever, t&at most existing la s and policies on extension &ave ,een %ormulated ,$ planners and polic$ ma.ers in t&e ministr$ o% agriculture and agriculture committees in t&e legislative ,ranc& o% government. !ormall$, agricultural extension pro%essionals %rom agricultural universities or %rom a,road are called on to provide advice and to assist in dra%ting extension legislation. A congressional &earing is normall$ conducted ,e%ore extension legislation is %inall$ enacted into la . To ,e more relevant to t&e needs o% %armers and ot&er clientele, extension polic$ s&ould ,e revie ed and %ormulated t&roug& a participator$ approac&. T&is process could ,e initiated ,$ dedicated pro%essionals %rom t&e pu,lic and private sectors, it& t&e active participation o% %armers t&emselves, t&e private sector, and local government representatives. A proposed dra%t extension polic$ t&at results %rom t&is participator$ approac& ould &ave to ,e legitimi6ed ,$ t&e ministr$ o% agriculture and t&en enacted into la ,$ t&e congress or parliament. T&e advantage o% t&is approac& ould ,e greater relevance to local conditions and acceptance ,$ sta.e&olders at t&e %ield level. As t&e 1lo,al Consultation on Agricultural Extension noted' GT&ere are sometimes contradictions ,et een national development polic$ and t&e interests o% t&e vast ma-orit$ o% t&e rural poor &o are engaged in agricultural production. =epresentatives o% all ma-or %arm groups s&ould ,e involved, ,ot& t&roug& %ormal mec&anisms and in%ormal consultations, in t&e %ormulation and execution o% agricultural extension polic$. 0armer involvement in polic$ %ormulation and periodic revie is t&e most e%%ective means o% creating a Kdemand drivenK

national extension s$stemG 2S anson, 1EE>4.A ell %ormulated extension polic$ s&ould address t&e %ollo ing +ssues namel$5 i. $4tension !ission and Goals ' Alt&oug& extension &as a generic and universal meaning, its mission and goals ma$ need to ,e ad-usted according to national o,-ectives and t&e context and stage o% agricultural and rural development in a given countr$. S&ould t&e mission o% extension ,e to promote agricultural development t&roug& tec&nolog$ trans%er: S&ould it give &ig&er priorit$ to &uman resource development in rural areas, or s&ould it promote sustaina,le agricultural and rural development: T&e extension mission s&ould ,e re%lected in t&e name o% t&e organi6ation, and t&e pream,le %or extension polic$ s&ould ,e included in t&e la governing t&e countr$Ks extension s$stem. T&is mission t&en s&ould ,e re%lected in a statement o% goals and o,-ectives t&at are agreed upon and assigned to extension in a supporting polic$ document. T&is document s&ould ,e periodicall$ revie ed ,$ polic$ ma.ers and representatives %rom sta.e&older groups. ii. $4tension A66roach and )unctions !ational extension s$stems can pursue one o% several di%%erent extension approac&es in implementing extension polic$. Most extension s$stems in developing countries give primar$ attention to tec&nolog$ trans%er, given national agricultural policies t&at emp&asi6e increasing %ood production and ac&ieving national %ood securit$. An example o% a tec&nolog$ trans%er approac& ould ,e t&e Training and Jisit 2TIJ4 Extension S$stem t&at &as ,een promoted ,$ t&e World 9an. t&roug& its lending programme. Alt&oug& t&e #.S. extension s$stem &as ,een particularl$ e%%ective in tec&nolog$ trans%er, its main %ocus &as ,een on increasing t&e s.ills and .no ledge o% rural %arm %amilies, &o &ave ,ecome ver$ e%%ective consumers o% agricultural tec&nolog$. T&ere%ore, t&e extension approac& pursued ,$ a countr$ s&ould re%lect t&e mission o% extension, and it ill de%ine t&e %unctions, programmes, and tas.s t&at ill ,e carried out ,$ t&e extension sta%%. iii. Subject3!atter Coverage o7 $4tension 9roadl$ spea.ing, t&e su,-ect matter o% extension is implied in t&e mission statement and even in t&e title o% t&e extension service. W&at di%%erentiates ,et een agricultural and

rural extension is t&e su,-ect matter t&at t&e extension service ill include in its programmes and t&e target groups to ,e served among t&e rural population. Jer$ narro su,-ect/matter coverage suc& as promotion o% %ood and cas& crops and animal production ma$ invite a costl$ proli%eration o% several speciali6ed and uncoordinated extension initiatives. 9roader su,-ect/matter coverage suc& as promoting t&e entire %arming s$stem, sustain/a,le agricultural, and rural development leads to a more uni%ied agricultural extension s$stem. Anot&er issue is &et&er t&e extension s$stem s&ould include socioeconomic and sustaina,le development messages. iv. Geogra6hical Coverage 1eograp&ical coverage can ,e an important polic$ issue ,ecause o% ,ot& political and cost implications. Most political leaders ant t&eir -urisdiction to ,e covered ,$ an e%%ective extension service5 t&ere%ore, t&e$ must %ind a a$ to provide %unds %or extension programmes. +% extension %unding is to ,e provided ,$ di%%erent levels o% government 2cost s&aring4, t&en t&e structure o% extension must re%lect t&ese di%%erent sources o% %unding. Extension personnel ill tend to ,e more responsi,le to t&ose levels o% government t&at provide extension %unding. 0or example, i% local governmental units provide some extension %unding, t&en extension personnel ill tend to ,e more responsive to t&e needs o% %armers and political leaders it&in t&ese local government units t&an t&e$ are i% all %unding comes %rom t&e national government. +n s&ort, &aving multiple sources o% %unding, especiall$ %rom di%%erent levels o% government, ill increase t&e num,er o% s&are&olders and result in an extension s$stem t&at &as a ,roader ,ase o% support and t&at is more responsive to sta.e&olders at t&e local level. "n purel$ economic grounds, some economists ,elieve t&at agricultural extension s&ould ,e concentrated in t&ose agricultural areas t&at are ell endo ed in terms o% ,ot& &uman and natural resources and &ere t&e rural in%rastructure is alread$ developed. Ao ever, to concentrate extension resources on larger, ,etter educated, commercial %armers &o %re7uentl$ control t&e ,est land resources in a countr$ ill not lead to ,road/ ,ased agricultural development. 0urt&ermore, t&e use o% onl$ economic criteria in allocating extension resources ma$ result in %urt&er degradation o% soil and ater resources as resource poor %armers continue to exploit marginal land it&out using

appropriate %arming practices. 0inall$, investing in resource poor %arm %amilies ma$ increase t&eir tec&nical, management, and leaders&ip s.ills, t&ere,$ ena,ling t&em or t&eir c&ildren to move into &ig&er pa$ing, non%arm -o,s. v. Clientele or Target &ene7iciaries A common criticism o% extension services in developing countries is t&eir neglect o% t&e vast num,er o% small/scale %armers in %avour o% %e er num,ers o% large %armers, or t&e ver$ limited attention given to omen %armers. T&is is a polic$ issue ,ecause o% its implications %or t&e mission and goals o% extension, t&e priorities %or tec&nolog$ generation ,$ researc&, t&e cost/e%%ectiveness o% extension, and t&e sociopolitical goals o% gro t& it& e7uit$ and povert$ alleviation. T&e inclusion o% omen and rural $out& in agricultural extension programmes is generall$ recogni6ed in terms o% t&eir num,ers and contri,ution to %arming. World ide, an estimated C1 per cent o% t&e active population in agriculture are omen. +n A%rica, omenKs participation in %ood production is as &ig& as ;6 per cent 20A", 1EE>4 in some areas. +n 1EEC, t&ere ere an estimated 1.C ,illion rural $oung people ,et een 1C and 3E $ears o% age, 1.< ,illion o% t&em in less developed countries. 1iven t&at rural $out& ma$ account %or up to 6> per cent o% t&e population in developing countries, s&ould t&e$ ,e speciall$ recogni6ed %or t&eir crucial role in ac&ieving sustaina,le agricultural and rural development across t&e coming generation o% %armers: vi. Organi8ational Issues T&e extension organi6ation em,odies di%%erent aspects o% an extension s$stem, and it provides t&e management %rame or. %or t&e extension service. T&is is a polic$ issue ,ecause it a%%ects t&e scope, magnitude, and structure o% t&e extension s$stem, including %actors suc& as control, cost/e%%ectiveness, and t&e impact o% t&e extension service. T&ere are %our di%%erent %orms o% extension organi6ation namel$' 1. Centrali.ed organi.ation. Examples include t&e Department o% Agricultural Extension in T&ailand and 9anglades&, t&e Agricultural Extension 9ureau o% Sout& Lorea, and A1=+TEH in Oim,a, e. +n t&is %orm o% organi6ation, t&e national extension o%%ice manages and controls extension programme activities and resources at t&e regional, district, su,district, and village level. Clientele participation and %eed,ac. in programme planning are generall$ limited.

3. Decentrali.ed organi.ation. Examples o% t&is %orm o% extension organi6ation are t&e agricultural extension s$stems in 9ra6il, Canada, +ndia, !igeria, and t&e )&ilippines. T&ese s$stems &ave almost an invisi,le national or %ederal extension o%%ice, in t&at extension programming, management, and t&e control o% activities and resources are vested it& state or provincial governments. <. Cooperative type of extension organi.ation and funding. T&e distinguis&ing %eature o% t&is %orm o% extension organi6ation is t&e cooperation or partners&ip ,et een t&e national, state or provincial, and local governments in %unding, programming, and managing t&e activities and resources o% extension. +n t&e #nited States, extension is a -oint underta.ing o% t&e #.S. Department o% Agriculture 20ederal Extension Service4, t&e state land/grant universities, and t&e count$ governments. +n Rapan, extension is a -oint underta.ing o% t&e national government and t&e pre%ectural government. +n C&ina, agricultural extension is a cooperative underta.ing o% t&e central, provincial, pre%ecture, and count$ governments. Cooperative programming, management, and support are demonstrated at t&e Count$ Agro/Tec&nical Extension Centre 2CATEC4, &ere normall$ 3> per cent o% %unding comes %rom t&e central government, <> per cent %rom t&e provincial government, and C> per cent %rom t&e count$ government. @. Pluralistic forms of a national extension system. T&is is an emerging %orm o% extension organi6ation in man$ countries, ,ut it is not $et re%lected in national extension polic$. T&is structure appears to occur in t&ose countries &ere t&e need %or extension services is idespread and/or &ere t&e pu,lic agricultural extension organi6ation can no longer satis%$ its clientele ,ecause o% resource and management pro,lems. As a conse7uence, man$ pu,licl$ and/or privatel$ %unded organi6ations, including nongovernmental organi6ations 2!1"s4, are ,eginning to conduct agricultural extension programmes. )u,licl$ %unded extension organi6ations ma$ include t&e crop, livestoc., and &orticulture departments o% t&e ministr$ o% agriculture, state/ %unded agricultural colleges and universities, and commodit$ ,oards. )rivatel$ %unded organi6ations ma$ include rural development/oriented !1"s, agro,usiness %irms 2contract extension4, and %armer organi6ations, including cooperatives and commodit$ associations. 1enerall$, t&e geograp&ical, su,-ect/matter, and clientele coverage and t&e standard o% or. %or eac& o% t&ese di%%erent organi6ations are not .no n. Also, t&ese separate e%%orts are generall$ not ell coordinated. 0or contemporar$ polic$ ma.ing in extension, it ould ,e advisa,le t&at a roster or GmapG o% all t&e pu,licl$ and privatel$ %unded extension programmes ,e esta,lis&ed and

a national extension polic$ %ormulated t&at ould recogni6e t&is multiplicit$ o% extension %unding and programmes, and t&en to stud$ t&e %easi,ilit$ o% a polic$ t&at ould promote integration o% t&e agricultural extension s$stem. D $4tension Sta77ing Issues

9$ t&e nature o% t&e mission and or. t&at an extension s$stem carries out, its ort& to societ$ is largel$ re%lected ,$ t&e 7ualit$ and num,er o% t&e tec&nical and pro%essional sta%% in t&e organi6ation. 0or a national programme o% extension, t&e &uman resource 7uestion t&at polic$ ma.ers and extension managers are con%ronted it& is' 1iven t&e mission, scope o% t&e or., and availa,le resources, &at t$pe o% 7uali%ications and &o man$ extension sta%% s&ould ,e emplo$ed ,$ t&e extension s$stem: )art o% t&is sta%%ingmatrix includes ot&er 7uestions' W&at s&ould ,e t&e proportion o% su,-ect/matter specialists to %ield extension or.ers: W&at s&ould ,e t&e proportion o% %ield extension personnel to t&e num,er o% %armers, %arm &ouse&olds, or ot&er target groups: Ao s&ould extension sta%% ,e deplo$ed, &o o%ten s&ould t&e$ ,e trans%erred, and &at incentives s&ould ,e provided in order to ensure t&at t&e$ or. closel$ it& all groups o% %armers: D $4tension )unding

T&e most di%%icult and c&allenging polic$ issue %acing extension toda$ is to secure a sta,le source o% %unding. Wit& t&e idespread trend to cut government ,udgets, including structural ad-ustment programmes, man$ polic$ ma.ers &ave t&e impression t&at pu,lic extension is ,ot& expensive and a drain on t&e governmentKs limited resources. At t&e same time, studies carried out in ,ot& developed and developing countries indicate t&at t&e returns to extension expenditures are &ig&. T&ere%ore, polic$ ma.ers s&ould examine t&is issue care%ull$ in deciding &at level o% pu,lic %unding is necessar$ to support extension in relation to t&e needs o% %armers in t&e countr$. T&e issue o% %unding extension continues to ,e t&e most di%%icult polic$ issue %aced ,$ extension. T&is issue is complicated ,$ t&e increased demand %or more extension services on t&e part o% increasing num,ers o% %arm &ouse&olds &o &ave %e er land and ater resources. 0urt&ermore, extension is ,eing called to integrate sustain/a,le development messages into its extension programmes. T&is results in G or.ing it& less to do more.G

Stability

A good extension polic$ promotes extension s$stem sta,ilit$, $et allo s su%%icient %lexi,ilit$ to re%lect t&e d$namic nature o% t&e agricultural sector. Extension s&ould not ,e rigid5 rat&er, G+t s&ould ,e responsive to all ma-or groups o% %arm people and su%%icientl$ inclusive to allo pu,lic, private, and non/governmental organi6ations to contri,ute %ull$ to t&e agricultural development goals o% t&e countr$G 2S anson, 1EE>4. 0re7uent organi6ational c&anges it&in extension, suc& as ,eing trans%erred %rom one government agenc$ to anot&er, directl$ impact t&e organi6ationKs e%%ectiveness. Suc& insta,ilit$ is costl$ in t&at trained sta%% are poorl$ utili6ed and opportunities %or improved productivit$ are %orgone.

2:; Conclusion *essons %rom t&e past can serve as a guide to t&e %uture in %ormulating relevant and use%ul extension polic$ in developing countries. Extension polic$ s&ould include t&e %ollo ing' 214 name o% t&e extension s$stem, 234 mission and goals, 2<4 intended clientele, 2@4 geograp&ic coverage, 2C4 t&e dominant extension approac& to ,e %ollo ed, 264 general su,-ect/matter coverage, 2;4 institutional and organi6ational %rame or., 2F4 &o extension ill ,e %inanced, and 2E4 provisions %or revie and accounta,ilit$ it&in t&e extension s$stem. =:; Summary T&e ultimate test o% extension polic$ is t&e impact t&at extension is &aving on t&e productivit$ o% all ma-or groups o% %armers, including t&eir incomes and 7ualit$ o% li%e. +n addition, extension s&ould ,e evaluated ,$ its contri,ution to sustaina,le agricultural development. To extension polic$ ma.ers, managers, specialists, and pro%essional sta%%, t&e %ollo ing c&ec.list mig&t prove use%ul' 214 +s extension polic$ developmental it& a long/term vision: 234 Does it %oster innovativeness and creativit$ on t&e part o% t&e extension sta%%, and does it &ave more provisions %or %acilitating, rat&er t&an controlling, t&eir or.: 2<4 Does it %oster sta.e&older participation and con%idence in t&e extension s$stem: 2@4 Does it attract sustained %inancial support %rom government t&roug& t&e support o% sta.e&olders and ,ene%iciaries: 2C4 Does it %ollo appropriate procedures and met&ods to per%orm its responsi,ilities e%%icientl$ and e%%ectivel$: and 264 Does it &ave reasona,le provisions %or accounta,ilit$ t&roug& periodic revie s:

>:; Tutor !arked Assignment D W&at %actors ill an Agricultural organisation considers in t&e 0ormulation o% Extension )olic$: D D 9rie%l$ explain t&e scope and t&e %orms o% extension polic$: Enumerate and discuss t&e issues a ell %ormulated extension polic$ s&ould address:

@:; *e7erences5)urther *eading Alexandratos, !. 21EEC4. (orld agriculture: $o ards /010* an FA' study. West Sussex, England' 0A" and Ro&n Wile$ I Sons. 0A". 21EE>4. (omen in agricultural development: FA'2s plan of action. =ome' 0A". Rones, 1. 21EF64. -nvesting in rural extension: "trategies and goals. *ondon' Elsevier Applied Science )u,lis&ers. S anson, 9. 2Ed.4. 21EE>4. &lobal Consultation on Agricultural Extension: A report. =ome' 0A".

!odule , (rinci6le o7 Administration and Su6ervision #nit 1 Concept o% Administration #nit 3 Tas.s and *evels o% Agricultural Administration #nit < Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension nit % Conce6t o7 Administration CO'T$'T %:; +ntroduction ,:; ",-ectives .:; Main content <.1 Concept o% Administration <.3 C&aracteristics o% Agricultural Administration @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings 1.> +ntroduction Administration is t&e management o% t&e a%%airs o% a ,usiness especiall$ t&e planning and control o% its operation. +t is t&e guidance, leaders&ip and control o% t&e e%%orts o% groups o% people or individuals to ard some common goals. +t is ,asicall$ a social tec&ni7ue &ic& s.ill%ul administrator in an enterprise needs to succeed. Along t&ese, t&e$ also re7uire tec&nical .no ledge and capital to execute all t&e transactions, especiall$ &uman and material resources.

0or an$ t$pe o% social s$stem to exist, via,le and pro%ita,l$, administration &as a lot o% role to pla$. Alt&oug& t&e structures o% di%%erent social s$stem di%%ers, ,ut t&e met&ods o% tac.ling t&eir pro,lems remains t&e same. ,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to, D D explain t&e concept o% Agricultural Administration. enumerate t&e c&aracteristics o% Agricultural Administration.

.:; !ain Content .:% Conce6t o7 Agricultural Administration Administration is usuall$ connected it& organi6ing, selecting executives or personnel, direction and ma.ing decisions,

esta,lis&ing plans, measuring results, coordinating, controlling and delegating activities. "gun,ameru 23>>14 de%ined administration as giving %ormulating policies and plans, implementing t&e %ormulated policies and plans and monitoring t&em5 maintaining inter personal relations&ips it& ot&ers suc& as su,ordinates, t&ose at t&e same level or peers, in ot&er sectors, departments, organi6ation and superiors or super/ordinates using management tec&ni7ues %or planning, executing and evaluation o% operatives5 and providing administrative services suc& as clerical accounting, %inancial 20A", 1E;E4. Administration involves t&e creation and maintenance o% an environment in emplo$ees Aarda.er 21E;14, de%ined administration as %orming ,alanced -udgment, %oresig&t and common sense. Administration can also ,e seen as t&e act and science o% getting result t&roug& emplo$ees. +t is WLA )D#JLD""*NR =# A++A0W*8A HW*"*UDW*=N =+ )AN )=NAP )DWA#*D"J DN1 )AWL=1J WLA +=H# V>W =+ administrations4. Agricultural administration is essentiall$ t&e guidance, leaders&ip and t&e control among all t&e clients o% agriculture related activities 2E.pere, 1E;64. E%%icient agricultural administration &ic& individual or. toget&er in groups to ards t&e accomplis&ment o% organi6ational goals. &ic& %or ma.ing

rational decisions. A good administrator t&ere%ore implies acting it& purpose, imagination,

re7uires pro%essionall$ trained and

ell/in%ormed people. T&e c&ie% role o% t&e programme

manager, managing director or director is to get results ,$ e%%ectivel$ directing t&e or. o% ot&er mem,ers o% sta%%. To ac&ieve t&is lo%t$ role, t&e manager or administrator must ad&ere to t&e p&ilosop&$ t&at &inges on' 1. 3. <. @. C. 6. respect %or t&e ort& and dignit$ o% t&e individual emplo$ees5 +D*WL *N WLA A)S"=PAAJQ DE*"*WP W= )D!A #DW*=ND" 1A0*J*=NJ maintain moral and spiritual values in inter/personal relations&ips5 s&ared and collective responsi,ilit$ %or common goal o% t&e organi6ation5 respect %or t&e dignit$ o% la,our5 and promotion o% t&e emotional, p&$sical and ps$c&ological &ealt& o% all emplo$ees, regardless o% t&eir tri,e, religion, sex and political leaning. Dealing it& people, &o ever, presents man$ complexities due to t&e di%%erences in personalities, attitudes or emotional levels, learning st$les, communication s.ills and tec&nical competencies. Despite all t&ese di%%erences, t&e mission o,-ect o% managers is to get t&e tas. accomplis&ed. Additionall$, managers are supposed to motivate emplo$ees to per%orm t&eir responsi,ilities ,etter 2Culpan, 1EF64. T&e programme manager must master%ull$ or. to ards A)S"=PAAJQ JDW*J+D0W*=N W= D0L*A8A =#RDN*UDW*=ND" R=D"J S$#) ASS$SS!$'T $+$*CIS$ W&at are t&e vie points t&at must ,e ad&ered to %or t&e manager or administrator to ac&ieves =#RDN*UDW*=ND" R=D"J DN1 LDJ A)S"=PAAJQ JDW*J+D0W*=NG

.:, Characteristics o7 Agricultural administration C&ie% executives must constantl$ capitali6e on t&e %ollo ing c&aracteristics o% an e%%ective and e%%icient agricultural administration, including, among ot&ers' 1. Agricultural administration demands an e%%icient organi6ation o% t&e availa,le manpo er and p&$sical resources it& a vie to ensure t&e greatest amount o% goods %or t&e largest num,er o% people, in t&e least possi,le time and it& minimum amount o% energ$. 3. A good agricultural administration al a$s endeavours to ,e readil$ availa,le and ever illing to solve t&e pro,lems o% t&e people as soon as t&e$ are ,roug&t to t&e notice o% its personnel. +t is also one o% t&e tas.s o% agricultural administration to ,ring a areness among t&e people a,out t&e pro,lems not readil$ perceived ,$ t&em and to sensiti6e t&em to %oresee t&eir pro,lems and ,e e%%ective in resolving t&em. <. Agricultural administration operates t&roug& understanding successive lo er levels. @. Agricultural administration allo s enoug& %reedom to its o%%icials to disc&arge t&eir responsi,ilities ,ot& e%%icientl$ and e%%ectivel$. 0or t&is purpose, po ers are delegated to t&e maximum extent and centrali6ation o% t&e administration is .ept to t&e ,arest maximum. A good agricultural administrator is t&ere%ore ever illing to render assistance to an$one &o needs it and is al a$s t&ere to set a good standard o% service and cooperation, i.e. leaders&ip ,$ example. C. Agricultural administration &elps to create and maintain an e%%icient organi6ation manned ,$ ell trained and 7uali%ied personnel it& t&e proper ,ent o% mind and aptitude so as to conve$ t&e latest tec&nolog$ and scienti%ic innovations to t&e people speedil$ in suc& a manner t&at t&e people can put t&em into practice. rat&er t&an dogmatic

pressure, t&roug& ,uilding con%idence ,$ o%%ering assistance in &elping t&e or.ers at t&e

6.

Decentrali6ation drives up t&e %unctions o% decision and aut&ori6ation to t&e top management it leaves action, &en decided upon, to ,e carried out ,$ t&e su,ordinate aut&orit$.

;.

Coordination involves some supervision over t&e or. o% units, components, departments or divisions, ,ut e%%ective administration ensures t&at supervision does not lead to %riction nor does it retard t&e gro t& o% t&e lo er level local aut&orities.

2:; CO'C# SIO' +n t&is unit, $ou &ave ,een exposed to t&e concepts and p&ilosop&$ o% agricultural extension Administration as ell as t&e C&aracteristics Agricultural Administration must constantl$ ,e capitali6ed on %or an e%%ective and e%%icient agricultural management. =:; S !!A*9 +n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at %or an$ t$pe o% social s$stem to exist, via,le and pro%ita,l$, administration &as a lot o% role to pla$. T&is is done as t&e organi6ation engages in organi6ing, selecting executives or personnel, esta,lis&ing plans, measuring results, coordinating, controlling and delegating activities. +t is also clear t&at administrator must ad&ere to certain p&ilosop&$ to get t&e tas. accomplis&ed despite man$ complexities due to t&e di%%erences in personalities, attitudes or emotional levels, learning st$les, communication s.ills and tec&nical competencies. >:; T TO*3!A*?$" ASSIG'!$'T 1. State six p&ilosop&ies a manager ill emplo$ to get t&e tas. accomplis&ed despite man$

complexities due to t&e di%%erences in personalities, attitudes or emotional levels, learning st$les, communication s.ills and tec&nical competencies. 3. De%ine t&e term Agricultural administration <. W&at are t&e various 7ualities re7uired %or e%%icient agricultural administration: @. State seven c&aracteristics o% agricultural administration

@:; *$)$*$'C$S5) *T0$* *$A"I'GS Culpan, =. 1EF6. #se o% Jideo Case )roduction in Teac&ing "rgani6ational 9e&avior. )roceedings o% t&e Eastern Academ$ o% Management. p. 113. E.pere R.A 21E;64' BAction =esearc& in )articipator$ =ural Development' T&e Case o% 9ade.u, !igeria.G Development. 3/< 1EF;. pp. 11C/13>. Aarda.er, R.9., S. )ande$ and *.A. )atten. 1EE1. 0arm planning under uncertaint$. =evie o% Mar.eting and Agricultural Economics CE'E/33. nit , Tasks and #evels o7 Agricultural Administration CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 Tas.s o% Agricultural Administration <.3 T&e di%%erent levels o% Agricultural Administration @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eading

1.> +ntroduction Agricultural extension administration is not uni7uel$ di%%erent %rom t&e ,asic practices o% administration. +n essence, it is t&e application o% t&e latter, using t&e ,asic agricultural .no ledge. T&e &uman, p&$sical and even material resources involved are t&e same. Ao ever,

2!SA#A E#=D1"P 1A+*NA1 MR#*0H"WH#D" 2XWANJ*=N DJ VWLA 1*J0*S"*NA OL*0L JAA!J W= 1A8A"=S pro%essional competencies essential to t&e operation o% a s$stem o% services &ic& assist rural people t&roug& educational programmes o% improved %arming met&ods and tec&ni7ues, increased S#=1H0W*=N A++*0*AN0P DN1 *N0=)A "A8A" =+ "*8*NR DN1 D0L*A8A)ANW =+ D )=#A +H"+*""*NR #H#D" "*+AW ,:; Objectives 9$ t&e end o% t&is unit, $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' D D de%ine t&e strategic tas. agricultural administration state t&e di%%erent levels o% agricultural administration

.:; !ain content .:% Strategic Task5*es6onsibilities o7 Agricultural Administration T&e essential tas.s o% administration are t&e ma-or %unctions per%ormed ,$ administrators. T&us, to aND"PUA OLDW DN D1)*N*JW#DW=# 1=AJ *J W= !N=O WLA VOLDWW DN1 VL=OW =+ D1)*N*JW#DW*=N ;L*J is involved in t&e %ollo ing %ive ,asic processes o% administration' planning, organi6ing, assem,ling resources, supervising and control. T&e ma-or activities under eac& process are &ig&lig&ted ,elo ' 1. (lanning 2a4 2,4 2c4 2d4 2e4 2%4 2g4 2&4 2i4 2-4 Clari%ication o% o,-ectives Esta,lis&ment o% policies Mapping o% programmes and campaigns Determining speci%ic met&ods and procedures 0ixing da$/to/da$ sc&edules Surve$ t&e environment 0orecast %uture situation Evaluate proposed actions =evised and ad-ust t&e plan in t&e lig&t o% control o% results and c&anging conditions Communicate t&roug&out t&e planning period.

3.

Organi8ing 2a4 2,4 2c4 2d4 2e4 2%4 2g4 2&4 +denti%$ and de%ine &at to ,e done. 9rea. or. do n into duties. 1roup duties into positions. De%ine position re7uirement. 1roup positions into managea,le and properl$ related units 2departments4. Assign or. to ,e per%ormed, accounta,ilit$ and extent o% aut&orit$. =evise and ad-ust t&e organi6ation in t&e lig&t o% control, results and c&anging conditions. Communicate t&roug&out t&e organi6ing process.

<.

Assembling *esources i:e Sta77ing 2a4 2,4 2c4 2d4 2e4 2%4 Determine t&e &uman resources re7uired. =ecruit potential emplo$ees. Select %rom t&e recruits Train and develop t&e &uman resources assem,led =evise and ad-ust t&e 7uantit$ and 7ualit$ Communicate t&roug&out t&e sta%%ing process

@.

Su6ervising T&is includes motivating, directing coordinating, evaluating, etc. t&roug&' D D D D D D D D D D 1iving directions t&at ill give desired results. +ssuing good instructions 0ollo ing up instructions Explaining reasons %or actions ta.en Motivating personnel Aarmoni6ing and coordinating programmes and policies Devising e%%ective means o% communication +nstilling dominant o,-ectives Encouraging in%ormal contacts Coordinating via supervision.

C.

Controlling 2a4 2,4 2c4 2d4 2e4 2%4 2g4 2&4 2i4 Set standards at strategic points Set standards %or individual responsi,ilit$ and note deviations. Concentrate on important activities #se integrated ,udgets. Concentrate on exceptions ",serve personall$ Design reports %or action Ta.e corrective action 9alance control structure.

S$#) ASS$SS!$'T $+$*CIS$ Aig&lig&ted t&e ma-or activities involved in t&e ,asic processes o% administration .:, "i77erent levels o7 Agricultural Administration +t s&ould ,e noted t&at agricultural administration is in t&ree &ierarc&ies or levels, namel$' D D D t&e top management level5 t&e middle/management level5 and t&e operating lo er/management level. it& planning, coordination and liaison it& ot&er

T&e top management level is concerned

organi6ations and agencies in t&e communit$. T&e middle management level is involved in overseeing per%ormance and controlling activities t&at move t&e organi6ation to ards t&e determined goals and o,-ectives. W&ile t&e operating lo er/management level, t&e largest group o% managers in t&e organi6ation is essentiall$ supervisor$5 t&is level o% management ensures t&at emplo$ees %ollo procedures in or. situations. +n &atever level or &ierarc&$ one ,elongs to, it is imperative to %unction e%%ectivel$. To do t&is, a manager must' la$ emp&asis on getting -o,s done on time5 t&in. a&ead5 discuss ideas, procedures and alternatives c&anges. it& ot&ers5 and ma.e provision to cope it& t&e unexpected

A good administrator is a Xperson

&o allo s t&e group to ac&ieve its goal

it& a minimum

expenditure o% resources and e%%orts it& t&e least inter%erence it& ot&er ort& &ile activities. +n ot&er ords, good administrators, managers or ,usinessmen must ,e a,le to convert resources into goods and services timel$ and c&eapl$. Also, administrators are people &o possess outstanding a,ilit$ in t&e particular activit$ t&e$ are directing. 9ut it is important to note t&at administrative s.ill is di%%erent %rom tec&nical pro%icienc$ in t&e operations ,eing managed administrative a,ilit$ is a distinct s.ill. 0rom experience, it is o,served t&at a person managing t&e a%%airs o% a clu,, ,usiness or operation is usuall$ or sometime a previous star in t&at t$pe o% activit$. 0or example, a %oot,all clu, director or manager must &ave ,een a good star pla$er ,e%ore, etc. Ao ever, t&is ma$ not al a$s ,e t&e case. +n ot&er cases, it is o,served t&at administrative s.ill is somet&ing di%%erent %rom tec&nical pro%icienc$ in t&e operations ,eing managed. All t&at is re7uired is a ,asic grasp o% t&e administrative processes. !onet&eless, a tec&nical experience and administrative s.ill ill ma.e a %ar ,etter manager t&an t&e one it& t&e latter alone. M00=#1*NR W= IH"SDN D1)*N*JW#DW*=N *J WLA VOLDWW DN1 VL=OW =+ R=8A#N)ANW =# DNP *NJW*WHW*=N +=#)D" =# *N+=#)D" ;LA VOLDWW *J WLA JHEMA0W )DWWA# WLA WA0LN*0D" !N=O"A1RA =+ D V+*A"1W OL*0L ANDE"AJ WLA D1)*N*JW#DW=# W= SA#+=#) L*J WDJ!J ;LA VL=OW *J WLA WA0LN*THAJ =+ management, t&e principles according to &ic& cooperative programmes are carried out success%ull$. +n general, t&e essence o% administration is t&e a,ilit$ o% t&e administrator to plan large pro-ects, VO*A"1 W=RAWLA#W WLA =#RDN*UDW*=N +=# WLA*# D00=)S"*JL)ANWJ !AAS WLA =#RDN*UDW*=N +HN0W*=N*NR smoot&l$ and e%%icientl$ to ac&ieve t&e goals agreed upon ell it&in t&e allotted personnel, time and resources availa,le and it&out doing all t&e or. &imsel%. T&e e%%ectiveness o% administration ould increase, provided' 1. 3. Consultation procedures are %ollo ed to mo,ili6e t&e ,est ideas o% t&e sta%%, =esponsi,ilit$ and aut&orit$ are essential ingredients o% an e%%ective administration. =esponsi,ilit$ is accounta,ilit$ t&at can ,e assigned, ,ut s&ould not ,e delegated. Ao ever, responsi,ilit$ cannot exist it&out aut&orit$.

<. Aut&orit$ is given to ma.e decisions, and ad-ust &enever necessar$. &atever goes rong.

A person

it&out

aut&orit$ &as no po er to ma.e decisions and s&ould not ,e &eld responsi,le %or =esponsi,ilit$ to so man$ aut&orities usuall$ leads to con%lict. To resolve t&is, t&e individual JL=H"1 *1ANW*+P VOL=W *J #AJS=NJ*E"A +=# VOLDWW DN1 W= VOL=)W. Ao ever, it as advocated ,$ )resident D. W. Cal ard t&at delegation o% responsi,ilit$ must go aut&orit$ and %reedom to act. 2:; Conclusion +n t&is unit, $ou &ave ,een exposed to t&e essential tas.s o% administration. 8ou also learnt rule o% t&um, %or increased e%%ectiveness o% agricultural administration. T&e t&ree &ierarc&ies or levels agricultural administration as also &ig&lig&ted. =:; Summary Agricultural development e%%orts could &ave $ielded ,etter results, ,ut t&e executors o% t&e programmes involved appear to ,e lac.ing in ade7uate administrative capa,ilit$. Agricultural Extension Administration and Supervision courses designed %or Aence ould/,e it& t&e delegation o%

agricultural or.ers is ver$ essential. Elements o% administrative processes ere de%ined and explained. 0inall$, t&e %ive ,asic administrative processes' planning, organi6ing, assem,ling resources 2personnel4, supervising and control ere classi%ied, and ,rie%l$ annotated. >:; Tutor !arked Assignment W&at are t&e step agricultural administrators ould ta.e to increase t&e e%%ectiveness o% administration to ac&ieve organi6ational goals: State t&e t&ree &ierarc&ies or levels agricultural administration and t&eir various roles in t&e organi6ation. @:; *e7erences5)urther *eadings Culpan, =. 1EF6. #se o% Jideo Case )roduction in Teac&ing "rgani6ational 9e&avior. )roceedings o% t&e Eastern Academ$ o% Management. p. 113. E.pere R.A 21E;64' BAction =esearc& in )articipator$ =ural Development' T&e Case o% 9ade.u, !igeria.G Development. 3/< 1EF;. pp. 11C/13>.

nit . Sta77 Su6ervision in Agricultural $4tension CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 Concept o% Sta%% supervision <.3 Conditions necessar$ %or e%%ective supervision <.< Nualities o% a good supervision <.@ Supervisors C&ec.list <.C 0unctions o% Extension Supervisors @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings %:; Introduction Supervision is an important administrative %unction in an$ organi6ation. T&e organi6ational goals can onl$ ,e ac&ieved easil$ i% t&ere is a designated o%%icer2s4 &o ould oversee and direct t&e a%%airs o% ot&er extension sta%% in t&eir activities. T&is %unction is important ,ecause sta%% selection and t&e training given to e7uip t&e sta%% %or good per%ormance could ,e useless i% t&eir activities are not properl$ coordinated and t&e sta%% not ade7uatel$ motivated and appraised 2evaluated4. Wit&out supervision, t&ere ill not ,e orderliness, delegation, coordination, motivation, evaluation. Ever$,od$ ill ,e doing &at &e or s&e li.es and no,od$ ill ,e &eld responsi,le %or an$t&ing done rongl$. 0inall$, t&e organi6ational goals ill not ,e ac&ieved.

,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit, $ou are expected to ,e a,le to' 1. 3. <. @. Explain t&e concept o% supervision5 State t&e conditions necessar$ %or e%%ective supervision5 State t&e 7ualities o% a good supervision. enumerate t&e %unctions o% Extension Supervisors

.:; !ain Content .:% Conce6t o7 Su6ervision Supervision is t&e art o% or.ing it& a group o% people over &om aut&orit$ is exercised in suc& a a$ as to ac&ieve t&eir greatest com,ined e%%ectiveness in getting or. done. T&ere is provision o% leaders&ip, guidance, control and delegation o% aut&orit$, &ic& are all necessar$ %or t&e satis%actor$ attainment o% t&e organi6ational goals. +t involves &elping su,ordinates to greater competenc$ and gro t&. T&e supervisor de%ines standards and regulates re ards and punis&ments. Ae interprets government policies, coordinates all activities including ,udgeting and t&e p&$sical %acilities put in place. "gun,ameru 23>>14, de%ined supervision in t&e agricultural extension service as t&e coordinated approac& to provide guidance, direction and support to a su,ordinate sta%% in &is or. per%ormance. +t is a process ,$ &ic& or.ers are guided to carr$ out duties it& increasing satis%action to t&emselves, to t&e people it& &om t&e$ or. and to t&e agenc$ %or &ic& t&e$ or.. Supervision, according to Da&ama 21E;64 is selecting t&e rig&t person %or eac& -o,' arousing in eac& person an interest in &is or. and teac&ing &im &o to do it5 measuring and rating per%ormance to ,e sure t&at teac&ing &as ,een %ull$ e%%ective5 administering correction &ere t&is is %ound to ,e necessar$ and trans%erring to a more suita,le or. or dismissing t&ose %or &om t&is proves ine%%ective5 and %inall$ %itting eac& person &armoniousl$ into t&e or.ing group B all

done %airl$, patientl$ and tact%ull$, so t&at eac& person is caused to do &is accuratel$ and completel$.

or. s.ill%ull$,

9$ good supervision, e can motivate people to do ,etter extension or., and t&is is t&e aim o% de%ining t&e term supervision so t&at e ma$ ,e a,le to enlist a %e %actors t&at improve or.ers to motivate. As people di%%er in t&eir supervision in t&e lig&t o% &elping extension ma$ ,e &andled in a ,etter a$. +n all t&e a,ove cases, supervision is ,est per%ormed in an atmosp&ere o% good ill and mutual cooperation on t&e part o% all t&e people involved. .:, Conditions 'ecessary 7or $77ective Su6ervision T&is is ,asicall$ t&e condition or situation t&at s&ould prevail ,e%ore e%%ective supervision can ta.e place. 2i4 2ii4 2iii4 2iv4 A clear understanding o% t&e o,-ectives and t&e roles o% a supervisor in t&e organi6ation. Must &ave t&e aut&orit$ to carr$ out t&e responsi,ilities or %unctions o% t&e organi6ation. Must &ave democratic supervisor$ a,ilit$ &enever t&e situation arises. Cooperativel$ s&ared ideas, experiences and e%%orts ,et een supervisor and supervisee must exist. 2v4 T&e supervisor and &is team must &ave a common insig&t, understanding o% t&e o,-ectives, goals and accepta,le o% t&e team or. pattern to supervision. 2vi4 Jertical and &ori6ontal communication ,et een t&e supervisor and &is supervisees must exist. 2vii4 T&ere must ,e opportunities %or creative t&in.ing and sel%/expression ,$ t&ose ,eing supervised. 2viii4 "pportunities %or practicing t&e tas.s %or &ic& one is ,eing supervised, compre&ensive and s$stematic evaluation activities &enever necessar$ must ,e possi,le.

attitudes and ,e&avior, t&e supervisor &as to tr$ man$ %actors so t&at t&e persons &e supervises

Sel73Assessment $4ercise *ist six Conditions !ecessar$ %or E%%ective Supervision .:. Cualities o7 a Good Su6ervision T&is is some&o similar to conditions necessar$ %or supervision, ,ut di%%ers %rom it in t&at t&ese are t&e c&aracteristics t&at t&e supervisors t&emselves must possess %or e%%ective supervision. T&e$ are' 2i4 2ii4 2iii4 2iv4 2v4 2vi4 2vii4 2viii4 2ix4 Jitalit$ and endurance. +ntellectual capacit$5 .no ledge and intelligence. Decisiveness and o,-ectivit$. Sense o% responsi,ilit$. )ersuasiveness =ecognition o% individual di%%erences. Avoiding imposing orders. Drive, %orce%ulness, sta,ilit$. Supervision is a co/operative activit$. +t ta.es place t&roug& s&ared ideas, e%%orts and experience o% all sta%% mem,ers. Cooperation provides opportunit$ %or t&e gro t& o% t&e supervisor as ell as t&e gro t& o% t&e emplo$ee. 2x4 Supervision is creative and not prescriptive. +t provides opportunit$ %or originalit$ and sel%/expression. 2xi4 Supervision su,stitutes leaders&ip %or aut&orit$ B opportunities are provided %or co/ operative %ormulation o% policies, plans and goals. 2xii4 Supervisor s&ould maximi6e responsi,ilit$ and minimi6e aut&orit$.

2xiii4

Supervisor s&ould not tr$ to impose &is o n or., &a,its, st$le or tempo on t&e or.ers

HN1A# L*J JHSA#8*J*=N YA )HJW LD8A D Z+AA"Q +=# WLA EALD8*=# =+ WLA SA=S"A 2xiv4 Supervisor s&ould ,e sensitive to t&e opinions o% ot&ers. Ae JL=H"1 WL*N! ZO*WLQ #DWLA#

WLDN Z+=#Q WLA O=#!A#J K*J0HJJ*=N JL=H"1 SDJJ HS WL#=HRL WLA "*NA =+ 0=))HN*0DW*=N 2xv4 2xvi4 Supervisor s&ould in%orm t&e or.ers under &im a,out c&anges in or. a%%ecting t&em. Supervisor s&ould tr$ to develop t&e a,ilities and s.ill o% t&ose under &is supervision.

2xvii4 Supervisor s&ould give clear, ,ut general instruction. Ae s&ould see. to tell extension agents in clear and concise %as&ion, &at is expected o% t&em and t&en let t&e or.ers or. out details. 2xviii4 Supervisor s&ould ,e consultative in approac&, e.g. W&at do $ou t&in. a,out t&is: =at&er WLDN V1= WL*J =# 1= WLDWW DSS#=D0L 2xix4 Supervision s&ould provide a sense o% securit$ and an opportunit$ %or mutual understanding. 2xx4 2xxi4 Supervisor s&ould avoid %avouritism. Supervisor s&ould avoid reprimanding, correcting or c&ec.ing in pu,lic.

2xxii4 Supervisor s&ould or. it& t&e emplo$ees in &elping t&em to overcome t&eir o,stacles. +t s&ould ,e noted t&at no single person ever possesses all t&ese 7ualities o% supervision. Ao ever, t&e supervisor s&ould ,e a are o% t&ese ,asic 7ualities and use t&e accompan$ing principles to implement a democratic supervisor role in &is -o, setting. . 6HSA#8*J=#JQ ILA0!"*JW +% $ou are a supervisor, tr$ to give candid and o,-ective ans ers to t&e %ollo ing 7uestions, &ic& serve as a summar$ o% 7ualities o% a good supervisor. D D D Are m$ personal &a,its a,ove reproac&: Do + &ave a good .no ledge o% t&e or. to ,e done: Am + dependa,le:

D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D

Do + .eep m$ ord: Am + sincere: Do + accept responsi,ilit$: +s m$ personal appearance exemplar$: Do + assume aut&orit$ &en necessar$: Am + a good teac&er: Am + a good listener: Do + express m$sel% ell: Do + accept criticism: Do + use common sense: Am + lo$al to constituted aut&orit$: Do + .no t&e organi6ational goals, policies and plans: Do + ma.e decisions &en necessar$: Do + tr$ to improve m$sel% %rom time to time: Am + adapta,le to c&ange: Am + courteous:: Am + approac&a,le: 2"gun,ameru, 3>>14.

<.C 0unctions o% Extension Supervisors T&e %unctions o% Extension supervisors includes t&e %ollo ing ' 1. +nduction o% ne or.ers into t&e service

3. Training o% extension or.ers on t&e -o, particularl$ on t&e normal routine operation and standards on t&e &at, &o , and &en to do t&ings e%%ectivel$. <. Train extension or.er on &o to serve and develop leaders, contact extension o%%icers, training t&e trainers &ic& result into a multipliers e%%ect @. Assigning extension met&ods C. Assisting extension or.ers and %armers to ac&ieve ,etter programme and planning or.ers in modi%$ing and improving .no n extension teac&ing

6. Coordinating t&e duties o% extension 2SMSs4 and ot&er extension sta%%. ;. Supervisors assist t&roug& evaluation

or.ers

it& t&ose o% su,-ect matter spectialists

extension or.ers to determine progress and accomplis& muc&

F. Supervisors motivate and arrange opportunities %or pro%essional improvement o% extension agents ver$ o%ten ,ecause t&e %ormal in/service training is no longer in practice. E. Supervisors assist in coordinating or planning o% relevant researc& on extension pro,lems 2:; Conclusion At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou ere exposed to t&e concept o% supervision, and t&e conditions ere also taug&t t&e various %actors a%%ecting

necessar$ %or e%%ective supervision. 8ou

supervision and t&e 7ualities o% a good supervision =:; Summary Supervision as de%ined as t&e process ,$ &ic& or.ers are &elped ,$ designated o%%icers to ac&ieve greater competence, &eig&ts, and gro t&s in t&e individual. "nl$ superior o%%icer2s4 can supervise su,ordinates. +t is rare %or a group o% peers to ,e supervised ,$ one o% t&em. and evaluating, t&e supervisor must &ave clear it& 6HSA#8*J=#JQ #="AJ *N0"H1A 1A0*J*=N )D!*NR S"DNN*NR =#RDN*U*NR RH*1*NR 0=HNJA""*NR coordinating, motivating, delegating understanding o% t&e o,-ectives o% t&e organi6ation, and &is aut&orit$ ,ac.ed up

responsi,ilit$ and must ,e democratic in order to ,e success%ul. A good supervisor s&ould also ,e %irm, diligent, intelligent, decisive, not ,oss$, %air to all, etc. A list o% t&e 7ualities o% a good supervisor as provided. >:; Tutor !arked Assignment D D D D De%ine t&e concept o% supervision: W&$ is it necessar$ to stud$ supervision: W&at are t&e 7ualities o% a good supervisor: W&at are t&e %actors a%%ecting supervision:

@:; *e7erences Aromolaran, E. A 23>>>4' 0undamentals o% Management. *agos' 9J* )rinters, p.1C@ Da&ama, ". ). 21E;64' Extension and =ural Wel%are. A1=A B <, +ndia'=am )rasad and Sons, "gun,ameru, 9. ". 23>>14' )ractical Agricultural Administration. *agos' Luntel )u,lis&ing Aouse, "gun,ameru, 9. ". 23>>@4' "rgani6ational D$namics. +,adan' Spectrum 9oo.s, *td, p.C;;. Eremie, S. W., 21EE34' )aper )resented at t&e "rientation Wor.s&op %or Senior Sta%% o% Laduna State AD) 2LAD)4 Mineo,

!odule . (rinci6les/ Guidelines and Theories o7 $4tension Organi8ation #nit 1 9asic principle and guidelines o% extension organisation #nit 3 "rganisational Structure #nit < T&eories o% Agricultural Extension "rganisation nit % &asic 6rinci6le and guidelines o7 e4tension organisation CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 Concepts o% Extension "rgani6ation <.3 1uidelines o% Extension "rgani6ation. <.< Criteria %or Departmentali6ation in Extension "rgani6ation. <.@ )rinciples o% Extension "rgani6ation @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings %:; Introduction An organi6ation is t&e %ormal structure o% aut&orit$ t&roug& &ic& or.s o% su,/division are

arranged, de%ined, coordinated and executed to ac&ieve t&eir o,-ectives. Anot&er sc&ool o% t&oug&t de%ined organi6ation as a com,ination o% t&e necessar$ &uman ,eings, materials, tools, e7uipment, or.ing space and apparatus ,roug&t toget&er in a s$stematic and e%%ective

coordination to accomplis& some desired o,-ectives 2Da&ama, 1E;64.

0rom t&e a,ove,

organi6ation implies an esta,lis&ment consisting o% people o% di%%erent cadres, eac& carr$ing out L*J =# LA# =ON D0W*8*W*AJ J= WLDW WLA R#=HSQJ =EMA0W*8AJ D#A DWWD*NA1 ,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to D D D D explain t&e Concept o% extension organisation. enumerate t&e guidelines o% extension organi6ation and management state t&e criteria %or Departmentali6ation in Extension "rganisation State t&e principle o% extension organi6ation

.:; !ain Content .:% Conce6ts o7 $4tension Organi8ation Extension organi6ation means &o t&e agenc$ or department &ic& is responsi,le %or extension %unction organi6es itsel% %or per%orming t&eir tas.. An extension programme administrator can ,e de%ined as t&e person &o is vested it& %ormal aut&orit$ over an organi6ation or one o% its su, units. Ae or s&e &as status t&at leads to various interpersonal relations, and %rom t&is comes access to in%ormation. +n%ormation, in turn, ena,les t&e manager to devise strategies, ma.e decisions, and implement action 2Mint6,erg, 1EFF4. "rgani6ation can also ,e de%ined as t&e rational assessment o% a situation and t&e s$stematic selection o% goals and purposes5 t&e s$stematic development o% strategies to ac&ieve t&ese goals5 t&e mars&alling o% t&e re7uired resources, t&e rational design, organi6ation, direction, and control o% t&e activities re7uired to attain t&e selected procedures 2Mc!eil I Clemmer, 1EFF4. Managers t$picall$ engage in a large num,er o% discrete activities eac& da$, and t&e average num,er o% activities appears to increase at lo er levels o% management. T&e activities, &o ever, are usuall$ ver$ ,rie% in duration 2Mint6,erg, 1E;<4.

To carr$ out t&eir responsi,ilities, managers need to o,tain recent, relevant in%ormation t&at exists in ,oo.s, -ournals, and peopleKs &eads &o are idel$ scattered it&in and outside t&e organi6ation. T&e$ &ave to ma.e decisions ,ased on in%ormation t&at is ,ot& over &elming and incomplete. +n addition, managers need to get cooperation %rom su,ordinates, peers, superiors, and people over &om t&e$ ma$ &ave no %ormal aut&orit$. 0actors t&at a%%ect managers include level o% management, si6e o% t&e organi6ational unit, %unction o% t&e unit, lateral interdependence, crisis conditions, and stage in t&e organi6ational li%e c$cle. Despite all t&ese demands and constraints, managers do &ave some alternatives. T&e$ &ave a c&oice in &at aspects o% t&e -o, to emp&asi6e and &o to allocate t&eir time. 1enerall$ managers are engaged in %our t$pes o% activities' 14 ,uilding and maintaining relations&ips, 234 getting and giving in%ormation, 2<4 in%luencing people, and 2@4 decision ma.ing. Managing people e%%ectivel$ in extension programmes is a s.ill t&at re7uires constant planning and development. Extension organi6ation is also concerned it& t&e optimum attainment o% organi6ational goals and o,-ectives it& and t&roug& ot&er people. Extension management organi6ations are c&aracteri6ed ,$ man$ strategies, ide spans o% control, democrac$, and autonom$. T&eir management practices cannot ,e reduced to one standard set o% operating guidelines t&at ill or. %or all organi6ations continuall$. Ao ever, all managers o% pro%essional organi6ations %ace t&e same c&allenge' to manage oneKs time, o,-ectives, and resources in order to accomplis& tas.s and implement ideas 2Waldron, 1EE@4. Managers o% extension organi6ations are pain%ull$ a are o% t&e need %or revision and development o% t&e ne s.ill sets &eld ,$ toda$Ks &ig& per%ormers. +% c&ange is not &andled correctl$, it can ,e more devastating t&an ever ,e%ore. Aig& per%ormers re%lect, discover, assess, and act. T&e$ .no t&at a ne %ocus on connecting t&e &eads, &earts, and &ands o% people in t&eir organi6ation is necessar$. Astute managers .no &at needs to ,e done ,ut struggle it& &o to do it. Nuite o%ten t&e$ pre%er to consider t&emselves as teac&ers or communicators rat&er t&an managers. T&is results in under/utili6ation o% t&e increasing amount o% literature on management t&eor$ and practice. T&e root o% t&e pro,lem is implementation. T&e$ must learn &o to motivate ot&ers and ,uild an e%%icient team. More %ormall$ de%ined, management is t&e process ,$ &ic& people, tec&nolog$, -o, tas.s, and ot&er resources are com,ined and

coordinated so as to e%%ectivel$ ac&ieve organi6ational o,-ectives. A process or %unction is a group o% related activities contri,uting to a larger action. .:, Guidelines o7 $4tension Organi8ation

T&e procedures ,$ &ic& Management %unctions are ,ased on a common p&ilosop&$ and approac& t&at center on t&e developing and clari%$ing mission, policies, and o,-ectives o% t&e agenc$ or organi6ation5 esta,lis&ing %ormal and in%ormal organi6ational structures as a means o% delegating aut&orit$ and s&aring responsi,ilities5 Setting priorities and revie ing and revising o,-ectives in terms o% c&anging demands5 Maintaining e%%ective communications it&in t&e or.ing group, it& ot&er groups, and it& t&e larger communit$5 Selecting, motivating, training, and appraising sta%% 5 Securing %unds and managing ,udgets5 evaluating accomplis&ments and ,eing accounta,le to sta%%, t&e larger enterprise, and to t&e communit$ at large 2Waldron, 1EE@,4. T&e Extension organi6ation %unctions listed a,ove can ,e categori6ed ,$ using t&e acron$m )"SDC"=9 29onoma I Slevin, 1E;F, %rom 1ulic. I #r ic., 1ECE4' D (lanning: outlining p&ilosop&$, polic$, o,-ectives, and resultant t&ings to ,e accomplis&ed, and t&e tec&ni7ues %or accomplis&ment D Organi8ing: esta,lis&ing structures and s$stems t&roug& &ic& activities are arranged, de%ined, and coordinated in terms o% some speci%ic o,-ectives D Sta77ing: %ul%illing t&e personnel %unction, &ic& includes selecting and training sta%% and maintaining %avora,le or. conditions: D "irecting: ma.ing decisions, em,od$ing decisions in instructions, and serving as t&e leader o% t&e enterprise D Coordinating: interrelating t&e various parts o% t&e or. D *e6orting: .eeping t&ose to &om $ou are responsi,le, including ,ot& sta%% and pu,lic, in%ormed D &udgeting: ma.ing %inancial plans, maintaining accounting and management control o% revenue, and .eeping costs in line it& o,-ectives

%: (lanning )lanning is t&e .e$ management %unction o% an$ extension or.er. +t is t&e process o% determining in advance &at s&ould ,e accomplis&ed, &en, ,$ &om, &o , and at &at cost. =egardless o% &et&er it is planning long/term program priorities or planning a t o/&our meeting, t&e planning aspect o% management is t&e ma-or contri,utor to success and productivit$. Stated simpl$, G+% $ou donKt .no &ere $ou are going, t&en $ou onKt .no &en $ou &ave arrived[G )lanning is t&e process o% determining t&e organi6ationKs goals and o,-ectives and ma.ing t&e provisions %or t&eir ac&ievement. +t involves c&oosing a course o% action %rom availa,le alternatives. )lanning is t&e process o% determining organi6ational aims, developing premises a,out t&e current environment, selecting t&e course o% action, initiating activities re7uired to trans%orm plans into action, and evaluating t&e outcome. T&e t$pes o% planning t&at managers engage in ill depend on t&eir level in t&e organi6ation and on t&e si6e and t$pe o% t&e organi6ation. 1enerall$ t&ere are %our ma-or t$pes o% planning exercises' strategic, tactical, contingenc$, and managerial. Strategic planning involves determining organi6ational goals and &o to ac&ieve t&em. T&is usuall$ occurs at t&e top management level. Tactical planning is concerned it& implementing t&e strategic plans and involves middle and lo er management. Contingenc$ planning anticipates possi,le pro,lems or c&anges t&at ma$ occur in t&e %uture and prepares to deal it& t&em e%%ectivel$ as t&e$ arise 2Mars&all, 1EE34. Managerial planning is usuall$ considered as microlevel planning. +t &elps in com,ining resources to %ul%il t&e overall o,-ectives o% t&e extension organi6ation. A needs assessment ma$ initiate a need %or developing a plan. T&e planning process ,egins it& t&e creation o% a p&ilosop&$ t&at consists o% statements descri,ing t&e values, ,elie%s, and attitudes o% t&e organi6ation. +ts mission statement is a proclamation o% its purpose or reason %or ,eing. A%ter t&e p&ilosop&$ and mission statements &ave ,een esta,lis&ed, various goals and o,-ectives are de%ined. 1oals are usuall$ general statements t&at pro-ect &at is to ,e accomplis&ed in t&e %uture. An o,-ective is a concrete statement descri,ing a speci%ic action. )olicies are predetermined guides to decision ma.ing5 t&e$ esta,lis& ,oundaries or limits it&in &ic& action ma$ ,e ta.en. Managers are related to polic$ %ormation in t o a$s. 0irst, t&e$ pla$ a crucial role in implementing organi6ational policies t&at &ave ,een esta,lis&ed ,$ &ig&er

management. Second, t&e$ create policies it&in t&eir departments as guides %or t&eir o n or. groups. )rocedures outline t&e series o% steps to ,e %ollo ed &en carr$ing out a designed polic$ or ta.ing a particular course o% action. =ules are used to provide %inal and de%inite instruction. #suall$ t&e$ are in%lexi,le. )lanning is designing t&e %uture, anticipating pro,lems, and imagining success. +n s&ort, planning is essential %or an$one &o ants to survive. T&e %unctions o% organi6ing, leading, sta%%ing, and ,udgeting are means o% carr$ing out t&e decisions o% planning. Ever$one is a planner / a planner o% meals, o% or. time, "% vacations, o% %amilies. 0ormal planning, &o ever, distinguis&es managers %rom non/managers, e%%ective managers %rom ine%%ective managers. 0ormal planning %orces managers to t&in. o% t&e %uture, to set priorities, to encourage creativit$, to articulate clear o,-ectives, and to %orecast t&e %uture in terms o% anticipated pro,lems and political realities. The 7ollowing are ty6es o7 6lanning a4 #ong3*ange (lanning *ong/range planning is vitall$ important in t&at it %ocuses attention on crucial %uture issues &ic& are vitall$ important to t&e organi6ation. +t involves stud$ing societal trends and issues, surve$ing current and anticipated learnersK needs, and ,eing a are o% long/term researc& directions and c&anges in tec&nolog$. Man$ extension or.ers ma$ t&in. t&at suc& management is ,e$ond t&eir level o% aut&orit$, control, or involvement. T&e$ ma$ %eel t&at suc& management is t&e prerogative o% t&e director, t&e deput$ minister, or t&e president. Ao ever, &ile senior levels o% management must ,e involved, t&ose &o implement t&e o,-ectives resulting %rom long/range planning s&ould also ,e involved. ,4 Strategic (lanning Strategic planning &as ,een de%ined as t&at &ic& &as to do it& determining t&e ,asic o,-ectives o% an organi6ation and allocating resources to t&eir accomplis&ment. A strateg$ determines t&e direction in &ic& an organi6ation needs to move to %ul%ill its mission. A strategic plan acts as a road map %or carr$ing out t&e strateg$ and ac&ieving long/term results. "ccasionall$ a large gap exists ,et een t&e strategic plan and real results. To ,oost organi6ational per%ormance, people must ,e a .e$ part o% t&e strateg$. A stronger, more capa,le and e%%icient organi6ation can arise ,$ de%ining &o its mem,ers

can support t&e overall strateg$ Strategic planning is di%%erent %rom long/term planning. *ong/range planning ,uilds on current goals and practices and proposes modi%ications %or t&e %uture. Strategic planning, &o ever, considers c&anges or anticipated c&anges in t&e environment t&at suggest more radical moves a a$ %rom current practices. W&en doing strategic planning, t&e organi6ation s&ould emp&asi6e team planning. 9$ involving t&ose a%%ected ,$ t&e plan, t&e manger ,uilds an organi6ation ide understanding and commitment to t&e strategic plan 20lemming, 1EFE4. T&e elements o% strategic plans include'\ "rgani6ation mission statement B W&at Strategic anal$sis B W&$ Strategic %ormulation B W&ere *ong/term o,-ectives implementation / W&en and Ao "perational plans / W&en and Ao C&anges are essential to ,etter position t&e extension organi6ation and %ocus on client needs and moving %or ard in rural development and sustaina,ilit$ programmes. T&e strengt& and resilience o% t&e traditional rural and %arm population and t&e trend to ards a decentrali6ed societ$ it& more and more ur,anites moving to t&e countr$ suggest t&at success%ul rural communities ill depend on peopleKs a,ilit$ to c&ange, to adapt, and to or. to ard a ,etter %uture. +n t&e 1EE>s, %acilitating %armer participation is a ma-or extension activit$ 2C&am,ers, 1EE<4. =eorgani6ation provides a %rame or. %or longer/term commitment to rural development. "rgani6ations and su, units are ,eing encouraged to put or. teams in place to ensure t&at eac& sector integrates sta%% and services into a co&esive, %ocused ,usiness unit. Consultation and participation are ,elieved to ,e essential %or t&e success%ul development and implementation o% organi6ational goals and o,-ectives. Eac& or. team is as.ed to develop an e%%ective process %or discussion o% ma-or c&allenges and opportunities %acing t&e organi6ation, i% possi,le, over t&e next decade. #pdated strategic plans are t&en developed. T&ese plans %orm t&e %rame or. %or %ocusing organi6ational resources on t&e most strategic areas ,$ using a staged approac&. #pdated plans are t&en implemented ,$ or. teams at all levels o% management. Wor./team o,-ectives include'

1. +nvolving all levels o% sta%% in consultation. 3. Designing and implementing a process to develop/goals and o,-ectives %or t&e organi6ation and unit5 a strategic process %or t&e next %ive to ten $ears. <. De%ining and clari%$ing organi6ational structures and identi%$ing %unctions, customers, and service deliver$ models @. +denti%$ing c&anges and staged approac&es needed to move %rom t&e current situation to &at ill ,e re7uired over t&e next t&ree to %ive $ears C. +denti%$ing and recommending priorities %or polic$ and programme development 6. +ncorporating goals %or expenditure reduction, service 7ualit$ improvement, or.%orce management, accounta,ilit$, tec&nolog$, and ,usiness process improvement ;. Stating t&e start date and %irst report date

c4 !anagerial (lanning +% long/range planning can ,e lin.ed to Gmacro,G t&en managerial planning can ,e lin.ed to Gmicro.G Managerial planning is t&e implementing o% t&e strategic plan5 it is t&e com,ining o% resources to %ul%il t&e overall o,-ectives and missions o% t&e organi6ation. Managerial planning %ocuses on t&e activit$ o% a speci%ic unit and involves &at needs to ,e done, ,$ &om, &en, and at &at cost. T&e strategic planning process serves as an um,rella over t&e management planning process &ic& deals it& t&e %ollo ing' 1. Esta,lis&ing individual goals and o,-ectives 3. 0orecasting results and potential pro,lems <. Developing alternatives, selecting alternatives, and setting priorities. @. C. 6. ;. F. Developing associated ,udgets Esta,lis&ing personnel inputs Esta,lis&ing speci%ic policies related to t&e unit Allocating p&$sical resources Appraising &o t&e management unit &as succeeded in meeting its goals and o,-ectives

d4 "ecision making Closel$ related to ,ot& strategic and managerial planning is t&e process o% decision ma.ing. Decisions need to ,e made isel$ under var$ing circumstances it& di%%erent amounts o% .no ledge a,out alternatives and conse7uences. Decisions are concerned it& t&e %uture and ma$ ,e made under conditions o% certaint$, conditions o% ris., or conditions o% uncertaint$. #nder conditions o% certaint$, managers &ave su%%icient or complete in%ormation and .no exactl$ &at t&e outcome o% t&eir decision ill ,e. Managers are usuall$ %aced it& a less certain environment. T&e$ ma$, &o ever, .no t&e pro,a,ilities and possi,le outcomes o% t&eir decisions, even t&oug& t&e$ cannot guarantee &ic& particular outcome ill actuall$ occur. +n suc& cases, t&ere is a ris. associated it& t&e decision and t&ere is a possi,ilit$ o% an adverse outcome. Most managerial decisions involve var$ing degrees o% uncertaint$. T&is is a .e$ part o% a managerKs activities. T&e$ must decide &at goals or opportunities ill ,e pursued, &at resources are availa,le, and &o ill per%orm designated tas.s. Decision ma.ing, in t&is context, is more t&an ma.ing up $our mind. +t consists o% several steps' Step 1' +denti%$ing and de%ining t&e pro,lem Step 3' Developing various alternatives Step <' Evaluating alternatives Step @' Selecting an alternative Step C' +mplementing t&e alternative Step 6' Evaluating ,ot& t&e actual decision and t&e decision/ma.ing process Managers &ave to var$ t&eir approac& to decision ma.ing, depending on t&e particular situation and person or people involved. T&e a,ove steps are not a %ixed procedure, &o ever5 t&e$ are more a process, a s$stem, or an approac&. T&e$ %orce one to reali6e t&at t&ere are usuall$ alternatives and t&at one s&ould not ,e pressured into ma.ing a 7uic. decision it&out loo.ing at t&e implications. T&is is especiall$ true in t&e case o% nonprogrammed decisions 2complex and novel decisions4 as contrasted to programmed decisions 2t&ose t&at are repetitive and routine4.

"ne o% t&e most di%%icult steps in t&e decision/ma.ing process is to develop t&e various alternatives. 0or example, i% one is involved in planning a or.s&op, one o% t&e most crucial decisions is t&e time, %ormat, and location o% t&e or.s&op. +n t&is case, oneKs experience as ell as oneKs understanding o% t&e clientele group greatl$ in%luence t&e selecting o% alternatives. "%ten decision trees can &elp a manager ma.e a series o% decisions involving uncertain events. A decision tree is a device t&at displa$s grap&icall$ t&e various actions t&at a manager can ta.e and s&o s &o t&ose actions ill relate to t&e attainment o% %uture events. Eac& ,ranc& represents an alternative course o% action. To ma.e a decision tree it is necessar$ to' 214 identi%$ t&e points o% decision and alternatives availa,le at eac& point, 234 identi%$ t&e points o% uncertaint$ and t&e t$pe or range o% alternative outcomes at eac& point, 2<4 estimate t&e pro,a,ilities o% di%%erent events or results o% action and t&e costs and gains associated it& t&ese actions, and 2@4 anal$se t&e alternative values to c&oose t&e next course o% action. +n extension, t&e decision/ma.ing process is o%ten a group process. Conse7uentl$, t&e manager must appl$ principles o% democratic decision ma.ing since t&ose involved in t&e decision/ ma.ing process ill %eel an interest in t&e results o% t&e process. +n suc& a case, t&e manager ,ecomes more o% a coac&, .no ing t&e mission, o,-ectives, and t&e process, ,ut involving t&ose pla$ers &o must &elp in actuall$ ac&ieving t&e goal. T&e e%%ective manager t&us perceives &imsel% or &ersel% as t&e controller o% t&e decision/ma.ing process rat&er t&an as t&e ma.er o% t&e organi6ationKs or agenc$Ks decision. As Druc.er 21E664 &as pointed out, GT&e most common source o% mista.es in management decision/ma.ing is t&e emp&asis on %inding t&e rig&t ans er rat&er t&an t&e rig&t 7uestion. +t is not enoug& to %ind t&e rig&t ans er5 more important and more di%%icult is to ma.e e%%ective t&e course o% action decided upon. Management is not concerned it& .no ledge %or its o n sa.e5 it is concerned it& per%ormance.G ,: Organi8ing "nce strategic planning and management planning are implemented, organi6ing to get t&e -o, done is next. "rgani6ing is t&e process o% esta,lis&ing %ormal relations&ips among people and resources in order to reac& speci%ic goals and o,-ectives. T&e process, according to Mars&all 21EE34, is ,ased on %ive organi6ing principles' unit$ o% command, span o% control, delegation o% aut&orit$, &omogeneous assignment, and %lexi,ilit$. T&e organi6ing process involves %ive steps' determining t&e tas.s to ,e accomplis&ed, su,dividing ma-or tas.s into individual activities,

assigning speci%ic activities to individuals, providing necessar$ resources, and designing t&e organi6ational relations&ips needed. +n an$ organi6ing e%%ort, managers must c&oose an appropriate structure. "rgani6ational structure is represented primaril$ ,$ an organi6ational c&art. +t speci%ies &o is to do &at and &o it ill ,e accomplis&ed. T&e organi6ing stage provides directions %or ac&ieving t&e planning results. T&ere are several aspects to organi6ing / time, structures, c&ain o% command, degree o% centrali6ation, and role speci%ication. D Time !anagement

Managers must decide &at to do, &en, &ere, &o , and ,$ or it& &om. Time management is t&e process o% monitoring, anal$sing, and revising $our plan until it or.s. E%%ective planning is a s.ill t&at ta.es time to ac7uire. +t is di%%icult to implement ,ecause $ou &ave no one ,ut $oursel% to monitor &o e%%ectivel$ $ou are using $our time. Ever$one &as t&e same amount o% time / 16F &ours per ee.. Ao t&at time is managed is up to t&e discretion o% eac& person. "ne extension agent -o.ed t&at &e as so ,us$ ta.ing time management courses, &e &ad little time le%t to manage. E%%ective time management involves p&ilosop&$ and common sense. Time is not a rene a,le resource / once it is gone, it is gone %orever. To %unction e%%ectivel$, managers &ave to ,e a,le to prioriti6e and replace less important tas.s it& more important ones. Most o% us or. %or pa$ %or onl$ 1,F>> &ours per $ear. E%%ective and e%%icient time management encourages us to ac&ieve and ,e productive &ile developing good emplo$ee relations. 1oals s&ould ,e speci%ic, measura,le, attaina,le, realistic, and timel$ 2SMA=T4. "nce t&e goals are .no n, it is important to t&in. a,out &o t&e$ can ,e ac&ieved. E%%ective time managers %acilitate planning ,$ listing tas.s t&at re7uire t&eir attention, estimating t&e amount o% time eac& tas. ill ta.e to complete, and prioriti6ing t&em / deciding &at tas.s are most important to do %irst and num,ering t&em in ran. order. +t is essential to .no &at is crucial and &at is not. Some activities &ave relativel$ lo levels o% importance in completing a given tas.. 9$ planning a&ead, managers can decide &at to do and ta.e t&e time to come up it& ideas on &o to do it. T&e$ can ma.e t&eir o n list o% steps to eliminate or reduce time asters. Maintaining a dail$ GTo DoG list it& priorities attac&ed and maintaining a dail$, ee.l$, mont&l$, and $earl$ diar$ is &elp%ul. Managers s&ould anal$se t&eir dail$ activities to see &ic& are directed to ard results

and &ic& are simpl$ activities. T&e$ could learn &o to manage meetings more e%%ectivel$ since considera,le management time seems to ,e asted in non/ directional %ormal meetings. .: Sta77ing A .e$ aspect o% managing an adult and extension enterprise is to %ind t&e rig&t people %or t&e rig&t -o,s. Muc& o% oneKs success as a manager is related to appropriate &uman resource planning, regardless o% &et&er it is t&e &iring o% a secretar$ or an instructor %or a particular or./s&op. T&e sta%%ing %unction consists o% several elements' 1. Auman resource planning / &o man$ sta%% resources, it& &at ,ac.grounds, and at &at cost can ,e considered %or o,-ectives implementation: 3. =ecruitment / &o does one proceed to %ind t&e person it& t&e appropriate mix o% education, experience, &uman relations s.ills, communications s.ills, and motivation: An important component o% t&e recruitment process is riting t&e -o, description. T&e description must ,e exact and speci%ic ,ut su%%icientl$ general to solicit interest among potential candidates. T&e nature o% t&e -o,, scope, aut&orit$, and responsi,ilities %orm t&e core o% t&e -o, description. +ndications o% pre%erred educational ,ac.ground as ell as salar$ range must also ,e included. +n times o% &ig& unemplo$ment, one can al a$s expect several do6en applications %or an$ one opportunit$ %or emplo$ment. T&is leads to t&e next tas. o% sta%% selection. D Sta77 Selection

T&e process o% sta%% selection involves evaluating candidates t&roug& application %orms, curriculum vitae, and intervie s and c&oosing t&e ,est candidate %or t&e speci%ic -o, responsi,ilit$. "ne can even &ave a list o% criteria and a score s&eet %or eac& individual. Even t&en, success%ul &iring is o%ten a ver$ intuitive act and involves some degree o% ris.. As a means o% giving some structure and design to t&e sta%%ing process, t&e %ollo ing guidelines are use%ul 2dar., 1E;<4. Eac& -o, intervie s&ould ,e c&aracteri6ed ,$' 1. A clear de%inition o% t&e purpose o% t&e intervie 3. T&e presence o% a structure or general plan <. T&e use o% t&e interaction as a learning experience in a pleasant and stimulating atmosp&ere @. T&e creation and maintenance o% rapport ,et een t&e intervie er and intervie ee C. T&e esta,lis&ment o% mutual con%idence

6. =espect %or t&e intervie eeKs interest and individualit$ ,$ t&e intervie er ;. An e%%ort to put t&e intervie ee at ease F. T&e esta,lis&ment and maintenance o% good communication E. T&e illingness to treat &at is ,eing said in proper perspective 1>. T&e -ust treatment o% eac& intervie ee D Sta77 Orientation

T&is is t&e process o% %ormall$ introducing t&e selected individual to t&e particular unit, to colleagues, and to t&e organi6ation. T&e selected person s&ould ,e a are o% t&e mission and o,-ectives o% t&e unit, t&e nature o% responsi,ilities and level o% aut&orit$, t&e degree o% accounta,ilit$, and t&e s$stems and procedures %ollo ed to accomplis& t&e tas.s associated it& t&e -o,. A motivated individual ill simpl$ as. %or suc& t&ings as personnel manuals, administrative procedures &and,oo.s, and aims and o,-ectives statements. Suc& orientation tools s&ould ,e availa,le. 2: "irecting At one time t&ere as a management emp&asis on GdirectingG in t&e directorial 2autocratic4 sense, ,ut in recent times, t&e concept o% directing &as ,ecome more congruent it& leading t&an it& pus&ing. T&us toda$, directing is more related to leading and leaders&ip st$les. *eaders&ip in t&is context means t&e process &ere,$ a or. environment is created in &ic& people can do t&eir ,est or. and %eel a proprietar$ interest in producing a 7ualit$ product or service. Mc1regor 21E6>4 proposed t&at managers mig&t assume t&at emplo$ees are motivated in one o% t o a$s. Ais dic&otom$ as la,elled t&eor$ H and t&eor$ 8. T&eor$ H relates to traditional management &ere,$ managers assume t&at t&e$ must control, coerce, and t&reaten in order to motivate emplo$ees. T&eor$ 8, t&e opposite o% t&eor$ H, suggests t&at emplo$ees ant to do c&allenging or., t&at t&e$ are interested in accepting responsi,ilit$, and t&at t&e$ are ,asicall$ creative and ant to ,e involved in polic$ development and o,-ective setting. Toda$, t&eories H and 8 donKt reall$ sound ver$ revolutionar$5 t&e pro,lem is t&at management st$les and emplo$ee motivation do not %it easil$ into t o t&eoretical la,els. As a result, additional t&eoretical la,els 2e.g., t&eor$ O4 are ,eing developed.

=: Coordinating T&is important stage consists o% interrelating t&e various parts o% t&e or.. +t involves coordinating t&e various -o, roles and responsi,ilities o% $oursel% and ot&er sta%%, o% $our unit and ot&er units it&in t&e same organi6ation, and o% $our unit it& t&e ,roader communit$. T&ere are t o %orms o% coordination' 214 vertical reporting to $our supervisor2s4 and to $our sta%%, and 234 &ori6ontal reporting to $our colleagues and $our management team. Adult and extension educators are usuall$ involved in ver$ complex organi6ations suc& as governments, colleges and universities, and ,oards o% education. 9ecause o% t&e si6e o% t&e organi6ation, t&e increasing demands %or pu,lic accounta,ilit$, t&e man$ government regulations and policies, t&e increasing competition among providers o% adult education opportunities, and t&e c&anges in tec&nolog$, it is essential t&at t&e coordinating role ,e given top priorit$. Ao , t&en, can e%%ective coordination ,e accomplis&ed: \ Coordination needs pro%essional, competent leaders&ip, a democratic st$le t&at leads to trust, open communication, and ease o% in%ormation %lo . \ Coordination needs a constant de%inition and communication o% mission and o,-ectives t&at are understood ,$ all managers. \ Coordination, to ,e e%%ective, must &ave open, t o/ a$ c&annels o% communication. \ Coordination involves a s&aring atmosp&ere as ell as commonl$ agreed on direction. 9ecause e%%ective coordination re7uires cooperation and communication, t&e meeting tec&ni7ue is still t&e most e%%ective %ormat %or assuring t&e interrelations&ips among t&e various -o, responsi,ilities. +n recent $ears, %ormal s$stems o% communit$ coordination o% adult and extension education activities &ave ,een developed. Suc& councils o% continuing education provide more t&an -ust a net or. o% or.ers ,ut in %act lead to discussions o% communit$ needs, agenc$ priorities, and an agreement as to &o is going to loo. a%ter &at. Suc& voluntar$ coordination does not eliminate competition5 it %ocuses on t&e multi a$ %lo o% in%ormation. >: *e6orting T&is %unction, closel$ related to t&e coordinating %unction, consists o% .eeping t&ose to &om $ou are responsi,le in%ormed as to &at is going on. +t is essential t&at competent managers .eep t&e in%ormation %lo ing, especiall$ in t&is age &en t&ere is so muc& in%ormation ,eing

transmitted in so man$ %orms. T&e reporting %unction is more t&an preparing an annual report, 7uoting statistics, and in%orming $our sta%% o% current developments. T&e reporting %unction is almost an evaluation %unction since it compares &o $ou are doing it& &at $ou set out to do. +t revie s $our o,-ectives and determines to &at extent $ou are meeting $our o,-ectives. +t consists o% more t&an course num,ers or annual statistics, ,ut relates programme direction, polic$ c&anges, re%inement in o,-ectives, and c&anges in structures and priorities. +t also uses t&e vertical and &ori6ontal %lo s o% in%ormation as presented previousl$. "ne o% t&e .e$ elements o% t&e reporting %unction is t&e annual report. Suc& a report gives $ou t&e opportunit$ to summari6e programmes, pro-ects, and activities and to provide statistics as ell. Suc& a report can ,e used as a pu,lic in%ormation document ,$ &aving it distri,uted to ot&er adult education agencies in t&e communit$, to $our senior levels o% management, to $our o n managers, to $our colleagues, and to t&e press. +n addition, it ill prove to ,e a valua,le document to satis%$ t&e re7uests $ou receive as.ing a,out $our programme activities. @: &udgeting T&is management %unction includes %iscal planning, accounting and revenue, and expense controls. 9udgeting re7uires speci%ic planning, a t&oroug& understanding o% o,-ectives and %uture programmes, a sixt& sense o% economic conditions and realities, and a &unc& %or predicting t&e unpredicta,le. +n man$ cases, an organi6ation speci%ies t&e ,udget s$stem ,eing used. +t could ,e ,ased on 214 &istorical data 2 &at $ou &ad last $ear it& variations %or t&e coming $ear45 234 >/,ased data &ere t&e ,udget is created and -usti%ied on a line/item ,asis according to programmes and priorities5 2<4 an M9" s$stem / management ,$ o,-ectives &ere,$ speci%ic o,-ectives are %unded5 and 2@4 a )E=T s$stem / programme revie and evaluation tec&ni7ue / &ere eac& programme is revie ed and assessed according to its contri,ution to speci%ic goals. T&ese are onl$ a %e o% t&e ,udgeting s$stems in use. Ao ever, t&e .e$ elements o% an$ ,udget s$stem consist o% 214 determining &at line items are necessar$ in terms o% o,-ectives5 234 in line it& policies, determining t&e %inancial amounts %or eac& line5 2<4 determining over&ead, surplus, and/or pro%it margins5 2@4 determining anticipated revenue %rom %ees, grants, gi%ts, contracts, etc.5 2C4 dra%ting a ,udget it& speci%ic amounts and -usti%ications5 and 264 discussing and ma.ing ad-ustments to produce a or.ing ,udget.

T&e ,udget t&en ,ecomes a guide &ic&, &o ever, ma$ al a$s ,e in a state o% c&ange. T&e ,udget process is not in a vertical somet&ing t&at one does onl$ once a $ear5 it is a continual process o% regular revie and possi,le revision. "ne s&ould al a$s ,e c&ec.ing to see &o one is doing compared it& &o one anticipated doing. 9udget management, t&en, consists o% t&ree parts' 214 ,udget determination / allocating revenue according to priorities and ,$ line items5 234 ,udget accounta,ilit$ / &o ell t&e anticipated ,udget matc&es realit$5 and 2<4 using a Y, > / notation in ans ering t&e 7uestions and ,$ placing t&e notations in t&e ,oxes on t&e c&art. +n t&is a$, one can get a picture o% t&e predominant t$pes o% management modes currentl$ ,eing used. W&ile t&is ma$ ,e use%ul in descri,ing &at is, it could ,e even more use%ul in descri,ing &at could ,e. +t is also use%ul in providing some clues as to possi,le areas o% role con%lict / t&e sc&olarl$ researc& model ould li.el$ collide it& t&e competent practitioner model 2Waldron, 1EE@a4. Structure is t&e ,asis %or man$ modern ,usiness organi6ations ,ecause e live in a structured societ$, alt&oug& t&e concept o% structural rigidit$ and &ierarc&$ is no ,eing c&allenged ,$ a more educated, creative, and intrinsicall$ motivated or.%orce. T&e structural approac& s&o s grap&icall$ t&at t&e organi6ation &as a distinct p&$sical s&ape or %orm provided ,$ an internal %orm. A competent manager in t&is s$stem is a,le to solve pro,lems, to %igure out &at needs to ,e done, and t&en enlist &atever support is needed to get it done. T&is approac& is %avored ,$ traditional, &ierarc&ical, -o,/speci%ic, uncreative organi6ations.

.:. Criteria 7or "e6artmentali8ation in $4tension Organi8ation Man$ organi6ations group -o,s in various a$s in di%%erent parts o% t&e organi6ation, ,ut t&e ,asis t&at is used at t&e &ig&est level pla$s a %undamental role in s&aping t&e organi6ation. T&ere are %our commonl$ used ,ases. I: )unctional "e6artmentali8ation: Ever$ organi6ation o% a given t$pe must per%orm certain -o,s in order do its or.. 0or example, .e$ %unctions o% a manu%acturing compan$ include production, purc&asing, mar.eting, accounting, and personnel. T&e %unctions o% a &ospital include surger$, ps$c&iatr$, nursing, &ouse.eeping, and ,illing. #sing suc& %unctions as t&e ,asis %or

structuring t&e organi6ation ma$, in some instances, &ave t&e advantage o% e%%icienc$. 1rouping -o,s t&at re7uire t&e same .no ledge, s.ills, and resources allo s t&em to ,e done e%%icientl$ and promotes t&e development o% greater expertise. A disadvantage o% %unctional groupings is t&at people it& t&e same s.ills and .no ledge ma$ develop a narro departmental %ocus and &ave di%%icult$ appreciating an$ ot&er vie o% &at is important to t&e organi6ation5 in t&is case, organi6ational goals ma$ ,e sacri%iced in %avor o% departmental goals. +n addition, coordination o% or. across %unctional ,oundaries can ,ecome a di%%icult management c&allenge, especiall$ as t&e organi6ation gro s in si6e and spreads to multiple geograp&ical locations. II: Geogra6hic "e6artmentali8ation. "rgani6ations t&at are spread over a ide area ma$ %ind advantages in organi6ing along geograp&ic lines so t&at all t&e activities per%ormed in a region are managed toget&er. +n a large organi6ation, simple p&$sical separation ma.es centrali6ed coordination more di%%icult. Also, important c&aracteristics o% a region ma$ ma.e it advantageous to promote a local %ocus. 0or example, mar.eting a product in Western Europe ma$ &ave di%%erent re7uirements t&an mar.eting t&e same product in Sout&east Asia. Companies t&at mar.et products glo,all$ sometimes adopt a geograp&ic structure. +n addition, experience gained in a regional division is o%ten excellent training %or management at &ig&er levels. III: (roduct "e6artmentali8ation: *arge, diversi%ied companies are o%ten organi6ed according to product. All t&e activities necessar$ to produce and mar.et a product or group o% similar products are grouped toget&er. +n suc& an arrangement, t&e top manager o% t&e product group t$picall$ &as considera,le autonom$ over t&e operation. T&e advantage o% t&is t$pe o% structure is t&at t&e personnel in t&e group can %ocus on t&e particular needs o% t&eir product line and ,ecome experts in its development, production, and distri,ution. A disadvantage, at least in terms o% larger organi6ations, is t&e duplication o% resources. Eac& product group re7uires most o% t&e %unctional areas suc& as %inance, mar.eting, production, and ot&er %unctions. T&e top leaders&ip o% t&e organi6ation must decide &o muc& redundanc$ it can a%%ord.

I-:

Customer5!arket "e6artmentali8ation: An organi6ation ma$ %ind it advantageous to organi6e according to t&e t$pes o% customers it serves. 0or example, a distri,ution compan$ t&at sells to consumers, government clients, large ,usinesses, and small ,usinesses ma$ decide to ,ase its primar$ divisions on t&ese di%%erent mar.ets. +ts personnel can t&en ,ecome pro%icient in meeting t&e needs o% t&ese di%%erent customers. +n t&e same a$, an organi6ation t&at provides services suc& as accounting or consulting ma$ group its personnel according to t&ese t$pes o% customers.

.:2 $4tension Organi8ation (rinci6les Ever$ "rgani6ation &as principles upon &ic& t&eir actions are accomplis&ed. T&ese are %oundational ,ases %or t&e conduct o% suc& activities. T&ere are man$ principles o% management. T&e$ are %lexi,le, not a,solute and must ,e usea,le regardless o% c&anging and special conditions. )rinciples in "rgani6ation are essential trut&s. T&e$ are &at are taug&t to ,e trut&s at a given time explaining relations&ips ,et een t o or more sets o% varia,le, usuall$ an independent varia,le and a dependent varia,le. )rinciple could ,e descriptive or predictive ,ut not prescriptive. T&e$ descri,e &o one varia,le relates to anot&er t&at is, &at all &appen &en t&ese varia,les interact. T&e$ do not prescri,e &at people s&ould do. T&e %ollo ing are some o% t&e commonl$ used principles' i. "ivision o7 work: T&is is t&e speciali6ation t&at economist consider necessar$ %or e%%icienc$ in t&e use o% la,our. Division o% or. stems %rom t&e assumption t&at ,rea.ing do n t&e or. into smaller units o% activities ill &elp individuals to ,etter %ocus on t&em as ell as ena,le t&em to develop more s.ill in doing suc& activities ii. Authority and *es6onsibility: Aut&orit$ is t&e po er in&erent in a position: +t is personal %actors. T&is is a mix o% intelligence, experience, moral ort&5 past service etc. =esponsi,ilit$ arises %rom aut&orit$. +t &as to do it& &at &e uses t&e aut&orit$ to accomplis&. Ever$ manager must understand t&at &e is not in position %or an$ ot&er reason ,ut to ensure compliance to rules and regulations vis a vis accomplis&ment o%

D 0=)E*NDW*=N =+ =++*0*D" +D0W=#J 1A#*8*NR +#=) WLA )DNDRA#ZJ S=J*W*=N DN1

organisational goals. Ae must &ence use t&e po er invested in t&at position maximall$.Discipline is a respect %or agreements, &ic& are directed at ac&ieving o,edience, application, energ$ and t&e out ard mar.s o% respect. Discipline re7uires good superiors at all levels impl$ing t&at t&ose &o ill discipline must &ave a &ig& moral -usti%ication %or doing so. Discipline also re7uires t&at rules and regulations o% t&e s$stem are made explicit %or all to .no .

iii.

nity o7 command: Emplo$ees s&ould receive orders %rom one superior o%%icer onl$. T&us, emplo$ees ill ,e directl$ responsi,le to one superior o%%icer per time. T&is ill &elp prevent clas& o% instructions.

iv.

nity o7 "irection: T&is principle in%orms t&at eac& group o% activities it& t&e same o,-ective must &ave one &ead and one plan. +t relates to t&e organi6ation o% t&e ,od$ 0=#S=#DWAZ#DWLA# t&an to personnel. T&oug& it does not mean all decision s&ould ,e made at t&e top.

v.

Subordination o7 Individual to General Interest: T&is re%ers to t&e su,mission o% individual agenda and plan to t&e interests and el%are o% t&e organi6ation. +ndividuals must ,e read$ to sacri%ice t&eir o n ideas and interest to t&at o% t&e organi6ation. T&is ill en&ance commitment and reduce inter%erence o% individual ,elie%s, perception etc it& organi6ational goals or ot&er or.mates. !evert&eless, &en t&e t o are %ound to di%%er, management must reconcile t&em.

vi.

*emuneration: T&is principle advocates t&at remuneration and met&ods o% pa$ment s&ould ,e %air and commensurate to services rendered. +t s&ould also a%%ect t&e maximum possi,le satis%action to emplo$ees and emplo$er.

vii.

Centrali8ation: T&is re%ers to t&e extent to &ic& aut&orit$ is concentrated or dispersed. Some agricultural extension organi6ations command more in%luence %rom management giving organisation a strong management st$le read$ to %ace emergencies. !evert&eless, t&is st$le reduces and in&i,its sta%% initiative and participation in management, &ic& could also &ave detrimental conse7uences.

Ao ever, individual circumstances ill determine t&e degree t&at ill give t&e ,est results. viii. Order: T&is principle ensures a place %or ever$t&ing and ever$one. T&ere must ,e materials and social order. )eople and resources must ,e organi6ed/ ell arranged to prevent c&aos. ix. 0uman *elations T&e principle o% &uman relations implies suc& terms as respect, courtes$, .indness, consideration, trust, open mindedness and sincerit$ in dealing it& people especiall$ %armers and researc&ers t&at Extensionists deal it& dail$. x. Adaptation T&is principle reminds t&e Extension manager to ,e adapta,le to t&e c&ange i% it must ensure its utilit$ or relevance to t&e societ$.

2:; Conclusion Extension "rgani6ations constantl$ encounter %orces driving t&em to c&ange. 9ecause c&ange means doing somet&ing ne and un.no n, t&e natural reaction is to resist it. Extension programme managers must overcome t&is resistance and adopt innovative and e%%icient management tec&ni7ues to remain &ig& per%ormers. T&e$ must improve t&eir personal, team, and cultural management s.ills i% t&e$ &ope to adapt t&emselves to a c&anging orld. "ver &elmingl$, current management isdom touts t&e goal o% getting decisions made as lo do n in t&e organi6ation as possi,le. T&e ,asic idea is t&at since people closest to t&e or. are li.el$ to .no t&e most a,out solving pro,lems in t&eir areas, t&e$ s&ould ,e involved in t&e decisions concerning t&ose areas. An added ,ene%it is t&at t&e$ are more motivated i% t&e$ &ave some control over t&eir or. and over t&eir o n destinies. T&ere is still considera,le discussion as to &et&er management is an art or a science, a p&ilosop&$ or a s.ill. !o one sustaina,le model can &olisticall$ encompass all management situations and environments.

=:; Summary +n t&is unit, $ou &ave ,een a,le to learn a,out Extension organi6ation &ic& is t&e &o agenc$ or department &ic& is responsi,le %or extension %unction organi6es itsel% %or per%orming t&eir tas.. Extension "rgani6ation guidelines &ic& is t&e procedures ,$ &ic& Management %unctions as also treated in details. 8ou also ere exposed to t&e criteria %or departmentali6ation in extension organi6ation. 0inall$, in t&is unit, $ou &ave ,een ta.en t&roug& t&e crucial principles o% organi6ation, &ic& include centrali6ation, order, remuneration, su,ordination o% general interest to individual interest and unit$ o% direction, division o% or., aut&orit$ and responsi,ilit$, discipline and unit$ o% command. >:; Tutor !arked Assignment D D D D D *ist t&e or./team o,-ectives strategic planning in extension management Ao can e%%ective coordination ,e accomplis&ed: Enumerate t&e se7uence o% steps in decision ma.ing in extension management: W&at are elements o% sta%%ing %unction in Agricultural extension management: Discuss %our principles o% management t&at $ou &ave learnt.

@:; *e7erences5)urther *eadings 9onoma, T, I Slevin, D. ). 21E;F4. Executive survival manual. 9oston' C9+ )u,lis&ing Compan$. 9u%ord, R. A., Rr., I 9edian, A. 1. 21EFF4. %anagement in extension. Ala,ama' Au,urn #niversit$ )ress, p. 36<. C&am,ers, =. 21EE<4. Challenging the profession , Frontiers for rural development. *ondon' +ntermediate Tec&nolog$ )u,lications, p. 6;. Clar., =.C. 21E;<4. 3asic concepts and theories of administration and supervision 2revised edition4. Madison' 0A"' +mproving Agricultural Extension /A =e%erence Manual

0lemming, ). 21EFE4. "trategic planning: Fact sheet. "ntario' Ministr$ o% Agriculture and 0ood, =ural "rgani6ations and Services 9ranc&. 1ulic., *., I #r ic., *. 21ECE4. Papers on the science of administration in extension. Madison' !ational Agricultural Extension Center %or Advanced Stud$, #niversit$ o% Wisconsin at Madison. !e man,W.A.' Administrative Action /T&e Tec&ni7ues o% "rgani6ation and Management Mars&all, ). 21EE34. +ntroduction to t&e management process. +n %anaging people at or!. 1uelp&' #niversit$ o% 1uelp& )ress. Mc1regor, D. 21E6>4. $he human side of enterprise. !e 8or.' Mc1ra /Aill. Mint6,erg. A. 21E;<4. $he nature of managerial or!. !e 8or.' Aarper I =o . Mint6,erg, A. 21EFF4. %int.berg on management. !e 8or.' 0ree )ress. Mc!eil, A., I Clemmer, R. 21EFF4. $he 4.-.P. strategy,leadership s!ills for exceptional performance. Toronto' Le$ )orter 9oo.s *td. Jan Den 9an, A.W, I Aa .ins, A. S. 21EFF4. Agricultural extension. !e 8or.' *ongman Scienti%ic and Tec&nical, p. 36F/3;1. Waldron, M.W. 21EE@a4. Models %or t&e %uture. +n M. 9roo.e I M. Waldron 2Eds.4, 5niversity continuing education in Canada: Current challenges and future opportunities. Toronto' T&ompson Educational )u,lis&ing. Waldron, M.W. 21EE@,4. Management and supervision. +n D. 9lac.,urn 2Ed.4, Extension handboo!: Processes and practices. Toronto' T&ompson Educational )u,lis&ing. Waldron, M.W. 21EF@4. Management o% adult and extension education. +n D. 9lac.,urn 2Ed.4, Extension handboo!. 1uelp&' #niversit$ o% 1uelp& )ress, p. 13;/1@>. Wei&ric&, A. and Loont6, A.' Management /A glo,al perspective

'IT , O*GA'ISATIO'A# ST* CT *$ O) $+T$'SIO' CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 Concepts o% "rgani6ational Structure <.3 #ses o% Extension "rgani6ation Structure <.< Models o% Agricultural Extension "rganisation. @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings %:; Introduction Ever$ organi6ation to ,e e%%ective must &ave an organi6ational structure. 9ut &at is an organi6ational structure: +t is t&e %orm o% structure t&at determines t&e &ierarc&$ and t&e reporting structure in t&e organi6ation. +t is also called organi6ational c&art. T&ere are di%%erent t$pes o% organi6ation structures t&at organi6ations %ollo depending on a variet$ o% t&ings5 it can ,e ,ased on geograp&ical regions, products or &ierarc&$. To put it simpl$ an organi6ational structure is a plan t&at s&o s t&e organi6ation o% or. and t&e s$stematic arrangement o% or..

,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to D explain t&e concepts o% organi6ational structure state

D D .:; !ain Content

identi%$ t$pes o% extension organi6ation structure state t&e uses o% extension organi6ation structure

.:% Conce6ts o7 Organi8ational Structure T&e term organi6ation &as ,een de%ined as a speci%ic con%iguration o% structure, people, tas. and tec&ni7ues. "tructure descri,es t&e %orm o% departments, &ierarc&$ and committees. +t in%luences t&e organi6ationKs e%%icienc$ and e%%ectiveness. People re%ers to t&e s.ills, attitudes and social interaction o% t&e mem,ers o% t&e organi6ation. $as! re%ers to t&e goals o% t&e individual and t&e organi6ation. $echni6ues re%ers to t&e met&odical approac& used to per%orm tas.s. "rgani6ational structure t&us re%ers to t&e institutional arrangements and mec&anisms %or mo,ili6ing &uman, p&$sical, %inancial and in%ormation resources at all levels o% t&e s$stem. "rgani6ation is also de%ined as a s$stem incorporating a set o% su,/s$stems. T&ese su,/s$stems are related group o% activities &ic& are per%ormed to meet t&e o,-ectives o% t&e organi6ation. "rgani6ation &as ,een vie ed di%%erentl$ ,$ numerous t&eorists. Ao ever, all de%initions usuall$ contain %ive common %eatures' D composed o% individuals and groups o% individuals5 D oriented to ards ac&ieving common goals5 D D D di%%erential %unctions5 intended rational coordination5 and continuit$ t&roug& time

Structure Structure is t&us an integral component o% t&e organi6ation. !$strom and Star,uc. 21EF14 &ave de%ined structure as t&e arrangement and interrelations&ip o% component parts and positions in an organi6ation. +t provides guidelines on' D D division o% or. into activities5 lin.age ,et een di%%erent %unctions5

D D D D

&ierarc&$5 aut&orit$ structure5 aut&orit$ relations&ips5 and coordination it& t&e environment.

"rgani6ational structure ma$ di%%er it&in t&e same organi6ation according to t&e particular re7uirements. Structure in an organi6ation &as t&ree components' D Complexity* re%erring to t&e degree to &ic& activities it&in t&e organi6ation are di%%erentiated. T&is di%%erentiation &as t&ree dimensions' / hori.ontal di%%erentiation re%ers to t&e degree o% di%%erentiation ,et een units ,ased on t&e orientation o% mem,ers, t&e nature o% tas.s t&e$ per%orm and t&eir education and training, / vertical di%%erentiation is c&aracteri6ed ,$ t&e num,er o% &ierarc&ical levels in t&e organi6ation, and / spatial di%%erentiation is t&e degree to &ic& t&e location o% t&e organi6ationKs o%%ices, %acilities and personnel are geograp&icall$ distri,uted5 D Formali.ation re%ers to t&e extent to &ic& -o,s it&in t&e organi6ation are speciali6ed. T&e degree o% %ormali6ation can var$ idel$ ,et een and it&in organi6ations5 D Centrali.ation re%ers to t&e degree to &ic& decision ma.ing is concentrated at one point in t&e organi6ation "esigning organi8ational structures An organi8ational structure consists o% activities suc& as tas. allocation, coordination and supervision, &ic& are directed to ards t&e ac&ievement o% organi6ational aims. +t can also ,e considered as t&e vie ing glass or perspective t&roug& &ic& individuals see t&eir organi6ation and its environment. W&en a or. group is ver$ small and %ace/to/%ace communication is %re7uent, %ormal structure ma$ ,e unnecessar$, ,ut in a larger organi6ation decisions &ave to ,e made a,out t&e delegation

o% various tas.s. T&us, procedures are esta,lis&ed t&at assign responsi,ilities %or various %unctions. +t is t&ese decisions t&at determine t&e organi6ational structure. An organi6ation can ,e structured in man$ di%%erent a$s, depending on t&eir o,-ectives. T&e structure o% an organi6ation ill determine t&e modes in &ic& it operates and per%orms. "rgani6ational structure allo s t&e expressed allocation o% responsi,ilities %or di%%erent %unctions and processes to di%%erent entities suc& as t&e ,ranc&, department, or.group and individual. "rgani6ational structure a%%ects organi6ational action in t o ,ig a$s. 0irst, it provides t&e %oundation on &ic& standard operating procedures and routines rest. Second, it determines &ic& individuals get to participate in &ic& decision/ma.ing processes, and t&us to &at extent WLA*# 8*AOJ JLDSA WLA =#RDN*UDW*=NQJ D0W*=NJ Some important considerations in designing an e%%ective organi6ational structure are' D Clarity T&e structure o% t&e organi6ation s&ould ,e suc& t&at t&ere is no con%usion a,out peopleKs goals, tas.s, st$le o% %unctioning, reporting relations&ip and sources o% in%ormation. D 5nderstanding T&e structure o% an organi6ation s&ould provide people it& a clear picture o% &o t&eir or. %its into t&e organi6ation. D De,centrali.ation T&e design o% an organi6ation s&ould compel discussions and decisions at t&e lo est possi,le level. D "tability and adaptability W&ile t&e organi6ational structure s&ould ,e adapta,le to environmental c&anges, it s&ould remain stead$ during un%avoura,le conditions .:, Ty6es o7 organi8ational structure T&e structure o% t&e organi6ation can ,e traditional 2,ureaucratic4 or modern 2organic4, according to needs. "rgani6ations can &ave simple to complex structures, depending upon organi6ational strategies, strategic decisions it&in t&e organi6ation and environmental complexities T&e traditional organi6ational structure is mec&anistic and c&aracteri6ed ,$ &ig& complexit$, &ig& %ormali6ation and centrali6ation. T&e classical organi6ation structure designs are simple,

centrali6ed, ,ureaucratic and divisionali6ed. Modern organi6ational designs include pro-ect organi6ation, matrix design and ad&ocrac$ design. i: Classical organi8ational structure +n a simple centrali6ed organi6ational structure, po er, decision ma.ing aut&orit$ and responsi,ilit$ %or goal setting are vested in one person at t&e top. T&is structure is usuall$ %ound in small and single/person/o ned organi6ations. T&e ,asic re7uirement o% a simple centrali6ed structure is t&at it &as onl$ one or t o %unctions, and a %e people &o are specialists in critical %unctions. T&e manager is generall$ an expert in all related areas o% %unctions and is responsi,le %or coordination. T&us, t&e organi6ation &as onl$ t o &ierarc&ical levels. Ao ever, t&is structure &as to ,ecome more complex %or gro t&, diversi%ication or ot&er reasons.

ii:

The &ureaucratic Organi8ation +n large organi6ations and under ell/de%ined conditions, organi6ation structure ma$ ,e ,ureaucratic. T&e essential elements o% a ,ureaucratic organi6ation are' D D t&e use o% standard met&ods and procedures %or per%orming or.5 and a &ig& degree o% control to ensure standard per%ormance

0igure 1 illustrates a ,ureaucratic organi6ational structure.

)igure %: &ureaucratic organi8ational structure T&ere are t o t$pes o% ,ureaucracies. T&e$ are standard and pro%essional ,ureaucrac$. Standard ,ureaucrac$ is ,ased on e%%icient per%ormance o% standardi6ed routine or.. )ro%essional ,ureaucrac$ depends upon e%%icient per%ormance o% standardi6ed ,ut complex or.. T&us, it re7uires a &ig&er level o% speciali6ed s.ills. T&e structure o% standard ,ureaucrac$ is ,ased on %unctions, large tec&nical sta%% and man$ mid/level managers. +n contrast, pro%essional ,ureaucrac$ &as %e mid/level managers

iii !odern organi8ation designs Modern approac&es to organi6ational design include pro-ect, matrix and ad&ocrac$ t$pes. (roject design )ro-ect design is also called t&e team or tas. %orce t$pe. +t is used to coordinate across departments %or temporar$, speci%ic and complex pro,lems &ic& cannot ,e &andled ,$ a single department. T&is design %acilitates inputs %rom di%%erent areas. Mem,ers %rom di%%erent departments and %unctional areas constitute a team, in &ic& ever$ mem,er provides expertise in t&eir area o% speciali6ation. Suc& a structure

generall$ coexists it& t&e more traditional %unctional designs. An illustration o% pro-ect t$pe o% t&e organi6ational structure is given in 0igure 3.

)igure ,: A (roject3ty6e organi8ation !atri4 Organi8ation T&e matrix design ,lends t o di%%erent t$pes o% designs, namel$ pro-ect and %unctional organi6ational designs. Since t&e pro-ect t$pe o% organi6ational design is not considered sta,le, t&e matrix design attempts to provide permanent management structures ,$ com,ining pro-ect and %unctional structures. T&e main advantage o% t&is com,ination is t&at t&e matrix design ,alances ,ot& tec&nical and pro-ect goals and allocates speci%ic responsi,ilities to ,ot&. Tec&nical goals re%er to &o ell or. is done, &ile pro-ect goals relate to issues suc& as t$pe o% or. to ,e done and its costs. 0igure < s&o s a ver$ simpli%ied matrix organi6ation design in &ic& department &eads &ave line aut&orit$ over specialists in t&eir departments 2vertical structure4. 0unctional specialists are assigned to given pro-ects 2&ori6ontal structure4. T&ese assignments are made at t&e ,eginning o% eac& pro-ect t&roug& colla,oration ,et een appropriate %unctional and pro-ect managers

Matrix organi6ations are not it&out t&eir pro,lems' D =esponsi,ilit$ and -urisdiction are not clearl$ de%ined in matrix organi6ations. 9osses are also not clearl$ identi%ied. Conse7uentl$, matrix organi6ations could lean to ards c&aos and disorder, and even lead to po er struggles unless po er ,et een line and pro-ect manager is s.il%ull$ ,alanced. D Wit&in t&e organi6ation, matrix organi6ations ma$ encourage t&e %ormation o% cli7ues since all decisions are made in a group. T&is could rein%orce group lo$alties and create inter/group con%licts. D Matrix organi6ations need more &uman resources, particularl$ during initial periods. T&is means &ig&er over&eads and increased expenditure. D Matrix organi6ation %orms are usuall$ %ound at t&e lo er level o% t&e organi6ation.

Adhocracy Ad&ocratic structures are also called K%ree %ormK or organic organi6ation structures. T&e$ stress managerial st$les &ic& do not depend upon %ormal structures. T&e$ are ell suited %or complex and non/standard or. and rel$ on in%ormal structures. An ad&ocratic structure is %lexi,le, adaptive and organi6ed around special pro,lems to ,e solved ,$ a group consisting o% experts it& diverse pro%essional s.ills. T&ese experts &ave decision ma.ing aut&orit$ and ot&er po ers. T&e ad&ocratic Structure is usuall$ small, it& an ill/de%ined &ierarc&$. Suc& a design is suita,le %or &ig& tec&nolog$ and &ig& gro t& organi6ations &ere an arranged and in%lexi,le structure ma$ ,e a &andicap. 0igure @ illustrates an ad&ocratic t$pe o% organi6ational structure.

)igure 2: Adhocratic organi8ational structure

Choosing the organi8ational structure "rgani6ation design is a continuous process. W&ile a simple design is needed %or simple strategies, complex designs are necessar$ &en organi6ational strategies involve complex interactions. T&e c&oice o% an$ t$pe o% organi6ational design s&ould ,e in consonance it& t&e organi6ational re7uirements, strateg$ and environment. T&e simple centrali6ed and ,ureaucratic organi6ational design ,ased on %unctional departmentation %ocuses on or. and is t&us ,etter suited %or getting or. done e%%icientl$. T&e team or pro-ect t$pe o% organi6ational design is appropriate &ere inputs %rom several %unctional areas are re7uired. T&e divisional structure is appropriate i% per%ormance and results are to ,e assessed. Matrix and ad&ocratic designs %ocus on coordination and relations&ip Sel73Assessment $4ercise W&at are some o% t&e important considerations in designing an e%%ective organi6ational structure:

.:. ses and -arious )orms o7 $4tension Organi8ation Structure #ses o% Extension "rgani6ation Structure' "rgani6ational structure &elps to de%ine and clari%$ lines o% responsi,ilit$ and aut&orit$ to %acilitate %ull mo,ili6ation o% talents, and to maintain e%%icient reporting s$stem. +t is also to identi%$ possi,le ,ottlenec.s situations. T&e structure s&ould ,e %lexi,le, modi%ia,le, explicit and su,-ect to continuous adaptation as conditions arrant. "t&er uses are' 2a4 +t is a use%ul tool %or presenting or representing t&e overall set/up o% t&e organi6ation to

an$,od$ or group at a glance. 2,4 +t descri,es positions, roles, %unctions and activities o% t&e sta%% and s&o s t&eir inter/

relations&ips in t&e organi6ation. 2c4 +t %acilitates control, coordination, delegation, motivation, sta%% appraisal, ,udget

preparation and execution and even general supervisor$ roles. 2d4 2e4 Communication c&annels are ell laid out ,ot& verticall$ and &ori6ontall$. +t leads to &ealt&$ rivalr$ ,ecause eac& unit can compare it& ot&ers and aspire to ,e

e7uall$ remunerated and productive. 2%4 +t can lead to rapid gro t& ,ecause some units can expand rapidl$ and t&us ,ecome

autonomous. 2g4 +t prevents overlaps or gaps in %unctioning

-arious )orms o7 *e6resenting Organi8ational Structure %: #adder or (yramid Ty6e T&is is t&e most popular s&ape o% representing organi6ation structure. Seniorit$ is %rom top to ,ottom. Most Senior "%%icer

Most Junior Officer

0igure1' *adder or )$ramid T$pe ,: Conical Ty6e

Members of Director

Management Senior Staff Intermediate Staff

Junior Staff

0igure 3' Conical T$pe T&e conical t$pe is li.e a cone divided into &ori6ontal segments. Eac& segment represents a particular department. Also seniorit$ is %rom top to ,ottom. .: (ie3Chart Ty6e +n t&is t$pe, t&e &ole circle represents t&e entire organi6ation. proportionall$ represents t&e class or department in t&e organi6ation. Eac& segment

Directors

Management

Senior Sta%%

+ntermediate Sta%% 0igure <' )ie/c&art T$pe +t is t&e comparative si6e o% di%%erent departments t&at is emp&asi6ed in t&is structure. Seniorit$ ould ,e determined %rom t&e la,els.

2:

The S6ore Ty6e Aere again, t&e &ole circle represents t&e organi6ation. T&e spores represent eac& unit or department

Management

Directorate Senior Staff

Intermediate Staff

Junior Staff

0igure 6.@' Spore T$pe

As in t&e case o% t&e )ie T$pe, it emp&asi6es proportions o% t&e di%%erent departments, &ile t&e la,els s&o t&e seniorit$.

=:

0ydra Ty6e T&is is similar to t&e ladder or p$ramid t$pe in t&at it s&o s &ierarc&ical position o% t&e entire sta%%, except t&at t&e most senior is at t&e extreme le%t &ile t&e most -unior is at t&e extreme rig&t.

DD

DD

] Director

DD ] Deput$ Director M ] Messenger or lo est sta%% mem,er 0igure 6.C' A$dra t$pe @.> Conclusion At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou &ave learnt t&e concepts o% organi6ational structure, t&e Jarious 0orms o% =epresenting "rgani6ational Structure and t&eir #ses.

=:; Summary "rgani6ational structure is a plan t&at s&o s t&e organi6ation o% or. and t&e s$stematic arrangement o% or.. T&e su,/s$stems o% organisational structure are related group o% activities &ic& are per%ormed to meet t&e o,-ectives o% t&e organi6ation. Structure re%ers to as t&e

arrangement and interrelations&ip o% component parts and positions in an organi6ation. +t provides guidelines to t&e institutional arrangements and mec&anisms %or mo,ili6ing &uman, p&$sical, and %inancial and in%ormation resources at all levels o% t&e s$stem. "rgani6ation &as t&ree components and t&e structure o% t&e organi6ation can ,e traditional 2,ureaucratic4 or modern 2organic4, according to needs. T&e c&oice o% an$ t$pe o% organi6ational design s&ould ,e in consonance it& t&e organi6ational re7uirements, strateg$ and environment. "rgani6ational structure &elps to de%ine and clari%$ lines o% responsi,ilit$ and aut&orit$ to %acilitate %ull mo,ili6ation o% talents, and to maintain e%%icient reporting s$stem T&ere are various %orms o% representing organi6ational structure. T&ese are ladder or p$ramid t$pe, conical t$pe, pie/c&art t$pe, t&e spore t$pe, and &$dra t$pe o% organi6ational structure.

>:; Tutor !arked Assignment De%ine t&e concept o% "rgani6ational structure and t&e role o% t&e su,/s$stems o% organisational structure W&at are t&e guidelines %or designing "rgani6ational structure: Descri,e t&e t&ree components and %unctions o% organi6ation structure: Wit& t&e aid o% diagrams enumerate t&e various %orms o% organi6ational structure: @:; *e7erences5)urther *eadings "gun,ameru, 9. ". 23>>@4' "rgani6ational D$namics. +,adan' Spectrum 9oo.s, *td, p.C;;. &ttp'// .,u66le.com/articles/t$pe/o%/organi6ational/structures.&tml

nit . !odels o7 Agricultural $4tension Organisation CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.> Main content <.1 Classical organi6ation t&eories <.3 Modern organi6ation t&eories @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings

%:; Introduction "rgani6ational t&eories &ic& explain t&e organi6ation and its structure can ,e ,roadl$ classi%ied as classical or modern. Classical organi6ation t&eories 2Ta$lor, 1E@;5 We,er, 1E@;5 0a$ol, 1E@E4 deal it& t&e %ormal organi6ation and concepts to increase management e%%icienc$. Ta$lor presented scienti%ic management concepts, We,er gave t&e ,ureaucratic approac&, and 0a$ol developed t&e administrative t&eor$ o% t&e organi6ation. T&e$ all contri,uted signi%icantl$ to t&e development o% classical organi6ation t&eor$.

.:; Objectives 9$ t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to ' De%ine t&e classical organi6ation t&eories Explain t&e modern organi6ation t&eories .:; !ain Content .:% Classical organi8ation theories TaylorEs scienti7ic management a66roach T&e scienti%ic management approac& developed ,$ Ta$lor is ,ased on t&e concept o% planning o% or. to ac&ieve e%%icienc$, standardi6ation, speciali6ation and simpli%ication. Ac.no ledging t&at t&e approac& to increased agricultural productivit$ as t&roug& mutual trust ,et een management and Extension or.ers, Ta$lor suggested t&at, to increase t&is level o% trust, D D D D t&e advantages o% productivit$ improvement s&ould go to Extension or.ers, p&$sical stress and anxiet$ s&ould ,e eliminated as muc& as possi,le, capa,ilities o% or.ers s&ould ,e developed t&roug& training, and t&e traditional K,ossK concept s&ould ,e eliminated.

Ta$lor developed t&e %ollo ing %our principles o% scienti%ic management %or improving Agricultural productivit$' D D D "cience* not rule,of,thumb "ld rules/o%/t&um, s&ould ,e supplanted ,$ a scienti%ic approac& to eac& element o% a personKs or.. "cientific selection of the or!er "rgani6ational mem,ers s&ould ,e selected ,ased on some anal$sis, and t&en trained, taug&t and developed. %anagement and labour cooperation rather than conflict Management s&ould colla,orate it& all organi6ational mem,ers so t&at all or. can ,e done in con%ormit$ it& t&e scienti%ic principles developed. D "cientific training of the or!er Wor.ers s&ould ,e trained ,$ experts, using scienti%ic met&ods.

WeberEs bureaucratic a66roach Considering t&e organi6ation as a segment o% ,roader societ$, We,er 21E@;4 ,ased t&e concept o% t&e %ormal organi6ation on t&e %ollo ing principles' D "tructure +n t&e organi6ation, positions s&ould ,e arranged in a &ierarc&$, eac& it& a particular, esta,lis&ed amount o% responsi,ilit$ and aut&orit$. D "peciali.ation Tas.s s&ould ,e distinguis&ed on a %unctional ,asis, and t&en separated according to speciali6ation, eac& &aving a separate c&ain o% command. D Predictability and stability T&e organi6ation s&ould operate according to a s$stem o% procedures consisting o% %ormal rules and regulations. D Rationality =ecruitment and selection o% personnel s&ould ,e impartial. D Democracy =esponsi,ilit$ and aut&orit$ s&ould ,e recogni6ed ,$ designations and not ,$ persons. We,erKs t&eor$ is in%irm on account o% d$s%unctions 2Aic.s and 1ullett, 1E;C4 suc& as rigidit$, impersonalit$, displacement o% o,-ectives, limitation o% categori6ation, sel%/perpetuation and empire ,uilding, cost o% controls, and anxiet$ to improve status. Administrative theory T&e elements o% administrative t&eor$ 20a$ol, 1E@E4 relate to accomplis&ment o% tas.s, and include principles o% management, t&e concept o% line and sta%%, committees and %unctions o% management. D D D D D Division of or! or speciali.ation' T&is increases productivit$ in ,ot& tec&nical and managerial or.. Authority and responsibility' T&ese are imperative %or an organi6ational mem,er to accomplis& t&e organi6ational o,-ectives. Discipline: Mem,ers o% t&e organi6ation s&ould &onour t&e o,-ectives o% t&e organi6ation. T&e$ s&ould also compl$ it& t&e rules and regulations o% t&e organi6ation. 5nity of command' T&is means ta.ing orders %rom and ,eing responsi,le to onl$ one superior. 5nity of direction: Mem,ers o% t&e organi6ation s&ould -ointl$ or. to ard t&e same goals.

"ubordination of individual interest to general interest: T&e interest o% t&e organi6ation s&ould not ,ecome su,servient to individual interests or t&e interest o% a group o% emplo$ees.

D D D

Remuneration of personnel: T&is can ,e ,ased on diverse %actors suc& as time, -o,, piece rates, ,onuses, pro%it/s&aring or non/%inancial re ards. Centrali.ation Management s&ould use an appropriate ,lend o% ,ot& centrali6ation and de/centrali6ation o% aut&orit$ and decision ma.ing. "calar chain +% t o mem,ers &o are on t&e same level o% &ierarc&$ &ave to or. toget&er to accomplis& a pro-ect, t&e$ need not %ollo t&e &ierarc&$ level, ,ut can interact it& eac& ot&er on a Kgang plan.K i% accepta,le to t&e &ig&er o%%icials.

D D D D D D

'rder T&e organi6ation &as a place %or ever$t&ing and ever$one &o oug&t to ,e so engaged. E6uity 0airness, -ustice and e7uit$ s&ould prevail in t&e organi6ation. "tability of tenure of personnel Ro, securit$ improves per%ormance. An emplo$ee re7uires some time to get used to ne or. and do it ell. -nitiative T&is s&ould ,e encouraged and stimulated. Esprit de corps )ride, allegiance and a sense o% ,elonging are essential %or good per%ormance. #nion is strengt&. $he concept of line and staff T&e concept o% line and sta%% is relevant in organi6ations &ic& are large and re7uire speciali6ation o% s.ill to ac&ieve organi6ational goals. *ine personnel are t&ose &o or. directl$ to ac&ieve organi6ational goals. Sta%% personnel include t&ose &ose ,asic %unction is to support and &elp line personnel.

Committees Committees are part o% t&e organi6ation. Mem,ers %rom t&e same or di%%erent &ierarc&ical levels %rom di%%erent departments can %orm committees around a common goal. T&e$ can ,e given di%%erent %unctions, suc& as managerial, decision ma.ing, recommending or polic$ %ormulation. Committees can ta.e diverse %orms, suc& as ,oards, commissions, tas. groups or ad hoc committees. Committees can ,e %urt&er divided according to t&eir %unctions. +n agricultural researc& organi6ations, committees are %ormed %or researc&, sta%% evaluation or even allocation o% land %or experiments. D Functions of organi.ation 0a$ol 21E@E4 considered management o% organi.ation as a set o% planning, organi6ing, training, commanding and coordinating %unctions.

1ulic. and #r ic. 21E<;4 also considered organi6ation in terms o% management %unctions suc& as planning, organi6ing, sta%%ing, directing, coordinating, reporting and ,udgeting. Im6lications o7 Theories to $4tension organisation )unctional theory HN0W*=ND"*JW 4 JHRRAJWJ WLDW =N WLA EDJ*J =+ WLA S#*N0*S"AJ DE=8A A)S"=PAAQJ EALD8*=H# 0DN EA predicted. T&e t&eor$ s&ares certain sem,lance it& t&e ,ureaucratic process in t&at it is an administrative s$stem, especiall$ in a government t&at divides or. into speci%ic categories carried out ,$ special departments o% non/elected o%%icials. T&e onl$ di%%erence is t&at ,ureaucratic process involves complex roles and regulations applied are rigid. To anot&er sc&ool o% t&oug&t, t&e more an emplo$ee is supervised, t&e more mista.es &e ma.es. T&e reason &ere is t&at &e ill not ,e encouraged to or. at &is o n pace and use &is o n initiatives. Agricultural Extension personnel s&ould ,e made to do onl$ and exactl$ -o,s/tas.s t&e$ are trained %or. Supervisors s&ould not surprise too large num,er o% or.ers. T&e +*A"1 DN1 =++*0A JWD++ JL=H"1 0==SA#DWA DN1 0=)S"*)ANW AD0L =WLA#QJ A++=#WJ J= DJ W= D0L*A8A WLA goals o% t&e organisation. "ecision !aking Theory E%%ectiveness o% organisation rests on t&e -udicious utilisation o% availa,le resources. T&e parameters %or setting priorities &inge on t&e rational decision ma.ing in t&e extension organisation. +t t&ere%ore %ollo s t&at a .ind o% decision an administrator/manager ma.es determines &is level o% per%ormance and t&e general e%%ectiveness. "pen s$stem approac&, &ere decisions result %rom sta%% decision is recommended. Extension administrators s&ould t&ere%ore con%ine t&emselves in most cases, to ma.ing decisions on t&e open t$pe process rat&er t&an t&e irrational closed t$pe. Decisions on t&e open t$pe process are not usuall$ idel$ accepted ,ut &ig&l$ sustaina,le. Social (rocess Theory "rgani6ation consists o% several sections t&at -ointl$ or. to ards t&e attainment o% t&e set o,-ectives. +t t&ere%ore %ollo s t&at a good manager or administrator must identi%$ t&e units and

t&e %orces ,inding t&e units toget&er it& a vie to protecting, supporting, encouraging, s&aping, s&arpening, repairing and amending t&ese %orces to ensure t&e realisation o% organisational o,-ectives. Extension agents t&ere%ore need to ,e conscious o% t&is t&eor$ in order to disc&arge satis%actoril$ t&e duties expected o% t&em. 0uman *elations Theory 0ollo ing t&e ma-or concept or assumption t&at in a t$pical extension or. situation, most especiall$ at t&e management level, emplo$ees are s.illed, &ave salaries a,ove su,sistence and are more in need o% ego grati%ication, personal recognition s&ould ,e emp&asi6ed in supervision and administration. Extension or.ers, ,eing c&ange agents need to &ave good .no ledge o% &uman relations 2empat&$4, and s&ould ,e client oriented. T&e$ s&ould give ade7uate reason %or an$ action ta.en and give room %or clientele participation. As t&e$ are purpose oriented t&e$ must e7uall$ ,e client oriented. )usion Theory T&e struggle %or supremac$ and optimum satis%action o% organi6ational o,-ectives and individual goals is a necessit$ %or internal &armon$ and progress. Ao ever, t&e satis%action o% t&e emplo$ees as ell as emplo$ers s&ould ,e improving, d$namic 2not static or deteriorating4. Theory o7 + and 9 T&is t&eor$ as explained ,$ Mc1regor 21E6>4 connotes t&at scienti%ic management and administration can predict and control &uman ,e&aviour. Ae developed some ,asic assumptions a,out t&e nature o% men especiall$ in t&e or. environment. +n ot&er ords, &uman ,e&aviour in an$ or.ing environment depends on t&e t$pe o% administrative management emplo$ed on t&e individual. T&eor$ H involves negative assumptions a,out people t&at Mc1regor ,elieves managers o%ten use as t&e ,asis %or dealing it& t&eir su,ordinates 2%or example t&e average person &as an in&erent disli.e o% or. and ill avoid it &enever &e or s&e can4. T&eor$ 8 represents positive assumptions a,out people t&at Mc1regor ,elieves managers

s&ould strive to use 2%or example people t&eir o,-ectives4. Theory 1

ill exercise sel%/discretion and sel%control in meeting

T&eor$ O states t&at t&ere is no situation &ere $ou &ave eit&er o% ,ot& H and 8 to ,e completel$ in operation. +n ot&er ords, regardless o% t&e proportion, ,ot& t$pes o% c&aracteristic ,e&aviour O*"" =00H# D)=NR DNP R#=HS =+ SA=S"A YAN0A *W *J #A+A##A1 W= DJ V#A0=N0*"*DW=#P WLA=#PW EAWOAAN individuals 2producers4 and t&e emplo$ers 2consumers4. T&e position o% t&eor$ 8 is t&at t&e individual and t&e organisation are al a$s in con%lict ,ecause o% t&e dual role as consumer and producer. T&e role o% t&e administrator in an$ organisation is t&ere%ore to collate t&e aggregate potential o% individual consumers and producers to meet t&e demand o% t&e organisation. &asic Assum6tions o7 Theory 1 1. T&e management is responsi,le %or organising all t&e elements %or production in a %ree enterprise societ$ o% producers and consumers. 3. T&at t&e process involves net or. o% decision and communication t&roug& &ic& management %acilitates production and satis%action o% consumer needs. <. T&at man as consumer insists t&at tec&nolog$ and its results ,e made availa,le to &im. @. T&at man does not resist c&ange unless &e is t&reatened ,$ it t&roug& t&e loss o% &is -o,, c&ange o% or. pattern or limitation o% &is li,ert$. C. T&at t&e administrative process &ic& t&eor$ O possess overcome its di%%iculties ,$ discipline and con%idence t&roug& a precise s$stem o% communication and assurance t&at t&e organisation is =HW W= JA0H#A WLA O=#!A#QJ OA"+D#A Im6lications o7 these Theories in $4tension T&e value o% t&is t&eor$ emerges %rom its main principle &ic& suggests t&at in an$ group o% people, t&ere are some t&at ould not naturall$ li.e to ,e protective unless t&e$ are %orced to t&e situation. Similarl$, t&ere are some t&at are protective and dedicated in&erentl$. +t t&ere%ore %ollo s t&at a manager or superior s&ould ,e c&arged it& t&e responsi,ilit$ o% detecting mem,ers o% ,ot& groups and encourage t&em t&roug& motivation, training and remuneration %or e%%icienc$.

'eoclassical theory models !eoclassical t&eorists recogni6ed t&e importance o% individual or group ,e&aviour and emp&asi6ed &uman relations. 9ased on t&e Aa t&orne experiments, t&e neoclassical approac& emp&asi6ed social or &uman relations&ips among t&e operators, researc&ers and supervisors 2=oet&lis,erger and Dic.son, 1E@<4. +t as argued t&at t&ese considerations ere more conse7uential in determining productivit$ t&an mere c&anges in or.ing conditions. )roductivit$ increases ere ac&ieved as a result o% &ig& morale, &ic& as in%luenced ,$ t&e amount o% individual, personal and intimate attention or.ers received. (rinci6les o7 the neoclassical a66roach T&e classical approac& stressed t&e %ormal organi6ation. +t as mec&anistic and ignored ma-or aspects o% &uman nature. +n contrast, t&e neoclassical approac& introduced an in%ormal organi6ation structure and emp&asi6ed t&e %ollo ing principles' D $he individual: An individual is not a mec&anical tool ,ut a distinct social ,eing, it& aspirations ,e$ond mere %ul%illment o% a %e economic and securit$ or.s. +ndividuals di%%er %rom eac& ot&er in pursuing t&ese desires. T&us, an individual s&ould ,e recogni6ed as interacting it& social and economic %actors. D $he or! group T&e neoclassical approac& &ig&lig&ted t&e social %acets o% or. groups or in%ormal organi6ations t&at operate it&in a %ormal organi6ation. T&e concept o% KgroupK and its s$nergistic ,ene%its ere considered important. D Participative management )articipative management or decision ma.ing permits or.ers to participate in t&e decision ma.ing process. T&is as a ne %orm o% management to ensure increases in productivit$. !ote t&e di%%erence ,et een Ta$lorKs Kscienti%ic managementK / &ic& %ocuses on or. / and t&e neoclassical approac& / &ic& %ocuses on or.ers. .:, !odern theories Modern t&eories tend to ,e ,ased on t&e concept t&at t&e organi6ation is a s$stem &ic& &as to adapt to c&anges in its environment. +n modern t&eor$, an organi6ation is de%ined as a designed and structured process in &ic& individuals interact %or o,-ectives 2Aic.s and 1ullet, 1E;C4. T&e contemporar$ approac& to t&e organi6ation is multidisciplinar$, as man$ scientists %rom di%%erent %ields &ave contri,uted to its development, emp&asi6ing t&e d$namic nature o% communication

and importance o% integration o% individual and organi6ational interests. T&ese ere su,se7uentl$ re/emp&asi6ed ,$ 9ernard 21E<F4 &o gave t&e %irst modern and compre&ensive vie o% management. Su,se7uentl$, conclusions on s$stems control gave insig&t into application o% c$,ernetics. T&e operation researc& approac& as suggested in 1E@>. +t utili6ed t&e contri,utions o% several disciplines in pro,lem solving. Jon 9ertalan%%$ 21EC14 made a signi%icant contri,ution ,$ suggesting a component o% general s$stems t&eor$ &ic& is accepted as a ,asic premise o% modern t&eor$. Some o% t&e nota,le c&aracteristics o% t&e modern approac&es to t&e organi6ation are' D a s$stems vie point, D a d$namic process o% interaction, D D D D D D D multilevelled and multidimensional, multimotivated, pro,a,ilistic, multidisciplinar$, descriptive, multivaria,le, and adaptive.

Modern understandings o% t&e organi6ation can ,e ,roadl$ classi%ied into' D D D t&e s$stems approac&, socio/tec&nical t&eor$, and a contingenc$ or situational approac&.

The systems a66roach T&e s$stems approac& vie s organi6ation as a s$stem composed o% interconnected / and t&us mutuall$ dependent / su,/s$stems. T&ese su,/s$stems can &ave t&eir o n su,/su,/s$stems. A s$stem can ,e perceived as composed o% some components, %unctions and processes 2Al,rec&t, 1EF<4. T&us, t&e organi6ation consists o% t&e %ollo ing t&ree ,asic elements 29a..e, 1ECE4' 2i4 Components T&ere are %ive ,asic, interdependent parts o% t&e organi6ing s$stem, namel$'

D D D D D

t&e individual, t&e %ormal and in%ormal organi6ation, patterns o% ,e&aviour emerging %rom role demands o% t&e organi6ation, role compre&ension o% t&e individual, and t&e p&$sical environment in &ic& individuals or..

2ii4 #in!ing processes T&e di%%erent components o% an organi6ation are re7uired to operate in an organi6ed and correlated manner. T&e interaction ,et een t&em is contingent upon t&e lin.ing processes, &ic& consist o% communication, ,alance and decision ma.ing. D D D Communication is a means %or eliciting action, exerting control and e%%ecting coordination to lin. decision centres in t&e s$stem in a composite %orm. 3alance is t&e e7uili,rium ,et een di%%erent parts o% t&e s$stem so t&at t&e$ .eep a &armoniousl$ structured relations&ip it& one anot&er. Decision analysis is also considered to ,e a lin.ing process in t&e s$stems approac&. Decisions ma$ ,e to produce or participate in t&e s$stem. Decision to produce depends upon t&e attitude o% t&e individual and t&e demands o% t&e organi6ation. Decision to participate re%ers to t&e individualKs decisions to engross t&emselves in t&e organi6ation process. T&at depends on &at t&e$ get and &at t&e$ are expected to do in participative decision ma.ing. 2iii4 &oals of organi.ation T&e goals o% an organi6ation ma$ ,e gro t&, sta,ilit$ and interaction. +nteraction implies &o ,est t&e mem,ers o% an organi6ation can interact it& one anot&er to t&eir mutual advantage. Socio3technical a66roach +t is not -ust -o, enlargement and enric&ment &ic& is important, ,ut also trans%orming tec&nolog$ into a meaning%ul tool in t&e &ands o% t&e users. T&e socio/tec&nical s$stems approac& is ,ased on t&e premise t&at ever$ organi6ation consists o% t&e people, t&e tec&nical s$stem and t&e environment 2)asmore, 1EFF4. )eople 2t&e social s$stem4 use tools, tec&ni7ues and .no ledge 2t&e tec&nical s$stem4 to produce goods or services valued ,$ consumers or users 2 &o are part o% t&e organi6ationKs external environment4. T&ere%ore, e7uili,rium among t&e social s$stem, t&e tec&nical s$stem and t&e environment is necessar$ to ma.e t&e organi6ation more e%%ective.

The contingency or situational a66roach T&e situational approac& 2Sel6nic., 1E@E5 9urns and Stal.er, 1E615 Wood ard, 1E6C5 *a rence and *orsc&, 1E6;4 is ,ased on t&e ,elie% t&at t&ere cannot ,e universal guidelines &ic& are suita,le %or all situations. "rgani6ational s$stems are inter/related it& t&e environment. T&e contingenc$ approac& 2Aellriegel and Slocum, 1E;<4 suggests t&at di%%erent environments re7uire di%%erent organi6ational relations&ips %or optimum e%%ectiveness, ta.ing into consideration various social, legal, political, tec&nical and economic %actors.

2:; Conclusion At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou &ave leant t&at organi6ation t&eor$ are ,roadl$ divided into classical organi6ation t&eories and Modern organi6ation t&eories. Classical organi6ation t&eories are su,/ divided into Ta$lor scienti%ic management concepts, We,er ,ureaucratic approac&, and 0a$ol t&e administrative t&eor$ o% t&e organi6ation. Modern understandings o% t&e organi6ation can ,e ,roadl$ classi%ied s$stems approac&, socio/tec&nical t&eor$, and a contingenc$ or situational approac&. =:; Summary An organi8ation/ is an assem,l$ o% people or.ing toget&er to ac&ieve common o,-ectives t&roug& a division o% la,or. Modern understandings o% t&e organi6ation can ,e ,roadl$ classi%ied s$stems approac&, socio/tec&nical t&eor$, and a contingenc$ or situational approac&. T&e situational approac& is ,ased on t&e ,elie% t&at t&ere cannot ,e universal guidelines &ic& are suita,le %or all situations. T&e socio/tec&nical s$stems approac& is ,ased on t&e premise t&at ever$ organi6ation consists o% t&e people, t&e tec&nical s$stem and t&e environment. T&e neoclassical approac& emp&asi6ed social or &uman relations&ips among t&e operators, researc&ers and supervisors T&e elements o% administrative t&eor$ relate to accomplis&ment o% tas.s, and include principles o% management, t&e concept o% line and sta%%, committees and %unctions o% management. Modern t&eories tend to ,e ,ased on t&e concept t&at t&e organi6ation is a s$stem &ic& &as to adapt to c&anges in its environment. T&e s$stems approac& vie s organi6ation as a s$stem composed o% interconnected / and t&us mutuall$ dependent / su,/s$stems.

>:; Tutor !arked Assignment D Enumerate t&e t&ree ,asic elements o% s$stem approac& o% modern understandings o% t&e organi6ation: D D *ist t&e c&aracteristics o% t&e modern approac&es to t&e organi6ation: W&at are t&e c&aracteristics o% t&e modern approac&es to t&e organi6ation:

@:; *e7erences5)urther *eadings A.insorotan, A.". 23>>;4. Elements of Agricultural Extension Administration. +,adan' 9ount$ )ress *imited. Aromolaran, E.A. 23>>>4. Fundamental of %anagement. *agos' 9*J )rint Tec&. Al,rec&t, L. 1EF<. !e s$stems vie o% t&e organi6ation. pp. @@/CE, in: 'rgani.ation Development. Engle ood Cli%%s, !R' )rentice/Aall. Anderson, C.=. 1EFF. %anagement: "!ills* Functions and 'rgani.ation Performance. !e 8or., !8' All$n and 9acon. 9a..e, W.E. 1ECE. Concept o% social organi6ation. pp. 16/;C, in: Aaire, M. 2ed4, %odern 'rgani.ation $heory* !e 8or., !8' Ro&n Wile$. 9ar.dull, C.W. 1E6<. Span o% Control' A met&od o% evaluation. %ichigan 3usiness Revie * 1C2<4. 9ernard, C. 1E<F. $he Functions of the Executive. Cam,ridge, MA' Aarvard #niversit$ )ress. See pages 6C/11@. 9urns, T.1., I Stal.er, 1.M. 1E61. $he %anagement of -nnovation. *ondon' Tavistoc. +nstitute. David, S.M., I *a rence, ).=. 1E;F. )ro,lems o% matrix organi6ations. 7arvard 3usiness Revie * Ma$/Rune' 1<1/1@3. 0a$ol, A. 1E@E. &eneral and -ndustrial %anagement* translated ,$ Constance Storrs. *ondon' )itman. 1ulic., *., I #r ic., *. 2eds4 1E<;. Papers on the "cience of Administration. !e 8or., !8' +nstitute o% )u,lic Administration.

Aellriegel, D., I Slocum R.W., Rr. 1E;<. "rgani6ation t&eor$' a contingenc$ approac&. 3usiness 7ori.ons* April, 1E;<. Aic.s, 1.A., I 1ullet, C.=. 1E;C. 'rgani.ations: $heory and 3ehaviour. !e 8or., !8' Mc1ra /Aill. See pages 3@C/3CE. *a rence, ).=., I *orsc&, R.W. 1E6;. Di%%erentiation and integration in complex organi6ations. Administrative "cience 8uarterly* Rune' 1/@;. )asmore, W.A. 1EFF. Designing Effective 'rgani.ations* !e 8or., !8' Ro&n Wile$. See pages Wood ard, R. 1E6C. -ndustrial 'rgani.ation. "x%ord' "x%ord #niversit$ )ress.

!odule 2 (ersonnel !anagement in Agricultural $4tension #nit 1 Extension )ersonnel =ecruitment, Training, and Development #nit 3 Sta%% Supervision in Agricultural Extension #nit < Sta%% )er%ormance Appraisals and )romotion nit % $4tension (ersonnel *ecruitment/ Training/ and "evelo6ment CO'T$'TS >.> +ntroduction 1.> ",-ectives 3.> Main content 3.1 Concept o% =ecruitment o% extension personnel 3.3 Meaning o% Training and Development 3.< T$pes and Tec&ni7ues %or Sta%% Training @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings

%:; Introduction T&e development o% people, t&eir competencies, and t&e process o% development o% t&e total organi6ation are t&e main concerns o% &uman resource management 2)aree. I =ao, 1EE34. )roper planning and management o% &uman resources it&in extension organi6ations is essential to increase t&e capa,ilities, motivation, and overall e%%ectiveness o% extension personnel. T&is

unit discusses t o dimensions o% &uman resource management as applica,le to extension organi6ation namel$ recruitment and training o% extension personnel. ,:; Objectives At t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to D D D D Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel Explain t&e meaning o% training and development Enumerate t&e t$pes and tec&ni7ues %or sta%% training Enumerate t&e Met&ods, 9ene%its and )ro,lems o% training in Extension

.:; !ain Content .:% Conce6t o7 *ecruitment o7 e4tension 6ersonnel =ecruitment is important in selecting t&e rig&t .ind o% extension personnel. Since t&e -o, o% extension personnel calls %or tec&nical s.ills as ell as commitment and illingness to educate rural people, an appropriate selection s$stem is essential to ensure t&e rig&t selection. T&e success o% extension depends &eavil$ upon selection o% 7uali%ied and motivated personnel. Extension organi6ations in developing countries use t o ma-or sources o% recruitment' D D %rom outside and %rom it&in. Entr$/level positions suc& as village extension or.ers and agricultural extension o%%icers are %illed ,$ outside recruitment, using t&e services o% government placement agencies. D "t&er c&annels o% recruitment are advertisements, private placement agencies, pro%essional searc& %irms, and educational institutions. +n some countries, %armers are recruited to &elp extension agents 2Adams,1EF34. Most o% t&e extension departments in developing countries &ave t&e polic$ o% promoting or recruiting it&in %or middle/level and top/level positions. T&e advantages o% t&is polic$ are t&at it promotes lo$alt$ and provides opportunities %or existing extension sta%% to get &ig&/level positions. Ao ever, its greatest disadvantage is t&at it prevents t&e lateral entr$ o% talented extension personnel and promotes complacenc$ ,ecause seniorit$ ensures promotion. T&e selection o% extension sta%% starts it& ma.ing t&e -o, opportunities .no n to all potential applicants t&roug& advertisement. T&e &elp o% extension or.ersK training centres, agricultural

colleges, rural institutions, and local government agencies ma$ ,e soug&t to give ide pu,licit$, as ell as to in%orm candidates living in rural areas. T&is is %ollo ed ,$ screening applicants to s&ort/list suita,le candidates and ,$ evaluating potential candidates t&roug& various tests. A t$pical selection process consists o% t&e %ollo ing steps' D D D D completed -o, application, initial screening, testing and in/dept& selection intervie , p&$sical examination, and -o, o%%er 20renc&,1EF34.

+n general, extension organi6ations in developing countries use a simple .no ledge test and a ,rie% intervie to select extension personnel. 9$ using t&e a,ove met&od, it is impossi,le to discriminate an e%%ective candidate %rom an ine%%ective candidate, ,ecause selecting extension personnel demands t&oroug&, in/dept& testing o% cognitive and non/cognitive a,ilities. Testing cognitive a,ilit$ includes a .no ledge test, a s.ill or a,ilit$ test, and an aptitude test. A non/cognitive test is a measure o% ,e&avioural dimensions &ic& are important %or %ield level extension personnel, including concern %or and commitment to rural people, empat&$, pro,lem/ solving orientation, &ig& motivation to in%luence and educate %armers, a,ilit$ to or. under unsupervised and di%%icult village conditions, patience and persistence, and team spirit. T&e assessment centre approac&, originall$ used during World War ++, can ,e used to select extension sta%%. +n t&is approac&, an organi6ation develops its internal resources %or assessing ne sta%%. T&e candidates to ,e recruited go t&roug& a num,er o% simulation exercises, and an expert assesses t&eir ,e&aviour. T&e tec&ni7ues used are a ps$c&ological test, role pla$, in/,as.et exercise, group discussion, pro-ective test, .no ledge test, and intervie s. .:, !eaning o7 Training and "evelo6ment "ne o% t&e propositions o% &uman capital t&eorists is t&e training and development o% manpo er or &uman %actor o% production. T&e$ argued t&at increased productivit$ can onl$ ,e attained &en avenue %or advancement and training is opened %or t&e or.%orce. T&e training o% extension personnel contri,utes directl$ to t&e development o% &uman resources it&in extension organi6ations. GTraining programmes are directed to ards maintaining and improving current

-o, per%ormance, &ile development programmes see. to develop s.ills %or %uture -o,sG 2Stoner I 0reeman, 1EE3, p. <FF4. Training is perceived as a %ormal process o% ac7uiring s.ills and tec&nical .no /&o in a speci%ic %ield so as to en&ance competenc$ and expertise in t&e use and manipulation o% modern tec&nolog$ and in &andling tec&nical issues in all &uman endeavours. 9eac& 21EF>4 descri,ed training as t&e organi6ed procedure ,$ &ic& people learn and ac7uire .no ledge or s.ills %or a de%inite purpose it& t&e o,-ectives o% ac&ieving t&e aim o% c&ange in ,e&aviour o% t&e trainees. 9a.er 21EF@4 considers training as all t&e e%%orts made in %acilitating t&e processes o% learning &ic& results in latter/on t&e/ -o, positive ,e&aviour o% a mem,er o% an organi6ation. Training is a learning process ,$ &ic& people develop a relativel$ permanent positive c&ange o% ,e&aviour, s.ills or attitude to per%orm a speci%ic tas. it& a vie to increasing to per%orm a speci%ic tas. it& a vie to increasing productivit$. Apart %rom t&e %act t&at training aims to improve productivit$, it is e7uall$ a deli,erate attempt to improve t&e per%ormance o% t&e individuals on t&eir -o,s ,$ correcting an$ de%icienc$ in &uman e%%orts. Training is &uman oriented. According to Date$ 21E;>4 it deli,eratel$ attempts to improve a SA#J=NQJ J!*""J DW D WDJ!W 6*)*"D#"P ?AWWD JDPJ *W *J DN VHN1A#JWDN1*NRW D*)A1 DW #D*J*NR t&e per%ormance level o% t&e emplo$ee. T&e manpo er service commission concluded t&at training &as a purpose o% developing t&e a,ilit$ o% an individual and to satis%$ t&e current and %uture manpo er needs o% t&e organi6ation. Training &as to start it& t&e identi%ication o% training needs t&roug& -o, anal$sis, per%ormance appraisal, and organi6ational anal$sis. "nce t&e training needs o% extension personnel &ave ,een identi%ied, t&e next step is to organi6e training programmes. Met&ods suc& as games, role pla$ing, simulation exercises, and case stud$ can ,e used in extension organi6ations to create learning situations ,ased on experience 2*$nton I )aree., 1EE>4. Training ,ased on actual %ield experience s&ould ,e emp&asi6ed. Emerging ne %arm tec&nologies suc& as integrated pest management and improved practices in &orticulture call %or actual %ield experience. Extension agents need training not onl$ in t&e tec&nological aspects ,ut also in &uman relations, pro,lem solving, sensitivit$ to ards disadvantaged groups, and t&e ,asic concepts o% management 2Aa$ ard, 1EE>4.

i:

Training a66roach T&ere are t&ree approac&es to training' 214 t&e traditional approac&, 234 t&e experiential approac&, and 2<4 t&e per%ormance/,ased approac& 2=ama, Etling, I 9o en, 1EE<4. +n t&e traditional approac&, t&e training sta%% designs t&e o,-ectives, contents, teac&ing tec&ni7ues, assignments, lesson plans, motivation, tests, and evaluation. T&e %ocus in t&is model is intervention ,$ t&e training sta%%. +n t&e experiential approac&, t&e trainer incorporates experiences &ere in t&e learner ,ecomes active and in%luences t&e training process. #nli.e t&e academic approac& in&erent in t&e traditional model, experiential training emp&asi6es real or simulated situations in &ic& t&e trainees ill eventuall$ operate. +n t&is model, t&e o,-ectives and ot&er elements o% training are -ointl$ determined ,$ t&e trainers and trainees. Trainers primaril$ serve as %acilitators, catal$sts, or resource persons. +n t&e per%ormance/,ased approac& to training, goals are measured t&roug& attainment o% a given level o% pro%icienc$ instead o% passing grades o% t&e trainees. Emp&asis is given to ac7uiring speci%ic o,serva,le s.ills %or a tas.. T&is per%ormance/,ased teac&er education 2)9TE4 model, developed ,$ Elam 21E;14, is mostl$ tas. or s.ill centred and is also applica,le to non%ormal educational organi6ations suc& as extension.

ii.

Training 'eeds Identi7ication' Training need is a condition &ere t&ere is a gap

EAWOAAN VOLDW *JW DN1 VOLDW JL=H"1 EAW *N WA#)J =+ *N0H)EANWJQ !N=O"A1RA J!*""J DWW*WH1AJ DN1 EALD8*=H# +=# D SD#W*0H"D# J*WHDW*=N DW =NA S=*NW *N W*)A ;L*J RDS *J 0D""A1VD S#=E"A)W OL*0L HJHD""P =00H#J OLAN D 1*++A#AN0A AX*JWJ EAWOAAN V1AJ*#A1 SA#+=#)DN0AW DN1 VD0WHD" SA#+=#)DN0AW ;LA NAA1J *1ANW*+*0DW*=N S#=0AJJ DJJ*JWJ W#D*NA#J in ma.ing sure t&at t&e$ &ave matc&ed a training programme to a training pro,lem. 0or example, agricultural extension o%%icers 2AE"s4 &ave ,een giving training to villageextension or.ers 2JEWs4, ,ut per%ormance o% t&e JEWs is not improving. T&e reasons ma$ ,e' T&e AE"s lac. su,-ect B matter .no ledge T&e AE"s do not conduct training ell. T&e training center lac.s training %acilities. T&e JEWs are organi6ed not to or. properl$ until t&eir demands are satis%ied ,$ t&e government. T&e %irst t o pro,lems are related to .no ledge and s.ills and can ,e solved

e%%ectivel$ ,$ a training programme, ,ut t&e t&ird and %ourt& pro,lems need government attention to solve. Training needs identi%ication is possi,le t&roug& di%%erent anal$tical procedures. T&e ma-or procedures used in determining training needs are t&e %ollo ing' "rgani6ational anal$sis determines &ere training emp&asis s&ould ,e placed it&in t&e organi6ation and is ,ased on t&e o,-ectives o% an organi6ation. Concerning &at one s&ould do in anal$6ing an organi6ation suggest %our steps' T&e @ steps involved in organi6ational anal$sis p&ase o% training are as %ollo s' 1. Stating t&e goals and o,-ectives o% an organi6ation 3. Anal$6ing t&e &uman resources <. Anal$6ing e%%icienc$ indices @. Anal$6ing t&e organi6ational climate. T&e results o% t&ese anal$ses are t&en compared it& t&e o,-ectives o% t&e organi6ation. T&ese comparisons point to speci%ic areas in &ic& training is needed. +ndividual anal$sis aims at identi%$ing speci%ic training needs %or an individual or group o% emplo$ees so t&at training can ,e tailored to t&eir needs. T&is anal$sis centers on individuals and t&eir speci%ic needs concerning t&e s.ills, .no ledge, or attitudes t&e$ must develop to per%orm t&eir assigned tas.s. .:. Ty6es and TechniFues o7 Sta77 Training i. (re3service training is more academic in nature and is o%%ered ,$ %ormal institutions o% %ollo ing de%inite curricula and s$lla,uses %or a certain duration to o%%er a %ormal degree or diploma. ii. iii. In3service training, on t&e ot&er &and, is o%%ered ,$ t&e organi6ation %rom time to time %or t&e development o% s.ills and .no ledge o% t&e incum,ents. (re3service Training)re/service training is a process t&roug& &ic& individuals are made read$ to entera certain .ind o% pro%essional -o, suc& as agriculture, medicine or engineering. T&e$ &ave to attend regular classes in a %ormal institution and need to complete a de%inite curriculum and courses success%ull$ to receive a %ormal degree or diploma. T&e$ are not

entitled to get a pro%essional -o, unless t&e$ earn a certi%icate, diploma, or degree %rom t&e appropriate institution. )re/service training contents emp&asi6e mostl$ on tec&nical su,-ect matter suc& as crops, animal &us,andr$ and %is&eries as ell as pedagogical s.ills to prepare t&e students to or. in agriculture. +n general, t o t$pes o% pre/service training are availa,le to agricultural sta%%. T&ese are' \ "egree level DW "ADJW D ED0LA"=#QJ 1AR#AA *N DR#*0H"WH#A =# #A"DWA1 +*A"1 OL*0L *J usuall$ o%%ered %or %our $ears ,$ a universit$ or agricultural college5 and \ "i6loma level, &ic& is mostl$ o%%ered ,$ t&e sc&ools o% agriculture %or a period o% t o to t&ree $ears. T&e entr$ point %or t&e %ormer is normall$ t elve $ears o% sc&ooling and %or t&e latter ten $ears o% sc&ooling. In3service Training and Sta77 "evelo6ment +n/service training is a process o% sta%% development %or t&e purpose o% improving t&e per%ormance o% an incum,ent &olding a position it& assigned -o, responsi,ilities. +t promotes t&e pro%essional gro t& o% individuD"J V,W *J D S#=R#D) 1AJ*RNA1 W= JW#ANRWLAN t&e competencies =+ AXWANJ*=N O=#!A#J OL*"A WLAP D#A =N WLA M=EW ,N/service training is a pro,lem/centred, learner/ oriented and time/,ound series o% activities &ic& provide t&e opportunit$ to develop a sense o% purpose, ,roaden perception o% t&e clientele, and increase capacit$ to gain .no ledge and master$ o% tec&ni7ues. +n/service training ma$ ,roadl$ ,e categori6ed into %ive di%%erent t$pes' 2i4 +nduction or orientation training, 2ii4 %oundation training, 2iii4 on/t&e/-o, training, 2iv4 re%res&er or maintenance training, and 2v4 career development training. All o% t&ese t$pes o% training are needed %or t&e proper development o% extension sta%% t&roug&out t&eir service li%e.

AiG Induction or Orientation Training +nduction training is given immediatel$ a%ter emplo$ment to introduce t&e ne extension sta%% mem,ers to t&eir positions. +t ,egins on t&e %irst da$ t&e ne emplo$ee is on t&e -o,. T&is t$pe o% training is aimed at ac7uainting t&e ne emplo$ee it& t&e organi6ation and its personnel.

+nduction training %or all ne personnel s&ould develop an attitude o% personal dedication to t&e service o% people and t&e organi6ation. T&is .ind o% training supplements &atever pre service training t&e ne personnel mig&t &ave &ad. Concerning t&e c&aracteristics o% a ne emplo$ee, Jan Dersal 21E634 said t&at &en people start to or. in an organi6ation %or t&e %irst time, t&e$ are eager to .no more attentive and open/minded t&an experienced emplo$ees. +n %act, t&e most %avora,le W*)A +=# RD*N*NR A)S"=PAAJQ DWWANW*=N DN1 +=# )=H"1*NR R==1 &a,its among t&em is &en t&e$ are ne to t&e -o,. AiiG )oundation Training 0oundation training is in/service training &ic& is also appropriate %or ne l$ recruited personnel. 9esides tec&nical competence and routine instruction a,out t&e organi6ation, ever$ sta%% mem,er needs some pro%essional .no ledge a,out various rules and regulations o% t&e government, %inancial transactions, administrative capa,ilit$, communication s.ills, leaders&ip a,ilit$, coordination and cooperation among institutions and t&eir lin.age mec&anism as ell as assistance in report riting. 0oundation training is made availa,le to emplo$ees to strengt&en t&e %oundation o% t&eir service career. T&is training is usuall$ provided at an earl$ stage o% service li%e. Maintenance or =e%res&er Training' T&is training is o%%ered to update and maintain t&e speciali6ed su,-ect matter .no ledge o% t&e incum,ents. =e%res&er training .eeps t&e specialists, administrators, su,-ect/matter o%%icers, extension supervisors, and %rontline or.ers updated and ena,les t&em to add to t&e .no ledge and s.ills t&e$ &ave alread$. Maintenance or re%res&er training usuall$ deals it& ne in%ormation and ne met&ods, as ell as revie o% older materials. T&is t$pe o% training is needed ,ot& to .eep emplo$ees at t&e pea. o% t&eir possi,le production and to prevent t&em %rom getting into a rut. 2iii4 On3the3<ob Training T&is is ad &oc or regularl$ sc&eduled training, suc& as %ortnig&tl$ training under t&e training and visit 2TIJ4 s$stem o% extension and is provided ,$ t&e superior o%%icer or t&e su,-ect/matter specialists to t&e su,ordinate %ield sta%%. T&is training is generall$ pro,lem or tec&nolog$ &at sort o% out%it t&e$ are getting into, &at t&e$ are supposed to do and &om t&e$ ill or. it&. T&e$ are li.el$ to ,e

oriented and ma$ include %ormal presentations, in%ormal discussion and opportunities to tr$ out ne s.ills and .no ledge in t&e %ield. T&e superior o%%icer, administrator or su,-ect matter specialist o% eac& extension department must pla$ a role in providing on/t&e/-o, training to t&e sta%% &ile conducting da$/to/da$ normal activities. AvG Career or "evelo6ment Training T&is t$pe o% in/service training is designed to upgrade t&e .no ledge, s.ills and a,ilit$ o% emplo$ees to &elp t&em assume greater responsi,ilit$ in &ig&er positions. T&e training is arranged departmentall$ %or success%ul extension or.ers, at all levels, %or t&eir o n continuing education and pro%essional development. Malone 21EF@4 opined t&at extension services t&at provide t&e opportunit$ %or all sta%% to prepare a plan %or career training ill receive t&e ,ene%its o% &aving longer tenured and more satis%ied emplo$ees, &ic& increases ,ot& t&e e%%ectiveness and e%%icienc$ o% an extension service. >D"=NA JWDWA1 WLDW V0D#AA# 1A8A"=S)ANW *J WLA D0W =+ D0TH*#*NR *N+=#)DW*=N DN1 #AJ=H#0AJ t&at ena,les one to plan a program o% li%e/"=NR "AD#N*NR #A"DWA1 W= L*J =# LA# O=#! "*+AW Alt&oug& extension or.ers are responsi,le %or designing t&eir o n career development education, t&e extension organi6ation sometimes sets some criteria and provides opportunities %or t&e sta%% ,$ o%%ering options. AviG (rogrammed Training T&is is one o% t&e modern training s$stems t&at allo s individual to learn and ac7uire ne s.ills, .no ledge, expertise and attitude at &is o n pace t&roug& a programmed teac&ing mac&ines or prepared texts. T&e strengt& o% t&is .ind o% training is t&at it is economical and s$stematic. Ao ever, it militates against good &uman relation and at times, some o% t&e coded items mig&t not ,e suita,le to practical situation. T&ere are man$ tec&ni7ues o% deliver$ depending upon &et&er t&e content o% t&e topic is .no ledge, s.ills or attitude or intensive. T&e selection o% programme deliver$ tec&ni7ues is extensive ,ut t&e most important %actor to consider in t&e c&oice o% deliver$ met&od is t&e W#D*NAAJQ SD#W*0*SDW*=N DJ OA"" DJ D8D*"DE"A W*)A 2viiG Grou6 !ethods o7 Training

T&is re%ers to t&e met&od &ere participants discuss on various topics at various levels o% meeting. Among t&e recogni6ed group met&ods are' s$mposiums, seminars, or.s&op, and con%erences. D S$mposiums' t&is is a series o% related speec&es ,$ 3/C persons %ocusing on a certain aspect o% t&e general topic. T&e presentation o% eac& resource person is coordinated ,$ t&e moderator. D Seminars' t&is is a gat&ering o% people under a leaders&ip o% learned person %or t&e purpose o% stud$ing a su,-ect. Eac& present or discusses a pro,lem and s&ares t&e %indings it& participants. T&is ma.es seminars more o% academic t&an an$ ot&er group met&od. D D Wor.s&ops' t&is also involves a group o% individuals it& common interest. +t comprises ,ot& t&eor$ and practice to ena,le participants to ,e more %unctional a%ter t&e programme. Con%erences' t&is re%ers to t&e meeting o% delegates %or consultation, discussion or instruction usuall$ at a speci%ied period o% time. )roceed o% or.s&op or con%erences are usuall$ codi%ied and made availa,le to ever$ participants and t&e pu,lic in t&e %orm o% ,oo.s, -ournals, etc. AviiiG Individual !ethod o7 Training T&e met&ods o% training presentation or programme implementation adopta,le ,$ individual presenter varies and can ,e used separatel$ or com,ined to e%%ect positive c&anges in t&e participants. Some o% t&ese met&ods are' D *ecture Met&od' t&is is .no ledge oriented and consists o% instructions %rom t&e trainer to t&e trainee. +t is o%ten used to ,uild up t&eoretical .no ledge, &ic& is a prere7uisite %or practical or participative training. +t is economical in t&e use o% time and space ,ut less participator$. D Tal.' t&is allo s %or participation, &ile incorporating ot&er met&ods. +t is suita,le %or small group and participation ,$ group sustains t&e interests and learning o% t&e training. Ao ever, it is time consuming. D =ole )la$: in t&is met&od, individual assumes t&e role t&e$ ill pla$ in t&eir place o% or.. +t stimulates real/li%e situations and participants can practice and receive criticism in relativel$ protected situation.

Discussion Met&od' as t&e name implies, discussion allo s %ree expression and exc&ange o% opinions among participants on .no ledge, ideas and attitudes on a particular su,-ect. +t is suita,le %or attitude c&ange ,ut re7uires a good leader &o gives appropriate direction to group.

Case Stud$' t&is re%ers to t&e &istor$ o% some event or set o% circumstances &ere relevant details are examined ,$ t&e participants. +t provides a detac&ed loo. at a pro,lem 2s4 %ree %rom presume o% t&e actual event.

Exercise' t&is is t&e process o% giving some tas.s %or participants to underta.e under a certain rules and leading to a desired outcome. Alt&oug& it could ,e %rustrating it not properl$ &andled ,ut it provides immediate %eed,ac..

9usiness 1ames' participants are in%ormed a,out t&e =#RDN*UDW*=NQJ %inancial position and are as.ed to assume di%%erent management role. Decisions are made and actions ta.en and t&e pro,a,le outcome o% t&e action are t&en evaluated.

.:2 !ethods/ &ene7its and (roblems o7 training in $4tension A. !ethods o7 training in $4tension We &ave t o ,road categories o% met&ods used in training o% sta%%. Ji65 i. +n%ormation Met&ods +n t&is categor$, messages are passed to trainees. Examples o% training met&ods under t&is categor$ are lecture, audio and video media and sel% directed learning. ii. Experimental Met&ods Aere, t&e learners are opportune to interact it& t&e instructor to put into practice t&e s.ills t&e$ are expected to learn. Examples o% training met&ods in t&is categor$ are on t&e -o, training, distance learning programme, role pla$ing, ,e&avior modeling and sensitivit$ training. 9. 9ene%its o% Training in Extension "rgani6ation T&e outcome o% a ell/conducted training could use%ul in t&e %ollo ing a$s' i. +ncreasing productive capacit$ o% extension sta%%.

ii. iii. iv.

=educing errors t&at could a%%ect per%ormance. =educe sta%% turnover. *essening supervision and associated stress t&ere,$ ensuring con%idence and good atmosp&ere o% or.ing.

v. vi. vii.

En&ance t&e a,ilit$ o% sta%% to advance t&e s.ill per%ormance -o,. 1iving ne capa,ilities to sta%%. 9ringing a,out attitudinal c&anges &ic& o% course lead to improvement in t&e -o, per%ormance

C. )ro,lems o% Extension Training in !igeria Extension training in !igeria &as not ,een met it& su,stantial success, despite t&e a%orementioned ,ene%its. T&e %ollo ing are some o% t&e impediments a%%ecting t&e success. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Extension agents, 0armer Us and specialists &ave ,een trained in area &ere t&e$ do not reall$ indicate an$ needs 2Actual needs are not properl$ assessed4 Training programmes are planned %rom top do n instead o% ,ottom up. +n most cases, trainees are not given opportunit$ to participate in t&e planning o% training need. Training programmes are not al a$s su,-ected to proper evaluation as t&e$ are su,-ected to inappropriate criteria. T&ere is a gross inade7uate in t&e %unding o% training programmes. Su,-ect matter speciatists in training programme design implementation and evaluation tec&ni7ue are not ell used. Also, re%res&er course in training institute universit$, sc&ool o% Agriculture and Agricultural institutes are not easil$ availa,le. 2:; Conclusion +n t&is unit $ou &ave ,een introduced to t&e concept o% =ecruitment o% extension personnel. 8ou no .no t&at selecting extension personnel demands t&oroug&, in/dept& testing o% cognitive and non/cognitive a,ilities. 8ou also .no t&e di%%erent t$pes o% training opportunities opened to an administrator. 8ou also learnt a,out t&e group and +ndividual Met&od o% Training.

=:; Summary +n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at proper planning and management o% &uman resources it&in extension organi6ations is essential to increase t&e capa,ilities, motivation, and overall e%%ectiveness o% extension personnel. 8ou also learnt t&at training is &uman oriented and a 1A"*EA#DWA DWWA)SWJ W= *)S#=8A D SA#J=NQJ J!*""J DW D WDJ! 8ou also leant t&e various t$pes and tec&ni7ues o% Sta%% Training. >:; Tutor !arked Assignments D D D D D Explain t&e concept o% recruitment o% extension personnel: Explain t&e meaning o% training and development: Enumerate t&e t$pes and tec&ni7ues %or sta%% training: W&at are t&e ,asic di%%erence ,et een group and +ndividual Met&od o% Training: State t&e met&ods, ,ene%its and pro,lems o% training in extension:

@:; *e7erences5)urther *eading Adams, M. E. 21EF34. Agricultural extension in developing countries. 9urnt Mill, Aarlo , Essex' *ongman 0renc&, W. *. 21EF34. $he personnel management process 2Ct& ed.4. 9oston' Aoug&ton Mi%%in. Aa$ ard, R. A. 21EE>4. Agricultural extension' T&e World 9an.Ks experiences and approac&es. +n 9. E. S anson 2Ed.4, Report of the global consultation on agricultural extension 2p. 11C/1<@4. =ome' 0A". Malone, J. M. 21EF@4. +nservice training and sta%% development. +n 9. E. S anson 2Ed.4, Agricultural extension: A reference manual. =ome' 0A". *$nton, =., I )aree., #. 21EE>4. $raining for development 23nd ed.4. !e Del&i' Sage. )aree., #., I =ao, T. J. 21EE34. Designing and managing human resource systems. !e Del&i' "x%ord I +9A )u,lis&ing Compan$. Stoner, R. A. =, I 0reeman, =. E. 21EE34. %anagement 2Ct& ed.4. !e Del&i' )rentice/Aall o% +ndia. Jan Dorsal, W. =. 21E634. $he successful supervisor. !e 8or.' Aarper and =o

nit , Sta77 (er7ormance A66raisals CO'T$'TS 1.> +ntroduction 3.> ",-ectives <.1 Main content <.1 Concept o% Sta%% )er%ormance Appraisals <.3 Met&ods o% )er%ormance Appraisals <.1 Concepts and )rinciples o% Sta%% )romotion @.> Conclusion C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eadings

1.> +ntroduction T&is unit ill start ,$ exposing t&e reader to ,asic issues in t&is course5 suc& issues include t&e understanding o% concept and met&ods o% sta%% )er%ormance appraisals. T&erea%ter, t&e .e$ concept and )rinciples o% Sta%% )romotion ill ,e ela,orated. T&is ill give t&e reader t&e necessar$ .no ledge a,out appraisal and promotion and t&eir .e$ issue ill ,e discussed in t&is course.

,:; Objectives 9$ t&e end o% t&is unit, $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' D D D D D .:; de%ine t&e meaning o% appraisal o% extension or.ers explain t&e di%%erent t$pes o% sta%% appraisal descri,e t&e need %or appraising sta%% per%ormance in extension explain post sta%% appraisal activities in extension organi6ation state t&e pit%alls extension managers need to avoid !ain Content

.:% Conce6t and !eaning o7 Sta77 A66raisal T&e terms appraisal, evaluation and assessment are s$non$mousl$ to mean estimation o% t&e nature or value o% sta%%. +t is t&us a process o% gat&ering, and documenting in%ormation a,out t&e ac&ievement and per%ormance o% a programme, organisation or emplo$ees. Sta%% appraisal is t&ere%ore a s$stematic met&od o% assessing t&e per%ormance o% emplo$ees in t&eir -o, implies t&e continuous process o% %eeding ,ac. to su,ordinates, in%ormation a,out &o are doing t&eir it& a ell t&e$ vie to &elping management decisions on promotion, trans%er, training or c&ange in pa$. +t or. %or t&e organisation. T&e prime aim o% sta%% appraisal is to identi%$ and

recti%$ de%iciencies in per%ormance and in organi6ational contest to ,uild up an inventor$ o% usa,le control in%ormation as c&ec.up on t&e e%%ectiveness o% ot&er management process. A66raisal o7 $4tension Workers Appraising Extension or.er means a process o% %eeding ,ac. to su,ordinates in%ormation a,out &o 1. 3. <. ell t&e$ are doing t&eir or. %or t&e organisation. construction o% organisation, t&at is, t&e ,uilding o% t&e institution5 t&e role per%ormance o% various Extension actors5 village Extension agent, ,loc. Extension supervisor, and su,-ect matter specialists5 t&e reaction o% t&e ,ene%iciaries. or.er, Extension +n appraising Extension or., indicators are usuall$ in t&ese areas5

Ao ever, t&e appraisal 2evaluation4 o% Extension or. ma$ ,e done ,$ visits, recommendations 2adoption4 and t&e $ields 2eventual conse7uences4.

.:,

Ty6es o7 sta77 A66raisal A: )ormal A66raisal +n t&is met&od, assessment or appraisal is carried out semi/annuall$ or annuall$ on a %ormali6ed ,asis t&roug& t&e use o% a %orm tagged Annual )er%ormance 28D"HDW*=N CAS=#WW ;L*J *J S=SH"D#"P 0D""A1 VM<2CW +=#) ;LA +=#) 0=NWD*NJ

T&ere are t o main t$pes o% sta%% appraisal5 %orm and in%ormal.

*N+=#)DW*=N =N WLA A)S"=PAAQJ 0LD#D0WA#*JW*0J ND)A DRA 0H##ANW S=JW#DN! DN1 assessment section centres principall$ on attitudes and ,e&avior to superior o%%icers, punctualit$, intelligence, initiative, or., to peers and tolerance, responsi,ilit$,

persistence, emotional a,ilit$, stress cop$ing a,ilit$, etc. All t&e ,e&avioural attitudes ould ,e rated %rom a scale spanning %rom &ig&est to lo est. T&e overall per%ormance is eventuall$ s&o n %rom t&e summar$ o% t&e &ole rating. 0ormal appraisal could ta.e an$ o% t&e %ollo ing approac&es' i. ii. iii. iv. D JHSA#8*J=#QJ #DW*=NR =+ JHE=#1*NDWAJ a group o% supervisors rating su,ordinates a group o% peers rating colleagues and su,ordinates rating t&eir superiors. &: In7ormal A66raisal Aere, assessment is conducted on a da$/to/da$ ,asis and as suc& pro%er close connection ,et een ,e&avior and %eed,ac.. )rimaril$, t&is approac& is to c&ec. undesira,le per%ormance ,e%ore suc& is entrenc&ed. )ersonal c&aracteristics suc& as intelligence, decisiveness, creativit$ and a,ilit$ to get along it& ot&ers are t&e ma-or aspects t&is met&od &inges on. T&e met&od does not involve record .eeping, *W *J HJHD""P 0D##*A1 =HW EP D VOL*)W =+ WLA APAJ ,N WL*J approac&, not all attri,utes are used, some could ,e %orgotten and t&ere%ore seems to ,e unrelia,le. Su%%ice it to state t&ere%ore t&at it could ,e a supplement to %ormal approac&. .:. The 'eed 7or A66raising Sta77 (er7ormance in $4tension

Sta%% appraisal i% ell conducted, &elps in5 1. 3. <. in%orming t&e -o, &older &o is ,eing assessed as to &o &e is doing5 stimulating t&e person to ,etter per%ormance i% t&is is seen to ,e arranted ,$ t&e current level o% per%ormance5 indicating t&e s.ills t&at need improvement5 *N1*0DW*NR @. WLA JW#ANRWLJ DN1 OAD!NAJJAJ =+ WLA =#RDN*JDW*=NQJ *N*W*D" JA"A0W*=N S#=0A1H#AJ C. cataloguing t&e capa,ilities o% t&e emplo$ees on an organi6ational ,asis, serving as a memor$ ,ac. o% in%ormation on capacit$ o% emplo$ees5 6. ;. F. E. 1>. 11. revie ing o% salar$5 identi%$ing training needs5 %eed,ac. to t&e emplo$ers5 serving as a ,asis %or career counseling5 %or succession planning5 it also serves as part o% &andover document ,et een managers.

.:2

(ost Sta77 A66raisal Activities in $4tension Organisation &ere t&e

Se7uel to t&e completion o% sta%% appraisal, result as communicated to &im or &er. +n some organisations, to ensure t&is %eed,ac., a portion is included in t&eir A)E= %orms appraise con%irms seeing t&e rating and t&us append &is/&er signature ,elo it. Some do &esitate to append signature as t&e$ contest t&e grades given to t&em &ile ot&ers, i% satis%ied, agreed it& t&e rating. 0e cases o% disagreement calls %or t&e attention o% management to resolve issues involved in order to cur, con%licts. Managers, not minding t&is .ind o% disagreement sometimes, &o ever &ave to ,e communicating t&e results to individual appraise, as it serves a purpose o% ma.ing su,ordinates toi learn %rom t&eir past experience. T&ese .ind o% results in Extension organisation are reported to su,ordinates in a %eed,ac. intervie , it& a vie to ensure t&e %ollo ing5 D D D D 1iving ,ot& %avoura,le and un%avoura,le results to su,ordinate5 Anal$sing t&e causes o% pro,lem2s4 )lanning constructive c&anges and necessar$ actions to improve -o, per%ormance5 and =e as&ing a mutual agreement on o,-ectives against next period.

.:=

(it7alls $4tension !anagers 'eed to Avoid

To ma.e ,ot& %ormal and in%ormal appraisal programmes e%%ective, Extension managers need to avoid t&e %ollo ing pit%alls t&at usuall$ impede e%%ective appraisal. T&ese include' D *ate &ias Some managers allo t&eir personal ,ias to distort t&e ratings t&e$ give su,ordinates. +ssues o% pre-udices ma$ ,e in terms o% sex, et&nicit$, religion, st$le o% clot&ing, age and ot&ers. D "i77erent *ating (atterns T&e %act o% individual di%%erences is related to di%%erence in rating st$les o% managers. W&ile some rate easil$ ot&er raste &arsl$. T&is gap could ,e ,ridged ,$ &aving precise de%initions o% eac& item on t&e rating %orm. D Sta77ing Standards it& t&e use o% di%%erent standards and expectations. To ,e T&is involves rating su,ordinates %air. D The 0allow $77ect &ere an attractive popular

e%%ective, met&ods used %or rating s&ould ,e perceived ,$ su,ordinates as ,eing uni%orm and

T&is entails t&e tendenc$ to rate appraisees &ig& or lo o n all per%ormance measuring, usuall$ on one o% t&eir c&aracteristics. Ta.e %or instance, a situation emplo$ee is given &ig& overall rating un-usti%ia,l$5 o%%icer next to &im ma$ ,e rated negativel$. Managers need to rate emplo$ees separatel$ on eac& o% a num,er o% per%ormances to ,e measured it& a caution o% guarding against t&e &allo e%%ect. +t ort& noting &o ever, t&at t&ese pit%alls, i% not cautiousl$ ta.en care o%, constitute constraints to e%%ective appraisal. Anot&er area t&at need caution is in respect o% ine%%ectiveness o% in%ormal appraisal ,$ managers as individuals &o ere in%ormall$ criticise a,out -o, per%ormance eit&er once or t ice o%ten tend to ,ecome de%ensive and resent%ul, t&ere,$ decline in t&eir per%ormance a%ter %eed,ac. intervie . To avoid %urt&er con%rontation, managers pre%er to avoid direct con%rontation and t&is pla$s &unc&es, guess or decide t&e %ate o% su,ordinates. *i.el$ adduced reasons on t&is could ,e as a result o% poor communication, lac. o% appraisal training, unpleasantness o% appraisal intervie o% process, poor 7ualit$ management, la6iness and reluctance, etc

@.>

Conclusion

Appraisal is a necessit$ in an$ venture. Managers are to examine constantl$ t&e e%%ectiveness o% A)S"=PAAJQ SA#+=#)DN0A DN1 R*8A +AA1ED0! JH0L WLDW *+ WLA#A *J S==# SA#+=#)DN0A WLA DND"PJ*J ill serve as a ,asis %or necessar$ remedial action. C.> Summary as de%ined as a s$stematic and continuous process o% assessing &o ell or. 2Assessment o% -o, per%ormance4. T$pes o% sta%% appraisal,

Sta%% appraisal

emplo$ees are doing t&eir avoid ere discussed. 6.> i. ii. iii. iv. v. @:;

means %or appraisal, post appraisal activities, pit%alls on sta%% appraisal t&at managers need to

Teacher !arked Assessment Explain t&e concept o% sta%% appraisal *ist and discuss t&e 3 t$pes o% sta%% appraisal in Extension organisation W&at are t&e reasons %or e%%ective sta%% appraisal in Extension organisation: Aig&lig&t an$ C pit%alls t&at Extension managers s&ould tr$ to avoid in order to &ave e%%ective sta%% appraisal. +denti%$ 3 disadvantages o% in%ormal sta%% appraisal tec&ni7ue *e7erences and )urther *eadings
t&

Adego.e, R.A. 21EE34. Appraisal as an important management tool. )aper presented at t&e 1C Training )rogramme organised %or t&e middle level. +.e-e' Manager, 9erger )aints !ig.

Ade-are T.1.0 23>>@4. A term paper on ,udgetar$ allocation and %iscal control in Advanced Agricultural Extension Administration. A.indunmade, =.". 23>>F4 )rinciples o% monitoring and evaluation o% Agricultural Extension services in 2eds.4 A.in$emi-u, ".A. and Tomi o, D.". Agricultural Extension' A Compre&ensive Treatise !igeria, +.e-a *agos' 9.C. Agricultural S$stems *td. Apple,$, =.C. 21EF34. Management in Action. *ondon' )itman 9oo.s *imited WCWEEA! *ong Acre.

=o,ert, *.R. 23>><4. =e,uild t&e Agricultural =esearc& and Extension S$stem in !igeria &tt'// nigerdeltacongress.comrartiderre,uildt&eagriculturalreseac&&tmc So$e,o, L.". 23>>F4. Aouse&old resources management in Extension in A.in$emi-u and Tomi o Agric Ext. Stass, A.W. 21EFE4. 0inancial management in pu,lic organisations. Cal, #SA 9oo.s/Cole )u,lis&ing Compan$. nit . $4tension (ersonnel (romotion C"!TE!TS 1.> 3.> <.> +ntroduction ",-ectives Main content <.1 <.3 <.< C.> Summar$ 6.> Tutor/Mar.ed Assignment ;.> =e%erences/0urt&er =eading 1.> +ntroduction An important aspect o% &uman resource management &ic& needs special attention in extension organi6ations is t&e development o% a re ard s$stem &ic& ill attract, retain, and motivate extension personnel, as ell as provide training and promotional opportunities. T&e extension agents are not onl$ poorl$ paid ,ut are paid late and a%ter reminders or visits to &ead/7uarters 2Wiggins, 1EF64. Most o% t&e extension services are run ,$ government agencies and operate under rules and regulations o% pu,lic administration. T&ese rules do not &ave provisions %or promotion and re arding superior per%ormance or %or a age s$stem ,ased on merit. )romotion criteria are ,ased on seniorit$ and lengt& o% service. T&us t&e ,ureaucratic structure o% extension services is a ,asic &indrance to designing a ,etter re ard s$stem. Concept o% )romotion o% extension personnel Measure and ,ases %or sta%% promotion Management o% re ards and incentives

@.> Conclusion

3.> ",-ectives 9$ t&e end o% t&is unit $ou s&ould ,e a,le to' Explain t&e Concept o% )romotion o% extension personnel State t&e Measures and ,ases %or sta%% promotion Explain Management o% re ards and incentives in extension personnel

.:; !AI' CO'T$'T .:% The Conce6t o7 Sta77 (romotion )romotion can ,e de%ined as t&e advancement o% a serving emplo$ee %rom a lo er to a &ig&er position and &ic& usuall$ implies an increase in compensation, is a personnel management %unction t&at &as to ,e &andled it& caution. T&is is so ,ecause o% its lin.age to morale, motivation and careerism. Sta&l sa$s o% it Gopportunit$ %or advancement and t&e c&ance to ma.e t&e ,est possi,le use o% oneKs capacities %rom one o% t&e ellsprings o% &uman motivationG. Ae %urt&er sa$s t&at Gt&e proper determination o% positions &ic& can ,e %illed ,$ selection o% t&e a,lest emplo$ees %or advancement, t&e development o% emplo$ees to t&eir maximum use%ulness, and t&e proper ,alance ,et een inside and outside recruitment lie at t&e ver$ &eart o% good personnel administrationG. Some organi6ations &ave a promotion polic$ &ic& guarantees advancements to serving emplo$ees %rom time to time. "t&ers &ave a promotion polic$ &ic& sees promotion as a general sta%%ing programme, a polic$ %or %illing positions it& t&e a,lest availa,le talent %rom it&in or outside t&e organi6ation. T&e pro,lem it& t&e polic$ o% guaranteed period promotion %oe emplo$ees is t&at it is capa,le o% placing an overemp&asis on seniorit$. +n t&e ords o% ". 1lenn Sta&l. ' "veremp&asis on ^$ears o% experienceK... plagues man$ agencies in t&eir e%%ort to ac&ieve o,-ectivit$ in selections %or promotion. Nuite o%ten t&e &ig&l$ touted K3> $ears o% experienceK is merel$ one $ear o% experience 3> times. Man$ are t&e cler.s in executive -o,s &o are still operating t&em as clerical postsG. +n/,red promotions are not in t&emselves ,ad. W&at ma.es t&em ,ad are in t&e ords o% Sta&l. T&e lac. o% t&e %ollo ing essential ingredients'

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

ade7uate 7uali%ication standards %or .e$ positions5 ade7uate records and mac&iner$ &ic& provide a means %or %inding t&e ,est candidates it&in t&e organi6ation5 ade7uate measures o% overall competence and potentialit$5 compre&ensive training programmes to .eep t&e sta%% alert to ne developments and to prepare promising men and omen %or advancement5 )romotion and trans%er across division lines it&in t&e organi6ation and t&us providing as ,road a %ield o% selection and promotion opportunit$ as possi,le and clear distinction ,et een clerical -o,s, re7uiring certain manipulative s.ills and aptitudes, and a,ilit$, so t&at t&e latter are not automaticall$ %illed %rom t&e ran.s o% t&e %ormer ,ut are %illed ,$ men it& education, t&e capacit$ to deal it& generali6ations as ell as it& ^t&ingsK and t&e gi%ts to lead and innovate t&at oug&t to ,e expected o% all executives.

"rgani6ations t&at &ave promotion policies t&at over emp&asi6e t&e Gin-ectionG o% ne ,lood t&roug& %illing vacancies %rom outside t&e organi6ation, run t&e ris. o% %irstl$. ,eing unattractive to ne entrants at t&e lo er levels. W&at attracts expert -uniors to organi6ations is t&e .no ledge t&at &ig&er positions are availa,le to aspire to in t&e organi6ation. +ndeed, it&out t&is prospect, t&e idea o% a career is nonexistent. T&e second reason is t&at, i% an over emp&asis is placed on %illing vacancies %rom outsideG t&e morale o% serving o%%icers ill ,e dampened. +n t&e ords o% Sta&l, GT&e most important o% all non %inancial incentives 2in organi6ations4 is t&e opportunit$ %or gro t& and t&e stimulus to gro G. S$#) ASS$SS!$'T *ist t&e 7ualities o% an executive and contrast t&em it& t&ose o% a cler. &ic& ma.e t&e latter unsuita,le as material %or t&e position o% t&e %ormer. .:, !easures and bases 7or 6romotion ". 1lenn Sta&l lists %our met&ods and ,ases %or promotion as 214 comparative per%ormance, 234 seniorit$, 2<4 examination and 2@4 trial on t&e -o,. %: Com6arative 6er7ormance+% t&is %actor is to ,e used as a measure or a ,asis %or promotion, it ould ,e necessar$ to, %irstl$, &ave good, up/to/date records o% per%ormance and 7uali%ications o% all emplo$ees and secondl$, an e%%icient met&od %or %inding t&ose emplo$ees &o s&ould ,e considered %or a given vacanc$.0or t&e %irst

re7uirement, i.e. personal ac&ievement records o% t&e emplo$ee, it is necessar$ t&at a compre&ensive record ,e availa,le o% suc& t&ings as per%ormance reports. Education and training, experience, interests, &o,,ies etc. T&e second re7uirement, t&e index o% 7uali%ied candidates calls %or an eas$ met&od o% %inding all t&ose relevant %or a particular vacanc$. +n developing t&is list, e are engaging in a process o% internal recruitment. 8ou remem,er recruitment in an earlier unit: +ts purpose as to secure applications %rom all t&ose interested in an$ particular -o,. +n t&e same a$, some organi6ations call %or applications %rom t&eir emplo$ees so t&at a list o% t&ose to ,e considered in a promotion process can ,e compiled.T&is %irst set o% measures o% promotion relate, as $ou can see, relate to t&e need %or good recording and record .eeping. +n t&is aspect as noted ,$ "male 21EE34 t&e !igerian Civil Service is %ound to ,e lac.ing. Ae noted t&at t&e civil service commissions &ic& are t&e custodians o% emplo$ee per%ormance evaluation reports and &ic& uses t&em as a measure %or promotion &ad no a$ o% ascertaining t&at t&e$ ere ,eing completed and/or countersigned ,$ t&e rig&t%ul o%%icers. Also on account o% poor storage and retrieval met&ods man$ o% suc& reports get lost.W&en t&e$ get lost, and ,ecause reports o% t&ree consecutive $ears are re7uired %or consideration %or promotion, t&e$ are %illed in arrears %or t&e concerned sta%% and usuall$ not ,$ t&e sta%% under &om &e or.ed, suc& a sta%% pro,a,l$ &aving ,een re/assigned, le%t service or per&aps died. ,: SeniorityDiscussing t&is %actor 1lenn Sta&l ma.es ver$ use%ul comments. Ae sa$s t&at G....t&e simplest and most time/&onoured ,asis %or promotion is t&e lengt& o% service o% t&e emplo$ee, 2,ut t&at4 in most cases &o ever, seniorit$ is used in con-unction it& ot&er criteria %or promotionG. T&e assumption %or t&e use o% seniorit$ as a measure %or promotion is t&at long and e%%icient service is a guarantee %or &andling t&e %unctions o% a &ig&er position. Sta&l sa$s t&at t&is is a %alse assumption ,ecause Gt&e c&aracter o% t&e or. in t&e lo er grades ma$ neit&er call into pla$ nor develop t&e superior capacities re7uired in t&e &ig&erKG.T&e circumstance t&at seniorit$ can ,e use%ull$ ,roug&t in, is &en all t&ings are e7ual. +% t&e per%ormance o% all o%%icers on t&e same level is ad-udged e7ual, seniorit$ can t&en ,ecome a deciding %actor ot&er ise, it s&ould ordinaril$ ,e assigned a small eig&t.

.: $4aminationWritten examinations are use%ul measures o% promotion depending upon t&e t$pe o% position and t&e %actor ,eing tested. Testing %or .no ledge is comparativel$ simple and could ,e conclusive. Ao ever, as noted ,$ Sta&l, G...in t&e matter o% personalit$ traits, &ic& pla$ a larger role as t&e responsi,ilities o% positions increase, t&ere is no immediate prospect o% conclusive tests. Aere, must ,e included suc& d$namic traits as leaders&ip, -udgment, initiative, resource%ulness, and cooperativenessG. T&us %or lo er level, routine, repetitive -o,s, ritten examinations ma$ su%%ice, ,ut %or supervisor$ and executive -o,s, ma$ not ,e su%%icient.

2: Trial on the jobT&is is a,out t&e ,est measure it& &ic& to measure suita,ilit$ %or promotion. T&e intelligi,le &ic& are necessar$ %or %illing more responsi,le positions can ,e o,-ectivel$ anal$6ed using t&is met&od. Alt&oug& opportunities %or its use are limited as man$ times as t&e$ occur t&e$ s&ould ,e used. T&e most conducive time %or t&eir use is in t&e normal course o% operations, e.g a su,ordinate acting %or a ,oss &en &e goes on leave or on a %airl$ long assignment.

=: Trans7ers and re3assignments8ou ill recall t&at &en e discussed promotion a,ove, e said it as advancement %rom a lo er to a &ig&er position it& increase in compensation. A trans%er according to ". 1lenn Sta&l, G.... +nvolves t&e movement o% t&e emplo$ee to anot&er position o% t&e same class in anot&er organi6ation unit. T&is is a &ori6ontal movementG. +t does not involve a c&ange o% duties ,ut onl$ a c&ange %rom t&e -urisdiction o% one executive to t&at o% anot&er. "n t&e ot&er &and, reassignment is a c&ange o% or., not involving increased responsi,ilities, in t&e same o%%ice.T&ere are man$ reasons t&at can account %or trans%ers. "ne, as noted ,$ Sta&l, is Goriginal placement cannot ... &oll$ assure t&at t&e appointee is %itted to &is -o,. T&ere al a$s possi,ilities o% round pegs in s7uare &oles....G. Anot&er point $ou s&ould note a,out trans%ers is t&at &ereas some are it&in t&e same department 2intra/departmental trans%ers4 ot&ers are across 2inter/departmental trans%ers4. #suall$ t&e %ormer are easier to e%%ect, not involving t&e aut&orit$ o% t&e central

personnel agenc$, t&e latter, is usuall$ di%%icult to e%%ect and usuall$ involves t&e approval or t&e action o% t&e central personnel agenc$.A variant o% trans%ers &ic& com,ines t&e c&aracteristics o% reassignment is posting. )osting is t&e reassignment o% a given class or cadre o% o%%icers &o are %unctionaries o% a given o%%ice, e.g t&e o%%ice o% t&e Aead o% Service or t&e Esta,lis&ment Division. %rom ministr$ to ministr$, department to department as t&e exigencies o% o%%ice/%unctions demand. T&ese class o% o%%icers are in a GpoolG and are GrotatedG %rom one ministr$ or department to anot&er as a regular part o% t&eir c&aracter to improve gro t& o% emplo$ee and o% t&e organi6ation. +t &as its advantages and disadvantages. T&e %ormer is t&at it &eig&tens morale ,$ not t$ing one to a particular location and it engenders training in varied experiences. T&e latter is t&at it can ta.e an emplo$ee to an undesired organi6ation unit or location. +% done too %re7uentl$ it can lead to an emplo$ee not gat&ering an$ use%ul experience. Wit& a reasona,le use, its advantages out/ eig& its disadvantages. .:. !anagement o7 rewards and incentives T&e re ards and incentive s$stem can ,e improved in several a$s. i. Re arding "uperior Performance. Extension organi6ations &ave to develop a re ard s$stem &ic& encourages superior per%ormance so t&at pa$ and age administration ill ,e an e%%ective tool to promote per%ormance, motivation, and satis%action. A clear -o, description, per%ormance standards, and per%ormance appraisal ill &elp in evaluating extension or. and re arding people %or meritorious service. Wa$s and means &ave to ,e %ound it&in t&e existing %rame or. o% pu,lic administration %or ,asing pa$ on per%ormance. 0or example, extension or.ers on t&e ,asis o% t&eir per%ormance can ,e sent %or &ig&er education. !onmonetar$ re ards suc& as recogni6ing t&e good ideas o% %ield or.ers or a arding &onoura,le titles ill also &elp in improving per%ormance. Extension personnel ma$ also ,e encouraged to %orm pro%essional societies to develop and communicate &ig& standards, as ell as to recogni6e superior per%ormance. A pro%essional mont&l$ -ournal or ne sletter can &elp extension agents to communicate innovative ideas and rein%orce superior per%ormance.

ii.

-mproved (or!ing Conditions at the Field #evel. T&e re ard s$stem must also ,e internall$ e7uita,le. T&e relative importance o% %ield/level extension %unctionaries &as to ,e reali6ed in terms o% pa$ compensation and ot&er amenities. *o er level extension or.ers o%ten &ave to or. under unpleasant and isolated conditions. A care%ull$ planned s$stem o% %ield allo ance ill compensate t&is 29axter, 1EE>4. T&e living conditions o% %ield extension or.ers must ,e improved ,$ providing ade7uate %acilities %or &ousing, transport, and medical and educational allo ances %or c&ildren.

iii.

Career Planning and Development for Extension Personnel. A career re%ers to all o% t&e -o,s t&at people &old during t&eir or.ing lives. Career planning is t&e process ,$ &ic& emplo$ees plan t&eir career goals and pat&s. Career development re%ers to all o% t&e tec&nical and managerial s.ills emplo$ees ac7uire to ac&ieve t&eir career plans. Career advancement, &ic& gives a picture o% %uture opportunities in terms o% promotion, is a motivating %actor %or per%ormance and development o% s.ills. #n%ortunatel$, no career structure exists %or extension personnel in man$ organi6ations. +n developing countries li.e +ndia, t&ere are man$ cases &ere one -oins as a village extension or.er and retires in t&e same position a%ter serving t&irt$ to t&irt$/%ive $ears. As part o% improving t&e re ards and incentives s$stem, extension organi6ations &ave to develop suita,le career pat&s and advancement %or di%%erent categories o% extension personnel on a s$stematic ,asis.

As part o% career development, extension personnel s&ould ,e provided it& opportunities to develop t&eir tec&nical and managerial s.ills to ena,le t&em to occup$ &ig&er positions. Extension personnel s&ould &ave a salar$ structure as ell as promotion opportunities

2:; Conclusion +n t&is unit $ou &ave ,een introduced to t&e concept o% sta%% promotion. 8ou no .no t&at promotion comes it& &ig&er duties/responsi,ilities and &ig&er pa$. 8ou also .no t&at trans%ers and reassignments are movements t&at do not involve &ig&er positions or &ig&er pa$. 8ou &ave also learnt, ,ases %or promotion and &at importance to place on eac&.

Del&i' "x%ord I +9A )u,lis&ing Compan$

=:; S !!A*9 +n t&is unit, $ou &ave learnt t&at most o% t&e extension services are run ,$ government agencies and operate under rules and regulations provided %or promotion and re arding superior per%ormance or a age s$stem ,ased on merit. )romotion criteria are ,ased on seniorit$ and lengt& o% service aimed at %acilitating emplo$ee development. 8ou &ave also learnt t&at t&ere are %our met&ods and ,ases %or promotion namel$ comparative per%ormance, seniorit$, examination and trial on t&e -o,. 8ou also learnt t&at t&e re ards and incentive s$stem can ,e improved in several a$s suc& as re arding Superior )er%ormance, +mproved Wor.ing Conditions at t&e 0ield *evel and Career )lanning and Development %or Extension )ersonnel. > :; Tutor !arked Assignments W&at remed$ ould $ou recommend to cur, t&e pro,lem o% poor storage 2retrieval o% records in t&e !igerian civil service and &at ould $ou do to cur, t&e incidence o% Gma.e/upG per%ormance evaluation reports some o% &ic& can ,e < $ears in arrears: W&at eig&t is given to seniorit$ in promotion exercise in an$ organi6ation $ou .no and &at e%%ect &as it &ad on organi6ational per%ormance: Enumerate t&e measures and ,ases %or promotion: @:; *e7erences5)urther *eadings "male. + G)ast )ractices in )ersonnel Management in t&e !igerian Civil service' +ssues and )rocedures in Ali D. 8a&a$a and Cale, +. A.in$ele 2eds4 21EE34, ASC"!, Topo 9adagr$. ". 1lenn Sta&l 21EE34 )u,lic )ersonnel Administration, %i%t& edition4 Aarper and =o , )u,lis&ers, !e 8or.. )aree., #., I =ao, T. J. 21EE34. Designing and managing human resource systems. !e